CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND ADVERTISING LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL … · 2.2.6 European Commission Green Paper: Preparing for a Fully Converged Audiovisual World: Growth, Creation and Values

KULeuven,FacultyofLawCentreforIT&IPLaw

F

CHILDREN’SRIGHTSANDADVERTISING

LITERACYINTHEDIGITALERA

TOWARDSANEMPOWERINGREGULATORYFRAMEWORKFOR

COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION

ValerieVERDOODT

ThesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorinLaw.

Supervisors:

Prof.dr.P.ValckeProf.dr.E.LievensExaminationCommittee:

Prof.dr.S.vanderHofEm.Prof.dr.D.VoorhoofProf.dr.E.TerrynProf.dr.M.Walrave November2018

Acknowledgements

TheclichégoesthatwritingaPhDisastoughastrainingforamarathon.Throughmyownexperience, I learned that they both demanded more time, patience, discipline andendurance than anything I have ever done before. Therefore, it would not have beenpossiblewithoutthesupportofmycolleagues,friendsandfamily.

Iwould like tobeginby thankingmy ‘pacers’. In themarathon, theseareexperiencedrunnerswhosetthepaceforbeginnerstoachieveacertainresultandguidethemalltheway to the finish line. I cannot imagineanyonebeingmore luckywithsucha teamofpacers like mine. My gratitude goes out to Prof. dr. Peggy Valcke for her continuoussupportandencouragingmetodevelopmyownresearchideasandrunmyownrace.Herenthusiasmforresearchandpositivemindsetareamazing.MywarmestthanksarealsoduetoProf.dr.EvaLievens,forbelievinginmethroughoutthePhDwritingprocessandalways knowing how to motivate me. Her insightful and invaluable feedback havesignificantlyshapedmyresearchandsheistrulyoneofthemostinspiringpersonsIhavemet during this adventure. Furthermore, I owe many words of appreciation to mydoctoral committee members, Prof. dr. Simone van der Hof and Em. Prof. dr. DirkVoorhoof, for their insightful commentsandprovidingmewithnew ideasatdifferentstagesofthePhDresearch.IwouldalsoliketoexpressmygratitudetoProf.dr.MichelWalraveandProf.dr.EvelyneTerryn,forthefreshandcriticalperspectivestheybroughtatthefinalstageofmydissertation.Finally,IwouldliketothankEm.Prof.Dr.MarcBoesforkindlyagreeingtochairtheexaminationcommittee.

Mysincerestappreciationalsogoesouttomyfellowrunners,mydearestcolleaguesattheKULeuvenCentreforITandIPLaw(CiTiP)andattheUGentLawandTechnologyGroup.Youhavemadetheprocessendurableandtogetherwesharedmomentsofdeepanxietybutalsoofbigexcitement.IamindebtedtoVerónicaandBrendan,whohelpedmerightatthestartofmyacademiccarreer.Itwasinspiringtoworkwithbothofyou!SpecialthanksgoouttoDamian,Amandine,Ingrida,Jef,PJforprovidingmewithideasandfeedbackthroughoutthewritingprocess,duringmyPhDseminarsorjustforbeingafriend.Tomyofficematesovertheyears,especiallyEllen,Inge,IngridandNadia,thanksforallthegreattalksandmanylaughs.IwouldalsoliketothanktheentireAdLitteamforthegreatcollaborationandstimulatingconversations(shout-outtoBrahim).Finally,mygratitudegoesouttoShuki,EdithandLinda,whohavealwayssupportedmeindealingwiththepracticalitiesofworkinginaresearchcentre.

Lastbutnotleast,abigmassivethanksgoesouttomyfantasticsupporters:myfriendsand family. Tomy closest friends, Lien, Jonas and Thomas, thanks for being so loyal,hilariousandforrunningwithmeallthewaytotheMontSaint-Michel(andbeyond,likePuurs). To my parents, I cannot express in words how thankful I am for all theopportunitiesyouhavealreadygivenmeinlifeandforalwaysshowinghowproudyourareofme.TomysisterNathalie,thanksforkeepingmegrounded,callingmeageekona

regularbasisandsupportingmewiththesamelevelofenthusiasmasyouhaveenergy(seriously,a lot).The lastwordgoesout to Johannes, thankyouforbeingyouandforbringinghappinessandjoytomylifeeveryday.Yourendlessloveandsupportgavemethemotivationtogetthingsdone.

ValerieVerdoodt

November2018

TableofcontentsIntroduction................................................................................................................................................11. Background....................................................................................................................................................................12. Delineation.....................................................................................................................................................................43. Structureandmethodologyoftheresearch...................................................................................................6

PartI-Children’sRightsandAdvertisingLiteracyintheDigitalEra.........................................9ChapterI-Settingthescene..........................................................................................................................................10SectionI-Clarificationoftheconstitutiveelements.................................................................................101. Children,commercialcommunicationandadvertisingliteracy......................................................101.1 Definitionofachild..............................................................................................................................101.2 Commercialcommunication.............................................................................................................131.3 Advertisingliteracy.............................................................................................................................15

2. Emergingtrendsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationandchildren.................................172.1 Advertisinginthedigitalera............................................................................................................172.2 Integration..............................................................................................................................................182.3 Interaction..............................................................................................................................................212.4 Personalisation.....................................................................................................................................232.5 Emotionalappeal..................................................................................................................................26

3. Concludingremarks.......................................................................................................................................29SectionII-Theneedforafuture-proofregulatoryframeworkinlightofchildren’srights.301. Evolvingregulatorycontextinthedigitalenvironment....................................................................301.1 AfragmentedlegalframeworkforcommercialcommunicationintheEU......................301.2 Theriseofalternativeregulatoryinstruments..........................................................................32

2. Childrenandnewformsofcommercialcommunicationinpolicydocuments..........................362.1 Internationalpolicydocuments......................................................................................................372.1.1OECDRecommendationontheprotectionofchildrenonline...............................................372.1.2 CouncilofEurope............................................................................................................................38A. DeclarationoftheCommitteeofMinistersonprotectingthedignity,securityand

privacyofchildrenontheInternet......................................................................................................38B. StrategyontheRightsoftheChild............................................................................................39C. RecommendationCM/Rec(2018)7oftheCommitteeofMinisterstomemberStates

onGuidelinestorespect,protectandfulfiltherightsofthechildinthedigital

environment................................................................................................................................................402.2 EUpolicydocuments...........................................................................................................................412.2.1 EuropeanParliamentResolutionof15December2010ontheimpactofadvertising

onconsumerbehaviour................................................................................................................................42

2.2.2 EuropeanParliamentResolutionof22May2012onaStrategyforStrengthening

theRightsofVulnerableConsumers.........................................................................................................452.2.3 OpinionoftheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeonaframeworkfor

advertisingaimedatyoungpeopleandchildren(September2012)...........................................462.2.4 EuropeanParliamentResolutionof20November2012onprotectingchildrenin

thedigitalworld...............................................................................................................................................472.2.5 EuropeanCommissionCommunicationonaEuropeanStrategyforaBetterInternet

forChildren(2012).........................................................................................................................................482.2.6 EuropeanCommissionGreenPaper:PreparingforaFullyConvergedAudiovisual

World:Growth,CreationandValues(2013).........................................................................................492.2.7 EuropeanCommissionCommunicationonADigitalSingleMarketStrategyfor

Europe(2015)..................................................................................................................................................513. Newformsofcommercialcommunicationcallforfuture-proofregulation...............................523.1 Effectsofcommercialcommunicationonchildren’sdevelopmentandadvertising

literacy 533.2 Precautionaryprinciple.....................................................................................................................54

4. Takingachildren’srightsapproach.........................................................................................................58SectionIII–Interimconclusion............................................................................................................................61

ChapterII-TheRoleOfChildren’sRightsInRegulatingNewFormsOfCommercial

Communication....................................................................................................................................................................62SectionI–Introducingthechildren’srightsframework.........................................................................621. Children’srightsatinternationallevel.....................................................................................................621.1 Fromsubjectofprotectiontoactiverightsholders..................................................................621.2 TheUnitedNationsFramework......................................................................................................65

2. Europeanchildren’srightslaw...................................................................................................................702.1 Fundamentalhumanrightsforall,includingchildren............................................................70

3. Children’srightsandnewformsofcommercialcommunication...................................................74SectionII–Children’srightsandprinciplesinthecontextofcommercialcommunication.761. Overarchingprinciplesthatunderpinachildrightsperspective...................................................761.1 Children’sdevelopmentliesattheheartoftheframework..................................................761.2 Non-discriminationinadvertisingormarketing......................................................................821.3 Thebestinterestsofthechildasaprimaryconsiderationforregulators,policymakers,

advertisersandparents......................................................................................................................................861.4 Offeringchildrenavoiceinthedecision-makingprocess......................................................88

2. Children’srightsreconfiguredbynewformsofcommercialcommunication...........................902.1 Freedomofexpressionandaccesstoinformation(article13UNCRC,article10ECHR,

article11CFEU).....................................................................................................................................................912.2 Freedomofthought(article14UNCRC)......................................................................................942.3 Freedomofassociation(article15UNCRC)................................................................................96

2.4 Righttoprivacy(article16UNCRC,article8ECHR,articles7and8CFEU)....................982.5 Righttohaveadiversityofmassmediasourcestochoosefrom(article17UNCRC)1042.6 Righttoeducationand(advertising)literacy(Articles28and29UNCRC)...................1072.7 Righttoengageinplayandrecreationalactivities(article31UNCRC)..........................1092.8 Protectionagainsteconomicexploitation(article32UNCRC)...........................................1122.9 Proceduralrights(articles6and13ECHR,article47CFEU)..............................................113

Conclusion-Ananalyticalframeworkfortheregulatoryframeworkforcommercial

communication.................................................................................................................................................................116

PartII-AssessmentoftheRegulatoryFrameworkforCommercialCommuni-cationin

lightofChildren’sRights.....................................................................................................................119ChapterI-Piecingtogethertheregulatorypuzzle..........................................................................................120SectionI-Theconsumerprotectioncontext..............................................................................................1211. UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective..................................................................................................1211.1 Scopeanddefinitions........................................................................................................................1241.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialpractices,includingadvertising.................1241.2.1 Unfaircommercialpractice.......................................................................................................1241.2.2 Misleadingcommercialpractice..............................................................................................1261.2.3 Aggressivecommercialpractice..............................................................................................127

1.3 Refitexercise........................................................................................................................................1282. Self-regulation:ICC-Code............................................................................................................................1292.1 Scopeanddefinitions........................................................................................................................1302.2 Substantiverequirementsforalladvertisingformats...........................................................1322.3 Specificprotectionsforchildren...................................................................................................132

SectionII-TheAudiovisualMediaServicesDirectivecontext..........................................................1351. Definitions........................................................................................................................................................1381.1 Audiovisualmediaservice..............................................................................................................1391.2 Audiovisualcommercialcommunication...................................................................................1411.3 Mediaserviceprovider.....................................................................................................................145

2. Substantiverequirementsforaudiovisualcommercialcommunications.................................1462.1 Generalprinciplesandprovisions................................................................................................1472.1.1 Theprincipleofidentificationandotherrequirementsforallformsofaudiovisual

commercialcommunication......................................................................................................................1492.1.2 Theprincipleofseparationandotherrequirementsfortelevisionadvertising.....150

2.2 Protectionofminorsinrelationtoaudiovisualcommercialcommunication...............1523. Self-regulation................................................................................................................................................154

SectionIII-Thee-CommerceDirectivecontext........................................................................................1551. Thee-CommerceDirective.........................................................................................................................1551.1 Definitions............................................................................................................................................156

1.1.1 Informationsocietyservice.......................................................................................................1561.1.2 Commercialcommunication.....................................................................................................1581.1.3 Informationsocietyserviceprovider....................................................................................158

1.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialcommunications..............................................1592. Self-regulation:FEDMACodeofConductonE-Commerce&InteractiveMarketing.............1612.1 Scope.......................................................................................................................................................1622.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialcommunications..............................................163

SectionIV-TheGeneralDataProtectionRegulationandtheePrivacyDirectivecontext..1651. TheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation...............................................................................................1661.1 Definitions............................................................................................................................................168

A. Personaldataandprocessing...................................................................................................168B. Controller,processoranddatasubject..................................................................................169

1.2 Principlesfortheprocessingof(children’s)personaldata.................................................1731.3 SpecificprotectionsforchildrenundertheGDPR..................................................................1751.3.1 Definitionofachild......................................................................................................................1761.3.2 Theagethresholdforconsent..................................................................................................1771.3.3 Verification......................................................................................................................................1821.3.4 Transparentinformation...........................................................................................................1841.3.5 Directmarketing...........................................................................................................................1861.3.6 Profiling............................................................................................................................................1861.3.7 Righttoerasure(‘righttobeforgotten’)..............................................................................189

1.4 Otherprovisionswithapotentialimpactonchildren...........................................................1902. Processingchildren’selectroniccommunicationsdata–ePrivacyframework.......................1912.1 ePrivacyDirective..............................................................................................................................1922.2 ProposalforanePrivacyRegulation............................................................................................193

3. Self-regulation................................................................................................................................................1973.1 ICCCode.................................................................................................................................................1973.2 EASABestPracticeRecommendationonOnlineBehaviouralAdvertising....................1983.2.1 Conceptanddefinition................................................................................................................1993.2.2 Recommendationsforbestpractices.....................................................................................200

3.3 IABEuropeEUFrameworkforOnlineBehaviouralAdvertising.......................................2003.3.1. AimandscopeoftheFramework...........................................................................................2013.3.2 PrinciplesforOBA........................................................................................................................202

3.4 FEDMACodesofconduct.................................................................................................................2043.4.1 FEDMAEuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing

204A. Scopeanddefinitions..................................................................................................................205B. Principlesregardingchildren’sprivacyanddataprotection........................................205B.1 DirectMarketing-offlineandonline...............................................................................205

B.2 Directmarketing–online....................................................................................................206C. Complaint-handling.....................................................................................................................208

3.4.2 FEDMACodeofConductonE-Commerce&InteractiveMarketing............................209SectionV–Interimconclusion...........................................................................................................................211

ChapterII-Evaluationofthecurrentregulatoryframework....................................................................214SectionI-Advergames...........................................................................................................................................2151. Integration,interaction,emotionalappealandpersonalisationmayallbepartofthegame

2161.1 Persuasivetacticsandchildren’srightsimplications............................................................2161.2 Blurredlines,mixedemotionsandtheexistingregulatoryframework..........................2181.2.1 Themixingofcommercialandnon-commercialcontentandadvergames’emotional

appeal 2191.2.2 Deception,personalisationandinfluenceddecisionmaking........................................224

2. Identifiedgapsoroverlaps........................................................................................................................227SectionII-Targetingchildrenwithpersonalisedadvertising...........................................................2301. Personalisation:Tracking,profilingandtargeting,threedifferentsteps..................................2301.1 Persuasivetacticsandchildren’srightsimplications............................................................2321.2 Personalisedadvertisinginthecurrentregulatoryframework........................................2341.2.1 Collectingandprocessingofchildren’spersonaldataundertheGDPRandthe

proposedePrivacyRegulation..................................................................................................................2341.2.2 PersonalisedadvertisingintheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective?.................2401.2.3 RelevantprotectionforchildrenintherevisedAVMSDirective..................................2411.2.4 Self-regulationandtargetingchildrenwithpersonalisedadvertising.......................242

2. Identifiedgapsoroverlaps........................................................................................................................244SectionIII-Digitalinfluencersandvloggingadvertising.....................................................................2471. Integration:productplacement,sponsorships,editorialsandotherformsofvlogging

advertising..................................................................................................................................................................2481.1 Persuasivetacticsandchildren’srightsimplications............................................................2481.2 Digitalinfluencersandthecurrentregulatoryframework.................................................2501.2.1 Vloggingadvertising:audiovisualorcommercialcommunication?............................250A. Scopingtheapplicablelegalframeworkanduntanglingthevloggingadvertising

chain250B. Broadeningtheaudiovisualplayground...............................................................................256

1.2.2 VloggingadvertisingintheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective............................260A. Unfaircommercialpracticesbydigitalinfluencersandthird-partytraders............261B. Unfaircommercialpracticesbythevideo-sharingplatform.........................................264

1.2.3 Furtherguidanceforvloggersinself-andco-regulation–Nationalbestpractices

2652. Identifiedgapsoroverlaps........................................................................................................................274

Conclusion-Gapsandoverlapsinthecurrentregulatoryframeworkforcommercial

communicationaimedatchildren...........................................................................................................................276

PartIII-AssessmentofNationalARIsintheAreaofCommercialCommunication..........280ChapterI-Theinterplaybetweenalternativeregulatoryinstrumentsandthelegalframework

forcommercialcommunication................................................................................................................................281SectionI-TheuseofARIsandthelegalframework...............................................................................2831. Children’srights.............................................................................................................................................2832. EUlegislativeinstrumentsoncommercialcommunicationandARIs.........................................289

SectionII-ProceduralandorganisationalelementsforARIs...........................................................2931. Children’sproceduralrightsandtheuseofARIs...............................................................................2931.1 Righttoafairtrial..............................................................................................................................2931.2 Righttoaneffectiveremedy...........................................................................................................296

2. Generalprinciplesforself-andco-regulationatEUlevel................................................................2982.1 TheEUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-regulation.............................................................2982.2 EASACharterprinciplesforself-regulation..............................................................................300

SectionIII- Interimconclusion...................................................................................................................302ChapterII–FunctionalcomparativeassessmentofnationalARIs..........................................................304SectionI–SelectionofnationalARIsandquestionsforthecomparativeanalysis................304SectionII-Comparativestudy............................................................................................................................3061. Countryreports..............................................................................................................................................3061.1 Belgium..................................................................................................................................................3061.1.1 Attributionofregulatorypower..............................................................................................3061.1.2 Complaintprocedureandconsumerawareness...............................................................3081.1.3 Enforcementandproceduralsafeguards.............................................................................309

1.2 TheUnitedKingdom.........................................................................................................................3111.2.1 Attributionofregulatorypower..............................................................................................3121.2.2 Complaintprocedureandconsumerawareness...............................................................3151.2.3 Enforcementandproceduralsafeguards.............................................................................316

1.3 TheNetherlands.................................................................................................................................3191.3.1 Attributionofregulatorypower..............................................................................................3191.3.2 Complaintprocedureandconsumerawareness...............................................................3221.3.3 Enforcementandproceduralsafeguards.............................................................................323

1.4 Tableofcomparison..........................................................................................................................3262. Discussion........................................................................................................................................................3292.1 CharacteristicsofcommercialcommunicationsthatinfluencethestructuringofARIs

3292.2 Structure,organisationandcoverageoftheARIs...................................................................3302.3 EffectivenessoftheARIs..................................................................................................................333

Conclusion-BestpracticesforthestructuringofARIsintheareaofcommercialcommunication

...................................................................................................................................................................................................336

ConcludingRemarksandRecommendationsfortheFuture....................................................3391. Retrospectiveoftheresearchundertaken.................................................................................................3402. Conclusions...............................................................................................................................................................3503. Recommendations................................................................................................................................................351

Bibliography...........................................................................................................................................3561. Legislationandpolicydocuments.................................................................................................................356A. International.....................................................................................................................................................356B. EuropeanUnion..............................................................................................................................................358C. CouncilofEurope...........................................................................................................................................362D. Belgium................................................................................................................................................................364E. TheUnitedKingdom.....................................................................................................................................364

2. Caselaw.....................................................................................................................................................................364A. CJEU.......................................................................................................................................................................364B. ECtHR....................................................................................................................................................................365C. Alternativeregulatorybodies..................................................................................................................366

3. Doctrine.....................................................................................................................................................................366A. Booksandbookchapters...........................................................................................................................366B. Articlesinjournals.........................................................................................................................................373C. PhDTheses.........................................................................................................................................................381

4. Miscellaneous..........................................................................................................................................................381A. Internetandworkingpapers...................................................................................................................381B. Researchreports.............................................................................................................................................382C. Policybriefsandstatements.....................................................................................................................386D. Conferenceproceedings..............................................................................................................................386E. Documentsoronlineinformationbyalternativeregulatorybodies...................................387F. Newsarticles.....................................................................................................................................................389G. Websources.......................................................................................................................................................390

Abbreviations

ACAuthority AdvertisingCodeAuthority

ACCommittee AdvertisingCodeCommittee

ACC Audiovisualcommercialcommunication

ARI’s Alternativeregulatoryinstruments

ASA AdvertisingStandardsAuthority

AVMSDirective/AVMSD AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective

BCAP BroadcastCommitteeofAdvertisingPractice

BCAPCode CodeofBroadcastAdvertising

BPRs BestPracticeRecommendations

CAHENF AdhocCommitteefortheRightsoftheChild

CAP CommitteeofAdvertisingPractice

CAPCode Code of Non-broadcast Advertising, Sales Promotion

andDirectMarketing

CFREU CharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion

CJEU CourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion

CodeonE-Commerce Code of Conduct on e-Commerce and Interactive

Marketing

COE CouncilofEurope

CRBP Children’srightsandbusinessprinciples

EASA EuropeanAdvertisingStandardsAlliance

EC EuropeanCommission

ECHR EuropeanConventiononHumanRights

ECtHR EuropeanCourtofHumanRights

EDPS EuropeanDataProtectionSupervisor

EESC EuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee

EP EuropeanParliament

FEDMA FederationofEuropeanDirectMarketing

GDPR GeneralDataProtectionRegulation

IABEurope InteractiveAdvertisingBureauEurope

ICC InternationalChamberofCommerce

ICCCode Consolidated ICC Code on Advertising andMarketing

CommunicationPractice

JEP JuryforEthicalPractices

OBA Onlinebehaviouraladvertising

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development

Ofcom OfficeofCommunications

OP OptionalProtocolonaCommunicationsProcedure

SocialCode:YouTube SocialCode:Guidelinesforadvertisinginonlinevideo

SRC StichtingReclameCode

SRO Self-regulatoryorganisation

TFEU TreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion

TWFD TelevisionWithoutFrontiersDirective

UCPDirective/UCPD UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective

UNCRC UnitedNationsConventionoftheRightsoftheChild

UNCRCCommittee UnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild

VSPs Video-sharingplatformservices

WHO WorldHealthOrganisation

1

INTRODUCTION

1. BACKGROUND

CHILDREN’S ADVERTISING LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL ERA. Nowadays, children grow up in a

commercialisedenvironment,wheretheyareconfrontedwithadvertisingandmarketing

on a daily basis. From a very young age, they already display a level of brand

consciousness,evenstartingfromtheageof2yearsold.1Childrenareanattractivetarget

group for advertisers, as they not only represent the primary market (i.e. they can

purchase products or services with their weekly allowance), but also the secondary

market (i.e. influence on their parents’ purchasing behaviour) and even the so-called

future market (i.e. themselves as adults with full commercial decision-making

capacities).2Thedigitaladvertisingindustryplaysanimportantroleinthecreationand

maintenanceofgood-qualitycontentanddigitalplatformsforchildrenand,assuch,offers

opportunities for children’s participation and empowerment. At the moment, the

dominantbusinessmodelforonlineservicesisstilladvertising-based.Ratherthanpaying

for services online, users’ personal data are collected in exchange and commercial

communications form part of the digital environments in which children play,

communicate and search for information. 3 For instance, children play entertaining

advergamesonline,theytransformthepicturesandvideostheysendassnapstotheir

friendswithsponsoredfilters,theyparticipateinchallengeslaunchedbybrands(e.g.the

1J. Bakan,ChildhoodUnder Siege:HowBigBusiness Ruthlessly Targets Children (RandomHouse 2012);Liselot Hudders and others, ‘Shedding New Light on How Advertising Literacy Can Affect Children’sProcessingofEmbeddedAdvertisingFormats:AFutureResearchAgenda’(2017)46JournalofAdvertising333.2A.Garde,‘AdvertisingRegulationandtheProtectionofChildren-ConsumersintheEuropeanUnion:IntheBestInterestsof...CommercialOperators?’[2011]Internationaljournalofchildren’srights523,152.3V.VerdoodtandE.Lievens,‘TargetingChildrenwithPersonalisedAdvertising:HowtoReconciletheBestInterestsofChildrenandAdvertisers’inGertVermeulenandEvaLievens(eds),PrivacyandDataProtectionunderPressure:Transatlantictensions,EUsurveillance,andbigdata(Maklu2017).

