Collection of Evidence-based Practices for Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Treatment Needs

TO THE GOVERNOR AND THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF VIRGINIA

SENATE DOCUMENT NO. 6COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIARICHMOND2017

6TH EDITION

REPORT OF THE VIRGINIA COMMISSION ON YOUTH

COMMONWEALTH of VIRGINIA Commission on Youth

Senator Barbara A. Favola, Chair Delegate Richard P. Bell, Vice Chair _________________

Execu t ive Director Amy M. Atk inson

Pocahontas Bu ilding 900 E. Main Street, 11th Floor

Richmond, Virgin ia 23219-3513

ht tp:/ / vcoy.virginia.gov

December 28, 2017

Dear Fellow Citizen of the Commonwealth:

It is my pleasure as Chair of the General Assembly’s Commission on Youth to present the 6th Edition of the Collection of Evidence-based Practices for Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Treatment Needs. The Collection summarizes current research on those mental health treatments that have been proven to be effective in treating children and adolescents. The Collection is intended to serve a broad readership, including educators, service providers, parents, caregivers, and others seeking information on evidence-based mental health practices for youth.

Section 30-174 of the Code of Virginia establishes the Virginia Commission on Youth and directs the Commission to “study and provide recommendations addressing the needs of and services to the Commonwealth’s youth and their families.” This section also directs the Commission to “encourage the development of uniform policies and services to youth across the Commonwealth and provide a forum for continuing review and study of such services.”

The 2002 General Assembly, through Senate Joint Resolution 99, directed the Virginia Commission on Youth to coordinate the collection of empirically-based information to identify the treatments that are recognized as effective for children, including juvenile offenders, who have mental health treatment needs, symptoms, and disorders. The resulting publication entitled Collection of Evidence-based Practices for Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Treatment Needs was compiled by the Commission with the assistance of an advisory group of experts pursuant to Senate Joint Resolution 99. The Collection was published in House Document 9 and presented to the Governor and the 2003 General Assembly.

To ensure that this information remained current and reached the intended audience, the 2003 General Assembly passed Senate Joint Resolution 358, which requires the Commission on Youth to update the Collection biennially. The resolution also requires the Commission to disseminate the Collection via web technologies. The Secretaries of Health and Human Resources, Public Safety and Education, along with the Advisory Group, were requested to assist the Commission in updating the Collection, as were various state and local agencies. Since 2003, the Commission has updated this resource and made it available through the Commission on Youth website and in print editions.

The Commission on Youth gratefully acknowledges the contributions of its Advisory Group members. For more information about the Virginia Commission on Youth or the Collection, I encourage you to visit our website at http://vcoy.virginia.gov.

Sincerely,

Barbara A. Favola

http://vcoy.virginia.gov/http://vcoy.virginia.gov/

MEMBERS OF THE VIRGINIA COMMISSION ON YOUTH

Senate of Virginia Barbara A. Favola, Chair Charles W. “Bill” Carrico

Dave W. Marsden

House of Delegates Richard P. “Dickie” Bell, Vice Chair

Richard L. “Rich” Anderson Peter F. Farrell Daun S. Hester

Mark Keam Christopher K. Peace

Gubernatorial Appointments from the Commonwealth at Large

Karrie Delaney Deidre S. Goldsmith

Chris Rehak

Commission Staff Amy M. Atkinson, Executive Director

Will Egen, Senior Policy Analyst

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT

The information contained herein is strictly for informational and educational purposes only and is not designed to replace the advice and counsel of a physician, mental health provider, or other medical professional. If you require such advice or counsel, you should seek the services of a licensed mental health provider, physician, or other medical professional. The Commission on Youth is not rendering professional advice and makes no representations regarding the suitability of the information contained herein for any purpose.

CONTENTSIntroduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1 Role of the Family in Treatment Programs ................................................................................................. 10 Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs ................................................................................. 16

Reference Chart of Disorders and Evidence-based Practices ..................................................................... 23

Introduction to Neurodevelopmental Disorders .......................................................................................... 38 Intellectual Disability ........................................................................................................................... 43 Autism Spectrum Disorder ................................................................................................................... 60 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder............................................................................................. 97 Motor Disorders ................................................................................................................................. 114

Developmental Coordination Disorder Stereotypic Movement Disorder Tic Disorders

Tourette Disorder Persistent (Chronic) Vocal or Motor Tic Disorder Provisional Tic Disorder

Schizophrenia ........................................................................................................................................ 129 Bipolar and Related Disorders .................................................................................................................. 146

Bipolar I Disorder Bipolar II Disorder Cyclothymic Disorder

Depressive Disorders ................................................................................................................................ 164 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder Major Depressive Disorder Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

Anxiety Disorders ..................................................................................................................................... 181 Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) Social Anxiety Disorder/Social Phobia Specific Phobia Generalized Anxiety Disorder Agoraphobia Panic Disorder Panic Attack Selective Mutism

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders ......................................................................................... 197 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Body Dysmorphic Disorder Hoarding Disorder Trichotillomania Excoriation Disorder

Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders .................................................................................................. 222 Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Acute Stress Disorder Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder Reactive Attachment Disorder

Adjustment Disorder ................................................................................................................................. 242 Feeding and Eating Disorders ................................................................................................................... 251

Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder

Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders............................................................................... 275 Oppositional Defiant Disorder Conduct Disorder Intermittent Explosive Disorder Pyromania Kleptomania

Substance Use Disorders ........................................................................................................................... 293 Youth Suicide ........................................................................................................................................ 322 Antidepressants and the Risk of Suicidal Behavior ................................................................................. 338 Nonsuicidal Self-Injury ............................................................................................................................ 345

Juvenile Offending ................................................................................................................................... 356 Juvenile Firesetting .................................................................................................................................. 372 Sexual Offending ..................................................................................................................................... 383

General Description of Providers .............................................................................................................. 398 Providers Licensed in Virginia ................................................................................................................. 400 Terms Used in Virginia’s Mental Health Delivery System ...................................................................... 404 Commonly Used Acronyms and Abbreviations ....................................................................................... 427 Index of Disorders, Issues, and Areas of Concern .................................................................................... 433

Appendix A: Advisory Group Members ................................................................................................... 436 Appendix B: Senate Joint Resolution 99 .................................................................................................. 437 Appendix C: Senate Joint Resolution 358 ................................................................................................ 438

INTRODUCTION Return to Table of Contents

Background of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Epidemiology and Burden of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Problems Serious Emotional Disturbance Providing Optimal Treatment Identifying and Encouraging the Use of Evidence-based Treatments

Benefits of Evidence-based Treatments Limitations of Evidence-based Treatments Background of the Collection

Using the Collection 6th Edition Conclusion

Background of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

The recognition that children and adolescents suffer from mental health disorders is a relatively recent development. Throughout history, childhood was considered a happy period. It was believed that because children were spared the stressors that afflict adults, they did not suffer from true mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2002). It is now well-recognized that mental or emotional distress in youth may not just be a stage of childhood or adolescence, but can be evidence of a mental disorder caused by genetic, developmental, and physiological factors.