2

‘Oreo challenge’)4and upload TikTok (formerly known as musical.ly)5clips of brand

songsorcontainingacertainproduct.Thepersuasivetacticsemployedbytheadvertising

industrybecomeevermoresophisticatedwiththe linebetweencommercialmessages

and non-commercial content being increasingly blurred. 6 Furthermore, due to

technologicaldevelopmentsandadvancedcomputationalcapacities,childrenarebeing

tracked online and their personal data are used for advertising purposes. Indeed, in

addition to the apparent privacy and data protection concerns associated with such

behaviourmonitoring,therearealsoclearissueswiththeinsightssuchmonitoringgives

commercialoperatorsregardingtheincreasedcapacitytotailorcommercialofferingsto

individualchildren’sinterests.Morespecifically,commercialcommunicationsaremore

andmoretargetedatspecificindividuals,includingchildren,whohavebeenprofiledas

potentiallyinterestedinorreceptivetotheproductsorservicesthatarepromoted.7In

otherwords,theadvertisingtechniquesusedinthedigitalenvironmentraisesignificant

issues vis-à-vis children’s advertising literacy. In the scope of this PhD, children’s

advertising literacy should be understood as comprising different elements (1) the

personal knowledge they have about advertising, the persuasive intent, and the

advertising techniques that areused to target them(i.e. the cognitivedimension); (2)

theirabilitytodevelopthoughtsaboutthemoralappropriatenessofaspecificadvertising

formatandtheirgeneralmoralevaluations(i.e.themoraldimension);and(3)theirability

to regulate their emotions when exposed to advertising.8 Children find it difficult to

recogniseandcriticallyprocessadvertisingmessagesinthedigitalenvironment,which

4Seefornumerousexamples:https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=oreo+challenge.5 K. Flynn, ‘Musical.Ly Is Quietly Starting Another Big Advertising Push’<https://digiday.com/marketing/musical-ly-quietly-starting-another-big-advertising-push/>accessed22August2018.6I. Vanwesenbeeckand others, ‘Minors’ Advertising Literacy inRelation toNewAdvertising Formats -IdentificationandAssessmentoftheRisks’(2016)<www.adlit.be>accessed16November2017.7V.Verdoodt,D.CliffordandE.Lievens, ‘ToyingwithChildren’sEmotions,theNewGameinTown?TheLegalityofAdvergamesintheEU’(2016)32ComputerLaw&SecurityReview599.8L.Huddersandothers,‘Children’sAdvertisingLiteracyinaNewMediaEnvironment:AnIntroductiontothe AdLit Research Project’, Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschap, Proceedings (2015)<http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-5811593>accessed5February2018.Forfurtherreadingonthedifferentdimensions of advertising literacy, the reader can be referred to P. De Pauw, ‘Children’s AdvertisingLiteracy: Empowering Children to Cope with Advertising - A Multi-Perspective Inquiry in Children’sAbilities to Critically Process Contemporary Advertising’ (Ghent University 2018)<https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8561253/file/8561256.pdf>accessed31August2018.

3

ultimately affects their commercial decision-making, autonomy and empowerment

(infra).

THE RECONFIGURATION OF CHILDREN’S RIGHTS. The commercialisation of children’s digital

environmentshassignificantimplicationsforchildren’srightsandtheirimplementation.

ChildrenaregrantedavarietyofrightsundertheUnitedNationsConventionontheRights

oftheChild(“UNCRC”),whicharerelevantinthecontextofadvertisingandmarketing.

Thedigitisationandcommercialisationsignificantlyinfluencesnotonlyhowchildrencan

exercise their rights, but also how these rights may be supported or neglected. This

reconfigurationnecessitatesatranslationoftherelevantchildren’srightsandprinciples

intostandardsandguidelines,notonlyforpolicyandregulationondigitaladvertising,

butalsoforbusinessesthataddresstheirdigitaladvertisingcampaignstochildrenand

evenforparentsandchildrenthemselves.

AFRAGMENTEDREGULATORYFRAMEWORK.Thechildren’srightsandprinciplesoftheUNCRC

form an important frame in light of which existing advertising regulation should be

evaluated.Theregulatoryframeworkshouldenablethereconciliationoftherightsand

interests of children and advertisers in relation to new forms of commercial

communication. The protection of children against certain forms of commercial

communicationhaslongbeenconsideredanobjectiveofgeneralinterest.Inconsumer

policyandregulation,theuniversaltrendistolimitthecommercialpressureonchildren,

causedbyadvertisingandmarketingandmorebroadlycommercialpracticestargetedto

children. At the EU level, the legal protections are spread across various instruments,

regulatingboththedeliveryandthecontentofthecommercialmessage.Inaddition,the

advertising industry has been very active in developing self-regulation, especially

regardingtheprotectionofchildren.Accordingly, thecurrentregulatory framework is

fragmentedintobothlegislativeandalternativeregulatoryinstruments(i.e.self-andco-

regulation), containing amyriad of legal requirements for advertisers. To address the

fragmentation,thisthesistakesaholisticapproachbybuildingonliteratureinchildren’s

rights law, advertising and marketing law, data protection law and advertising self-

regulation.

RESEARCHPURPOSE.TheaboveformsthecontextofthePhDresearch,theoverallobjective

ofwhichistodevelopsubstantiveandproceduraland/ororganisationalelementsforthe

4

regulatory framework on commercial communication aimed at children in the digital

environment,ensuringthatchildrencangrowuptobecriticalandadvertisingliterate

human beings and in this sense become empowered adults. This overall objective is

furtherdividedintofivepurposes.First,theemergingtrendsintheareaofcommercial

communication and the impact on children’s advertising literacy are described and

analysed.Second,thechildren’srightsandprinciplesoftheUnitedNationsConvention

on the Rights of the Child are translated into the specific context of advertising and

marketingaimedatchildren.Third, theexistingregulatory framework(includingboth

legislation and alternative regulatory instruments) on commercial communication is

mappedandcriticallyevaluatedinlightofthetranslatedchildren’srightsandprinciples,

toidentifyanygapsoroverlapsregardingemergingtrendsinadvertisingandmarketing.

Fourth, the procedural and organisational elements of a selection of alternative

regulatory instruments at the national level are examined and compared. Fifth,

recommendations for the regulatory framework aremade to overcome the identified

substantivegapsoroverlaps,aswellasforthestructuringandorganisationofself-and

co-regulatorysystemsinthisarea.

RESEARCHQUESTIONANDHYPOTHESIS. The PhD starts from the hypothesis that due to the

fragmentation of the current framework of legislation and self- and co-regulation for

commercialcommunicationaimedatchildren,potentialgapsand/oroverlapsinrelation

tonewformsofcommercialcommunicationmayexist,callingchildren’sabilitytomake

informedcommercialdecisions(andthelong-lastingeffectsontheirdevelopment)into

question. Therefore, themain research question of this PhD is formulated as follows:

Whatare the substantiveandprocedural and/ororganisational elementsa regulatory

frameworkonnewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildrenneedsfroma

children’srightsperspective,inordertoensurethatchildrencangrowuptobecritical

andadvertisingliteratehumanbeings?

2. DELINEATION

RESEARCH SCOPE. This study examines and evaluates the legislative and self- and co-

regulatory framework for commercial communication, focusing on new advertising

formats.Whereastheaimofthestudyistobeascomprehensiveaspossible,ithasbeen

necessary to carefullydelineate theexact scopeof researchdue to thevastnessof the

5

subjectmatter.Inthisrespect,thePhDconcentratesoncommercialcommunicationsthat

arespecificallyaimedatchildren,ratherthanthosetowhichchildrenareexposedtobut

are in fact aimed at adults. It focuses on those rules that contribute to themeans of

deliveryoftheadvertisements(i.e.thespecificformorpersuasivetechniqueused)rather

thantheactualcontentofthecommercialmessage.Thisimpliesthat–althoughhighly

important for the protection of minors, offline as well as online - ruleswhich target

specificproducts (e.g. advertising for tobacco, alcohol, orunhealthy foods)willnotbe

studiedassuch.9

TERRITORIALSCOPE.AsidefromtheUnitedNationschildren’srightsframework,thestudy

mainlycoverslegislationandalternativeregulatoryinstruments(ARIs)attheEuropean

Unionlevel.However,alimitedfunctionalcomparativeanalysisofnational(i.e.Belgium,

UnitedKingdomandtheNetherlands)self-andco-regulatorysystemsinthiscontextis

performed,notonlytogaininsightsintheinterplaybetweenlegislationandalternative

regulatory instruments, but also to develop recommendations for best practices. The

MemberStates that formpartof thecomparativestudyhavebeenselectedbasedona

numberofconsiderations:(1)theimportance,applicationandacceptanceofARIsinthe

particularMemberState,(2)thelevelofdevelopmentoftheARIs,(3)thedifferencesin

organisationorstructure (i.e. co-regulatory systemvs. self-regulatorysystem)and (4)

language constraints10(formore informationon the selectionof thenationalARIssee

partIII).

INSIGHTS FROM SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH. Finally, the protection and empowerment of

children in the contextofnew formsof advertising is closely related to socialscience

9However,theserulesdidformpartoftheextensivemappingexerciseconductedwithintheframeoftheAdLitProject,andinterestedreadersarereferedtoValerieVerdoodt,EvaLievensandLiesbethHellemans,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentLegalFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReport intheFrameworkoftheAdLitResearchProject.’(2015)<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017;ValerieVerdoodt,IngridLambrechtandEvaLievens,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentSelf-andCo-RegulatoryFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReportintheFrameworkoftheAdLitSBOProject.’<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017.10 For instance, no systems of the Nordic EU Member States were selected , although they are alsoconsideredtoberelativelyexperiencedontheuseofalternativeformsofregulation,especiallyintheareasofconsumerprotection,mediamanagementandregulatinggoodmarketbehaviour.L.Sendenandothers,‘MappingSelf-andCo-RegulationApproachesintheEUContext’(UtrechtCentreforSharedRegulationandEnforcementinEurope2015)21<https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/content/mapping-self-and-co-regulation-approaches-eu-context>accessed7August2018.

6

research.Thepersuasivetacticsemployedbythesenewformsandtheactualimpacton

children’sadvertisingliteracy–andultimatelytheircommercialdecision-making–are

crucial elements to be taken into account when evaluating the current regulatory

framework.Toreachathoroughunderstandingoftheseelements,theresearchbuildson

the insights on new forms of commercial communication and their specific features

gainedbysocialscientists(i.e.theAdLitProject,infra).

3. STRUCTUREANDMETHODOLOGYOFTHERESEARCH

ThePhD is composed of three parts, all ofwhich contain two chapters, followed by a

conclusion.

DESCRIPTIVEANALYSISOFTHERESEARCHSETTING.Thefirstchapterofthefirstpartessentially

introducestheconceptofcommercialcommunicationsaimedatchildreninthedigitalage

to contextualise the research. It considers how children process commercial

communications and what impact the specific features of new forms of commercial

communicationshaveontheiradvertisingliteracy.Thechapterconsistsofadescriptive

analysisoftherelevantacademicandadvertisingindustrywritings.Morespecifically,it

is supportedby stateof theart social sciencedisciplineswithin the frameworkof the

AdLit project (“Advertising literacy in a new media environment”, SBO-IWT)11 . This

interdisciplinary project actively involved and received feedback from various

stakeholders, including interaliasocietalandeducationalorganisations,policymakers

and the advertising industry. Within AdLit, empirical research was performed on

individual (i.e. age) and social contextual variables (i.e. parenting, peer influence and

socio-economichouseholdsituation)andtheirimpactonchildren’sadvertisingliteracy.

Theseresearchfindingssupportthelegal-theoreticalapproachofthePhDresearchand

underpintheevidence-basedcharacterofthefinalrecommendations.Furthermore,the

chapterprovidessomeinsights intotheneedforastrongandempoweringregulatory

framework for commercial communication aimed at children, by analysing the policy

historyandtheevolvingregulatorycontext.

11www.adlit.be

7

DESCRIPTIVE-INTEPRETATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CHILDREN’S RIGHTS FRAMEWORK. The second

chapterofthefirstpartconsistsofadescriptive-intepretativeanalysisandexaminesin

detailthechildren’srightsandprinciplesatstakeandhowtheyhavebeenbalancednot

only against each other, but also against the fundamental rights of others (e.g.

advertisers). The main questions it aims to answer are: which children’s rights and

principlesareatstakeandwhatistheirroleinregulatingnewadvertisingformatsaimed

at children? The research addresses the societal debate of paternalism versus

empowerment,whichgoestotheheartoftheprotectionofchildren’srights.Itaimsto

clarifythefactorsthatareimportanttoconsiderwhenstrikingthisbalanceinthecontext

ofchildren’sabilitytocopewithnewformsofcommercialcommunication.Theanalysis

startswithanin-depthinvestigationoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsof

the Child and the relevant articles of the Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the

European Union and the European Convention on Human Rights. Furthermore, the

interpretationandrecommendationsbyrelevantbodiesandorganisationssuchasinter

alia the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Council of Europe, the EU

institutions,theOECD,aswellasbyacademicscholarshipareexamined.Thechildren’s

rightsandprinciplesareinterpretedinthespecificcontextofcommercialcommunication

andformtheanalyticframeworkinlightofwhichtheexistingregulatoryframeworkon

commercialcommunicationisevaluated.

DESCRIPTIVEMAPPINGANDANALYSISOFTHEREGULATORYFRAMEWORKATEULEVEL.Inchapterone

ofparttwoofthisstudy,thecurrentlegislativeandself-andco-regulatoryframeworkfor

commercial communication aimed at children ismapped and analysed. This includes

severaldifferentareasof law, includingmedia law, consumerprotection lawanddata

protectionlaw.Themainquestionitaimstoansweris:Whatlegalprotectionsforchildren

againstcertainformsofcommercialcommunicationcanbefoundinbothlegislative(i.e.

medialaw,consumerprotectionlawanddataprotectionandprivacylaw)andalternative

regulatoryinstruments(i.e.self-andco-regulation)?Themappingexerciseisstructured

according to different contexts or instruments at the EU level: (1) the consumer

protection context, (2) the AudiovisualMedia Services Directive, (3) the e-Commerce

Directive,(4)theGeneralDataProtectionRegulationandtheframeworkforePrivacy.In

addition,itdiscussesself-andco-regulatoryinstrumentsattheEUlevelthatcoverthese

contexts(togatherinsightsontherelationbetweenadvertisingself-andco-regulation

8

and legislation). This overview forms a necessary preparatory step to the actual

evaluationofthecurrentregulatoryframework.

CRITICAL-EVALUATIVEANALYSISOFTHEREGULATORYFRAMEWORKATEULEVEL.Chaptertwoofpart

twobuildsonthemappingexerciseandcriticallyevaluateshownewadvertisingformats

fitwithintheregulatoryframework.Thegoalofthischapteristoexaminewhetherthese

newformsofadvertisingarealsocoveredbyexistingrulesandprotectionsandtoidentify

anygapsoroverlapsthatwouldhindertheeffectiverealisationofchildren’srightsand

principles.Theresearchconsistsofthreecasestudiesthathavebeenselectedonthebasis

oftheirpopularityandeffectivenesswhentargetedtowardschildren(i.e.asestablished

in social science research). The case studies include: (1) advergames, (2) targeting

children with personalised advertising and (3) digital influencers and vlogging

advertising.Onthebasisoftheevaluation,anumberofsubstantivegapsareidentifiedin

theregulatoryframework.

FUNCTIONAL COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OFNATIONAL ALTERNATIVE REGULATORY INSTRUMENTS.After

having studied in detail the substantive elements of the regulatory framework in the

previouspartsoftheresearch,thethirdpartofthePhDresearchexploresproceduraland

organisational elements. Considering the important role of self-regulation in the

advertisingsectorandtheencouragementforthedevelopmentofalternativeregulatory

instrumentsattheEUlevel,theresearchfocusesonaselectionofnationalARIs.Theaim

is to gather insights into best practices for the structuring and development of such

instrumentsintheareaofcommercialcommunication.

CONLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS. On the basis of the research conducted, the PhD

concludeswithanumberofrecommendationsforafuture-proofregulatoryframework

oncommercialcommunicationaimedatchildreninthedigitalenvironment,inorderto

ensure that childrencangrowup tobe critical andadvertising literatehumanbeings.

Recommendations are targeted towards EU and/or national legislators and/or policy

makers.

9

PARTI-CHILDREN’SRIGHTSAND

ADVERTISINGLITERACYINTHEDIGITALERA

10

CHAPTERI-SETTINGTHESCENE

STRUCTUREOFTHECHAPTER.Asanecessarypreludetothelegalresearch,thischapterstarts

byexploringtheessentialcomponentsoftheresearchtopic,beingchildren,newformsof

commercialcommunicationandadvertisingliteracy.Second,itcontinuesbydiscussing

theneedforaregulatoryframeworkthatempowerschildrentocopewithadvertisingand

marketing in the digital environment. Finally, as the research topic is studied from a

children’srightsperspective,thechapterexplainsthereasonsforandimplicationsofsuch

anapproach.

SECTIONI-CLARIFICATIONOFTHECONSTITUTIVEELEMENTS

INTRODUCTION.Toillustratetheissueofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimedat

children, this section first clarifies the constitutive elements of the research and then

providesanoverviewoftheemergingtrendsintheareaofcommercialcommunication.

1. Children,commercialcommunicationandadvertisingliteracy

1.1 Definitionofachild

NOUNIFORMLEGALDEFINITION.Whenstudyingtopicsrelatedtochildren,onecomesacross

avarietyofnotionstoindicatethetargetedpersons,with‘minors’,‘adolescents’,‘youth’,

‘youngsters’and‘youngpersons’assomeofthetermsthataremostfrequentlyused.12

Thesetermscanbefoundacrossdifferentlegislativeandpolicydocuments.Firstofall,

theUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildhasoptedforthenotion‘child’,

whichitdefinesas“everyhumanbeingbelowtheageofeighteenyearsofageunlessunder

the law applicable to the child,majority isattainedearlier”.13While thedraftersof the

Conventionwereeager toensureabroadapplication, thisprovisionalso safeguardsa

certainamountofflexibilityforthosecountriesinwhichthelegalageofmajorityisset

12E.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments,vol105(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2010)27.13 Article 1 United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child, 20.11.1989,<http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx>accessed11.05.2018.

11

beloworaboveeighteenyears.14Thelegalageofmajoritydetermineswhenchildrenare

consideredtobeadultsbeforethelawandwhentheyareallowedtoaccesscertainrights

orlosecertainprotections(e.g.theminimumageforconsenttoengageinsexualactivity,

or to the processing of their personal data).15The age threshold will depend on the

purpose of the law or policy in question. 16 In the Council of Europe’s Cybercrime

Convention,theterm‘minors’ischosen,whichentails“allpersonsunder18yearsofage”

(unlessaPartyrequiresaloweragelimitnotlessthan16yearsofage).17Furthermore,

LIEVENS highlights that policy documents at the EU level18 use the words child19 and

minor20alternately,withoutprovidinganyclarificationordefinition.21Aside fromthis,

certain scholars have interpreted the different concepts aswell. ETZIONI, for instance,

clarifiesthedistinctionbetweenchildren,teenagersandminorsasfollows:

“Childrenreferstothosetwelveandunder,andteenagersreferstothosebetweentheagesofthirteenandeighteen.Minorsisusedtorefertobothgroupstogether”.22

Ithasalsobeenarguedthattheterm‘child’ismoregeneralandusedindifferentcontexts

comparedtotheterm‘minor’,whichismostlylinkedtothelegaldiscourseandtheageof

majority.23Regardlessofthedifferentnotionsused,thedistinctionismadeonthebasis

14S.Detrick,ACommentaryontheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild(MartinusNijhoffPublishers1999).15EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights,‘MappingMinimumAgeRequirementsConcerningtheRightsoftheChildintheEU’(2017)<http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2017/mapping-minimum-age-requirements-concerning-rights-child-eu>accessed4January2018.16E.Lievensandothers, ‘Children’sRightsandDigitalTechnologies’ inUrsulaKilkellyandTonLiefaard(eds),Internationalhumanrightsofchildren(Springer2018).17Article 9, para. 3 Council of Europe, Convention onCybercrime, ETSNo. 185, 23.11.2001, Budapest,<http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/185.htm> accessed 11.05.2018; Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).18 European Parliament and Council, ‘Recommendation 2006/952/EC of 20 December 2006 on theProtectionofMinorsandHumanDignityandontheRightofReplyinRelationtotheCompetitivenessoftheEuropeanAudiovisualandon-LineInformationServicesIndustry’.19Definedas“ayoungpersonespeciallybetweeninfancyandyouth”inMerriamWebster’sOnlineDictionary,Child,<http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/child>accessed11.07.2018.20Definedas“apersonwhohasnotattainedmajority” inMerriamWebster’sOnlineDictionary,Minor,<http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/minor>accessed11.07.2018.21Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)27–28.22A.Etzioni,‘OnProtectingChildrenfromSpeech’(2004)79Chicago-KentLawReview43.23Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).