Although research conducted in the 1960s revealed that children do suffer from mental disorders (APA, 2002), it was not until 1980, when the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) was published by the APA, that child and adolescent mental disorders were assigned a separate and distinct section within the classification system (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2001). The development of treatments, services, and methods for preventing mental health disorders in children and adolescents has continued to evolve over the past several decades.

The National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI) defines mental illness as a disorder of the brain that may disrupt a person’s thinking, feeling, moods, and ability to relate to others (2005). In 2013, the APA released the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Significant changes were made to the criteria and categories of mental disorders and these changes are discussed in detail throughout this Collection. The definition of a mental disorder was also modified in the DSM-5 as follows:

A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress in social, occupational, or other important activities. An expectable or culturally approved response to a common stressor or loss, such as the death of a loved one, is not a mental disorder. Socially deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) and conflicts that are primarily between the individual and society are not mental disorders unless the deviance or conflict results from a dysfunction in the individual, as described above (APA, 2013).

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In early December 1999, U.S. Surgeon General David Satcher released the first ever Surgeon General’s report on Mental Health. This report called attention to the seriousness of mental illness as an “urgent health concern” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). The report also discussed the needs of specific populations such as children and provided the first comprehensive, nationwide, longitudinal data on the development of children’s mental health. This report noted that mental health disorders appear in families of all social classes and backgrounds. However, some children are at greater risk due to other factors. These factors include physical problems, intellectual disability, low birth weight, family history of mental and addictive disorders, multigenerational poverty, and caregiver separation or abuse and neglect (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services). Risk factors and causal influences for mental health disorders in youth vary, depending on the specific disorder.

Child and adolescent mental health has emerged as a distinct arena for service delivery. With the increased attention given to children’s mental health and the development of systems of care for children with serious emotional disorders and their families, mental health has emerged as a new focus in the field of early childhood (Woodruff et al.). Family members, practitioners, and researchers have become increasingly aware that mental health services are an important and necessary support for youth who experience mental, emotional, or behavioral challenges and their families.

Epidemiology and Burden of Child and Adolescent Mental Health Problems

According to the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health established by President George W. Bush, childhood is a critical period for the onset of behavioral and emotional disorders (2003). Between 13 to 20 percent of children living in the United States experience a mental disorder in a given year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013). Researchers supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) found that half of all lifelong cases of mental health disorders begin by age 14 (Archives of General Psychiatry, as cited by the NIMH, 2005). Moreover, there are frequently long delays between the first onset of symptoms and the point at which people seek and receive treatment. This study also noted that a mental health disorder left untreated could lead to a more severe, more difficult-to-treat illness and to the development of co-occurring mental health disorders. In addition, nearly half of all individuals with one mental disorder met the criteria for two or more disorders (NIMH).

The National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) is a nationally representative face-to-face survey of 10,123 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years in the United States. Conducted between 2001 and 2004, the survey was designed to estimate the lifetime prevalence, age-of-onset distributions, course, and comorbidity of mental health disorders among children and adolescents. NCS-A found the overall prevalence of youth with mental health disorders with severe impairment and/or distress to be 22 percent (Merikangas et al., 2010). Study results revealed that anxiety disorders were the most common condition, followed by behavior disorders, mood disorders, and substance use disorders, with approximately 40 percent of those with one class of disorder also meeting criteria for another class of lifetime disorder (Merikangas et al.).

There has been little research to measure the financial burden of mental health disorders in children and adolescents. However, a team of researchers analyzed various data sources to locate information on the utilization and costs associated with mental health disorders in youth. They estimated that the cost of mental disorders among persons younger than 24 years of age in the United States was $247 billion annually (CDC, 2013). This includes costs associated with health care, special education, juvenile justice, and decreased productivity. Mental disorders were among the most costly conditions to treat in children (CDC). This analysis, along with other studies, pointed to two reasons why national health expenditures for child and adolescent mental disorders are difficult to estimate, including:

• Mental health services are delivered and paid for in the health, mental health, education, childwelfare, and juvenile justice systems; and

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• No comprehensive national datasets exist in this area (CDC; Sturm et al. 2001; Ringel & Sturm,2001).

Child and adolescent preventive interventions have the potential to significantly reduce the economic burden of mental health disorders by reducing the need for mental health and related services. Furthermore, such interventions can improve school readiness, health status, and academic achievement and reduce the need for special education services (National Institute for Health Care Management, 2005). These interventions also translate into societal savings by lessening parents’ dependence on welfare and increasing educational attainment and economic productivity (National Institute for Health Care Management).

Serious Emotional Disturbance

Serious emotional disturbance (SED) refers to a diagnosable mental health problem that severely disrupts a youth’s ability to function socially, academically, and emotionally. While SED is defined by federal regulation, states may provide additional guidance to professionals (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2016). Virginia’s Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (VDBHDS) outlines the following as criteria for SED:

1. Problems in personality development and social functioning that have been exhibited over at leastone year’s time;

2. Problems that are significantly disabling, based on the social functioning of most children of thechild’s age;

3. Problems that have become more disabling over time; and4. Service needs require significant intervention by more than one agency (VDBHDS, 2013).

Estimates of the number of children suffering from SED vary significantly depending on the study cited. One study attempting to collect SED prevalence rates found that variations in estimates for SED might be explained due to the varying objectives for collecting the data as well as the types of methodology used for selecting the study populations. A follow up literature review of this study effort found that national SED estimates range from five to 26 percent (Brauner & Stephens, 2006). According to prior research, about one out of every ten youths with a current mental disorder fulfill criteria for SED based on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) definition (i.e., a mental health problem that has a drastic impact on a child’s ability to function socially, academically, and emotionally) (Merikangas et al., 2010).

A recent study conducted by the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics (2015) found that the percentage of children with SED was about five percent in most years between 2001 and 2013 (2015). Among children with SED, 23 percent received special education services for an emotional or behavioral problem, 43 percent had a parent who had contacted a general doctor about the child's emotional or behavioral problem, and 55 percent had a parent who had contacted a mental health professional about the child (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics). In Virginia, it is estimated that between 117,592 and 143,724 children and adolescents have a SED, with between 65,329 and 91,461 exhibiting extreme impairment (VDBHDS, 2013).

Providing Optimal Treatment

The acknowledgment of mental health needs in youth has prompted further study on a variety of disorders and their causes, prevention, and treatments. Child and adolescent mental health represents a major federal public health priority, as reflected in the U.S. Surgeon General’s Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental Health: A National Action Agenda (2000). The report outlines the following three steps that must be taken to improve services for children with mental health needs:

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• Improving early recognition and appropriate identification of disorders within all systems serving children;

• Improving access to services by removing barriers faced by families; and • Closing the gap between research and practice to ensure evidence-based treatments for children.

Without appropriate treatment, childhood mental health disorders can escalate. Untreated childhood mental health disorders may also be precursors of school failure, involvement in the juvenile justice system, and/or placement outside of the home. Other serious outcomes include destructive, ambiguous, or dangerous behaviors, in addition to mounting parental frustration. The resulting cost to society is high in both human and financial terms. Identifying a child’s mental health disorder early and ensuring that the child receives appropriate care can break the cycle (New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, 2003).

Identifying and Encouraging the Use of Evidence-based Treatments

There have been more than two decades of research in treating child and adolescent mental health disorders. However, there are challenges to helping families and clinicians select the best treatments. The field of child and adolescent mental health is multi-disciplinary, with a diverse service system. Today, there are a multitude of theories about which treatments work best, making it is very difficult for service providers to make informed choices.

Scientific evidence can serve as a guide for families, clinicians, and other mental health decision-makers. Interventions that have strong empirical support are referred to as empirically validated treatments, empirically supported treatments, evidence-based treatments, or evidence-based practices. All of these terms attempt to capture the notion that the treatment or practice has been tested and that its effects have been demonstrated scientifically.

Benefits of Evidence-Based Treatments

Evidence-based medicine evolved out of the understanding that decisions about the care of individual patients should involve the conscientious and judicious use of current best evidence (Fonagy, 2000). Evidence-based treatments allow patients, clinicians, and families to see the differences between alternative treatment decisions and to ascertain what treatment approach best facilitates successful outcomes (Donald, 2002). Treatments that are evidence-based and research-driven complement a clinician’s experience in practice. Evidence-based medicine has significantly aided clinicians in the decision-making process by providing a fair, scientifically rigorous method of evaluating treatment options.

Evidence-based medicine also helps professional bodies develop clearer and more concise working practices and establish treatment guidelines. The accumulated data for evidence-based treatments support their consideration as first-line treatment options (Nock, Goldman, Wang, & Albano, 2004). With literally hundreds of treatment approaches available for some disorders, it is difficult for clinicians to select the most appropriate and effective intervention (Nock et al.). The strongest argument in support of using evidence-based practices is that they enable clinicians to identify the best-evaluated methods of health care. Evidence-based treatments are recognized as an important component in behavioral health care by professional organizations, and increasingly, insurance companies and other payers are reluctant to pay for services without an evidence base (Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 2012).

Another driving force in the utilization of evidence-based medicine is the potential for cost savings (Fonagy, 2000). With rising awareness of mental health issues and a demand by consumers to obtain the best treatment for the best price, the emphasis on evidence-based practices is both practical and justified. Few people have time to conduct research in order to evaluate best practices. Evidence-based medicine provides a structured process for clinicians and patients to access information on what is effective.

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Moreover, studies have shown that evidence-based practices work in a relatively short time span and lead to long-standing improvements.

Limitations of Evidence-Based Treatments

There are stakeholders in the field of children’s mental health who have regarded the evidence-based treatment movement with skepticism. According to Michael Southam-Gerow, Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychology and Director, Graduate Studies at the Department of Psychology at Virginia Commonwealth University, there are several criticisms surrounding the utilization of evidence-based treatments (Personal Communication, December 15, 2009). These include the following:

• There is too much information, making it difficult for a service provider to choose a treatmentamong many that may be supported for a particular problem.

• There is too little information and there are distinct problem areas for which there is still verylittle known.

• The evidence is inadequate and it has been argued that there is insufficient supportive data tofavor one treatment versus another. Furthermore, the long-term effects of many treatments areunknown. More studies are needed before treatments are categorized as being evidence-based.

• Because a treatment has not been tested does not mean it is not effective. Some commonly usedtreatments are not deemed to be evidence-based treatments because they have not been tested.

Additionally, evidence-based practices as currently developed and implemented may have inherent limitations that prevent their widespread delivery (Kazdin, 2011). Many of the evidence-based practices cannot reach individuals at the scale needed, particularly if they are provided on a one-to-one, in-person basis. There are challenges in extending evidence-based practices to patient care on a scale sufficient to have impact on the personal and social burdens of mental illness. As noted previously, many mental health disorders do not yet have an accompanying evidence-based practice. While there are limitations in the development and implementation of evidence-based practices, a number of these practices are effective across a range of disorders, suggesting some common mechanisms or core processes (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2015).

Background of the Collection

The 2002 General Assembly, through Senate Joint Resolution 99, directed the Virginia Commission on Youth to coordinate the collection of treatments recognized as effective for children and adolescents, including juvenile offenders, with mental health disorders. The resulting publication, the Collection of Evidence-based Practices for Children and Adolescents with Mental Health Treatment Needs (Collection) was compiled by the Commission on Youth with the assistance of an advisory group of experts.

In 2003, the General Assembly passed Senate Joint Resolution 358, requiring the Commission to update the Collection biennially. The resolution also required the Commission to disseminate the Collection via web technologies. As specified in this resolution, the Commission received assistance disseminating the Collection from the Advisory Group and other impacted agencies. The Collection has been updated five times since 2002.

In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association made several significant changes to the categorization of disorders included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fifth Edition (DSM-5). The Commission has made significant revisions to the Collection 6th Edition to incorporate these changes.

Using the Collection 6th Edition

With the limitations of evidence-based treatments in mind, the Collection 6th Edition has been updated to reflect the current state of the science. It has been developed and updated to provide information to

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families, clinicians, administrators, policymakers and others seeking information about evidence-based practices for child and adolescent mental health disorders. The Collection 6th Edition has four categories that represent different levels of scientific support for a particular treatment. These levels are summarized in Table 1. Because research is ongoing, treatments are expected to move around among the categories with time.

The Collection 6th Edition also includes information on assessment instruments. This is to emphasize that all clinical decisions should be made in consultation with the data. Patient data should be collected to justify treatment plans, changes in treatment plans, and terminations. Clinicians and mental health treatment organizations are becoming both data-driven and data collectors, allowing for greater opportunities for outcome measures to be collected and reviewed during the course of treatment.

Table 1 Treatment Categories Used in Collection 6th Edition

Levels of Scientific Support Description

What Works (Evidence-based

Treatment)

Meets all of the following criteria: 1. Tested across two or more randomized controlled trials (RCTs); 2. At least two different investigators (i.e., researcher); 3. Use of a treatment manual in the case of psychological treatments; and 4. At least one study demonstrates that the treatment is superior to an

active treatment or placebo (i.e., not just studies comparing the treatment to a waitlist).

What Seems to Work Meets all but one of the criteria for “What Works” or Is commonly accepted as a valid practice supported by substantial evidence

What Does Not Work Meets none of the criteria above but meets either of the following criteria: 1. Found to be inferior to another treatment in an RCT; and/or 2. Demonstrated to cause harm in a clinical study.

Not Adequately Tested

Meets none of the criteria for any of the above categories. It is possible that such treatments have demonstrated some effectiveness in non-RCT studies, but their potency compared to other treatments is unknown. It is also possible that these treatments were tested and tried with another treatment. These treatments may be helpful, but would not be currently recommended as a first-line treatment.

Conclusion

Effective mental health treatments that have undergone testing in both controlled research trials and real-world settings are available for a wide range of diagnosed mental health disorders. The Collection 6th Edition is designed to encourage use of these treatments by professionals providing mental health treatments. The Collection 6th Edition is also designed to provide parents, caregivers, and other stakeholders with general information about the various disorders and problems affecting youth.

Evidence-based treatments have been developed with the express purpose of improving the treatment of child and adolescent mental health disorders (Nock et al., 2004). Clinicians can incorporate these well-documented treatments while still adequately addressing the patient’s individual differences (Nock et al.).