12

ofaperson’sageoronthebasisofmaturityandtheageofdiscernment.Settinganage

threshold for theacquisitionofrightsor the lossofcertainprotections isdifficultasa

balanceisneededbetweentheprotectionandempowermentofthechild.24Inthisregard,

theevolvingcapacitiesofthechildneedtobetakenintoaccount.25Finally,certainpolicy

documentsintheareaofmedialawmakeafurtherdistinctionbetween‘child’and‘youth’,

accordingtovariousagelimits.26

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH. In the context of children and new forms of commercial

communicationitisalsoimportanttolookatsocialscienceresearch,wherethenotionof

achildmaybedefineddifferently.Ofcourse,theinterpretationofthenotionofachildand

childhood is, however, not straightforward and may be culturally dependant. 27

Nevertheless,socialscientistsdoagreeonthefactthatageisanimportantfactorforthe

evaluationoftheeffectofadvertisingonchildren.Inparticular,researchhasshownthat

children’s advertising literacy develops over the years together with their cognitive

capacities.28Ingeneral,youngerchildren“attendtoandinterpretinformationindifferent

waysthandotheiroldercounterparts”.29Socialscienceresearchusesspecificcategories

linkedtostagesofadvertisingliteracy,suchas0-5years,8-12years12-15yearsand16-

18yearsofage.30However,itissignificanttonotethatcapacitiesandskillsofchildrenof

24R.HodgkinandP.Newell,‘ImplementationHandbookfortheConventionontheRightsoftheChild:FullyRevised Third Edition’ (UNICEF 2007) <https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_43110.html>accessed10November2017.25SeealsoUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.20(2016)ontheImplementationoftheRightsoftheChildduringAdolescence’.26Forinstance,TheFlemishCommunityMediaDecreeMediaDecreedefinesa‘child’asapersonundertheageof12yearsandmakesadistinctionwith‘youth’beingapersonagedbetween12and16years(Article2,15°and18°oftheBelgianDecreeof27March2009oftheFlemishCommunityonradioandtelevision,BS.,30April2009(hereafter‘theFlemishCommunityMediaDecree’).TheOfcomBroadcastingCodeontheotherhandspeaksof childrenwhenunder15years (Section1:Protecting theUnder-Eighteens,OfcomBroadcasting Code, < https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/100103/broadcast-code-april-2017.pdf>accessed11.07.2018).27Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).;IanHutchby and JMoran-Ellis,Children, Technology, and Culture: The Impacts of Technologies in Children’sEverydayLives(Routledge2001)1.28V.Caubergheandothers, ‘ReclamewijsheidBijKinderenEnJongeren:Onderzoeksrapport inOpdrachtvan Vlaams Ministerie van Cultuur, Jeugd, Sport En Media’ (2012)<https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/4130480/file/4130494>accessed25October2017.29V.C.StrasburgerandB.J.Wilson,Children,Adolescents,andtheMedia(SAGEPublications2002)12.30Caubergheandothers(n28).

13

the same age can vary widely, for instance due to personality differences or gender

characteristics.31

USE OF NOTIONS. For the purpose of this PhD research, the notions ‘child’, ‘minor’,

‘adolescent’ and ‘youngster’ are used interchangeably. Where the age is of particular

importancetothetopicthatisdiscussedthiswillbeemphasisedandexplained.Inthis

regard,theresearchwillbenefitfrominsightsofotherdisciplinessuchascommunication

scienceandpedagogygainedwithinthecontextoftheAdLitproject(supra).

1.2 Commercialcommunication

COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION:ANOVERARCHINGCONCEPT.Asecondconstitutiveelementofthe

research is commercial communication.Froma legalperspective,one can refer to the

definition thatwas insertedby theEuropeanCommission in its1996GreenPaperon

CommercialCommunicationsin the InternalMarket,statingthat itentails“all formsof

communicationseekingtopromoteeitherproducts,servicesortheimageofacompanyor

organisationtofinalconsumersand/ordistributors”.32Thus,itisanoverarchingconcept

whichcoversabroadvarietyofpromotionalmessages.Whenanalysingtheregulatory

framework for commercial communications, the terminology used may vary per

instrument(e.g.advertising33,audiovisualcommercialcommunication34orcommercial

communication35)anditmaychangeovertime.36Fromanindustryperspective,onecan

31StrasburgerandWilson(n29)13.32 European Commission, ‘Green Paper on Commercial Communications in the Internal Market’<http://europa.eu/documents/comm/green_papers/pdf/com96_192_1_en.pdf>accessed15March2018.33Directive2005/29/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncilof11May2005concerningunfairbusiness-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Council Directive84/450/EEC, Directives 97/7/EC, 98/27/EC and 2002/65 /EC of the European Parliament and of theCouncil and Regulation (EC) No 2006/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council (‘UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective’)2005.34 Directive 2010/13/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 10 March 2010 on thecoordinationofcertainprovisionslaiddownbylaw,regulationoradministrativeactioninMemberStatesconcerningtheprovisionofaudiovisualmediaservices(AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective)2010.35Directive2000/31/ECof theEuropeanParliamentandof theCouncilof8 June2000oncertain legalaspectsofinformationsocietyservices,inparticularelectroniccommerce,intheInternalMarket(Directiveonelectroniccommerce)2000.36Forinstance,withregardtoregulationofaudiovisualmedia,CASTENDYKclarifiesthattheintroductionofthe general concept of “audiovisual commercial communication” was necessary in order to coveradvertisingina largercontextofaudiovisualmediaservices.Morespecifically,thisnewconceptwasto

14

refer to thedefinitionof the InternationalChamberofCommerce(“ICC”),whichstates

thatitcovers“anypublicityactivityintendedaspartofamarketingprocessforgoodsor

services”. 37 Similar to the European Commission’s definition, it may cover various

activities,suchasadvertisingbutalsopublicrelations,salespromotion,directmarketing,

etc.Furthermore,theICCalsoprovidesaspecificdefinitionofadvertising-asaformof

commercial communication - entailing commercial messages carried by a variety of

media(e.g.television,press,telephone,radio).38Finally,certaincommunicationscience

scholarshavealsoreferredtocommercialcommunicationasanoverarchingconcept.39

However, communication scientists also use other terms such as ‘marketing

communications’40,‘advertising’,‘persuasivecommunication’,etc.

USE OF NOTIONS. For the purpose of this PhD research, the notions ‘commercial

communication’, ‘commercial message’, ‘promotional message’, ‘advertising’ and

‘marketing’may be used interchangeably. However, if a regulatory instrument uses a

specific notion, this notion will be used in conformity (e.g. the notion ‘audiovisual

commercial communication’ will be used when discussing the AVMS Directive).

Furthermore, the word ‘new’ is used to indicate that the forms of commercial

communicationrelyononeormoreof theemergingtrendsthatare furtherdiscussed

infra (e.g. new forms of commercial communication, new advertising formats, new

advertisingtechniques).

cover audiovisual commercial communications of all kinds, including advertising, sponsorship,teleshopping,splitscreens,interactiveadvertisingandproductplacement.R.ChavannesandO.Castendyk,‘Directive 2007/65/EC “Audiovisual Media Services Directive”’ in O. Castendyk, E. Dommering and A.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008).37 International Chamber of Commerce, ‘Policy Statement on Freedom of Commercial Communication,240/474Rev’.38 Conversely the mere appearance of a brand or product does not necessarily mean that there is amarketingcommunication.39G. Siegert, B. von Rimscha and S. Grubenmann (eds),Commercial Communication in the Digital Age:InformationorDisinformation?(1Edition,WalterdeGruyter2017).40P.DePelsmacker,M.GeuensandJ.VanDenBergh,MarketingCommunications:AEuropeanPerspective,6/E(Pearson2017)<http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/educator/product/Marketing-Communications-A-European-Perspective/9781292135762.page>accessed15March2018.

15

1.3 Advertisingliteracy

CHILDREN’S ADVERTISINGLITERACY. Childrengrowup in a commercialised environment in

whichthey,fromanearlyage,comeacrossadvertisingforamultitudeofproductsand

services.41Throughouttheirchildhood,theylearnhowtocopewiththeoverloadofsuch

commercial informationanddevelopcriticaldecision-making skills.42Scholars refer in

this regard to children’s ‘advertising literacy’,which includes their advertising-related

knowledge,attitudes,andskills,suchastheabilitytorecognisecommercialmessages,to

understand the persuasive intent of suchmessages, and to critically evaluate them.43

Childrenalreadydisplaysome levelofbrandconsciousnessataveryyoungage (even

starting from theageof2yearsold).44This ispartof the reasonwhyadvertisersand

marketerstargetchildrenfromtheearlieststagesoftheirlives,essentiallytransforming

themintoyoungconsumers.

DIGITALNATIVESINACHANGINGMEDIALANDSCAPE.Thecurrentmedialandscapeisundergoing

significant changes due to technological advancements and is characterised by an

increasedconvergencebetweentraditionalanddigitalmedia.Researchhasshownthat

children’s use of traditionalmedia (i.e. radioand print) is steadily declining,with the

exceptionoftelevision45.46Yet,evenwithtelevision,importantevolutionscanbenoted,

as childrennowadaysusedifferent screens towatch television content (i.e. computer,

41B.Gunter,KidsandBrandinginaDigitalWorld(ManchesterUniversityPress2016).42Caubergheand others (n 28); EstherRozendaaland others, ‘ReconsideringAdvertising LiteracyasaDefenseAgainstAdvertisingEffects’(2011)14MediaPsychology333.ibid.43 Cauberghe and others (n 27); Rozendaal and others (n 41); S. Livingstone and E. J. Helsper, ‘DoesAdvertisingLiteracyMediatetheEffectsofAdvertisingonChildren?ACriticalExaminationofTwoLinkedResearchLiteraturesinRelationtoObesityandFoodChoice’(2006)56JournalofCommunication560;D.M.Boush,M.FriestadandG.M.Rose, ‘AdolescentSkepticism towardTVAdvertisingandKnowledgeofAdvertiserTactics’(1994)21JournalofConsumerResearch165.44 Gunter (n 40); Hudders and others, ‘Shedding New Light on How Advertising Literacy Can AffectChildren’sProcessingofEmbeddedAdvertisingFormats’(n1).45Researchconductedin2017byOfCom,theUKMediaRegulator,showsthatthetelevisionsetremainsthemostwidelyuseddeviceforwatchingTVcontent.However,YouTubeisbecomingincreasinglypopularandtherehavebeenbigincreasesinthenumberofyoungerchildrenwatchingYouTube.Ofcom,‘ChildrenandParents: Media Use and Attitudes Report 2017’ (2017)<https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/108182/children-parents-media-use-attitudes-2017.pdf>accessed11July2018.46B.Zaroualiandothers, ‘MediabezitEn–GebruikBijMinderjarigen.EenRapport inHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(2015)<www.adlit.be/output>accessed11July2018.

16

tablet, smartphone)47and increasingly consumevideo-on-demandservices.48Children

allacrosstheworldareengagingindigitalenvironmentsinwhichtheyplay,communicate

and search for information. As per LIVINGSTONE et al., “an estimated one in three of all

Internetusersintheworldtodayisbelowtheageof18”.49Childrenareearlyadoptersof

information and telecommunications technologies, which have a crucial role in

empoweringthembyenablingcommunicationandeducation.Theyaccessthewebatan

very young age50, via their owndevices51or ask their parents to borrow theirs to go

online. The duration of internet usage and the preferred online activities may vary

according to age. For example, certain studies in Flanders have shown that younger

childrenprimarilyenjoyplayingvideogames52andwatchingvideosonlineviawebsites

orapps,whereasteenagersaremorepresentonsocialmedia.53

IMPACTONCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Thechangesinthemodernmediaenvironmentalso

haveanimpactonadvertisingandmarketingpractices.Astraditionalandnewmediaare

consumedinterchangeablyandconsumers’attention issplitbetweenmultiplescreens

andmedia sources, the competition for ‘eyeballs’ has become evenmore difficult for

advertisers. BRASEL clarifies that “brands must be hyper-focused, displaying a single

47Zaroualiandothers,‘MediabezitEn–GebruikBijMinderjarigen.EenRapportinHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(n45).48AccordingtoBRASEL,“Consumersnolongersitdowntosimplywatchtelevisionorreadanewspaper;instead,theywatchtelevisionwhilesurfingtheInternetonalaptop,cellphonebytheirside,splittingtheirattentionbetweenmultiplescreensandmediasources”.S.A.Brasel,‘HowFocusedIdentitiesCanHelpBrandsNavigateaChangingMediaLandscape’(2012)55BusinessHorizons283.49S.Livingstone,J.CarrandJ.Byrne,‘OneinThree:InternetGovernanceandChildren’sRights’(CentreforInternational Governance Innovation and the Royal Institute of International Affairs 2015) 22<https://www.cigionline.org/publications/one-three-internet-governance-and-childrens-rights>accessed11July2018.50 Up to 70% of 3-4 year olds are active online. Zarouali and others, ‘Mediabezit En –Gebruik BijMinderjarigen.EenRapportinHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(n46).51Fromtheageof12,thesmartphonebecomesamajorpartofthemediaconsumptionofchildren.Zaroualiand others, ‘Mediabezit En –Gebruik Bij Minderjarigen. Een Rapport in Het Kader van Het AdLitOnderzoeksproject’(n45).52Zaroualiandothers,‘MediabezitEn–GebruikBijMinderjarigen.EenRapportinHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(n45).53Furthermore,thestudyshowedthatthenumberofchildrenthatusessocialmediagraduallygrowswiththeir age. D. Bastien and others, ‘Apestaartjaren: De Digitale Leefwereld van Kinderen En Jongeren’(Mediawijs 2018)<https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ArMVpbG55QmNWcOTz6ScjFWBBnrDClxm/view?usp=embed_facebook>accessed24August2018.

17

consistentmessagethatresonatesonsimplepersonalityandaffectivedimensionsacrossall

consumer touchpoints, from media channels to in-store and environmental brand

exposures”.54Against thisbackdrop,severalemergingtrends in theareaofcommercial

communicationaimedatchildrencanbeidentified,whichwillbethesubjectofdiscussion

ofthenextsection.

2. Emergingtrendsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationandchildren55

2.1 Advertisinginthedigitalera

INTRODUCTION.Thedigital environment inwhich children spenda lotof their time,56is

increasingly permeated with sophisticated, interactive and personalised forms of

advertising.57Childrenhavedifficultiesunderstandingthepersuasivetacticsemployed

bythesenewformsofadvertising,whichraisesimportantquestionsfrombothasocietal

andlegalperspective.

PERSUASIVETACTICS.Themostsignificantdifferencebetweentraditionalandnewformsof

commercialcommunicationliesinthepersuasivetacticsthatareemployed.Traditional

formats (e.g. TV commercials)primarily spread factual or propositionalmessages, for

instance by focusing on the product quality and characteristics.58In addition, certain

persuasivetacticsareused, includinginteraliarepetitionand linkingthemtopositive

stimulisuchashumour.59Conversely,newformats(e.g.advergames,sponsoredcontent

on socialmedia)employmoresubtle tactics.According toDEPAUWet al., these tactics

function at a preconscious level, and rather than aiming to inform consumers about

54Brasel(n48).55InthecontextofthisPhDresearch,theconcepts‘newadvertisingformats’or‘newformsofcommercialcommunication’ refer to theseemerging trends: integration, interaction, personalisation and emotionalappeal.56S.Chaudronandothers,YoungChildren (0-8)andDigitalTechnology:AQualitativeExploratoryStudyacross Seven Countries. (Publications Office 2015) <http://dx.publications.europa.eu/10.2788/00749>accessed6November2017.;Livingstone,CarrandByrne(n49).57Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).58E.S.MooreandV.J.Rideout,‘TheOnlineMarketingofFoodtoChildren:IsItJustFunandGames?’(2007)26JournalofPublicPolicy&Marketing202.59E.Rozendaal,M.BuijzenandP.Valkenburg,‘Children’sUnderstandingofAdvertisers’PersuasiveTactics’329.

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productsandservicestheyattempttoeffectuateabetterbrandrecallandattitude.60This

isachievedthroughconstantexposuretobrandsorproducts61,aswellasthroughimplicit

persuasionbywhatNAIRNandFINEdefineasa‘positiveaffecttransfer’ofamusingand

captivatingmediacontenttothebrandorproductitintegrates.62

CHILDREN’S ADVERTISING LITERACY. The specific tactics of new forms of commercial

communication,includingtheir(1)integrated,(2)interactive,(3)personalisednatureas

wellas(4) theiremotiveappeal,areparticularlyappealingtochildren.63Assuch, they

allowforamoreeffectivepersuasivecommercialmessage,astheypositivelyinfluence

children’s attitudes towards products or brands and have a real impact on their

purchasing decisions. Indeed, many children have great difficulty applying their

advertising literacy skills when it comes to these new tactics or advertising trends.64

Accordingly, itremainscrucial forchildrentobeable torecogniseandunderstandthe

persuasivetacticsofthesenewformsofcommercialcommunication.

2.2 Integration

TYPES OF INTEGRATION. A first widespread persuasive tactic in this area is the fluid

integrationofcommercialmessagesintonon-commercialcontent(e.g.aprogramme).65

60P. De Pauw and others, ‘From PersuasiveMessages to Tactics: Exploring Children’s Knowledge andJudgementofNewAdvertisingFormats’[2017]NewMediaandSociety1.61S.AutyandC.Lewis,‘ExploringChildren’sChoice:TheReminderEffectofProductPlacement’(2004)21Psychology and Marketing 697; Haiming Hang, ‘Online Game Advertising and Children: A LiteratureReview’, Advances in Advertising Research (University of Bath 2015) <http://opus.bath.ac.uk/45052/>accessed7November2017.62A.NairnandC.Fine, ‘Who’sMessingwithMyMind?:TheImplicationsofDual-ProcessModelsfortheEthicsofAdvertisingtoChildren’(2008)27InternationalJournalofAdvertising447.63 B. Zarouali and others, ‘Online Reclamewijsheid Bij Kinderen: Herkennen En Begrijpen vanReclamebannersEndeRolvanNeedforCognitionEnReclamewijsheidslessen’(2016)44Tijdschriftvoorcommunicatiewetenschap.-Houten24;M.Buijzen,E.A.VanReijmersdalandL.H.Owen,‘IntroducingthePCMCModel:AnInvestigativeFrameworkforYoungPeople’sProcessingofCommercializedMediaContent’(2010)20CommunicationTheory427;NairnandFine(n61);K.DaemsandP.DePelsmacker,‘MarketingCommunicationTechniquesAimedatChildrenandTeenagers.AResearchReportwithintheFrameoftheAdLitProject.’(2015)<www.AdLit.be/output>accessed11July2018.64Huddersandothers,‘Children’sAdvertisingLiteracyinaNewMediaEnvironment’(n8);S.An,H.S.JinandE.H.Park, ‘Children’sAdvertisingLiteracy forAdvergames:Perceptionof theGameasAdvertising’(2014)43JournalofAdvertising63.65Various other terms are usedwhen talking about this trend in commercial communication, such as“sponsored”,“promoted”,“native”,etc.

19

Althoughthisconvergencehasstartedquitesometimeago,itreachednewheightswithin

thedigitalenvironment.66Theideabehindintegrationisthatcommercialcommunication

ismosteffectivewhentheconsumerdoesnotrecogniseitassuch.67AccordingtoBUIJZEN

et al., there are three types of integration: (1) format, (2) thematic and (3) narrative

integration.68Formatintegrationrelatestotheembeddingofacommercialmessageinto

aspecificeditorialcontext(e.g.anadvertisement in thesamestyleasanewsarticle,a

sponsoredstoryinaperson’ssocialmedianewsfeed).Thematicintegrationentailsthat

commercialmessages are integrated into thematically congruent content, for instance

sport brand logos at football games. 69 Finally, narrative integration entails that the

commercialmessageisintegratedinthenarrativeofcertainmediacontent(e.g.product

placement in a television program or vlog). Aside from these types of integration,

commercialcommunicationmayalsobeintegratedindifferentmediaatthesametime.

Advertisersnowadaystendtomakeuseofaholisticmarketingoradvertisingstrategy,

targeting children with the same commercial message through different media.70 By

combiningtheeffectsofthedifferentmediaplatforms,thecampaignmayachieveaviral

effect.71

PERSUASIVETACTIC.Whenchildrenareexposedtobrandedenvironmentsforanextended

periodoftime,thelinesbetweenadvertisingandprogrammecontentareblurred.72By

seamlessly integrating the commercialmessage in the storylineand the imagesof the

mediacontent,potentialirritationorresistanceonthechild’sbehalfmaybebypassed.

Particularly for younger children, their ability to engage with integrated forms of

66S.M.Grimes,‘Kids’AdPlay:RegulatingChildren’sAdvergamesintheConvergingMediaContext’(2008)8InternationalJournalofCommunicationsLawandPolicy162.67S.L.Calvert,‘ChildrenasConsumers:AdvertisingandMarketing’[2008]JournalofConsumerResearch205.68Buijzen,VanReijmersdalandOwen(n63).69Buijzen,VanReijmersdalandOwen(n63).70DaemsandDePelsmacker(n63).71K.TutajandE.A.vanReijmersdal,‘EffectsofOnlineAdvertisingFormatandPersuasionKnowledgeonAudienceReactions’(2012)18JournalofMarketingCommunications5.72DaemsandDePelsmacker(n63).

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commercial communication in a criticalmanner is less developed.73According to the

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (“OECD”), “Children have

insufficientunderstandingofhowInternetcontentisproducedandfinanced,whichisalsoa

reasonwhy they have difficulty critically assessing advertisingmessages.”74The societal

impact of the blurred lines between commercial and non-commercial content is

significant. Indeed, integrated advertising techniques avail themselves of the fact that

consumersareunabletoentirelyignorethecommercialmessage,asitisinherentlylinked

withtheinformationalelement.75Consumersmayexperiencegreaterdifficultieswhenit

comestorecognisingpersuasivecommercialmessages,whichunderminestheirabilityto

processthemessagecritically.76Thistrend incommercialcommunicationhasbecome

evenmore popular due to consumer fatigue and an apparent increasing immunity to

traditionaldigitaladvertising(suchasdisplayads)77andtheincreaseduseofadblocking

technologies.78

CHILDREN’SADVERTISINGLITERACY.Researchhasshownthatchildrencanbetterrecognise

traditionaltelevisioncommercialsasaformofcommercialcommunicationascompared

tothefollowingnewformatsrelyingonintegration:advergames,sponsoredcontentand

brandplacement.79Althoughchildrencaneasilyrecogniseandunderstandtheconceptof

advertisingbanners,theyhavelessunderstandingofthepersuasiveintentofcommercial

communicationwhenexposedtoadvergamesandsponsoredcontent.Theyalso find it

moredifficulttorecognisethesenewformsofcommercialcommunicationasadvertising,

73M.C.Martin,‘Children’sUnderstandingoftheIntentofAdvertising:AMeta-Analysis’[1997]JournalofPublicPolicy&Marketing205.74 OECD, ‘The Protection of Children Online - Recommendation of the OECD Council’ (2012)<https://www.oecd.org/sti/ieconomy/childrenonline_with_cover.pdf>accessed12July2018.75L.Hellemans, E. Lievens andP. Valcke, ‘PlayingHide-and-Seek?A Legal Perspective on the ComplexDistinctionbetweenCommercialandEditorialContentinHybridAdvertisingFormats’(2015)17info19.76Caubergheandothers(n28);Rozendaalandothers(n42).77 Wharton University, ‘A New Marketing Royalty: Why Digital Influencers Are on the Rise’(Knowledge@Wharton) <http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/new-marketing-royalty-rise-digital-influencers/>accessed20November2017.78D.CliffordandV.Verdoodt,‘Ad-Blocking-theDarkSideofConsumerEmpowerment:ANewHopeorWilltheEmpireStrikeBack?’(2016),BILETAConference,UniversityofHertfordshire.79Vanwesenbeeckandothers(n6).ThisisalsoinlinewithearlierresearchAn,SeungJinandHaePark(n64).