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Resources and Organizations

American Academy of Family Physicians https://www.aafp.org

American Association of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) http://www.aacap.org/ American Psychiatric Association (APA)

http://www.psych.org http://www.parentsmedguide.org

American Psychological Association (APA) http://www.apa.org/

Familydoctor.org https://familydoctor.org/

Medscape Today Resource Centers (from WebMD)

https://www.medscape.com/internalmedicine

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI) https://www.nami.org/ National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices

http://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov National Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health

https://gucchdtacenter.georgetown.edu/ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Caring for Every Child’s Mental Health Campaign

https://www.samhsa.gov/children

U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services

https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mr

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

https://www.cdc.gov/ U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health Medline Plus

https://medlineplus.gov/

Virginia Resources and Organizations

1 in 5 Kids Campaign https://vakids.org/our-work/mental-health

Mental Health America of Virginia https://mhav.org/

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill Virginia (NAMI Virginia)

https://namivirginia.org/ Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (DBHDS) http://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/ Virginia Office of Children’s Services http://www.csa.virginia.gov/ Voices for Virginia’s Children

https://vakids.org/

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https://www.aafp.org/http://www.aacap.org/http://www.psych.org/http://www.parentsmedguide.org/http://www.apa.org/https://familydoctor.org/https://www.medscape.com/internalmedicinehttps://www.medscape.com/internalmedicinehttps://www.nami.org/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtmlhttp://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/https://gucchdtacenter.georgetown.edu/https://www.samhsa.gov/childrenhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mrhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mrhttps://www.cdc.gov/https://medlineplus.gov/https://vakids.org/our-work/mental-healthhttps://mhav.org/https://namivirginia.org/http://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/http://www.csa.virginia.gov/https://vakids.org/

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References

American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2002). Childhood disorders. Retrieved from www.psych.org/public_info/childr~1.cfm. Not available December 2017.

American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.) (DSM-5). Washington, DC: Author.

Bayer, J. K., Ukoumunne, O. C., Lucas, N., Wake, M., Scalzo, K., & Nicholson, J. (2011). Risk factors for childhood mental health symptoms: National longitudinal study of Australian children. Pediatrics, 128(4), 865-879.

Brauner, C. B., & Stephens, C. B. (2006). Estimating the prevalence of early childhood serious emotional/behavioral disorders: Challenges and recommendations. Public Health Reports, 121(3), 303-310.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2013). Mental health surveillance among children—United States, 2005–2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 62(02), 1-35.

Centers for Disease Control (CDC). (2012). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders—Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 14 sites, United States, 2008. Surveillance summaries. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm?s_cid=ss6103a1_w

Donald, A. (2002). A practical guide to evidence-based medicine. Medscape Psychiatry & Mental Health eJournal, 9(2).

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2015). America’s children: Key national indicators of well-being. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Fonagy, P. (2000). Evidence based child mental health: The findings of a comprehensive review. Paper presented to “Child mental health interventions: What works for whom?” Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Evidence-based treatment research: advances, limitations, and next steps. American Psychologist, 66(8), 685-698.

Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the national comorbidity study-adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980-989.

National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI). (2005). About mental illness. Retrieved from http://www.nami.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Inform_Yourself/About_Mental_Illness/About_Mental_Illness.htm. Not available December 2017.

National Institute for Health Care Management. (2005). Children’s mental health: An overview and key considerations for health system stakeholders. Retrieved from https://www.nihcm.org/pdf/CMHReport-FINAL.pdf

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2005). Mental illness exacts heavy toll, beginning in youth. Retrieved from http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jun2005/nimh-06.htm. Not available December 2017.

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2001). Blueprint for change: Research on child and adolescent mental health. Report of the National Advisory Mental Health Council’s Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Mental Health Intervention.

New Freedom Commission on Mental Health. (2003). Achieving the promise: Transforming mental health care in America. DHHS Pub. No. SMA-03-3832. Rockville, MD.

Nock, M., Goldman, J., Wang, Y., & Albano, A. (2004). From science to practice: The flexible use of evidence-based treatments in clinical settings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(6), 777-780.

Ringel, J., & Sturm, R. (2001). National estimates of mental health utilization and expenditures for children in 1998. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research, 28, 319-333.

Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. (2012). What is evidence-based practice (EBP)? Effective Child Therapy. Retrieved from http://effectivechildtherapy.org/content/evidence-based-practice-0. Not available December 2017.

Sturm, R., Ringel, J., Bao, C., Stein, B., Kapur, K, Zhang, W., & Zeng, F. (2001). National estimates of mental health utilization and expenditures for children in 1998. In Blueprint for change: Research on child and adolescent mental health, Vol. VI, Appendices. Washington, DC: National Advisory Mental Health Council Workgroup on Child and Adolescent Mental Health Intervention, Development, and Deployment.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2016). Mental and substance use disorders. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/disorders

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U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2015). Evidence-based psychotherapies: Novel models of delivering treatment. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved from https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/education/curriculum-tools/population-health/kazdin.html

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race, ethnicity–supplement to mental health: Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: Author.

U.S. Public Health Service. (2000). Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental Health: A national action agenda. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.

Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (VDBHDS). (2013). Comprehensive state plan 2014 to 2020. Retrieved from http://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/library/quality%20risk%20management/opd-stateplan2014thru2020.pdf

Woodruff, D., Osher, D., Hoffman, C., Gruner, A., King, M., & Snow, S. (1999). The role of education in a system of care: Effectively serving children with emotional or behavioral disorders. Systems of care: Promising practices in children’s mental health, 1998 series, volume III. Washington, DC: Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, American Institutes for Research.

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https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/education/curriculum-tools/population-health/kazdin.htmlhttp://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/library/quality%20risk%20management/opd-stateplan2014thru2020.pdfhttp://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/library/quality%20risk%20management/opd-stateplan2014thru2020.pdf

ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN TREATMENT PROGRAMS Return to Table of Contents

Over the past several years, the focus of mental health treatment and support for youth and families has increasingly been on evidence-based practices (National Alliance on Mental Illness [NAMI], 2007). Evidence-based practices are those that research has shown to be effective. However, although there is growing emphasis on evidence-based practices, it is equally important to emphasize the role of families as partners in the treatment process (NAMI).

To ensure successful treatment outcomes, it is crucial that family members are involved in child and adolescent services (Kutash & Rivera, 1995; Pfeifer & Strzelecki, 1990). Research has shown that the effectiveness of services hinges less on the particular type of treatment than on the family’s participation in planning, implementing, and evaluating those services (Koren et al., 1997), as well as on their control over the child’s treatment (Curtis & Singh, 1996; Thompson et al., 1997). Family participation promotes an increased focus on families, a provision of services in natural settings, a greater awareness of cultural sensitivity, and a community-based system of care. Research also confirms that family participation improves not only service delivery, but also treatment outcomes (Knitzer, Steinberg, & Fleisch, 1993).

There is a growing body of evidence indicating that children from vulnerable populations, children of single mothers, and children who live in poverty are more likely to exhibit the most serious problems. They are also the most likely to prematurely terminate treatment (Kadzin & Mazurick, 1994). Additional research is necessary to determine the factors that contribute to this early termination.

In recognition of this problem, it is important for mental health providers to ensure that families that have these characteristics are actively engaged in the services that their children receive in order to maximize the potential for successful outcomes. This goal is complicated by the fact that both families and providers may be confused and hesitant about the role that family members should play in treatment efforts. In addition, other barriers may preclude families from procuring high-quality mental health services for their children.

In an attempt to combat this problem, researchers have identified six broad roles that families should play in the treatment process (Friesen & Stephens, 1998). These roles are listed below:

Contributors to the Environment – Family members are a constant in the environment in which a child resides. Consequently, treatment providers often try to identify ways in which the behavior and interactions among family members influence the child’s emotional and behavioral problems. With the assistance of the treatment provider, family members should consider ways to improve the home environment and the relationships within the family in order to provide the child with the most stable, supportive environment possible. In addition, family members should seek external support from their extended family and community to reduce the stress of raising a child with emotional or behavioral difficulties.

Recipients of Service – Family members are an important part of the therapeutic process. Service providers often focus on the family unit as a whole, creating interventions and strategies that target the health of the entire family. These interventions are intended to assess the strengths and weaknesses that exist within the family structure, to enhance the well-being of parents and other family members, and to help families locate support mechanisms in the community. The provider also assists family members in developing the skills necessary to support the special needs of the child. Services may include supportive counseling, parental training and education, development of coping

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Role of the Family in Treatment Programs

skills and stress management techniques, respite care, parental support groups, transportation, and financial assistance.

Partners in the Treatment Process – Family members serve as equal contributors in the problem-solving process. They should work with treatment providers to identify the goals of treatment and to plan realistic strategies to achieve these goals. Additionally, family members should play a key role in implementing these strategies to help ensure that treatment goals are met. When performing these functions, family members should not be afraid to ask questions and to voice their opinions and preferences. It is crucial that they are fully informed and that their preferences are considered in all treatment decisions.

Service Providers – The treatment process is incomplete unless family members also provide services to the child. Family members are responsible for providing information and emotional support to the child and to other family members, and for filling in the gaps in the services being received by the child. Furthermore, they often coordinate services by requesting and convening meetings and transporting the child to appointments. It is a crucial role, the importance of which cannot be overstated. Parents and caregivers need to remain vigilant and involved in all aspects of the child’s treatment. This includes keeping all follow-up appointments, becoming knowledgeable about any prescribed medications, and keeping track of all treatments that have been unsuccessful.

Advocates – Family members often serve as their child’s only voice in the mental health system. They should therefore actively advocate for the child to ensure that he or she receives appropriate services. They also must voice any concerns regarding undesirable practices and policies. There are several local, state, and national organizations that can assist parents and caregivers in these efforts, allowing them to serve as part of a larger voice in their communities.

Evaluators and Researchers – It is important that families participate in research and evaluation activities so that their opinions can be heard regarding which treatments and services are most beneficial and convenient. The input of family members is crucial to ensure that all children receive services that are efficient and effective.

Because family members play important supporting roles in combating mental health disorders, it is important that they assume each of these roles in order to provide the effective support network that is necessary for the child’s continued improvement. Family members who support and encourage their child and create a favorable environment for services will maximize the potential for successful outcomes.

The following information is attributed to the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2000). Families must recognize that, although they are obtaining services for their child, they are the experts in understanding the following:

• How their child responds to different situations; • Their child’s strengths and needs; • What their child likes and dislikes; and • What has worked and has not worked in helping their child.

Families are ultimately responsible for determining what services and supports their children receive. Thus, family members must communicate to service providers their children’s strengths and weaknesses, as well as their own priorities and expectations. They must also not hesitate to inform service providers if they believe treatment is not working so that appropriate modifications can be made (SAMHSA, 2000).

These recommendations also hold true for children who come into contact with the juvenile justice system. Family involvement is particularly critical for these youth to ensure positive outcomes (Osher & Hunt, 2002). It is imperative that family members provide information on the child’s diagnosis and

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Role of the Family in Treatment Programs

treatment history, use of medications, education history and status (including whether the child is enrolled in special education), and any other special circumstances that affect the child (Osher & Hunt). It is also important that they communicate their ability to participate in treatment. Ideally, families should be involved in decision-making and treatment at each stage of service provision (Osher & Hunt). Families and juvenile justice officials must cooperate to ensure that all have mutual responsibility for the child’s outcomes (Osher & Hunt).

Without family involvement, it is extremely difficult for service providers to ensure that the gains achieved by the child in treatment are maintained and solidified. Moreover, the combined efforts of service providers, family members, and advocates are necessary to ensure that the services provided in the community effectively meet the needs of all children and families. It is important that parents and caregivers understand the results of any evaluation, the child's diagnosis, and the full range of treatment options. If parents are not comfortable with a particular clinician or treatment option or are confused about a specific recommendation, they should consider seeking a second opinion.

If medication is suggested as a treatment option, families must be informed of all associated risks and benefits. In addition, children and adolescents who are taking psychotropic medications must be closely monitored and frequently evaluated by qualified mental health providers (NAMI). The decision about whether to medicate a child as part of a comprehensive treatment plan should be made only after parents carefully weigh these factors (NAMI, 2007). Figure 1 outlines questions parents should ask about treatment services.

Supplementary Issues for Families

Continuous news coverage of events such as natural disasters, catastrophic events, and violent crime may cause children to experience stress, anxiety, and fear (AACAP, 2002). In addition, some children may be unable to distinguish the difference between reality and the fantasy presented in the media (AACAP, 2001). As a result, children may be exposed to behaviors and attitudes that can be overwhelming or difficult to understand (AACAP, 2001). Caregivers should be made aware that violent media images can have a greater impact upon children with emotional and behavioral issues than might otherwise be the case (AACAP, 2015).

Systems of Care and Family Involvement

Unless otherwise cited, information in this section is attributed to Systems of Care: A Framework for System Reform in Children’s Mental Health (Stroul, 2002). A system of care is defined as “a comprehensive spectrum of mental health and other necessary services which are organized into a coordinated network to meet the multiple and changing needs of children and their families.” It is not a program, but a philosophy. According to the primary values of the systems-of-care philosophy, services for children are:

• Community-based; • Child-centered and family-focused; and • Culturally competent.

Families are designated partners in the design of effective mental health services and supports. Families have a primary decision-making role in the care of their own children, as well as in the policies and procedures governing care for all children in their communities. This includes:

• Choosing supports, services, and providers • Setting goals • Designing and implementing programs • Monitoring outcomes

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Role of the Family in Treatment Programs

• Partnering in funding decisions• Determining the effectiveness of all efforts to promote the mental health and well-being of

children and youth (AACAP, 2009)

Figure 1 Questions Parents or Caregivers Should Ask About Treatment Services

Before a child begins treatment, parents should ask the following:

• Does my child need additional assessment and/or testing (medical, psychological, etc.)?• What are the recommended treatment options for my child?• Why do you believe treatment in this program is indicated for my child? How does it

compare to other programs or services that are available?• What are the advantages and disadvantages of the recommended service or program?• How long will treatment take?• What will treatment cost, and how much of the cost is covered by insurance or public

funding? Will we reach our insurance limit before treatment is completed?• How will my child continue education while in treatment?• Does my child need medication? If so, what is the name of the medication that will be

prescribed? How will it help my child? How long before I see improvement? What are theside effects that occur with this medication?