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comparedtotelevisionandonlinebanners.AccordingtoDEPAUWetal.,childreningeneral

do not actively look out for commercial communication that is embedded into

entertainingorinteractivemediacontent.Thisalsoentailsthatchildrendonotreflecton

the tactics such new forms of commercial communication employ (e.g. positive affect

transfer,thecollectionofpersonaldata).80AccordingtoNAIRNandFINE,thesetechniques

are particularly likely to persuade young consumers implicitly.81 Similar to children,

teenagersfinditmoredifficulttorecogniseintegratedsocialmediaadvertisements(i.e.

newsfeed)whencomparedtotraditionaltelevisioncommercials.82

2.3 Interaction

INTERACTIVITY.Anotherimportanttrendintheareaofcommercialcommunicationisthe

useofinteractionorinotherwordstheinvolvementoftheconsumerintheadvertising

campaign.MCMILLANANDHWANGidentifiedthreedimensionsofinteractivity,namelyuser

control,directionofcommunication,andtime.83Usercontrolrelatestotheabilityofthe

user to search for and control the amount of information online. The direction of

communication inadigitalcontextwilloftenbetwo-way,as internetusersareable to

communicate and interact with others online. The third dimension, time, refers to

synchronisation,asinteractionmaytakeplacesimultaneouslyordelayed.84Asidefrom

these three dimensions, scholars have argued that interactivity in the context of

commercial communication can be characterised by different features.85For instance,

moderncommercial communication campaignsorstrategiesmakeuseof the constant

connectivity of young people and their extensive use of digital media. Furthermore,

interactivityisoftenconnectedtoothertrends,suchaspersonalisationandintegration

80DePauwandothers(n60).81NairnandFine(n62).82B.Zaroualiandothers,‘TheImpactofOnlinePeerCommunicationonAdolescents’PersuasionKnowledgeandAttitudestowardSocialAdvertising’,PaperpresentedatEtmaalvandeCommunicatiewetenschap2017(2017).83S.J.McMillanandJ.Hwang,‘MeasuresofPerceivedInteractivity:AnExplorationoftheRoleofDirectionofCommunication,UserControl,andTimeinShapingPerceptionsofInteractivity’(2002)31JournalofAdvertising29.84V.CaubergheandP.DePelsmacker,‘Advergames:TheImpactofBrandProminenceandGameRepetitiononBrandResponses’(2010)39JournalofAdvertising5;DaemsandDePelsmacker(n62).85DaemsandDePelsmacker(n63).

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(e.g.socialgameswheretheadvertisingmessageisplacedinacontextinwhichpeersplay

acentralrole86,targetedadvertisementsonsocialmedia).

PERSUASIVETACTIC.Interactiveadvertisingformatssuchasadvergamesorbrandedmobile

applicationshaveproventobeanextremelyusefultoolforadvertisersandinparticular

whentargetedtowardschildren.Suchtechniquesallowforthedevelopmentofapositive

productorbrandassociationthroughthedeliveryoffuninteractivecontent.87Asaresult,

childrenarenolongermerelypassivereceiversofcommercialcommunications.Instead,

they become actively involved in the advertising process for instance by creating or

sharingcontentthemselvesorbynetworkingwithpeers.88Advertisersstimulateyoung

consumerstoshareandcreatecontentinordertopromotetheirownbrands,products

andserviceswithinchildren’spersonalnetworks(e.g.throughlikesandcomments,by

usingsponsoredfiltersinphoto’s,bysharingvideoscontainingbrandsongsorfeaturing

productes).89

CHILDREN’S ADVERTISING LITERACY. Children experience lots of difficulties when applying

their advertising literacy skills to interactive and social advertising. It is generally

recognisedthatpeerssuchasfriendsorclassmatesplayanimportantsocialisationrole

in shaping children’s commercial decision-making.90BANERJEE andDITTMAR clarify that

whenchildrengrowup,theystartbelievingthatthepossessionofcertainproductsand

brandsdeterminesthequalityoftheirfriendships.91Inthissense,thepeergroupsetsthe

standardforthebrandsandproductsthatarecoolanddesirable.AccordingtoROZENDAAL

86E. Rozendaal and others, ‘Children’sResponses toAdvertising in Social Games’ (2013) 42 Journal ofAdvertising142.87A.D.Cheyneandothers,‘MarketingSugaryCerealstoChildrenintheDigitalAge:AContentAnalysisof17 Child-TargetedWebsites’ (2013) 18 Journal of Health Communication 563; A. Nairn and H. Hang,‘Advergames:It’sNotChild’sPlay:AReviewofResearch’ (Commissionedby theFamilyandParentingInstitute 2012) <http://www.agnesnairn.co.uk/policy_reports/advergames-its-not-childs-play.pdf>accessed8November2017.88Daems and De Pelsmacker (n 62); K. C.Montgomery and J. Chester, ‘Interactive Food andBeverageMarketing:TargetingAdolescentsintheDigitalAge’(2009)45JournalofAdolescentHealthS18.89DaemsandDePelsmacker(n63).90G.P.MoschisandG.A.Churchill,‘ConsumerSocialization:ATheoreticalandEmpiricalAnalysis’(1978)15JournalofMarketingResearch599;Rozendaalandothers(n85).91R.BanerjeeandH.Dittmar,‘IndividualDifferencesinChildren’sMaterialism:TheRoleofPeerRelations’(2008)34Personality&SocialPsychologyBulletin17.

23

etal.,peerinfluencealsoplaysanimportantroleinthecontextofsocialgames,making

childrenmoresusceptibletothepersuasiveeffectsofadvertisingintegratedwithinthese

games. 92 In line with these findings, ZAROUALI et al. discovered that online peer

communication on socialmedia generally leads to lower advertising literacy amongst

teenagerstowardscommercialcommunicationthatappearsontheirnewsfeeds.93

2.4 Personalisation

PERSONALISATION.Athirdtrendthathasemergedinrecentyearsisthepersonalisationof

commercialcommunication.Thesignificanttechnologicalprogress,globalisationandthe

emergenceofnewbusinessmodelshavecontributedtothecollectionandprocessingof

personaldataonanever-increasingscale.Children’spersonaldataisbeingcollectedin

unprecedentedquantities,bybusinesses,governments,schools,andotherorganisations,

leadingtochildren’slivesbeing increasingly ‘datafied’.94Children’sonlinebehaviour is

being trackedbymeansof cookies95andplug-ins;96joiningasocialmediaplatformor

downloading an app usually involves a transfer of personal information; advergames

offercontenttailoredtotheageorsexofthechild;andinterconnectedtoysinteractwith

92Rozendaalandothers(n86).93Zaroualiandothers,‘TheImpactofOnlinePeerCommunicationonAdolescents’PersuasionKnowledgeandAttitudestowardSocialAdvertising’(n82).94D.LuptonandB.Williamson,‘TheDatafiedChild:TheDataveillanceofChildrenandImplicationsforTheirRights’(2017)19NewMedia&Society780;S.vanderHof,‘IAgree,orDoI:ARights-BasedAnalysisoftheLawonChildren’sConsentintheDigitalWorld’(2016)34Wis.Int’lLJ409.95F. J. ZuiderveenBorgesius, ‘PersonalData Processing forBehavioural Targeting:Which Legal Basis?’(2015)5InternationalDataPrivacyLaw163;E.Kosta,‘PeekingintotheCookieJar:TheEuropeanApproachtowardstheRegulationofCookies’(2013)21InternationalJournalofLawandInformationTechnology380.96In 2015, an international network of data protectionauthoritiesconducted a privacy sweep of 1494children’swebsitesandapps,whichshowedthat67%ofthewebsitesandappswascollectingchildren’spersonaldataand50%sharedthispersonaldatawiththirdparties.GlobalPrivacyEnforcementNetwork(2015) Results of the 2015 Global Privacy Enforcement Network Sweep. Global Privacy EnforcementNetwork, ‘Children’s Privacy Sweep’ (2015)<http://194.242.234.211/documents/10160/0/GPEN+Privacy+Sweep+2015.pdf>;NairnandFine(n62).

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childrenandevenrecordconversations.97Theharvesteddataisconvertedintoprofiles98,

on the basis of which advertisers are able to target children with personalised

advertisementsandtailortheirmarketingcampaigns.99

PERSUASIVE TACTIC. It has been argued that personalised advertising techniques allow a

more effective transmission of the commercial message, as advertisers can respond

explicitlytoaspecificuser’sdevelopmentallevelandknowledgebase.100Thisisadistinct

advantage when it comes to building a strong and lasting personal interaction and

connection with the child consumer. Indeed, studies have shown that commercial

messagesthatcorrespondwiththeinterestsandbehaviourofconsumerswillleadtoa

morepositivebrandattitude,asthemessageisperceivedaslessintrusive,morerelevant

anduseful,ultimatelyincreasingconsumers’purchaseintentions.101Inaddition,YANetal.

found that the click-through rates of advertisements employing behavioural targeting

techniquesincreasedenormously.102

CHILDREN’S ADVERTISING LITERACY. With regard to children’s advertising literacy in the

contextofpersonalisedadvertising,severalimportantconsiderationscanbemade.First,

the tracking of consumers’ online information and activities often happens covertly.

BOERMAN et al. argue that this covertness may be harmful as well as unethical, since

97S.Chaudronandothers, ‘Kaleidoscopeon the InternetofToys -Safety,Security,PrivacyandSocietalInsights’ (European Commission) JRC Technical Report<http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC105061/jrc105061_final_online.pdf>accessed6February2018.98F.Boscoandothers,‘ProfilingTechnologiesandFundamentalRightsandValues:RegulatoryChallengesandPerspectivesfromEuropeanDataProtectionAuthorities’,ReformingEuropeanDataProtectionLaw(Springer2015)<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9385-8_1>accessed11August2017.,4.99Foramoredetailedanalysisofprofilingandpersonalisedadvertising,seepartII,chapterII,sectionIIofthePhDresearch.100Calvert(n67).;Caubergheandothers(n28).101L.F.BrightandT.Daugherty, ‘DoesCustomization ImpactAdvertisingEffectiveness?AnExploratoryStudyofConsumerPerceptionsofAdvertisinginCustomizedOnlineEnvironments’(2012)18JournalofMarketingCommunications19.A.GhoseandS.Yang,‘AnEmpiricalAnalysisofSearchEngineAdvertising:Sponsored Search in Electronic Markets’ (2009) 55 Management Science 1605; R. S. Moore, C. A.Stammerjohan and R. A. Coulter, ‘Banner Advertises-Website Context Congruity and Color Effects onAttentionandAttitudes’(2005)34JournalofAdvertising71.102J.Yanandothers,‘HowMuchCanBehavioralTargetingHelpOnlineAdvertising?’,Proceedingsofthe18thinternational conference onWorld wide web (ACM 2009) <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1526745>accessed25October2017;DePauwandothers(n60).

25

consumersarenotawareof thepersuasive techniquesused.103Furthermore, although

theadvertisingsectorhasrapidlyadoptedpersonalisationtechniques,researchonthe

effectsthereofonchildren’sadvertisingliteracyremainsscarce.104DEPAUWETAL.recently

foundthatwhilechildrenbetween9and11recognisedapersonalisedadvertisement(not

integrated in the media content), few of them immediately understood that the

advertisement was based on previous browsing behaviour. 105 In general, children’s

commercial literacy increases gradually as they get older. For instance, research has

shownthatchildrenbetween12and16yearsoldhavelessknowledgeofsocialmedia

advertisingandarelesscriticalthanyoungstersabove16years.106However,studieson

personalised advertising and adolescents, a groupof avid socialmedia userswho are

frequently exposed to such advertising, paint an interesting picture. The level of

personalisationofadvertisingmaybedifferentdependingonthetypesandamountof

personaldataused.107Ifthelevelofpersonalisationofacommercialmessageistoohigh,

consumersmayviewthisasabreachoftheirprivacy.108ZAROUALIetal.confirmedthisin

arecentstudyonthe impactofretargetingonadolescents.109First, thedirecteffectof

retargeted advertising on adolescents’ purchase intentionwas indeed higher than for

non-retargeted advertising, meaning that, in general, adolescents responded quite

favourablytothisadvertisingtechnique.However,thestudyalsofoundthataretargeted

advertisement indirectly leads to a negative effect on the purchase intention when

adolescentsaremadeawarethattheirpersonalinformationwasbeingusedtotargetthe

commercialmessageatthem.Inotherwords,personalisationtechniquesmayalsotrigger

103S.C.Boerman,S.KruikemeierandFrederikJZuiderveenBorgesius,‘OnlineBehavioralAdvertising:ALiteratureReviewandResearchAgenda’(2017)46JournalofAdvertising363.104 B. Zarouali and others, ‘“Do You like Cookies?” Adolescents’ Skeptical Processing of RetargetedFacebook-AdsandtheModeratingRoleofPrivacyConcernandaTextualDebriefing’(2017)69ComputersinHumanBehavior157.105DePauwandothers(n60).106DePauwandothers(n60).107Boerman,KruikemeierandZuiderveenBorgesius(n103).108M.L.AnteunisandG.vanNoort,‘InteractivityEffectsinSocialMediaMarketingonBrandEngagement:AnInvestigationofUnderlyingMechanisms,The10thICORIAConferenceBerlin’(2011).Inrelationtothis,research has shown that there could even be ‘reactance’,where consumersmentally resist persuasiveattemptsandevendotheoppositeoftheadvertiser’swishes.J.vanDoornandJ.C.Hoekstra,‘CustomizationofOnlineAdvertising:TheRoleofIntrusiveness’(2013)24MarketingLetters339.109Zaroualiandothers,‘“DoYoulikeCookies?’(n104).

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scepticismandprivacyconcerns.Inaddition,astudybyZAROUALIetal.uncoveredrather

worrying findings about adolescents’ understanding of personalised advertising

techniques employed in social media.110 The study shows that although the level of

advertising literacyofchildrenfor thesetechniquesgradually increaseswhentheyget

older,almosthalfof17year-oldshaveareallylowunderstandingofpersuasiontactics

and most of them did not understand the data processing practices behind the

advertisements.Consideringtheseresults,itcanalsobequestionedwhetheradultswould

be better equipped to recognise and critically reflect on personalised advertising and

makewell-balanceddecisionsregardingtheirprivacy.

2.5 Emotionalappeal

CONSUMERS ARE EMOTIONAL CREATURES. To a certain extent, it can be argued that all

commercialcommunicationsaimattriggeringanemotionalresponseofconsumers.More

specifically,marketersaimtoevokeemotionalresponsesinordertocreateawareness,

positivebrandassociation,andanemotionaldesireforaproductorservice.111Alreadyin

1957,MARTINEAUarguedthat

“Psychologistsunhesitatinglystatethatthemainappealwhichadvertisingusesand

theonewhichwecanplaceourmainrelianceistheemotional,inthesensethatwe

aretryingtocreatesuggestedassociationwithstrongmotivepower.”112(Emphasis

added)

In this regard, both positive and negative appealsmay be used to elicit an emotional

response.113Whereaspositiveappealspromisepositiveemotionsasaresultoftheuseor

purchase of the advertised product or service114, negative appeals associate negative

110 B. Zarouali and others, ‘Adolescents’ Advertising Competences and Institutional Privacy ProtectionStrategiesonSocialNetworkingSites:ImplicationsforRegulation’.111Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).112P.Martineau, ‘Motivation inadvertising’ (1957)15as citedbyOLee JrReedand JohnL JrCoalson,‘Eighteenth-CenturyLegalDoctrineMeetsTwentieth-CenturyMarketingTechniques:F.T.C.RegulationofEmotionallyConditioningAdvertising’(1976)11GeorgiaLawReview733.113N.Henley,R. J.DonovanandH.Moorhead, ‘AppealingtoPositiveMotivationsandEmotionsinSocialMarketing:ExampleofaPositiveParentingCampaign’(1998)4SocialMarketingQuarterly48.114ReedandCoalson(n112).

27

consequencesforthosewhofailtocomplywiththemarketingmessage.115In1977,REED

and COALSON tracked the historical increase of emotional appeals in advertising and

attributed technological development as a key-determining factor in its rise.116More

recently, due to major technological advancements and increased computational

capabilities,emotionshavenowbecomedetectableintheonlineworldandhaveraised

theinterestofabroadvarietyofcommercialentities.117Forinstance,aleakedinternal

Facebookdocumentrevealedthattheplatformallowsadvertiserstotargetusersduring

moments when they feel insecure and worthless.118 This reflects an emerging trend

relating to the use of neuroscience techniques to shape advertising and marketing

strategies, which allows advertisers to connect on an even deeper level with

consumers.119Suchtechniquesorapplicationsaredesignedtobypassrationalconsumer

behaviour,makinguseofthefactthatemotionsplayakeyroleindecisionmakingand

thatconsumersaremostlyunawareofthem.120Inotherwords,neuromarketingaimsat

influencing consumers’ decision-making at an unconscious level (i.e. by stimulating

subconsciousmechanismswithinthebrain).121Bystudyingtheimpactofadvertisingand

115Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).116ReedandCoalson(n112).117D.Clifford, ‘Citizen-ConsumersinaPersonalisedGalaxy:EmotionInfluencedDecision-Making,aTruePathtotheDarkSide?’(2017).118W.Christl,K.KoppandP.UrsRiechert,‘HowCompaniesUsePersonalDataagainstPeople’(CrackedLab– Institute for Critical Digital Culture 2017)<http://crackedlabs.org/dl/CrackedLabs_Christl_DataAgainstPeople.pdf>accessed13October2017.119D.ArielyandG.S.Berns,‘Neuromarketing:TheHopeandHypeofNeuroimaginginBusiness’(2010)11Nature Reviews Neuroscience 284; Amani Al Abbas, Weifeng Chen and Maria Saberi, ‘The Impact ofNeuromarketingAdvertisingonChildren’.120 E. Laureckis and À. M. Miralpeix, ‘Ethical and Legal Considerations in Research Subject and DataProtection’inA.R.Thomasandothers(eds),EthicsandNeuromarketing:ImplicationsforMarketResearchand Business Practice (Springer International Publishing 2017) <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45609-6_5>accessed27August2018;ArielyandBerns(n118).121MORINexplainsthatconsumersareunabletodescribetheirowncognitiveprocesses,whichhasmanysubconsciouscomponents.Thustraditionalmethodsofmarketingresearch,suchasinterviewsandfocusgroupshavesignificant limitations.C.Morin, ‘Neuromarketing:TheNewScienceofConsumerBehavior’(2011)48Society131.

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marketingstimulionthebrain,advertisersadaptcampaignstogeneratemorepowerful

andlonger-lastingpositiveresponsesfromconsumers.122

PERSUASIVETACTICS. In thewordsofLERNERet al., “emotions constitutepotent, pervasive,

predictable, sometimesharmfuland sometimes beneficialdriversofdecisionmaking”.123

Emotions can shapedecision-making in two importantways: (1) certainemotionsare

associated with different patterns of cognitive assessments that allow to predict the

outcomeof thedecision-makingprocess(e.g.angeror joy)and(2)emotions influence

howindividualsprocessinformationandwhethertheydososuperficiallyorindetail.124

AccordingtoCLIFFORD,theuseofthesetechniquesforadvertisingandmarketingpurposes

potentiallyunderminesaperson’srationalityasunderstoodasalegalparadigmand,as

such,individualautonomygiventhatthelawhastraditionallyseparated‘rationality’from

emotions.125Advertisersaimatinducingemotionalresponseswithconsumerstocreate

awarenessandpositivebrandassociations.Inturn,thiswillevokeanemotionaldesire

fortheadvertisedproductorservice.Emotionalappealscanbeusedbothforthecontent

and the delivery of the commercial message. With regard to the latter, gamification

elementsareoftenusedtoexploitcognitivebiases,includingwhenamarketingcampaign

is targeted at children. 126 For instance, by using elements such as countdowns (e.g.

countingdownthetimeleftuntilacertainofferisnolongervalid),marketersmakeuse

ofpeople’s lossaversionand their tendency toevaluatepotential lossesas largerand

moresignificantthanequivalentgains.Consideringthenewtrendsinemotiondetection

and targeting (i.e. personalisation and neuromarketing), the potential capacity to

personalisethelinkbetweenpositivemoodsandtheeffectofanadvertisingcampaign

122 T. Voorhees, D. L. Spiegel and D. Cooper, ‘Neuromarketing: Legal and Policy Issues’<https://www.cov.com/files/upload/White_Paper_Neuromarketing_Legal_and_Policy_Issues.pdf>accessed28August2018.123J.S.Lernerandothers,‘EmotionandDecisionMaking’(2015)66AnnualReviewofPsychology799.124C.R.Hullett,‘TheImpactofMoodonPersuasion:AMeta-Analysis’(2005)32CommunicationResearch423;Clifford(n116).125Clifford(n117).126R.TerlutterandM.L.Capella,‘TheGamificationofAdvertising:AnalysisandResearchDirectionsofIn-GameAdvertising,Advergames,andAdvertisinginSocialNetworkGames’(2013)42JournalofAdvertising95.

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raise clear legal–ethical issues (e.g. protection against misleading or aggressive

advertisingpractices,privacyinfringements).127

CHILDREN’SADVERTISINGLITERACY.Specificallywithregardtochildren,ithasbeenrecognised

that highly affectivemedia content does notmotivate children to process the content

critically.Indeed,aschildrenneedalltheircognitivecapacitiestoprocessandunderstand

themedia content, theydonothave the capacity to criticallyevaluate the commercial

message.128Furthermore, the affect-based nature of new advertising formats not only

limitschildren’smotivationandabilitytoprocessanadvertisingmessageelaborately,but

also to apply their advertising literacy skills as a defence against the persuasive

message.129

3. Concludingremarks

Thissectionfirstclarifiedtheconstitutiveelementsoftheresearch(children,commercial

communicationandadvertisingliteracy)andthenexploredtheemergingtrendsinthe

area of commercial communication. We identified four major trends: integration,

interaction,personalisationandtheuseofemotionalappeal.Wefoundthatthesetrends

and the persuasive tactics behind them present significant obstacles for children to

activatetheiradvertisingliteracyskills(i.e.theirabilitytorecogniseandcriticallyassess

the commercial message). The societal impact of these new forms of commercial

communication raisesquestions regarding the regulation thereof. Therefore, thenext

sectionexplorestheregulatorycontextandthepolicyagenda,anditaddressestheneed

forfuture-proofregulationandachildren’srights-basedapproach.

127A.Kramera,J.E.GuilloryandJ.T.Hancock,‘ExperimentalEvidenceofMassive-ScaleEmotionalContagionthroughSocialNetworks’(2014)111PNAS8788.128S.AnandS.Stern, ‘Mitigating theEffectsofAdvergamesonChildren:DoAdvertisingBreaksWork?’(2011)40JournalofAdvertising43;Rozendaalandothers(n42);M.K. J.Waiguny,M.R.NelsonandR.Terlutter,‘TheRelationshipofPersuasionKnowledge,IdentificationofCommercialIntentandPersuasionOutcomesinAdvergames—theRoleofMediaContextandPresence’(2014)37JournalofConsumerPolicy257.129E.Rozendaal,AdvertisingLiteracyandChildren’sSusceptibility toAdvertising (97894912110652011)<https://dare.uva.nl/search?identifier=59a96c2a-1dd8-4fbc-8ac1-1c0cf4836420> accessed 8 February2018.

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SECTIONII-THENEEDFORAFUTURE-PROOFREGULATORYFRAMEWORKINLIGHTOF

CHILDREN’SRIGHTS

INTRODUCTION. The protection of children against certain forms of commercial

communicationhaslongbeenconsideredanobjectiveofgeneralinterest.Inthisregard,

a broad variety of provisions regulating different aspects or forms of commercial

communication can be found across different legislation at the international, EU and

national level. Inaddition, theadvertising industryhasunderstoodfora longtimethe

importanceofconsumertrustinadvertisingandhasbeenveryactiveinthedevelopment

of self-regulatory initiatives. This section begins by briefly discussing this evolving

regulatorycontextandaddressesthefragmentationofexistinglegislationandtheriseof

alternative regulatory instruments in the area of commercial communication.

Furthermore,thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthepolicydiscourseonnewformsof

commercialcommunication(i.e.theemergingtrendsanalysedintheprevioussection)130

andtheirimpactonchildren’sadvertisingliteracy.Finally,thissectionelaboratesonthe

need for a future-proof and empowering regulatory framework and outlines several

elementsthatareimportantinthisregard.

1. Evolvingregulatorycontextinthedigitalenvironment

1.1 AfragmentedlegalframeworkforcommercialcommunicationintheEU

A COMPLEX LEGAL FRAMEWORK UNDER REVIEW. At the EU level, there is a myriad of laws

regulating commercial communicationaimedat children. Indeed, rather thanhavinga

single piece of legislation devoted exclusively to new forms of commercial

communication,existinginstrumentsandprovisionshavebeenretrospectivelyadapted

tonewtechnologiesandservices.131Asmentioned,newadvertisingformatshavespecific

featuresthatmakethemparticularlyappealingtochildren.Theyareoftendigital (e.g.

advergames) or hybrid (e.g. ads on smart/connected tv’s) and as such, the exact

130I.e.advertisingformatsthatmakeuseoftechniquessuchasintegration,interaction,personalisation,andemotionalappeal.131‘NewFormsofCommercialCommunicationsinaConvergedAudiovisualSector’(EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory2012).

31

application or interplay of the different regulatory frameworks is complex. The EU

legislatorhas,forinstance,restrictedthemarketingofcertainproducts(e.g.alcohol)and

services, 132 provided rules specifically applicable to audiovisual commercial

communications (i.e. theAudiovisualMedia ServicesDirective, “AVMSDirective”) and

adopted general rules on misleading and aggressive advertising (i.e. the Unfair

Commercial Practices Directive, “UCP Directive”). 133 Aside from this, advertisers and

advertisingnetworksincreasinglyprocesschildren’spersonaldata,whichallowsthemto

tailorandpersonalisecommercialcommunicationbasedonchildren’sonlinebehaviour.

Suchdataprocessingactivitiesareonlyallowed if the rulesof theEUdataprotection

framework(i.e.theGeneralDataProtectionRegulation,“GDPR”andePrivacyDirective)

arerespected.Theexisting legislative framework isundergoingsignificantreforms,as

partoftheEuropeanCommission’sDigitalMarketStrategyforEurope(infra).First,inits

2015CommunicationtheCommissionstatedthat itwouldreviewtheAVMSDirective,

withaparticularfocusoninteraliatherulesontheprotectionofminorsaswellasthe

advertising rules. 134 Second, the Commission also added the review of the ePrivacy

Directive to its Strategy, once the EU rules on data protectionwere adopted (i.e. the

GDPR).135Inaddition,theEuropeanCommissionlaunchedaFitnessCheckofconsumer

andmarketinglawin2016.Itsaimwastotestwhethertheexistingdirectivesremainfit

forpurposeonthebasisofasetofcriteria.136Basedontheresults,theCommissionthen

determinedwhethertherewasaneedforfurtheractionattheEUlevel,toimprovethe

implementation or application of the directives. The legislative framework and its

ongoingreformsisfurthermapped,analysedandevaluatedinpartIIofthisstudy.

132Asmentioned,thisfallsoutsidethescopeofthePhDresearch.133Vanwesenbeeckandothers(n6)104.134EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaDigitalSingleMarketStrategyforEurope.[COM(2015)192Final]11’10.135EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaDigitalSingleMarketStrategyforEurope.[COM(2015)192Final]11’(n134)13.136Thesecriteriaincludeeffectiveness,efficiency,coherence,relevanceandEUaddedvalue.

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SELF-ANDCO-REGULATION.Asidefromlegislativeinstruments,theregulatoryframeworkon

commercial communication also consists of a broad variety of alternative regulatory

instrumentswhichformanimportantpartoftheresearch.

1.2 Theriseofalternativeregulatoryinstruments

THE RATIONALE BEHIND ADVERTISING SELF-REGULATION. The advertising industry has

traditionally actively participated in the regulatory process at national, European and

internationallevel,leadingtoavarietyofself-andco-regulatoryinitiatives,somemore

general,137somespecificallyacrossdifferentsectors (e.g. food138, alcohol139, cosmetics,

toys),140andformats.AccordingtoBURLETON,TheTimesalreadyemphasisedtheroleof

advertisingagenciesinregulatingcommercialcommunicationin1909bysuggestingthat

“Thebestmodernadvertisinghasthepublicationof facts for itsbasis.Thedayof

successfulclaptrapandvulgarity, stillmorethedayofexaggeratedanddeceptive

misrepresentation, is quickly passing away. So far from these being fostered by

advertisingagents,thewholetendencyofthebestandmostsuccessfulagentsisto

repressthem.”141

According to DUROVIC et al. alternative regulatory instruments (“ARIs”) are more

prevalentintheareaofadvertisingthaninotherareasofconsumerlaw.142Thesignificant

role of the advertising sector in regulating commercial communication results from

137 Such as the ICC Code. International Chamber of Commerce, ‘Consolidated Code of Advertising andMarketing Practice’ <https://cdn.iccwbo.org/content/uploads/sites/3/2011/08/ICC-Consolidated-Code-of-Advertising-and-Marketing-2011-English.pdf>accessed14November2017.138SuchastheEUPledge,formoreinformationseehttp://www.eu-pledge.eu/.139SuchastheCovenantonadvertisingandmarketingofalcoholdrinksissuedbytheBelgianBrewers,Signed on 25 January 2013, <http://www.belgianbrewers.be/nl/verantwoordelijkheid/arnoldus-groep-convenant/>accessed17October2016.140 L. Wilks and others, ‘Mapping Exercise Report on Self-Regulation. Prepared for the EuropeanCommission DG SANCO Institute for Social Marketing. The Open University & University of Stirling.’<https://ec.europa.eu/health/archive/ph_determinants/life_style/alcohol/forum/docs/regulation_en.pdf>accessed12July2018.141E.Burleton,‘TheSelf-RegulationofAdvertisinginEurope’(1982)1InternationalJournalofAdvertising333.142M.DurovicandH.W.Micklitz,InternationalizationofConsumerLaw:AGameChanger(Springer2017)26 <https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/internationalization-of-consumer-law(6cab25a6-6b64-4837-ab12-523c9a8dfe53)/export.html>accessed12July2018.

33

differentfactors,thefirstofwhichistheimportanceofconsumertrustandacompany’s

reputation. 143 More specifically, the profit of traders is heavily dependent on the

consumertrustintheproductsandservicestheypromote.144Additionally,astraditional

advertisingformats(e.g.televisioncommercials)arehighlyvisibleandidentifiable,often

usingthecompanyorbrandnames,anyshortcomingsaremorereadilydetectableand

traceable.145Therefore,thesectorhasastronginterestinsafeguardingfairadvertising

andsanctioningmisleadingoraggressiveformsofcommercialcommunication,assuch

practiceswouldbedetrimentaltoadvertising’soverallacceptanceandeffectiveness.146

Inaddition,theadvertisingsectorischaracterisedbyastrongdegreeoforganisationby

itsmain actors, who have set upmany associations andmeta-associations at various

levels(e.g.international,Europeanandnational).Throughtheseassociationsallkindsof

codesofconductfordifferentformsofcommercialcommunicationhavebeendeveloped.

A final incentive lies in the desire to avoid government regulation. In this regard,

VERBRUGGEN mentions that “pressures by the government to undertake legislative or

executive action have been crucial for the adoption and further development of these

codes”.147In this regard, theUnitedNations Committee on theRights of the Child has

highlighted the important role of the State in providing adequate incentives for the

privatesectortoadoptsuchfairadvertisingpractices.Morespecifically,theCommittee

recommendsthefollowing:

“Statesshouldensurethatmarketingandadvertisingdonothaveadverseimpacts

onchildren’srightsbyadoptingappropriateregulationandencouragingbusiness

143 P. Verbruggen, ‘Case Study Report – Transnational Private Regulation in the Advertising Industry.Conductedwithin the Framework of the Research Project Constitutional Foundations of TransnationalPrivate Regulation’ (2011)<http://www.hiil.org/data/sitemanagement/media/HiiL%20Case%20Study%20Advertising%20Executive%20Summary.pdf>accessed12July2018.144F.Weber, ‘The Law and Economics of Self-Regulation in Advertising’ (2014) 3 Journal of EuropeanConsumerandMarketLaw5.145J.J.Boddewyn,‘AdvertisingSelf-Regulation:TruePurposeandLimits’(1989)18JournalofAdvertising19,20.146Boddewyn(n145)20.147 Verbruggen, ‘Case Study Report – Transnational Private Regulation in the Advertising Industry.Conductedwithin the Framework of the Research Project Constitutional Foundations of TransnationalPrivateRegulation’(n143).

34

enterprises to adhere to codes of conduct and use clear and accurate product

labelling and information that allow parents and children to make informed

consumerdecisions”.148

ThedevelopmentofARIsregulatingcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildreninthe

digitalenvironmentformspartofthecurrentinternationalandEUpolicyagenda(infra).

Inits2012RecommendationontheProtectionofChildrenOnline,theOECDrecognised

that children face significant consumer riskswhensurfingonline (related to interalia

embeddedadvertisements,privacy-invasivepractices,age-inappropriatecontent).149To

protect children against such risks, most countries have implemented multi-layered

policies, which entail (1) legal measures, (2) self- and co-regulation, (3) technical

measuresand(4)awareness-raisingandeducation.Inthisregard,theOECDstressesthat

thosewhoarebestplacedtoprotectchildreninaconcentratedmarketwithsubstantial

network effects (such as social networks or search engines) are the largestproviders

themselves.150AnyARIsinthiscontextwouldbemosteffectiveiftheyareconsolidated

(i.e.haveoverarchingprinciples thatareapplicableacrosssectors, for instance for the

definition of a child) and independently evaluated. 151 In EU policy documents, self-

regulationisoftenmentionedasamoreflexiblesystemofregulationthanlegislation,and

assuchparticularlywellsuited forachievingtangibleresults in thespecificcontextof

children’sprotectionandempowermentinthedigitalenvironment.152

BROADVARIETYOF INITIATIVES.Asmentioned,ARIsregulatingcommercialcommunication

canbefoundatdifferentlevels(i.e.international,regional,national)andthescopeofthe

rulescontainedinthemmayvary(e.g.applicabletoalladvertisingformats,applicableto

148 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(2013)16.149OECD(n74).150OECD(n74)42–43.151OECD(n74)42–43.152Lievens,Protecting Children in theDigitalEra: TheUse of Alternative Regulatory Instruments (n 12);European Parliament, ‘Resolution of 15 December 2010 on the Impact of Advertising on ConsumerBehaviour’5;EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaEuropeanStrategy for a Better Internet for Children’ 6 <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0196&from=EN>accessed16March2018.

35

specific formats or to certain products). As early as 1937, the most important

international self-regulatory organisation (“SRO”), the International Chamber of

Commerce (“ICC”), adopted the first International Code of Advertising andMarketing

Communication Practice 153 , which served as a basis for most self-regulatory codes

worldwide and even for national legislation in more than 35 countries. However, as

VERBRUGGENpointsout,differentlegaltraditionsandmarketstructureshaveledtomajor

differences in the adoption of the provisions in the national context.154 Indeed, ARIs

regulatingcommercialcommunicationdohaveastrongregionalcharacter.155InEurope,

theEuropeanAdvertisingIndustrybegancoordinatingtheeffortsofnationalSRO’sinthe

early nineties, by setting up the EuropeanAdvertising StandardsAlliance (“EASA”) in

1992. Furthermore, certain sectors have been particularly active in adopting ARIs

regulating commercial communication aimed at children. For instance, driven by the

globalproblemofchildobesity,severalpledgesbythe foodsector tochange foodand

beveragesmarketingtochildrenhaveemergedovertheyears.

DRAWBACKSTOARISONCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Nevertheless,scholarsagreethatthere

areanumberofdrawbackstoself-regulation,suchasalackofeffectiveenforcement,a

low level of transparency and it has been questioned whether it should be a tool to

safeguard human rights.156 Furthermore, even though co-regulation partly addresses

thesedrawbacks,confusionoruncertaintymayoccurforinstancewhenthestructureand

proceduresarenotcarefullylaidoutfromthestartorwhentheroleofallactorsisnot

clearly described.157In order to overcome these drawbacks and set a benchmark for

effectiveARIs, the EuropeanCommission designed “Principles for better self- and co-

153 ICC (2006). Advertising and Marketing Communication Practice. Accessed athttp://www.iccwbo.org/Advocacy-Codes-and-Rules/Document-centre/2011/Advertising-and-Marketing-Communication-Practice-(Consolidated-ICC-Code)/on17.10.2016.154 Verbruggen, ‘Case Study Report – Transnational Private Regulation in the Advertising Industry.Conductedwithin the Framework of the Research Project Constitutional Foundations of TransnationalPrivateRegulation’(n143).155DurovicandMicklitz(n142)36.156B.E.Baarsma,‘AfwegingskaderBijHetGebruikvanZelfreguleringsinstrumenten’(2010)1TijdschriftvoorToezicht<https://dare.uva.nl/search?identifier=4dfccb8b-1f3e-41d3-898a-fcab1453b4f0>accessed22March2018;Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n11).157Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).

36

regulation”coveringthephasesofconceptionandimplementation(discussedinfrapart

III,chapterI).

ARISANDREGULATORYTOOLS.ARIsoften fallbackonormakeuseofso-called regulatory

tools. Examples of regulatory tools in the context of commercial communication are

technology (e.g. advertising cues, labels, parental control mechanisms, identification

mechanisms) or supporting mechanisms such as education and advertising literacy.

Thesetoolsembodytheconceptofempowermentandmayhelpchildrentocopewith

commercialcommunication.Importanttonoteisthattheirusealsoneedstorespectthe

broaderlegalframework,includingchildren’srights(e.g.theirrighttoprivacy,freedom

ofexpression).158

CONCLUDINGREMARK.Wehaveseenthatanextensiveregulatoryframeworkforcommercial

communication is in place at the international, EU and national level, and that it is

fragmented into legislative and alternative regulatory instruments. The next section

focusesmore specifically on how “new” advertising andmarketing practices (cfr. the

emergingtrendsasdiscussedsupra)havebeenintroducedintothepolicydiscourseat

internationalandEUlevel.

2. Childrenandnewformsofcommercialcommunicationinpolicydocuments

THREEMAINOBJECTIVESONTHEPOLICYAGENDA.Whenanalysingpolicydocumentsdealingwith

childrenandnewformsofcommercialcommunication,threemajorpolicyobjectivescan

be identified: (1) the protection of children against commercial pressure online and

certainformsofadvertising;(2)children’sprivacyanddataprotectiononlineand(3)the

need for children’s education and advertising literacy.What follows is a selection of

relevantpolicydocumentsatboththeinternationalandEuropeanUnionlevelthatrefer

toone(ormore)oftheseobjectives.

158Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)230.

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2.1 Internationalpolicydocuments

2.1.1OECDRecommendationontheprotectionofchildrenonline

RECOGNITIONOFCHILDREN’SCONSUMERRISKSONLINE.In2012,theOrganisationforEconomic

Co-operationandDevelopmentissueditsRecommendationontheprotectionofchildren

online,which “includesprinciples forall stakeholders involved inmaking the Interneta

saferenvironmentforchildrenandeducatingthemtowardsbecomingresponsibledigital

citizens”.159TheRecommendationwasdraftedaftertheOECDconductedareportin2011

ontherisksthatchildrenareexposedtoonlineandthepoliciesthatprotectthem.160An

important issue that is raised by the report is the protection of children against

commercial pressure online. The OECD recognises that children are targeted as

consumers on the internet and deserve specific protection in this regard. 161 More

specifically, the reportunderlines several consumer risks that childrenare facedwith

online,suchasreceivinginappropriateorhiddencommercialmessages,aswellasrisks

relatedtotheirprivacyandpersonaldata.InterestingtonoteisthattheOECDiscurrently

reviewingandscopingthedevelopmentsintheareaofchildprotectiononline,inorder

tokeepthe2012Recommendationrelevantanduptodate.162

PRINCIPLESFORDIGITALPOLICYMAKING.TheRecommendationalsomentionsthreeprinciples

thatgovernmentsneedtotakeintoaccountwhendevelopingpoliciesfortheprotection

of children online, which are also relevant in the context of online advertising and

marketing.First,policymakersshouldfostertheempowermentofchildrenandparents,

byprovidingsafedigitalenvironmentsforchildrentoparticipateinandbysupporting

parentsintheirprimaryroleofevaluatingandminimisingrisksonline(aswellasoffline),

includingadvertising-related risks (e.g.misleadingorharmful advertisements,privacy

infringements). Second, there should be a balance between the protection and

participationofthechildonline,andassuch,policymakersshouldpaydueaccountofthe

principleofproportionality.Digitalpolicyshouldalsobeconsistentwiththefundamental

159OECD(n74)6.160OECD(n74)6.161OECD(n74)25.162OECD(n74).

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valuesofdemocraticsocieties(e.g.thefreedomofexpression,privacyprotectionandthe

freeflowofinformation),astheyarealsoapplicabletochildren.Third,therapidevolution

of new technologies (including innovative marketing practices) and the development

processofchildrennecessitatesacertaindegreeof flexibility.Inthisregard,theOECD

recommends that policies are age-appropriate and technology neutral to ensure their

sustainability.163

2.1.2 CouncilofEurope

A. DECLARATIONOF THECOMMITTEE OFMINISTERS ON PROTECTING THEDIGNITY, SECURITYAND

PRIVACYOFCHILDRENONTHEINTERNET

CONCERNSFORTHEPROFILINGOFCHILDRENFORCOMMERCIALPURPOSES.Theprotectionofchildren

in the online environment against commercial and privacy risks forms an important

priorityoftheCouncilofEurope(“CoE”).Alreadyin2008,theCommitteeofMinisters–

the CoE’s statutory decision-making body – expressed its concerns regarding “the

profilingofinformationandtheretentionofpersonaldataregardingchildren’sactivities

for commercialpurposes”.164Even though theCommittee recognises the Internetasan

important means for children’s communication, information and education, it also

expressesconcernsaboutthelongtermstorageofandaccesstochildren’sdatathatmay

bedamagingtotheirdignity,privacyandsecuritywhentheygrowup.Inotherwords,the

Committee recognises the potential negative impact of the commercial profiling of

children on their development. To address these issues, theDeclaration requires that

thereshouldbenolastingandpermanentlyaccessiblerecordofthecontentcreatedby

children which challenges their dignity and privacy, or otherwise renders them

vulnerablenoworinthefuture,unlessinthecontextoflawenforcement.Therefore,the

MemberStateswereinvitedtoexplorethefeasibilityofremovingordeletingsuchcontent

withinareasonablyshorttimespan.165

163OECD(n74)8.164CouncilofEurope,CommitteeofMinisters,‘DeclarationoftheCommitteeofMinistersonProtectingtheDignity,SecurityandPrivacyofChildrenontheInternet’.165CouncilofEurope,CommitteeofMinisters,‘DeclarationoftheCommitteeofMinistersonProtectingtheDignity,SecurityandPrivacyofChildrenontheInternet’(n164).

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B. STRATEGYONTHERIGHTSOFTHECHILD

CHILDREN’SDIGITALRIGHTSASAPRIORITYAREA.TheCouncilofEuropehasalsoexpressedthat

therealisationofchildren’srightssuchastherighttoprivacyinthedigitalenvironment

isoneofitsmostimportantprioritiesfortheperiod2016to2021.InitsStrategyonthe

Rightsof theChild, theCoErecognisesontheonehandthatnewtechnologiesprovide

childrenwith importantopportunities forexercisingtheirparticipationrights(e.g. the

righttoeducation,righttofreedomofexpression).Ontheotherhand,theCoEunderlines

the risks that children face online, for instance exposure to harmful content, but also

privacy and data protection issues. In this regard, the Strategy also mentions the

increasing generational divide, with parents and teachers struggling to catch upwith

technologicaldevelopments.166TheCoEwill address these issuesbyofferingguidance

and support to Member States in “ensuring children’s participation, protection and

provision rights in thedigital environment”.167Theaimof thisguidanceandsupport is

threefold:(1)toeffectivelychangelegislationanddigitalpolicytoprotectchildreninthe

onlineenvironment;(2)toempowerchildrentofullyenjoythepotentialofICT;and(3)

tooffereducationconcerningdigitalcitizenshipandtotackleradicalisationandonline

hatespeech.168TheimplementationoftheStrategyismonitoredbytheAdhocCommittee

for theRightsof theChild(“CAHENF”),composedofrepresentativesofall47Member

States.169

166 Council of Europe, ‘Strategy on the Rights of the Child 2016-2021’ (2016) 9<https://rm.coe.int/168066cff8>accessed2August2017.167CouncilofEurope,‘StrategyontheRightsoftheChild2016-2021’(n166)20.168CouncilofEurope,‘StrategyontheRightsoftheChild2016-2021’(n166)21.169TosupporttheAdhocCommitteewiththedevelopmentofcomprehensiveGuidelines,aDraftingGroupofSpecialistsonChildrenandtheDigitalEnvironmenthasbeenestablished.CouncilofEurope,‘Children’sRights Committee’ (Council of Europe Portal: Children’s Rights)<https://www.coe.int/en/web/children/cahenf>accessed19March2018.