• What are the credentials and experience of the members of the treatment team?• How frequently will the treatment sessions occur?• Will the treatment sessions occur with just my child or the entire family?• How will I be involved with my child's treatment?• How will we know if the treatment is working? What are some of the results I can expect

to see?• How long should it take before I see improvement?• What should I do if the problems get worse?• What are the arrangements if I need to reach you after-hours or in an emergency?• As my child's problem improves, does this program provide less intensive/step-down

treatment services?• How will the decision be made to discharge my child from treatment?• Once my child is discharged, how will it be decided what types of ongoing treatment will

be necessary, how often, and for how long?

Source: American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP), 2000.

Systems of care establish partnerships that work because the system is guided by the family. They use the family’s expertise to steer decision-making in service and system design, operation, and evaluation. In recent years, studies have found that children whose families were involved in their treatment experienced improved educational outcomes and well-being. They also spent less time in out-of-home placements and residential settings (Jivanjee et al., 2002).

While families must take care to ensure that their child is properly treated, they must also understand that the family may also require support. Family members often experience considerable stress physically, emotionally, socially, and spiritually due to both the child’s health problems and the stress of interacting with medical professionals. Ensuring that the family is also well supported can empower the family to support the child’s treatment (SAMHSA, n.d.).

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Role of the Family in Treatment Programs

Resources and Organizations

American Academy of Family Physicians https://www.aafp.org American Association of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) http://www.aacap.org/ American Psychiatric Association (APA)

http://www.psych.org American Psychological Association (APA) http://www.apa.org/ Familydoctor.org https://familydoctor.org/ Medscape Today Resource Centers (from WebMD)

https://www.medscape.com/internalmedicine

Mental Health America (MHA) http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/ National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI) https://www.nami.org/ National Mental Health Information Center Child, Adolescent and Family Branch, Center for Mental Health Services https://www.samhsa.gov/children National Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health https://gucchdtacenter.georgetown.edu/ U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services

https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mr

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

https://www.hhs.gov/ U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Medline Plus

https://medlineplus.gov/ Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices https://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/landing.aspx Virginia Resources and Organizations

Mental Health America of Virginia https://mhav.org/ National Alliance for the Mentally Ill Virginia (NAMI Virginia) https://namivirginia.org/ Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (DBHDS) http://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/ Virginia Office of Children’s Services http://www.csa.virginia.gov/ Voices for Virginia’s Children https://vakids.org/

References American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2000). Facts for families: Questions parents or

caregivers should ask about treatment services. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/web/aacap/publications/factsfam. Not available December 2017.

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2001). Facts for families: Children and watching TV. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/facts_for_families/children_and_watching_tv. galleries/FactsForFamilies/67_children_and_the_news.pdf. Not available December 2017.

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2002). Facts for families: Children and the news. Retrieved from http://www.dallaspsychiatry.com/files/Download/67_children_and_the_news.pdf

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https://www.aafp.org/http://www.aacap.org/http://www.psych.org/http://www.apa.org/https://familydoctor.org/https://www.medscape.com/internalmedicinehttps://www.medscape.com/internalmedicinehttp://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/https://www.nami.org/https://www.samhsa.gov/childrenhttps://gucchdtacenter.georgetown.edu/https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mrhttps://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/index.html?src=mrhttps://www.hhs.gov/https://medlineplus.gov/https://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/landing.aspxhttps://mhav.org/https://namivirginia.org/http://www.dbhds.virginia.gov/http://www.csa.virginia.gov/https://vakids.org/http://www.dallaspsychiatry.com/files/Download/67_children_and_the_news.pdf

Role of the Family in Treatment Programs

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2009). Family and youth participation in clinical decision-making. AACAP Policy Statement. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/aacap/policy_statements/2009/Family_and_Youth_Participation_in_Clinical_Decision_Making.aspx

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2015). Facts for families: Children and video games: Playing with violence. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Children-and-Video-Games-Playing-with-Violence-091.aspx

Curtis, I., & Singh, N. (1996). Family involvement and empowerment in mental health service provision for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 503-517.

Friesen, B., & Stephens, B. (1998). Expanding family roles in the system of care: Research and practice. In M. Epstein, K. Kutash, & A. Duchnowski (Eds.), Outcomes for children & youth with behavioral and emotional disorders and their families. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Jivanjee, P., Friesen, B., Robinson, A., & Pullman, M. (2002). Family participation in systems of care: frequently asked questions (and some answers). Research and Training Center on Family Support and Children's Mental Health. Retrieved from https://www.pathwaysrtc.pdx.edu/pdf/pbFamParCWTAC.pdf

Kadzin, A., & Mazurick, J. (1994). Dropping out of child psychotherapy: Distinguishing early and late dropouts over the course of treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1069-1074.

Knitzer, J., Steinberg, Z., & Fleisch, B. (1993). At the schoolhouse door: An examination of programs and policies for children with behavioral and emotional problems. New York: Bank Street College of Education.

Koren, P., Paulson, R., Kinney, R., Yatchmonoff, D., Gordon, L., & DeChillo, N. (1997). Service coordination in children’s mental health: An empirical study from the caregivers’ perspective. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 5, 62-172.

Kutash, K., & Rivera, V. (1995). Effectiveness of children’s mental health services: A review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 18, 443-477.

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (2007). Choosing the right treatment: What families need to know about evidence-based practices. Retrieved from http://www2.nami.org/namiland09/CAACebpguide.pdf. Not available December 2017.

Osher, T., & Hunt, P. (2002). Involving families of youth who are in contact with the juvenile justice system. Research and program brief. National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice. Retrieved from https://www.nttac.org/views/docs/jabg/mhcurriculum/mh_involving_families.pdf. Not available December 2017.

Pfeiffer, S., & Strzelecki, S. (1990). Inpatient psychiatric treatment of children and adolescents: A review of outcome studies. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 847-853.

Stroul, B. (2002). Systems of care: A framework for system reform in children’s mental health. Georgetown University Child Development Center, National Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2000). Family guide to systems of care for children with mental health needs. National Mental Health Information Center. Retrieved from http://dhhs.ne.gov/behavioral_health/Documents/FamiliesSystemsofCareGuide.pdf

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (n.d.). Involving and supporting families. Retrieved from http://www.samhsa.gov/co-occurring/about/involving_and_supporting_families.aspx. Not available December 2017.

Thompson, L., Lobb, C., Elling, R., Herman, S., Jurkidwewicz, T., & Helluza, C. (1997). Pathways to family empowerment: Effects of family-centered delivery of early intervention services. Exceptional Children, 64, 99-113.