40

C. RECOMMENDATIONCM/REC(2018)7OFTHECOMMITTEEOFMINISTERSTOMEMBERSTATESON

GUIDELINESTORESPECT,PROTECTANDFULFILTHERIGHTSOFTHECHILDINTHEDIGITALENVIRONMENT

BUSINESSRESPONSIBILITIESFORCHILDREN’SDIGITALRIGHTS.InJuly2018,theCouncilofEurope

released a Recommendation on the rights of the child in the digital environment.170

Although it is the primary responsibility of the State to protect children’s rights, the

CouncilhighlightsinitsRecommendationthatbusinesseshavearesponsibilitytorespect

human rights (infra part III).171More specifically, the Council states that all relevant

publicandprivatestakeholdersshareresponsibilityforensuringtherightsofchildrenin

thedigitalenvironment.ItisuptotheStatetohavethemeasuresormechanismsinplace

thatarenecessarytorequirebusinessestomeettheirresponsibilitiesinrespectingthe

rightsofchildren.172

DIGITALADVERTISINGASANAREAOFCONCERN.TheCouncilalsoexplicitlymentionstheriskof

harmfromadvertisingasoneoftheareasofconcernforchildren’shealthydevelopment

and well-being in the digital environment. 173 In its Recommendation, the Council

underlinesthatchildrenhavearighttobeprotectedfromallformsofexploitationinthe

digitalenvironment.Morespecifically,itisuptotheStatesto“takemeasurestoensure

that children are protected from commercial exploitation in the digital environment,

including exposure to age-inappropriate forms of advertising and marketing.” 174

Furthermore, Statesare recommended toensure that the industrydoesnotengage in

unfair commercialpractices towards children.Thisentails thatdigital advertisingand

170Council of Europe, Committee ofMinisters, ‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee ofMinisterstoMemberStatesonGuidelinestoRespect,ProtectandFulfiltheRightsoftheChildintheDigitalEnvironment’<https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectId=09000016808b79f7>.171 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).172Council of Europe, Committee ofMinisters, ‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee ofMinisterstoMemberStatesonGuidelinestoRespect,ProtectandFulfiltheRightsoftheChildintheDigitalEnvironment’(n170).173Council of Europe, Committee ofMinisters, ‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee ofMinisterstoMemberStatesonGuidelinestoRespect,ProtectandFulfiltheRightsoftheChildintheDigitalEnvironment’(n170).174Council of Europe, Committee ofMinisters, ‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee ofMinisterstoMemberStatesonGuidelinestoRespect,ProtectandFulfiltheRightsoftheChildintheDigitalEnvironment’(n169),para57.

41

marketingtowardschildrenmustbeclearlydistinguishabletothemassuch.Moreover,

allrelevantstakeholdersarerecommendedtolimittheprocessingofchildren’spersonal

dataforcommercialpurposes.

2.2 EUpolicydocuments

ADVERTISINGANDTHEINFORMATIONPARADIGMINTHEEU.IntheEuropeanUnion,theinternal

marketinwhichgoods,personsandservicescanmovefreelyamongtheMemberStates,

is one of the fundamental aspects of the European integration. However, realmarket

integrationcallsforconsumerswhoaresufficientlyinformedandawareofthetypesof

goods and services that are available to them.175 This is where advertising plays an

important role, and where the freedom of commercial expression allows commercial

operatorstoencourageconsumerstoengagein(cross-border)transactions.176Moreover,

GARDEexplainsthatitalsofitsinwiththemodelofconsumerprotectionoftheEU,relying

onthebeliefthatforconsumerstotakefulladvantageoftheopportunitiesofferedbya

widerinternalmarketandmovebeyondtheirnationalborders,theymustbeinformed.177

In this regard, the European Commission underlines that “empowered and informed

consumerscanmoreeasilymakechangesinlifestyleandconsumptionpatternscontributing

to the improvement of their health, more sustainable lifestyles and a low carbon

economy”.178However, for the informationparadigm to be successful, the information

providedtoconsumersmustbeofsufficientqualityandadequatetoguideconsumersin

their commercial decision-making and to effectively enable them to protect

themselves.179

175Garde(n2).176TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightshasintroducedcommercialcommunicationintothedomainoffreedomofexpressiondecadesago,withthecaseconcerninganadvertisementfortheScientologyChurch.XandChurchofScientologyvSweden,5May1979,Appn7805/77.177Garde(n2).178EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheCouncil,theEuropeanParliamentandtheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee-EUConsumerPolicyStrategy2007-2013-EmpoweringConsumers, EnhancingTheirWelfare, EffectivelyProtectingThem’ 11 <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0099&from=EN>accessed20March2018.179S.Wheaterill,EUConsumerLawAndPolicy(2nded.edition,EdwardElgarPub2005);Garde(n2)2.

42

THE PROTECTION OF THE CHILD AS A LEGITIMATE INTEREST. Furthermore, free movement of

course has its limits and there are important non-commercial interests that require

adequate protection and legislation, such as consumer protection or health related

concerns.Forinstance,GARDEmentionsexistingrestrictionsonthemarketingofcertain

goods and services like tobacco, alcoholic beverages, unhealthy foods, gambling). 180

Theseconcernsareevenmoreseriouswhenchildrenareinvolved,astheircommercial

decision-makingskills are lessdeveloped thanadults and theygenerallyhavea lower

level of advertising literacy. Furthermore, the Court of Justice of the European Union

(“CJEU”)supportstherightsofthechildasa“legitimateinterestwhich,inprinciple,justifies

a restriction on a fundamental freedom guaranteed by the EC Treaty, such as the free

movement of goods”.181Keeping children safe in the digital environment has been the

subjectofintensepolicydebateintheEUsincetheriseoftheinternetasapublicmeans

ofcommunication.182

2.2.1 European Parliament Resolution of 15 December 2010 on the impact of

advertisingonconsumerbehaviour

RISKSOFNEWFORMSOFADVERTISING.Backin2010,theEuropeanParliament(“EP”)already

explicitlyrecognisedthatnewadvertisingpracticesonlineandviamobiledevicesmay

causeseveralissuesthatneedtobesolved,inordertomaintainahighlevelofprotection

ofinternetusers.183AccordingtotheEP,advertisingmaybeharmfulonthebasisofthe

natureof theadvertisedproduct, suchas tobaccooralcohol, orbecauseof theuseof

stereotypesregardinggender.Furthermore,aformofadvertisingthattheEPdenounces

180A.Garde,‘AdvertisingRegulationandtheProtectionofChildren-ConsumersintheEuropeanUnion:IntheBestInterestsof...CommercialOperators?’[2011]Internationaljournalofchildren’srights523.181C244/06DynamicMedienVertriebsGmbHvAvidesMediaAG(CJEU);Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).Althoughthiscasedidnotrelatetotheprotection of children against advertising or marketing practices (it related to the importation by acompanyofJapanesecartoonscalled‘Animes’inDVDorvideocassetteformatfromtheUnitedKingdomtoGermanyandthelackofanage-limitlabel),thereasoningoftheCourtisalsorelevantbyanalogyinthisspecificcontext.Seealsoarticle24of theCharterofFundamentalRightsof theEuropeanUnion,whichexplicitlyprotectschildrensrights,infrachapterII,sectionI.182B.O’Neill,E.StaksrudandS.McLaughlin (eds),TowardsaBetter Internet forChildren?PolicyPillars,PlayersandParadoxes(Nordicom2013).183EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152).

43

inparticularinitsResolutionishiddeninternetadvertising,suchascommentspostedon

socialnetworks,forumsandblogs.184Thedirectorindirectfinancingofsuchactionsby

businessesisalsocondemned.Theproblemwithsuchhiddenadvertisingpracticesisthat

it is very difficult for consumers to distinguish the commercial message from mere

opinions.Asaresult,theymightmakethewrongdecisions,believingthattheinformation

originates from anobjective source. In relation to these practices, the EP callson the

EuropeanCommissionandtheMemberStatestoensureaproperapplicationoftheUnfair

Commercial Practices Directive (infra) and to develop information and awareness

campaignsforconsumers.TacklinghiddenadvertisingatanEUlevelwouldallowtoclean

up the market and boost consumer confidence. 185 Another element of new forms of

commercialcommunicationthattheEPvoicesitsconcernsaboutispersonalisationand

the use of intrusive advertising practices (e.g. geolocation, using social media,

retargeting).Inthisregard,companiesthatarebothcontentprovidersandadvertising

sales houses (e.g. socialmedia platforms, video-sharing platforms) present important

risksforcross-referencingdatacollectedinthecourseofeachoftheseactivities.186

CHILDRENAREAPARTICULARLYVULNERABLEGROUPOFCONSUMERS.TheEPconsiderschildrenand

adolescentstobeparticularlyvulnerabletoaggressivemarketingandadvertisingandas

suchinneedofspecificprotection.187Morespecifically,theEParguesthatchildrenand

adolescentsaregreatlyreceptiveandcuriousbeingsthatlackacertainlevelofmaturity,

makingthemeasilyinfluencedbynewinformationandcommunicationtechnologies.In

this regard, the EP advocates an evidence-based approach and calls on the European

Commission to conductadetailedanalysisof the impactof aggressiveandmisleading

advertising on vulnerable consumers, and in particular on children and adolescents

(infra). The Resolution also mentions certain protections for children that could be

184EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)6.185EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)6.186EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)6.187EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)8.

44

implementedorfurtherdevelopedbytheMemberStates,includinginteraliarestrictions

onTVadvertisingaddressedtochildrenduringprogrammesmainlywatchedbychildren,

restrictions on targeted advertising to children and on advertisements that display

harmfulbehaviourorattitudes(e.g.drugs,eatingdisorders).

SELF-REGULATION AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY. In addition, the EP addresses the

responsibilityoftheadvertisingindustrythatcomeswith“theimpactofwidespreadand

pervasive advertising”. 188 In this regard, self-regulation could support the existing

legislative framework and the Member States are encouraged to establish formally

recognised self-regulatoryauthorities.189Inaddition, theadvertising industry canalso

playanimportantrolebycultivatingacultureofcorporateawarenessandresponsibility.

POSITIVEASPECTSOFADVERTISING.Inrelationtothelatter,theEPalsohighlightsthepositive

aspectsofadvertisinginitsResolution.Inparticular,EPspecifiesthatadvertisingfosters

competition and competitiveness; is likely to limit abuses of dominant positions; and

encouragesinnovationonthemarket.Asaresult,advertisingincreasesconsumerchoice

and lowerthepricesofproductsandservicesonthemarket.Furthermore,consumers

willalsoreceiveinformationonnewproducts.Advertisingrevenuesarealsocrucialfor

financingcontentcreationandsafeguardingadynamicandcompetitivemedialandscape,

aswell as contributing toadiverseand independentpress inEurope.190In this sense,

advertising revenue also allows for the development of media content and digital

platformsspecificallyforchildren.Finally,theEPunderlinesthatadvertisingcanplayan

important role in fighting stereotypes and prejudices based on racism, sexism and

xenophobia.191

188EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)5.189However,theEPrecognisesthattherearecertaindrawbackstoself-regulationandthat itcanneverentirelyreplacelegislation,especiallywithregardtotheprotectionofconsumers’personaldata.190EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)3.191EuropeanParliament, ‘Resolutionof15December2010ontheImpactofAdvertisingon ConsumerBehaviour’(n152)4.

45

2.2.2 European Parliament Resolution of 22 May 2012 on a Strategy for

StrengtheningtheRightsofVulnerableConsumers

CHILDREN ARE VULNERABLE CONSUMERS THAT NEED PROTECTION. The European Parliament

repeated the need for an in-depth study of the existing regulatory framework on

advertisinginits2012Resolutioninordertoevaluatewhetherstricterrulesareneeded

when it comes to children and young people. The Resolution illustrates a particular

concernforchildren’shealth,astheyincreasinglysufferfromproblemslikeobesityand

sedentariness.Inthisregard,theEPpointstothefactthatchildrenaremoresensitiveto

advertising for food that is high in fat, salt or sugar.192 Therefore, the EP urges the

EuropeanCommissiontoincludetheprotectionofchildreninthiscontext(andespecially

againstaggressiveormisleadingTVandonlineadvertising)asapriorityontheConsumer

Agenda.TheEPalsorepeatsitsconcernsabouttheimpactoftheroutineuseofonline

behaviouraladvertisingandintrusiveadvertisingpractices,inparticularthroughtheuse

ofsocialmedia.193

CONSUMER EMPOWERMENT. Furthermore, the EP advocates that vulnerable consumers

should be empowered, entailing that their capacity to take optimal decisions is

strengthened. This could be achieved by the provision of clear and understandable

informationandconsumereducation.Nevertheless, theEPexpresses itsconcernsthat

empowermentalonewouldnotbe sufficientas “their vulnerabilitymayoriginate from

theirdifficulty inaccessingorassessing the informationgiven to them”.194As such, it is

crucialthatvulnerableconsumers,likechildren,arenotmisled.

192EuropeanParliament,‘EuropeanParliamentResolutionof22May2012onaStrategyforStrengtheningtheRightsofVulnerableConsumers(2011/2272(INI))’7.193EuropeanParliament,‘EuropeanParliamentResolutionof22May2012onaStrategyforStrengtheningtheRightsofVulnerableConsumers(2011/2272(INI))’(n192)9.194EuropeanParliament,‘EuropeanParliamentResolutionof22May2012onaStrategyforStrengtheningtheRightsofVulnerableConsumers(2011/2272(INI))’(n192)5.

46

2.2.3 OpinionoftheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeonaframeworkfor

advertisingaimedatyoungpeopleandchildren(September2012)

PROTECTIONSFORCHILDRENAGAINSTCERTAINFORMSOFADVERTISING.TheEuropeanEconomic

and Social Committee (“EESC”)195also participated in the debate on the protection of

childrenagainstcertainformsofadvertising.Morespecifically,inits2012Opinionthe

EESCdiscusses thedevelopmentof legislativeorothermeasures for theprotectionof

childrenandyoungpeopleagainstthoseformsofcommercialcommunicationthatwould

“usechildrenimproperlyortargettheminaharmfulway,orexposethembyanymeansto

messages that could harm their sound physical,mental ormoral development”.196 The

EESCexplicitlyrecognisesthatadvertisingaimedatchildrenmaypresentadditionalrisks

dependingontheage-groupinvolved,whichcouldharmtheirphysical,mentalormoral

health.Accordingly, theOpinionhighlightsanumberofadvertisingpractices(content-

related)thatshouldnotbeusedwhenadvertisingtochildren,includingincitementsto

over-consumption and the use of violent, racist, xenophobic, erotic or pornographic

content.Furthermore,severalelementsthatrequirefurtherscrutinyarementionedinthe

Opinion,includingchildren’sbehaviouronsocialmediaaccordingtotheirageandsocial

background;thephenomenonofchildrenchoosing‘idols’or‘lifestyles’asdefinersoftheir

personality,whichare in turnexploitedbyadvertising; theuseofchildren’simages in

advertising; children being specifically targeted by advertising. The EESC also

recommendstosetauniversalminimumageforadvertisingspecificallyaimedatchildren

at theEU level, toensurethesmoothoperationof the internalmarket.197Additionally,

morerestrictive,cross-cuttingmeasuresareneededforprotectingchildren’srightsinthe

contextofadvertising,andespeciallyaudiovisualanddigitalcommercialcommunication.

INCREASED EXPOSURE TO ONLINE ADVERTISING.With regard to online advertising, the EESC

pointstothefactthatchildrenincreasinglyhaveaccesstoatelevisionandtheinternetin

195TheEESCisanEUadvisorybodycomposedofrepresentativesofworkers’andemployers’organisationsandotherinterestgroups,whichissuesopinionsonEUmatterstotheEuropeanCommission,theCouncilof the EU and the European Parliament. For more information see https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/institutions-bodies/european-economic-social-committee_en.196EuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee,‘OpinionoftheEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeonaFrameworkforAdvertisingAimedatYoungPeopleandChildren’1.197EuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee(n196)2–3.

47

their bedroom. As such, this presents difficulties for themediating role of parents in

mitigatingtheeffectsofadvertising.Moreover,astheinternetplaysanimportantrolein

thedailylivesofchildren,theyareincreasinglyexposedtonewadvertisingandmarketing

techniques.Therefore,theEESChighlightsthatspecialemphasisonchildren’seducation

and information concerning digital technologies and on how to interpret advertising

messagesisneeded,bothinschoolandathome.198

SHORTCOMINGSOFTHECURRENTREGULATORYFRAMEWORK.Finally, theEESCstressesthat the

existingregulatoryframeworkisfailinginadequatelyprotectingchildren’srightsinthe

contextofadvertising.Morespecifically,thelegalframeworkiscomplexandconfusing,

partly because of the different transposition and implementation of the legislative

instruments in the Member States. The fact that advertising self-regulation has been

developed at the international and member State level does not remove the need to

“guaranteeahighlevelofrespectforchildrenandtheirprotectioninordertoensuretheir

physical, mental and moral development, with concern for their own interests, their

wellbeingandthepreservationofthefamilyenvironmentandties”.199

2.2.4 EuropeanParliamentResolutionof20November2012onprotectingchildren

inthedigitalworld

CHILDREN AND THE RISKS OF DIGITAL ADVERTISING. In line with its earlier resolutions that

addressedtheprotectionofchildrenagainstcertainformsofcommercialcommunication,

theEuropeanParliamentexpresseditsmainconcernsagainin2012,thistimespecifically

focusing on the digital environment. As a general principle, the EP underlines that

advertising targetedat children shouldbe responsibleandmoderate.However, in the

digitalenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoage-inappropriate,aggressiveormisleading

advertising,200aswellastoriskstotheirprivacyanddignity.Forinstance,minorsshould

198EuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee(n196)4–5.199EuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee(n196)9.200EuropeanParliament,‘EuropeanParliamentResolutionof20November2012onProtectingChildrenintheDigitalWorld’6.

48

bemadeaware201ofandprotectedfromonlineexposuretoadvertisingthatencourages

overspendingandthepurchaseofvirtualgoodsorcreditswiththeirmobilephones.Thus,

the EP urges the Commission again to include the protectionof children against both

aggressiveormisleadingTVandonlineadvertisinginitsmainpriorities.

2.2.5 EuropeanCommission Communication ona European Strategy for aBetter

InternetforChildren(2012)

CHILDREN’SSPECIFICNEEDSANDVULNERABILITIES.InspiredbytheUnitedNationsConvention

ontheRightsoftheChild(infra,chapterII),theEuropeanCommissionlauncheditsEU

StrategyforaBetterInternetforChildrenin2012,whichtriestofindthebalancebetween

empowering and educating children on the one hand and offering protection where

needed on the other hand. According to the EC, children have specific needs and

vulnerabilitiesandalthoughtheyaregenerallyperceivedas‘digitalnatives’,researchhas

shownthatthereisaseriousdigitalskillsdeficitamongstEurope’schildren.202Forthis

andotherreasons(suchasmarketfragmentationandthefailureofthemarkettodeliver

protectionmeasuresandqualitycontentforchildrenacrossEurope),theECwasofthe

opinionthatastrategyforEuropewasneededto“createasafer,enrichingenvironment

forallEUchildren”.203

PROTECTINGCHILDRENAGAINSTCERTAINFORMSOFADVERTISING,PROMOTINGSELF-REGULATION.Inits

Communication,theEuropeanCommissionincludedseveralactionpointsconcerningthe

protectionofchildrenagainstcertainformsofonlineadvertisingandoverspending.As

children have not fully developed the ability to engage critically with advertising

messages,204the Commission stresses that there should be standards for commercial

201In this regard, theMemberStatesareencouraged topromotesystematiceducationand training forchildren.202TheECmentionsthatalthough38%of9-12year-oldsinEuropewhousetheinternetreportedlyhaveasocialmediaprofile,only56%ofthe11-12year-oldssaystheyknowhowtotweaktheirprivacysettings.K.Ólafsson,S.LivingstoneandL.Haddon,‘Children’sUseofOnlineTechnologiesinEurope’40.203EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaEuropeanStrategyforaBetterInternetforChildren’(n152)6.204EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaEuropeanStrategyforaBetterInternetforChildren’(n152)5.

49

messagesonchildren’swebsites thatallowa levelofprotectioncomparableto thatof

audiovisual commercial communication (infra, part II chapter I). Moreover, the

Commissionaddressestheissueofbehaviouraladvertisingandunderlinesthatnosuch

segmentsshouldbecreatedtotargetchildren.Theadvertisingindustryisencouragedto

comply with the existing requirements or restrictions for digital advertising and to

further develop self-regulatory standards to ensure that children are not exposed to

inappropriate advertising in any form of online media. Indeed, in its Strategy, the

Commission underlines its preference for more flexible and more adaptable self-

regulatory tools andeducation,over regulation.205Furthermore, theCommission itself

promisestostepupenforcementofexistingEUrules,encouragetheindustrytofurther

develop self-regulatory standards and look into further legislation if self-regulatory

measuresfailtodeliver.206

2.2.6 European Commission Green Paper: Preparing for a Fully Converged

AudiovisualWorld:Growth,CreationandValues(2013)

ACONVERGINGMEDIALANDSCAPE.Consideringtheongoingtransformationoftheaudiovisual

mediaserviceslandscape,theEuropeanCommissionpublishedaGreenPapertoopenthe

discussions on the implications of the increased convergence ofmedia services. In its

GreenPaper,theEChighlightsthattraditionalbroadcastingservicesandtheinternetare

increasinglymerging,resultingintheexpansionofviewingpossibilities(e.g.connected

TVsets,PCs,tabletsandothermobileadvices)andopportunitiestointeractwithfriends

or with the TV programme itself. However, this tranformation also raises important

questionsfortheprotectionofconsumers,includingspecificgroupssuchasminors.207

TheCommissionforeseesthatthisconvergencewillalsohaveanimpactinthefutureon

a number of legal instruments, including inter alia the Audiovisual Media Services

205EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaEuropeanStrategyforaBetterInternetforChildren’(n152)2.206EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaEuropeanStrategyfor a Better Internet for Children’ 13 <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0196&from=EN>accessed28March2018.207 European Commission, ‘Green Paper: Preparing for a Fully Converged AudiovisualWorld: Growth,CreationandValues,COM(2013)231Final.’4.

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Directive and the e-Commerce Directive, but also the frameworks on consumer

protection,dataprotectionandelectroniccommunications.

NEWFORMSOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Therelationshipbetweentheseinstrumentswill

also become more visible in the context of convergence and innovative advertising

techniques. The Commission expresses concerns about several new advertising

techniques,suchascommercialoverlaysthatareshownwithouttheconsentofusersand

broadcasters, disguised commercial communications and personalisation tools.

Accordingly, the Commission poses several questions for public consultation on this

specifictopic:

- “WillthecurrentrulesoftheAVMSDregardingcommercialcommunications

still be appropriate when a converged experience progressively becomes

reality?Couldyouprovidesomeconcreteexample?

- What regulatory instruments would be most appropriate to address the

rapidly changing advertising techniques? Is there more scope for self/co-

regulation?

- Whoshouldhavethefinalsaywhetherornottoacceptcommercialoverlays

orothernoveltechniquesonscreen?”208

Furthermore, the Commission underlines the importance of the EU data protection

framework for increasing consumer trust in the innovative business models that are

emerginginthedigitalenvironment,andreferstotheongoingreformsinthisregard(i.e.

theGeneralDataProtectionRegulation,infra).

SELF-REGULATION AS AN APPROPRIATE COMPLEMENT TO LEGISLATION. The Green Paper also

mentions the use of self-regulation as an appropriate complement to the regulatory

approach,consideringtheglobalandcomplexnatureoftheinternet.209Relatedtothis,

theCommissionalreadylaunchedaninitiativein2012withbusinessestodevelopacode

208 European Commission, ‘Green Paper: Preparing for a Fully Converged Audiovisual World: Growth,CreationandValues,COM(2013)231Final.’15.209 European Commission, ‘Green Paper: Preparing for a Fully Converged Audiovisual World: Growth,CreationandValues,COM(2013)231Final.’12.

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ofgoodpracticeforself-andco-regulationexercises,resultinginanumberofprinciples

forbetterself-andco-regulation.210

EXECUTIVESUMMARYOFRESPONSESTOTHEPUBLICCONSULTATION.Thegatheredresponsestothe

consultationshowthatseveralpublicbodiesandconsumergroupsareconcernedabout

the impact of convergence on the relationship between the AVMS and e-Commerce

Directives.211First,itisdifficulttodeterminetheexactscopeoftheAVMSDirectiveandit

maybeinterpreteddifferentlyacrossMemberStates.Second,certainrespondentswere

also concerned about new advertising techniques such as when third party online

advertisingisoverlaidontobroadcastingcontent,whichwouldbecoverdbytwoseparate

Directives.

2.2.7 EuropeanCommissionCommunicationonADigitalSingleMarketStrategyfor

Europe(2015)

DIGITALSINGLEMARKETSTRATEGY.TheEuropeanCommissionfollowedupontherepeated

callsbytheEuropeanParliamenttoprioritisetheprotectionofchildrenagainstcertain

formsofadvertisingandontheconcernsexpressedbyvariousstakeholdersduringthe

publicconsultation.Theobjectiveofprotectingchildrenagainstnewformsofcommercial

communication forms part of the European Commission Strategy on a Digital Single

MarketforEurope.ThemaingoaloftheStrategyistohave

“amarket in which the freemovement of goods, persons, services and capital is

ensured andwhere individuals and businesses can seamlessly access and exercise

onlineactivitiesunderconditionsoffaircompetition,andahighlevelofconsumer

210European Commission, ‘Principles for Better Self- and Co-Regulation’ <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/sites/digital-agenda/files/CoP%20-%20Principles%20for%20better%20self-%20and%20co-regulation.pdf>accessed12July2018.211EuropeanCommission,‘ExecutiveSummaryofContributionstothePublicConsultation-GreenPaperPreparingforaFullyConvergedAudiovisualWorld’6.

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andpersonaldataprotection,irrespectiveoftheirnationalityorplaceofresidence”

(emphasisadded).212

Byachievingthisgoal,theCommissionisconvincedthatEuropewillbeabletomaintain

its position as a world leader in the digital economy. To realise such a digital single

market, the Strategy contains several actions, including a number that relate to

commercialcommunicationsandtheprotectionofchildren.

ACTIONS FOR COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION AND CHILD PROTECTION: REVIEW OF EXISTING LEGAL

INSTRUMENTS. First, the Commission addresses the changing media landscape and the

changing viewing habits of users (i.e. consumption of audivisual media content

increasinglyviatheinternetandportabledevices).Second,theCommissionrecognises

that the framework regulating audiovisual media services 213 - at the time - already

containedasetofminimumrulesfortraditionalbroadcastsandon-demandaudiovisual

media services, including rules on commercial communications and the protection of

minors.However, aspartof theStrategy, the functioningof these rules in lightof the

convergingmedialandscapeweretobeanalysed.Second,inrelationtoprivacyanddata

protection, the Commission aims at achieving the highest standards and, therefore,

decidedtoassess the functioningof therulesapplicable toelectroniccommunications

services.214

3. Newformsofcommercialcommunicationcallforfuture-proofregulation

WHY REGULATE. When developing recommendations for future-proof regulation, it is

importanttotakeintoaccounttheunderlyinggoalofsuchregulation.Inthecontextof

commercialcommunicationaimedatchildren,regulationentailsrestrictionsontheuse

of certain types of persuasive tactics, and thus the behaviour of certain actors (i.e.

212EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegionsonaDigitalSingleMarketStrategyforEurope.[COM(2015)192Final]11’(n134)3.213I.e.the2010AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective(infra,partIIchapterI).214I.e.theePrivacyDirective(infra,partIIchapterI).

53

advertisers).Therefore,thereshouldbeacompellingreasontoregulate.215Afirstreason

referstotheeffectivenessofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationsandtheimpactof

the persuasive tactics used on children’s advertising literacy (as analysed above).

Secondly,theincreasedexposureofchildrentocommercialmessages,especiallyinthe

digital environment, also has certain unintended effects on children’s development.

Finally, aside from the impact on children’s advertising literacy and development, the

precautionaryprincipleshouldalwaysbeconsideredinthecontextofchildprotection.

3.1 Effects of commercial communication on children’s development and

advertisingliteracy

IMPACTONCHILDREN’SADVERTISINGLITERACYAfirstreasonwhythesenewadvertisingformats

necessitateanempowering regulatory framework is children’sdevelopmentand their

cognitive capacities. As mentioned, the specific features of new forms of commercial

communication make them particularly appealing to children, which renders them

vulnerabletopersuasion.216Childrenfinditdifficulttousetheiradvertisingliteracyskills

whenitcomestonewformsofcommercialcommunicationastheydonotrecognisethem

assuchandthereforecannotcriticallyreflectupontheirmessages.Fromanethicalpoint

ofview,ithasbeenquestionedwhetheritisacceptableorresponsibletotargetyoung

consumerswithcommercialmessages,iftheydonotrecognisethemassuch.217Children

mayfacetheriskofbeingmanipulatedifitisuncleartothemthatcertaininformation,

contentorentertainmentisinfactapersuasivecommercialmessage.Theyaregenerally

moretrustingthanadultsand,assuch,morepronetocommercialpitches.

UNINTENDEDEFFECTSOFADVERTISINGANDMARKETINGONCHILDREN.Inaddition,therearecertain

unintendedeffectsofcommercialcommunicationwhichneedtobekeptinmind.Firstof

all,socialscientistshavewitnessedanincreaseinparent-childconflictsasaconsequence

215 By analogy see Lievens, Protecting Children in the Digital Era: The Use of Alternative RegulatoryInstruments(n12)38.216Vanwesenbeeckandothers(n6);Huddersandothers,‘SheddingNewLightonHowAdvertisingLiteracyCanAffectChildren’sProcessingofEmbeddedAdvertisingFormats’(n1);Rozendaal(n129).217M.J.AustinandM.L.Reed, ‘TargetingChildrenOnline:InternetAdvertisingEthicsIssues’(1999)16JournalofConsumerMarketing590.

54

ofnagbehaviourorso-called‘pesterpower’.218Theubiquityofcommercialmessagesin

children’s livesmay leadthemtobecomemorematerialisticandattachmorevalueto

money.219Anextremeopinion in this regardoriginates fromBakan,whoclaims inhis

bookthat“bigbusinessesaretransformingourchildrenintoobsessiveandnarcissisticmini-

consumers,mediaaddictsandpharmaceuticalindustryguineapigs”.220Anillustrationcan

befoundinchildren’schangingfoodchoices,asresearchhasrevealedthatchildrenwho

playedadvergamespromotinglesshealthyfoodsweremorelikelytoselectlesshealthy

foodoptionsthanthosewhoplayedadvergamespromotinghealthierfoodoptions,which

mayleadtolongtermhealthconcernssuchasobesity.221Thus,newadvertisingformats

callintoquestionchildren’sabilitytomakeinformedcommercialdecisions,whichmay

havelong-lastingeffectsontheirdevelopment.

3.2 Precautionaryprinciple

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE: CONCEPT AND ORIGIN. Aside from the impact on children’s

advertisingliteracyanddevelopment,ithasbeenarguedthatinrelationtodelicateissues

suchas the contextof childprotection,one shouldalwaysdefer to the ‘precautionary

principle’.222AccordingtotheMerriamWebsterdictionary,precautioncanbedefinedas

218 L. McDermott and others, ‘International Food Advertising, Pester Power and Its Effects’ (2006) 25InternationalJournalofAdvertising513;L.Huddersandothers,‘Children’sAdvertisingLiteracyforNewAdvertising Formats: The Mediating Impact of Advertising Literacy on the (Un)Intended Effects ofAdvergamesandAdvertisingFundedPrograms.’inP.Verlegh,H.VoorveldandM.Eisend(eds),AdvancesinAdvertising Research (Vol. VI) (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2016)<http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-658-10558-7_19>accessed29March2018.219M.BuijzenandP.M.Valkenburg, ‘TheEffectsofTelevisionAdvertisingonMaterialism,Parent–ChildConflict,andUnhappiness:AReviewofResearch’(2003)24JournalofAppliedDevelopmentalPsychology437;S. J.Opree,ConsumedbyConsumerCulture?Advertising’s ImpactonChildren’sMaterialismandLifeSatisfaction (9789462590335 2014) <http://dare.uva.nl/search?arno.record.id=467433> accessed 30March2018.220Bakan(n1).221J.L.Harris, J.A.BarghandK.D.Brownell, ‘PrimingEffectsofTelevisionFoodAdvertisingonEatingBehavior’ (2009)28HealthPsychology:Official Journalof theDivisionofHealthPsychology,AmericanPsychological Association 404; Montgomery and Chester (n 87); European Parliament, ‘EuropeanParliamentResolutionof22May2012onaStrategyforStrengtheningtheRightsofVulnerableConsumers(2011/2272(INI))’ (n 191). Accordingly, these studies highlight the important informative role ofcommercial communication and its potential positive impact on society. For instance, the commercialmessagecouldpromotehealthyproductstochildrenormotivatethemtobehaveinagoodway(e.g.eathealthy).222Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)38.

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“caretakeninadvanceandameasuretakenbeforehandtopreventharmorsecuregood”.223

Inlinewiththisdefinition,theprecautionaryprincipleembracesa‘bettersafethansorry’

approach,requiringactionbeforethereisstrongproofofharm224.225Similarly,NARYANAN

etal.clarifythattheprincipledealswithdecision-makingandriskregulationinsituations

wherethereisscientificuncertainty,butthatitsexactformulationishighlydebated.226

Theprincipleoriginatesfromthefieldofenvironmentalpolicy,whereitwasusedasa

meanstobridgeuncertainscientific informationandapoliticalresponsibility toact in

order to prevent damage to the public health and to ecosystems.227More specifically,

severalscholarshavetraceditsoriginstothe‘Vorsorgeprinzip’in1970’sWestGerman

environmental policy, which commands that “the damages done to the natural world

(whichsurroundsusall)shouldbeavoidedinadvanceandinaccordancewithopportunity

andpossibility”.228Overtheyears,ishasbeencitedinvariouslegalinstruments,policy

documentsandcaselawattheinternational,EUandnationallevel.229

223 X., ‘Precaution’, Merriam-Webster Dictionary, retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/precautionon6April2018.224It shouldalsobenoted that thenotionofharmin itself isa complexone.According to theMerriemWebster Dictionary, harm is defined as physical ormental damage. However,what is harmful can beculture-dependentanditmayevolveovertime.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)61.Furthermore, inthecontextofadvertising,it isdifficulttokeepupwithemergingtrendsandtomeasuretheactualorfutureimpactonchildren.225 P. Harremoes and others, The Precautionary Principle in the 20th Century: Late Lessons from EarlyWarnings (Routledge 2013) 4–5; Lievens,Protecting Children in the Digital Era: The Use of AlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n11)38.226Accordingtotheauthors:“ithasmany,much-debatedformulations,rangingfromveryweak(forexample,thatregulationshouldbepermittedwhenrisksareuncertain)toverystrong(forexample,thatanyaction with an uncertain risk should be barred completely until the actor can prove that the risks areacceptable”. A. Narayanan, J. Huey and E.WFelten, ‘A Precautionary Approach to BigData Privacy’ inS.Gutwirth,R.LeenesandP.DeHert(eds),DataProtectionontheMove,vol24(SpringerNetherlands2016)12<http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-017-7376-8_13>accessed6April2018.227M.MartuzziandJ.Tickner,ThePrecautionaryPrinciple:ProtectingPublicHealth,theEnvironmentandthe Future of Our Children (WHO Regional Office for Europe 2004) 7–8<http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/91173/E83079.pdf>accessed9April2018.228J.E.FenstadandK.Matsuura,‘ThePrecautionaryPrinciple,WorldCommissionontheEthicsofScientificKnowledgeandTechnology(PublishedbyUNESCO)’52,9–10;Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra: The Use of Alternative Regulatory Instruments (n 11) 39; Martuzzi and Tickner (n 226) 10; A.Szajkowska,‘TheImpactoftheDefinitionofthePrecautionaryPrincipleinEUFoodLaw’24,175.229ForanoverviewseeLievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n11);K.GarnettandD.J.Parsons,‘Multi-CaseReviewoftheApplicationofthePrecautionaryPrincipleinEuropeanUnionLawandCaseLaw’(2017)37RiskAnalysis502;L.Costa, ‘PrivacyandthePrecautionaryPrinciple’(2012)Vol.28ComputerLaw&SecurityReview,14.,

56

THEPRECAUTIONARYPRINCIPLEINEUPOLICYANDLEGISLATION.AttheEUlevel,theprinciplehas

alsoemergedasanautonomousprincipleinspiredbytheconstitutionaltraditionsinthe

EUMemberStates.ItwasofficiallyintroducedintoEUlawbytheTreatyofMaastricht230

andisreferredtoinarticle191oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnionin

thecontextofenvironmentalpolicy.231However,theEuropeanCommissionhasclarified

thattheprinciplehasamuchbroaderscopeofapplication:

“Although the precautionary principle is not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty

except in the environmental field, its scope is farwiderand covers those specific

circumstanceswherescientificevidenceisinsufficient,inconclusiveoruncertainand

thereareindicationsthroughpreliminaryobjectivescientificevaluationthatthere

are reasonable grounds for concern that the potentially dangerous effects on the

environment,human,animalorplanthealthmaybe inconsistentwith the chosen

levelofprotection.”232

ThiswasalsoconfirmedbytheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnioninArtegodan, in

which it recognises the precautionary principle as a general principle of EU law. 233

Accordingly,theEUinstitutionsmustconsidertheprecautionaryprincipleintheirpolicy-

making in order to ensure a high level of environmental, health and consumer

protection. 234 In this regard, the European Commission has established common

guidelinesontheapplicationoftheprecautionaryprinciple.First,therearethreespecific

conditionsthatneedtobeadheredto:(1)thefullestpossiblescientificevaluationshould

beconductedtodetermineasfaraspossiblethedegreeofscientificuncertainty;(2)there

230 Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 191 , 29/07/1992, <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:11992M/TXT>accessed12July2918.231Article191TFEUstatesthat:“2.UnionpolicyontheenvironmentshallaimatahighlevelofprotectiontakingintoaccountthediversityofsituationsinthevariousregionsoftheCommunity.Itshallbebasedontheprecautionaryprincipleandontheprinciplesthatpreventiveactionshouldbetaken,thatenvironmentaldamageshouldasapriorityberectifiedatsourceandthatthepollutershouldpay”(Emphasisadded).232CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiononthePrecautionaryPrinciple,COM(2000)1Final’9.233T-74/00ArtegodanGmbHandOthersvCommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities(JoinedcasesT-74/00,T-76/00,T-83/00,T-84/00,T-85/00,T-132/00,T-137/00andT-141/00)(CourtofFirstInstance)§§183-184.234Szajkowska(n228)175.

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should be a risk assessment of the potential consequences of inaction; and (3) all

interestedpartiesshouldparticipateintheexaminationofprecautionarymeasuresonce

the results of the scientific evaluation are available. 235 Second, the Communication

mentions the general principles of risk management that apply whenever the

precautionaryprincipleisinvoked,whichentailthatthemeasurestakenonthebasisof

theprincipleshouldbeproportional,non-discriminatory,consistent,basedonancost-

benefitanalysisofactionorinaction,subjecttoreviewinlightofnewscientificevidence

andcapableofassigningresponsibilityforproducingthescientificevidenceneeded.236

THEPRECAUTIONARYPRINCIPLEANDFOODADVERTISING.Theprecautionaryprinciplehasalso

beenmentioned inthecontextof(digital)advertising,andmorespecificallyrelatedto

unhealty food. Despite the steady emergence of academic analysis exploring and

supporting the correlationbetween (digital) advertising forunhealthy foodsandchild

obesity, there is stillno clearevidenceof any direct andcausal relation.237TheWorld

HealthOrganisation(“WHO”)urgesStateactorsandpolicymakerstokeepupwiththe

changes in thedigital environmentas the current lackof regulationofunhealthy food

marketingtochildrenonlineleavesthemwithoutprotection.AccordingtotheWHO,such

a“wait-and-see”approach isnot inlinewiththeprecautionaryprinciple,norwiththe

UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild(infra).238

THEPRECAUTIONARYPRINCIPLEANDNEWFORMSOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Inlinewiththe

above, and considering that (1) new innovative advertising formats are constantly

235 European Commission, ‘The Precautionary Principle - Summaries of EU Legislation’ (30 November2016) <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Al32042> accessed 9 April2018.236CommissionoftheEuropeanCommunities(n232)3.237Infactthecorrelationmaybeduetootherfactorssuchasenvironmentalorsocialfactorsencouragingchildrentobecomeoverweight.D.Barnabéandothers,‘TheEffectofAdvertisingandMarketingPracticesonChildObesity,AStudyRequestedbytheEuropeanParliament’sCommitteeontheEnvironment,PublicHealthandFoodSafety.’(2007)12–13.238 More specifically, the Convention aims at treating children’s interests as a primary concern andbalancingtheirprotectionandparticipationrights,whichrequiresamoreproactiveapproachratherthanawait-andseeapproach.WorldHealthOrganization(RegionalOfficeforEurope),‘TacklingFoodMarketingto Children in aDigitalWorld: Trans-DisciplinaryPerspectives - Children’sRights, Evidence of Impact,MethodologicalChallenges,RegulatoryOptionsandPolicyImplicationsfortheWHOEuropeanRegion’21<http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/322226/Tackling-food-marketing-children-digital-world-trans-disciplinary-perspectives-en.pdf>accessed9April2018.

58

emerging,yet(2)researchontheimpactofdigitaladvertisingonchildren’sdevelopment

and advertising literacy is struggling to catch up, the precautionary principle could

arguably be considered as a justification of the creation of regulatory protections for

childrenagainst (potentially)harmfuldigital advertising.Moreover, theprecautionary

principle has also been mentioned by scholars in the context of privacy and data

protection,whereitisarguedthatabroadscopeofapplicationoftheprincipleisrequired

inordertocounteractrealbutintangibleprivacyharmsthataredifficulttoquantify.239

4. Takingachildren’srightsapproach

ACHILDREN’SRIGHTS-BASEDAPPROACH.SincetheadoptionoftheUnitedNationsConvention

ontheRightsoftheChild(“UNCRC”),ithasbeengenerallyrecognisedthatchildrenare

entitledtofundamentalrights(infrapartIchapterII).Inthisregard,VANDERHOFexplains

thattheUNCRC“signifiesaparadigmshiftfromawelfare-basedapproachtowardsarights-

based approach with respect to children”, which recognises children as active

rightsholders.240Ingeneral,theterm‘rights-based’isbroadlyusedtoindicatethatwork

is influencedby internationalhumanrightsstandards.241However,accordingtoLUNDY

and MCEVOY, these international standards are a legal articulation of a broader

philosophicalperspectiveandshouldbeunderstoodwithintheparadigminwhichthey

have been developed. 242 A children’s rights approach is underpinned by the general

principles of the UNCRC, which guide the interpretation of the rights in practice. 243

Moreover, itembodiesthemultidimensionalityof thechildren’srights frameworkand

239Costa(n229);O.Lynskey,TheFoundationsofEUDataProtectionLaw(OxfordUniversityPress2015)83–84;B.vanderSloot,‘WhereIstheHarminaPrivacyViolation?CalculatingtheDamagesAffordedinPrivacy Cases by the European Court of Human Rights’ (2017) 4<https://bartvandersloot.com/onewebmedia/Bart%20van%20der%20Sloot%20-%20PLSC.pdf>accessed29August2018.240vanderHof(n94).241L. Lundy and L.McEvoy, ‘Childhood, the UnitedNations Convention on the Rights of the Child andResearch:What Constitutes a Rights-Based Approach’ inM. Freeman (ed),Law and Childhood (OxfordUniversity Press) 77 <https://www.qub.ac.uk/research-centres/CentreforChildrensRights/ChildrensRights-BasedResearch/>accessed29August2018.242LundyandMcEvoy(n241).243GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.5(2003)GeneralMeasuresofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(2003)4.