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http://www.aacap.org/aacap/policy_statements/2009/Family_and_Youth_Participation_in_Clinical_Decision_Making.aspxhttp://www.aacap.org/aacap/policy_statements/2009/Family_and_Youth_Participation_in_Clinical_Decision_Making.aspxhttp://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Children-and-Video-Games-Playing-with-Violence-091.aspxhttp://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Children-and-Video-Games-Playing-with-Violence-091.aspxhttps://www.pathwaysrtc.pdx.edu/pdf/pbFamParCWTAC.pdfhttp://dhhs.ne.gov/behavioral_health/Documents/FamiliesSystemsofCareGuide.pdf

KEY COMPONENTS OF SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT PROGRAMS Return to Table of Contents

Integrated Programming – The “Systems” Approach Screening and Assessment Individualized Care Planning Discharge Planning Engaging Families in Treatment Culturally-Competent Service Delivery Psychosocial and Pharmacological Treatments

While studies have identified numerous strategies and techniques that are effective in the treatment of mental health issues, a growing body of research shows that there are several guiding principles that provide a foundation for any treatment program. These principles will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.

Integrated Programming – The “Systems” Approach

Research continues to support the idea that the mental health needs of children and adolescents are best served within the context of a “system of care” in which multiple service providers work together in an organized, collaborative way. The system-of-care approach encourages agencies to provide services that are child-centered and family-focused, community-based, and culturally competent. The guiding principles also call for services to be integrated. Linking child-serving agencies and programs allows for collaborative planning, development, and implementation of services. Additional information on systems of care is provided in the “Role of the Family” section.

Systems of care produce important system improvements. For example, studies have shown that systems of care improve the functional behavior of children and reduce the use of residential and out-of-state placements. Parents also appear to be more satisfied with services provided within systems of care than with more traditional service delivery systems.

The Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (VDBHDS) emphasizes the need for agency collaboration at both the state and local levels (2004). This can be achieved by promoting integration of services and establishing policies that require service providers to conduct a single, comprehensive intake addressing the areas of mental health, intellectual disability, and substance abuse. Moreover, community partnerships can be strengthened or enhanced to improve the delivery of child and adolescent mental health services.

Screening and Assessment

Comprehensive assessment, screening, and evaluation are necessary for children and adolescents experiencing a mental health crisis. Children should also be screened to identify potential delayed or atypical development, thus determining the appropriate level of assessment (Pires, 2002). In addition to screening, assessment and evaluation collectively address the needs and services of the child and family (Pires).

Parents of youth who are identified with a possible problem should be offered a full assessment by a professional clinician. A qualified mental health professional can determine whether a comprehensive

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

psychiatric evaluation for serious emotional behavior problems is necessary (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2005). Such a step will lead to accurate assessment and, if needed, appropriate, individualized treatment. In addition, every step of the assessment process must include parental consent and youth assent (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2011).

Individualized Care Planning

In order to make certain that there is a continuity of treatment, a framework should be established that ensures that a child can transition with ease from one service to another. The efficiency of these transitions is enhanced through the creation of effective individualized service plans. These plans, which are targeted to the child’s specific needs, identify problems, establish goals, and specify appropriate interventions and services. Developed in partnership with the child and family, an individualized service plan allows for services to be matched with the unique potential and needs of each child and family (Stroul & Friedman, 2011).

Once screening and assessment have taken place, an individual care plan ensures that the distinct needs of the child are met. The goal is to plan and provide appropriate services and supports to the child. Elements that must be acknowledged include building trust, engaging the family, and tailoring family supports (Pires, 2002). Some components to be included in such a plan are:

• Background information and family assessment • Identifying information • Child development and behavior • Needs • Family functioning style • Social support network • Safety issues and risks • Goals • Sources of support and/or resources • Action plan • Progress evaluation

Discharge Planning

Service providers have found that a breakdown in the system of care is frequently encountered in the area of discharge planning. A discharge plan should be created whenever a child is transitioning from inpatient or residential treatment back into the community. These plans should be updated in consultation with the child’s family before the child is released from treatment. They should describe the therapy and services that were provided in the facility and recommend any necessary follow-up services, which should then be coordinated by a case manager. Although they are frequently overlooked, discharge plans are a key component of a comprehensive system of care, as they help to ensure that the gains made in an inpatient or residential setting are continued once the child returns to the community.

Engaging Families in Treatment

Service providers and researchers have increasingly realized the important role that families play in the treatment of children with mental health disorders. The mental health system has taken steps to make families partners in the delivery of mental health services for children and adolescents (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). For further discussion of the roles that families should play in treatment services, see the “Role of the Family in Treatment Programs” section of the Collection.

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

Engagement involves the participation of people who both deliver and seek services. With effective engagement, the likelihood of ongoing participation in services and supports increases (National Alliance on Mental Illness [NAMI], 2016). When care is respectful, compassionate, and centered on an individual’s life goals, the likelihood of recovery is sharply increased.

According to the New Freedom Commission on Mental Health established by President George W. Bush, local, state, and federal officials must engage families in planning and evaluating treatment and support services (2003). The direct participation of families in developing a range of community-based, recovery-oriented treatment and support services is important. Families of children with serious emotional disturbances have a key role in mental health care delivery in that they can advocate for a system that focuses on recovery through the use of appropriate evidence-based treatments.

The New Freedom Commission also specifies that mental health care should be consumer and family driven. Consumers their families should be encouraged to be fully involved in care, which will help promote a recovery-based mental health system. Families can take part in this process by becoming educated about the appropriate treatments for their child, as well as the provider qualifications necessary to delivery these treatments. For more information about mental health providers’ qualifications, please see the “General Description of Providers” section of the Collection.

Culturally-Competent Service Delivery

Virginia, like the nation as a whole, is becoming more racially diverse. The minority share of the population has increased from 29.8 percent in 2000 to 35.2 percent in 2010 (Sturtevant, 2011). During this period, the biggest gain was among Virginia’s Hispanic population, which grew by more than 300,000, or 92 percent (Cai, 2011). The Asian population grew by 68.3 percent, and the population of all other minority races (including persons of two or more races) grew by 50.8 percent (Sturtevant). This increase in diversity has significant implications for service providers in the Commonwealth, as cultural factors are becoming increasingly important in the evaluation and treatment of mental health disorders.

Culture has been found to influence many aspects of mental health disorders. Individuals from specific cultures may express and manifest their symptoms in different ways. They may also differ in their styles of coping, their use of family and community supports, and their willingness to seek and continue treatment. Moreover, clinicians may be influenced by their own cultural values, which may affect diagnosis, treatment, and service delivery decisions (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2001).

The variability within a culture and among different cultural groups is described in Table 1.

The following is attributed to Kumpfer and Alvarado (1998). Cultural competency involves addressing the various folkways, mores, traditions, customs, rituals, and dialects that are specific to each culture and ethnicity (Saldana, 2001). Research has shown that tailoring interventions to the cultural traditions of the family improve outcomes. Culturally-relevant values can be integrated into existing model programs for a variety of ethnic groups. Such an approach can address the various nuances that cultures may exhibit, such as specific values and beliefs. These cultural beliefs should be incorporated into an organized, culturally sensitive treatment framework.

Cultural differences may also affect the success of mental health services. The mental health treatment setting relies significantly on language, communication, and trust between patients and providers. In addition, children may be reticent to share elements of their cultural orientation with persons who do not share their culture. Therefore, therapeutic success may hinge on the clinician’s ability to understand a patient’s identity, social supports, self-esteem, and perception of stigma. Consequently, mental health service providers must recognize underlying cultural influences so they can effectively address the mental health needs of each segment of the community (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999).

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

Table 1 Addressing Cultural Variability

Variability Factor Description

Acculturation This reflects the extent to which a person is familiar with and proficient within U.S. mainstream culture.

Poverty There may be difference in resources, as well as a lack of awareness of traditional mental health interventions and the importance of compliance.

Language Clients may not be as fluent in English as they are in their native language. Different dialects within the same language may also create communication barriers.

Transportation, housing and childcare

A lack of available resources and supports may interfere with access to treatment and adherence with provider expectations.

Reading ability/ educational background

Individuals may vary substantially in academic experience. This is true within ethnic subgroups, as well as between subgroups.

Beliefs

People from diverse cultures vary in their beliefs about what is considered “illness,” what causes an illness, what should be done to address an illness, and what the treatment outcome should be. Providers cannot assume their clients’ views match theirs.

Physical characteristics People of different ethnic backgrounds sometimes differ in their appearance, even within the same ethnic group. Source: Saldana, 2001.

Culturally competent treatment programs are founded upon an awareness of and respect for the values, beliefs, traditions, customs, and parenting styles of all individuals who reside in the community. Providers should be aware of the impact of their own culture on the therapeutic relationship with their clients and consider these factors when planning and delivering the services for youth and their families. Ideally, culturally competent programs include multilingual, multicultural staff and provide extensive community outreach (Cross et al., 1989).

The services offered within a community should also reflect a respect for cultural diversity. For example, the inclusion of extended family members in treatment efforts should be incorporated within certain treatment approaches, when appropriate. It would also be beneficial for mental health agencies to display culturally relevant pictures and literature in order to show respect and increase consumer comfort with services. Finally, agencies should consider the holidays or work schedules of consumers when scheduling office hours and meetings (Cross et al., 1989).

Cultural differences other than ethnicity must also be considered. For example, Americans living in isolated and impoverished rural areas may display unique characteristics that present barriers to mental health services. Some may not seek care because of a perceived stigma attached to mental health disorders, a lack of understanding about mental illnesses and treatments, a lack of information about where to go for treatment, or an inability to pay for care. Furthermore, factors such as poverty and geographic isolation may affect the quality of mental health care available to these individuals. These issues are further complicated by the limited availability of mental health specialists, such as psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, and social workers, in rural areas (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2000).

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

It is important to consider the impact of culture on mental health service delivery. Culturally competent programming has been found to promote service utilization for all ages, including children (Snowden & Hu, 1997). Furthermore, children and families enrolled in mental health programs that are aligned with a community’s culture are less likely to drop out of treatment than those in mainstream programs (SAMHSA, 2014; Takeuchi, Sue, & Yeh, 1995). Culturally competent training and service planning serve as important components of the mental health delivery system.

Psychosocial and Pharmacological Treatments

Because of the increasing recognition of the impact mental health disorders have upon children and adolescents, there has been greater scrutiny regarding the effectiveness and safety of mental health interventions used to treat children. Accordingly, the number of scientific studies of treatment effectiveness has risen dramatically. Several federally sponsored clinical trials have been conducted to address the effectiveness of interventions for childhood disorders (American Psychological Association [APA], 2006).

Child and adolescent mental health treatments may be psychosocial, pharmacological, and/or combined. Psychosocial treatments are treatments that include different types of psychotherapy and social and vocational training. These interventions aim to provide support, education, and guidance to children with mental health conditions (NAMI, 2015). Pharmacological treatments use medication to treat the mental health disorder.

The APA’s working group on psychotropic medications recommends that, for most children and adolescents, psychosocial interventions should be considered first (APA, 2006). The working group noted a variety of reasons why psychosocial interventions were preferred, with the primary reason being that these interventions are safer than psychotropic medications (APA). There are vast developmental differences in child and adolescent populations that influence physiological, cognitive, behavioral, and affective functioning. Development also has implications with respect to medication management. For instance, physiological differences can result in markedly different rates of medication absorption, distribution in the body, and metabolism among youth of different ages and stages of development (Brown & Sammons, 2002, as cited by APA). Children are also less able than adults to accurately describe changes in their physiological and psychological functioning, the course of these changes over time, and any adverse effects of psychotropic medications. In addition, parents are responsible for both the decision to use pharmacotherapy and the administration of medication. In the school setting, it may be the school nurse or the teacher who administers medication. As a result, parents’ and school personnel’s attitudes toward medication may influence whether a child adheres to medical regimens. For these reasons, the unique issues in child and adolescent psychopharmacology must be considered when prescribing and monitoring medication in pediatric populations (APA).

If medication is recommended as a treatment, the physician recommending its use should be experienced in treating psychiatric illnesses in children and adolescents (AACAP, 2012). He or she should fully explain the reasons for medication use, the benefits the medication should provide, the possible risks and adverse effects, and any other treatment alternatives. When pharmacological treatments are necessary, their use should be carefully monitored, and dosage should be tapered off as soon as possible (Tweed et al., 2012). In addition, psychiatric medication should not be used alone. The use of medication should be based on a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation and be one part of a comprehensive treatment plan.

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

References

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American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP). (2012). Psychiatric medication for children and adolescents: Part I – How medications are used. No. 21. Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Psychiatric-Medication-For-Children-And-Adolescents-Part-I-How-Medications-Are-Used-021.aspx

American Psychological Association (APA). (2006). Report of the working group on psychotropic medications for children and adolescents: Psychopharmacological, psychosocial, and combined interventions for childhood disorders: Evidence base, contextual factors, and future directions. Washington, DC: Author.

Cai, Q. (2011). A decade of change in Virginia’s population, The Virginia News Letter, 87(4), Retrieved from http://www.coopercenter.org/sites/default/files/publications/Virginia%20News%20Letter%202011%20Vol. %2087%20No%204.pdf. Not available December 2017.

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National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (2016). Engagement: A new standard for mental health care. Retrieved from https://www.nami.org/engagement

National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI). (2015). Psychosocial treatments fact sheet. Retrieved from http://www.namidupage.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Psychosocial-Treatments-Fact-Sheet.pdf

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). (2000). Fact sheet: Rural mental health research at the National Institute of Mental Health. Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/ruralresfact.cfm. Not available December 2017.

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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2011). Identifying mental health and substance use problems of children and adolescents: A guide for child-serving organizations. HHS Publication No. SMA 12-4670. Rockville, MD.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2014). Improving cultural competence. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series No. 59. HHS Publication No. SMA 14-4849. Rockville, MD.

Takeuchi, D., Sue, S., & Yeh, M. (1995). Return rates and outcomes from ethnicity-specific mental health programs in Los Angeles. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 638-643.

Tweed, L., Barkin, J.S., Cook, A., & Freeman, E. (2012). A weighty matter: Anti-psychotic medications for children and youth should be chosen carefully and used only as long as needed. Maine Independent Clinical Information Service

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Key Components of Successful Treatment Programs

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