59

balances the different dimensions of protection, empowerment and provision. 244 In

addition,FREEMANarguesthatahumanrights-basedapproachdistinguishes itself from

other moral discourses by “drawing our attention to the persons that have rightful

entitlements”.245More specifically, the codificationof thesestandardsplaces important

obligations on the state (i.e. to protect, respect and remedy, infra).246 To achieve an

effectiveimplementationoftheUNCRC,statesshoulddevelopachildrightsperspective

throughouttheirgovernment,parliamentandjudiciary.247UNICEFclarifiesthattakinga

children’s rights-based approachmeans that human rights and child rights principles

shouldguidepolicy-makinginallsectors.Morespecifically,

“achildrights-basedapproachintegratesthenorms,standardsandprinciplesofthe

international human rights system into the plans, policies and processes of

programmedevelopmentforchildren”.248

Recognisingthis,thisPhDtakesachildren’srightsapproach,wherekeychildren’srights

principlesand standardsareusedasa critical lens toexamine theexistingregulatory

framework for commercial communication aimed at children. More specifically,

children‘s protection, empowerment and opportunities for autonomy are explored in

light of the challenges posed by new forms of commercial communication. Such an

approachentailstwosteps:(1)thechildrenrightsandprinciplesthathavebeencodified

ininternationallawaredefinedasthenormsandstandardsforchildwell-beinginthe

specificcontextofcommercialcommunicationand(2)thekeyEUlegalcommitmentsto

children’srightsinthiscontextareidentifiedandevaluated.Inrelationtothesecondstep,

the research examines the legality of new trends in the area of commercial

communication and evaluates whether the current regulatory framework adequately

244Inherresearch,VANDERHOFhasusedthethreep’sasconceptual lensesthroughwhichsheanalyseschildren’sdataprotection,inordertoensureabalancedapproach.vanderHof(n94).245M.Freeman,HumanRights(EPZededition,PolityPress2002).SeealsoGerisonLansdown,TheEvolvingCapacitiesoftheChild(Florence2005).246LundyandMcEvoy(n241).247 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243)4.248 UNICEF, ‘Main Principles - Child Rights Approach’ (UNICEF)<https://www.unicef.org/tdad/index_55678.html>accessed4April2018.

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protectsandempowerschildrentodealwithnewformsofcommercialcommunication,

in lightof their fundamentalrights.The focusalso liesondeveloping the capacitiesof

duty-bearers at all levels (i.e. states, businesses, parents) tomeet their obligations to

respect,protectandfulfilrights,aswellasondevelopingthecapacitiesofrights-holders

(i.e.children)toclaimtheirrights.249

249UNICEF(n248).

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SECTIONIII–INTERIMCONCLUSION

CONSTITUTIVEELEMENTS. In this chapter, the central elements of the PhD researchwere

delineated and analysed. First, the essential building blocks ‘children’, ‘commercial

communication’and‘advertisingliteracy’wereexamined.Wefoundthatemergingtrends

in the area of commercial communication haven specific features (i.e. integration,

interaction,personalisationandemotionalappeal)thatmakeitdifficultforchildrento

apply their advertising literacy skills. The persuasive tactics behind these advertising

techniquesnegativelyaffecttheircapacitytocriticallyevaluatethecommercialmessage

and, ultimately impact children’s commercial decision-making in both the online and

offlineworld.

THENEEDFORAFUTURE-PROOFREGULATORYFRAMEWORK.Second,thecentralproblemofthis

studywaspresented:theneedforafuture-proofregulatoryframeworkforcommercial

communication in light of children’s rights. In this section we explored the evolving

regulatory context and the protection of children against new forms of commercial

communiciationasapolicyobjective.Morespecifically,wefoundthreerecurringthemes

in policy documents at the international and EU level: protecting children against

commercialpressureinthedigitalenvironment,protectingchildren’sprivacyanddata

protectionandempoweringchildrenthrougheducationandfosteringtheiradvertising

literacy.However, considering theeffectivenessofnewadvertising formats, especially

whentargetedtochildren,itisquestionedwhethertheexistingregulatoryframeworkfor

commercialcommunication-whichisfragmentedintolegislativeinstruments(ofwhich

anumberareunderrevieworhavebeenreviewedrecently)andalternativeregulatory

instruments–achievesthesepolicygoals.Eventhoughtheimpactonchildren’slivesof

theincreasedcommercialisationmaynot(yet)beentirelyclearorscientificallyproven,

wearguedthattheprecautionaryprinciplejustifiesathoroughmappingandevaluation

oftheinstrumentsinlightofchildren’srightsandmightbeconsideredasajustification

foradditionalregulatoryprotectionsforchildrenifneeded.

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CHAPTER II -THEROLEOFCHILDREN’SRIGHTS INREGULATINGNEW

FORMSOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION.Theaimof this chapter is togainadeeperunderstandingof the roleof

children’s rights in regulating new forms of commercial communication. The chapter

starts by providing a brief introduction to children’s fundamental rights at the

internationalandEUlevel.Itthenidentifieswhichchildren’srightsareatstake,studies

how they have been reconfigured in the context of commercial communication and

interprets them in this specific context. This interpretation forms the analytical

frameworkfortheevaluationofthelegislativeandalternativeregulatoryinstrumentsin

thefollowingpartsoftheresearch.

SECTIONI–INTRODUCINGTHECHILDREN’SRIGHTSFRAMEWORK

INTRODUCTION.Beforestudyingtherelevantchildren’srightsandprinciples,itisimportant

to take a step back and look at how children’s rights have emerged, at both the

internationalandEuropeanlevel.Thissectionalsointroduceschildren’srightsinadigital

environment,consideringtheincreaseddigitisationofchildren’slifeworlds.

1. Children’srightsatinternationallevel

1.1 Fromsubjectofprotectiontoactiverightsholders

FROMSUBJECTOFPROTECTION...The idea that childrenareactiveholdersof rightsand, as

such,formaseparatesocialandlegalcategoryisonlyarecentcreation.250Untiltheend

oftheMiddleAges,thedominantattitudetowardschildrenintheWesterncountrieswas

oneofindifference.Itwasonlyduringthe16thto18thcenturythattheideaofchildrenas

a separate group with specific characteristics and expected behaviour gained

prominence. Back then, children were regarded as innocent creatures in need of

education, as compared to the “wordly-wise”adults.251Alongside thissocietal attitude

250E.Verhellen,Conventionon theRightsoftheChild–Background,Motivation,Strategies,MainThemes(Garant2005)11–16.251Verhellen(n250)11–16.

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towardschildren,vulnerabilityandincapacityhavealsobeenthebedrockoftheWestern

legal conception of children. 252 At the beginning of the 20th century, the first child

protectionlawsemergedandcompulsoryeducationwasintroducedinmostcountries.253

In1924,theLeagueofNationsadoptedtheDeclarationontheRightsoftheChild,which

marked the starting point of a journey towards full recognitionof children’s rights in

internationallaw.254

…TOACTIVE RIGHTSHOLDERS. Nowadays, it is generally recognised that the human rights

frameworkisnotonlyapplicabletoadultsbutalsotochildrenasaspecifiedgroup.Infact,

theUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild255isthemostwidelyaccepted

instrumentof international law,with193countrieshavingratified it (includingallEU

Member States).256For the first time in history, children are considered to be active

subjects of rights and granted a number of fundamental human rights (i.e. children’s

rights).257Therightsguaranteedcanbedividedaccordingtothetraditionalsubdivision

ofhumanrightsintocivil/political(i.e.thechildascitizen,e.g.freedomofspeech),socio-

economic(e.g.righttoeducation,leisureandplay)andculturalrights(e.g.rightsrelated

to arts and culture) or alternatively into the three P’s: provision (e.g. education),

252Inmostsituations,childrenstillneedanadultrepresentativetoinitiatelegalproceedingsontheirbehalfandtheirvulnerabilityhasoftenbeeninvokedtojustifythisdifferenceintreatment.S.Clark,‘ChildRightsand theMovement from Status to Agency: Human Rights and the Removal of the Legal Disabilities ofVulnerability’(2015)84NordicJournalofInternationalLaw183.Anotherexamplecanbefoundincommonlaw,where only certain contractswithminors are entirely valid, namely contracts for necessariesandbeneficialcontractsofservice.Allothercontractsarevoidableattheoptionoftheminorreflectingtheirvulnerablestatusandrestrictedcapacitytocontract.Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7)604.253Verhellen(n250)11–16.254TheDeclaration, forinstance,enshrinedchildren’srighttobegiventhemeansnecessaryforthemtodevelop normally both at amaterial and spiritual level. Declaration on the Rights of the Child, 1924,<http://www.un-documents.net/gdrc1924.htm>accessed12July2018.255 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 20 November 1989,<http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx>accessed12July2018.256InterestingtonoteisthatalthoughtheUSissignatorytotheConvention,upuntilnowithasnotratifiedit. See Status of Ratification Interactive Dashboard, http://indicators.ohchr.org/ (Last Updated: 8 June2017).257Verhellen(n250)87;S.Ruxton,‘Children’sRightsintheEuropeanUnion:WhataboutUs? :NextSteps.Brussels: The European Children’s Network’ (2005) 105<https://www.crin.org/en/docs/Ruxton%20Report_WhatAboutUs.pdf>accessed8November2017;Clark(n252).

64

protection(e.g.againsteconomicexploitation)andparticipation(e.g.freedomofspeech)

rights.258

PROTECTION, PROVISION AND PARTICIPATION. Most of the provisions of the UNCRC are

protectionistinnature,aschildren’sperceivedspecialvulnerabilityinspiredthedrafters

to include protections against certain situations that are particularly dangerous for

children (e.g. article 11 on illicit transfer abroad, article 33 involvement with illegal

drugs).259However,theUNCRCalsoemphasisesthecapacitiesandstrengthsofchildren

asrightsholders.260Indeed,oneoftheessentialelementsoftheUNCRCisthebeliefthat

childrenshouldnotberegardedmerelyasvulnerablevictims,butalsoassocialactors

who need support while growing up. 261 As such, the UNCRC also has a provision

dimension,aschildrenhavetheright tobeprovidedwiththeresources, theskillsand

servicesneeded for theirdevelopment (i.e. to safeguardbasic care andnurture).262In

addition,theUNCRChasaparticipationdimension,requiringthatchildrenareenabledto

playanactiveroleinsociety,forinstancebyallowingthemtohaveavoiceinthedecision-

makingprocessonpolicyissueswhichaffectthem.263

258 Garde (n 2); A. Osler and H. Starkey, ‘Children’s Rights and Citizenship: Some Implications for theManagement of Schools’ (1998) 6 The International Journal of Children’s Rights 313; Annemie Dillen,‘ChildrenbetweenLiberationandCare:EthicalPerspectivesontheRightsofChildrenandParent–ChildRelationships’(2006)11InternationalJournalofChildren’sSpirituality237.259 J. Willems, Developmental and Autonomy Rights of Children (2007)<http://intersentia.be/nl/developmental-and-autonomy-rights-of-children.html> accessed 8 November2017.260Ruxton(n257)28.261Ruxton(n257)17.Forinstance,theformalphrasing“theexercisebythechildoftherightsrecognizedinthepresentConvention”inarticle5,expressesthefactthatchildrenareactivesubjectsofrights.R.HodgkinandP.Newell,‘ImplementationHandbookfortheConventionontheRightsoftheChild:FullyRevisedThirdEdition’ (UNICEF) 85 <https://www.unicef.org/publications/index_43110.html> accessed 26 February2018.262J.Fortin,Children’sRightsandtheDevelopingLaw(CambridgeUniversityPress2003)10–11.263Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12).Inthedigitalenvironment,thiscouldbetherighttoengageandcommunicatewiththeirfriendsandfamilyinasafemanner.

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1.2 TheUnitedNationsFramework

NORMATIVEVALUE.TheUNCRCwasadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyon the20thof

November1989264andenteredintoforceonthe2ndofSeptember1990.Itsprovisions

arelegallybindingforthesignatorystates.TheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionhas

explicitlyrecognisedthelegalbindingforce265oftheUNCRCfortheEUMemberStates:

“TheCourthasalreadyhadoccasiontopointoutthattheInternationalCovenanton

CivilandPoliticalRightsisoneoftheinternationalinstrumentsfortheprotectionof

human rights of which it takes account in applying the general principles of

Community law[…].That isalsotrueof theConventionontheRightsof theChild

referred to abovewhich, like the Covenant, binds each of theMember States”.266

(Emphasisadded)

Asidefromitslegallybindingnature,theUNCRCalsoenjoysasignificantmoralforcedue

to its status as the most highly ratified instrument in international law.267 There is,

however,noconsensusonthedirecteffectorself-executiveforceoftheUNCRC.268The

actual implementation of the provisions is left up to the discretion of the national

legislators.269Indeed,theUNCRCprovisionsmostlyaddressStates,whoareresponsible

fortakingmeasuresimplementingthetreatyintheirnationallegalsystems.Thisentails

264 Previous international documents on children’s rights were: “Declaration on the Rights of Child”,adoptedbytheLeagueofNationsin1924,andthe1959“UNDeclarationontheRightsofChild”,whichwasadopted unanimously by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 20 November 1959, <http://www.un-documents.net/a14r1386.htm>accessed12July2018.ForadetailedoverviewseeG.VanBueren,InternationalLawontheRightsoftheChild(SpringerNetherlands1995)11–16.265ThisentailsthatafteraccessionorratificationoftheConvention,statescannolongeradoptnationallawswhichareinbreachoftheConvention.266ParliamentvCouncil[2006]CJEUC-540/03[37].Seealso:Verhellen(n249)147;S.Meuwese,M.BlaakandM.Kaandorp,HandboekInternationaalJeugdrecht(ArsAequiLibri2005)3.267U.Kilkelly, ‘TheBestofBothWorldsforChildren’sRights?InterpretingtheEuropeanConventiononHuman Rights in the Light of the UNConvention on the Rights of the Child’ (2001) 23 Human RightsQuarterly308,310.268Cf.forinstance:Verhellen(n250)84–86;Meuwese,BlaakandKaandorp(n266)4.269TheCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,however,doesemphasisethatit“welcomestheinclusionofsectionsontherightsofthechildinnationalconstitutions,reflectingkeyprinciplesintheConvention,whichhelpstounderlinethekeymessageoftheConvention–thatchildrenalongsideadultsareholdersofhumanrights”:UNCommitteeon theRightsof theChild, ‘GeneralCommentNo.5 (2003)GeneralMeasuresofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).

66

interaliareformingnationallaws,providingresourcesandservicesandmonitoringthe

impactof legislationandpoliciesonchildren’s livesandtheenjoymentof theirrights.

Furthermore,children’srightsimpactassessmentsneedtobebuiltintogovernmentatall

levelsandasearlyaspossibleinthedevelopmentofpoliciesandlaws.270Inthisregard,

theUNCRCrequiresStates tosubmitperiodicreports to theUNCRCCommitteeonthe

measurestheyhaveadoptedandtheprogresstheyhavemadegivingeffecttotherights

enshrinedintheConvention.271VERHELLENarguesthattheConventiondoesnotexistina

legalvacuum.Bytranslatingchildren’srightsintonationallawtheycanberefinedand

enhanced,dependingonthewillingness in theMemberStates tomaketheConvention

enforceable.272Theprinciplesof theUNCRCcontainthekeyguidelines forestablishing

children’srightspolicies,asrecognisedintheEUStrategyontheRightsoftheChild.273It

functions as a comprehensive framework against which legislative or self- and co-

regulatory proposals that directly or indirectly affect children should be evaluated.274

Furthermore,theCJEUhasrepeatedlystressedthatittakestheUNCRCintoaccountwhen

applyingthegeneralprinciplesofEUlaw.275

DEFINITIONOFACHILDANDITSEVOLVINGCAPACITIES.Thecentralaimof thechildren’srights

framework is to contribute to children’s personal or psychological development.

Accordingtoarticle1UNCRC,achildisconsideredtobe

“everyhumanbeingbelowtheageofeighteenyearsunlessunderthelawapplicable

tothechild,majorityisattainedearlier”.276

270Lundyandothers(2012)TheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChild:astudyoflegalimplementationin12countries.UnicefUK.271Article44UNCRC.272Verhellen(n250)84–87.273EuropeanCommission, ‘TowardsanEUStrategyon theRightsof theChild,COM(2006)367Final’6<https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52006DC0367&from=NL> accessed26July2018.274Ruxton(n257)17.275C244/06DynamicMedienVertriebsGmbHvAvidesMediaAG(n181)para93;Parliamentv.Council(n266)para37.276Article1UNCRC.

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Theageof18yearsisageneralupperbenchmark,meaningthatsignatorystateshaveto

providespecialprotectiontoeverychildbelowthislimit.277However,article1takesinto

accountthesocialandculturaldifferencesof thesignatorystates,byallowingnational

legislationtodeviatefromthisbenchmark.278Inthisregard,theUNCRCCommitteehas

stressedthatsignatorystatesshouldtakeintoaccounttheoverarchingprinciplesofthe

UNCRCwhensettingsuchagelimitsthroughlegislation.279Animportantprincipleinthis

regard is the evolving capacities of the child principle, which embodies the balance

between recognising that children are active agents in theirown liveswho should be

heard, respected and given increased autonomy in exercising their rights, and being

entitledtoprotectioninaccordancewiththeirrelative immaturityandyouth.280It isa

principleofinterpretation,whichrecognisesthatwhenchildrengrowolderandacquire

enhancedcapabilities,theneedfordirectionbytheirparentsorothersreduces.Inturn,

children’s capacity to take responsibility for decisions affecting their lives grows. 281

Childrenareahighlydifferentiatedgroup,withabroadvarietyoffactorsimpactingtheir

developmentandtheircapacitiesarevieweddifferentlyacrosstheworld.TheConvention

recognises that children in different environments and cultures will acquire

competencies at different ages. As a result, LANSDOWN stresses that “children require

varying degrees of protection, participation and opportunity for autonomy in different

contextsandacrossdifferentareasofdecision-making”.282

277InterestingtonoteisthatthestartingpointofchildhoodandtheacquisitionofrightsisnotdefinedintheConvention.Thisisbecausethedraftersdidnotwanttotakeapositiononabortion,whichwouldhavemadetheConvention’suniversalacceptanceimpossible.HodgkinandNewell(n261)3.278Examplesofdeviationsincludealowerageatwhichthechildattainsmajorityincivilmattersorassumescriminalresponsibility.HodgkinandNewell(n261)5.279Seealsothebestinterestsofthechildprinciple(infra).Lievensandothers(n16)5.280Lansdown(n245).281 According to LANSDOWN, the principle should be understood as a multidimensional concept: (1)recognisingchildren’sdevelopment,competenceandemergingpersonalautonomy,whicharepromotedthrough the realisation of the UNCRC rights (i.e. the developmental dimension); (2) respecting theircapacitiesand the transferof rights fromadults tochildrenbasedon their levelofcompetence (i.e. theparticipatorydimension);and(3)protectingchildren–astheyarestillevolving–bybothparentsandthestatefromparticipationinorexposuretoharmfulbehaviour(i.e.theprotectivedimension).Lansdown(n245).282Lansdown(n245)3.

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MONITORINGANDCOMPLAINTMECHANISM.Untilrecently,theUNCRCdidnotforeseeanactual

mechanismforcomplaint-handling.Accordingly,childrencouldnotfilecomplaintsand

therewasnooption for testing theConvention in specific casesby the courts.283This

changedwith the adoption of the Optional Protocol on a Communications Procedure

(“OP”) in2011,whichenabledthe filingofcomplaints regardingspecificviolationsof

children’s rightsunder theUNCRC.284As such, theProtocolprovidesameans through

whichchildren’slegalrightsandaccesstoremediescanbestrengthened.285AsperCLARK,

“theirlegalstatusaschildrenisnotinitselfanobstacletolegalcapacitytosuefor

violationsoftheirhumanrights”.

In other words, the complaint mechanism also echoes the legal transformation from

childrentoactiveholdersofrights.TheProtocolenteredintoforceinApril2014andhas

upuntilnowbeensignedby51andratifiedby39states.286Itestablishesaquasi-judicial

mechanismthatallowschildren287and/ortheirrepresentativesto filecomplaintswith

theUnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild(“UNCRCCommittee”)inrelation

to specific infringements of their rights under the UNCRC (infra). 288 The UNCRC

CommitteealsomonitorstheimplementationoftheConventioninthedifferentStatesand

can issue critical remarksor recommendations.289As it isup to theStates to take the

recommendationsintoaccount,theroleoftheCommitteeis“advisoryandnon-adversial

283E. Lievens, ‘A Children’s Rights Perspective on the Responsibility of Social Network Site Providers’(2014)3<https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/101441/1/795276834.pdf>accessed7November2017.284UnitedNations, ‘OptionalProtocol to theConventionon theRightsof theChildonaCommunicationProcedure’<https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/signature/2012/ctc_4-11d.pdf>accessed12July2018.285Clark(n252)216–217.286Forarealtimeupdateseehttps://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-11-d&chapter=4&lang=enaccessed13July2018.287Thisisalogicalandnecessaryoutcomeofwiththerightofthechildtobeheardasenshrinedinarticle12UNCRC.S.C.Grover,ChildrenDefendingTheirHumanRightsUndertheCRCCommunicationsProcedure(SpringerBerlinHeidelberg2015)4.288Grover(n287).TheCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildisthebodyof18Independentexpertsthatmonitors implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child by its State parties (see infraenforcement). For more information seehttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/CRCIndex.aspx.289Kilkelly(n267)309.

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innatureanditssuccessreliesondiplomacyratherthanlegalsanction”.290Theentering

into force of theprocedure allows the Committee to take up amore proactive role in

enforcingstatecompliance.291AlthoughthedecisionsoftheCommitteearenon-binding,

signatory parties commit themselves to follow the decisions and provide redress to

victims. 292 Important to note is that complaints can only be made after exhausting

domesticremedies.293Accordingly,acomplainantneedstoprovideevidenceofengaging

with existing domestic complaints mechanisms. Aside from the possibility to file

individualcomplaints,article9oftheOPforeseesthepossibilityoffriendlysettlements.

However, the effectiveness of the Communications Procedure has also received some

criticismbyacademics.Particularlytheexclusionofcollectivecomplaints294andthefact

thatsignatorystatesmaydecidetonotrecognisecertainpowersoftheUNCRCCommittee

areconceivedasweaknessesofthemechanism.295Finally,tofostertheimplementation

290Kilkelly(n267)309.291Previously,theCommitteeonlyhadthereportofthestatepartyandtheinformationandcontexttherein.G.Waschefort,InternationalLawandChildSoldiers(BloomsburyPublishing2014)157.TheCommitteemayalsotakeinterimmeasurestoavoidirreparabledamagetochildren.292 The state party is required to give serious consideration to the decision. A. Parkes, Children andInternationalHumanRightsLaw:TheRightoftheChildtoBeHeard(Routledge2013)242.293Forinstance,inBelgium,childrenand/ortheirrepresentativeshaveaccesstopreliminaryremediesviaalternativedisputeresolutionmechanisms,temporaryreliefwiththepresidingjudgesofthecourtsoffirstinstance,theymayfilecomplaintsseekingasanctionand/orcompensation(againstbusinessesand/orthestate)withcertainadministrativeauthorities(e.g.thechildren’srightscommissioner,thedataprotectionauthority),orhaveaccesstojudicialmechanisms.ForamoredetailedoverviewseeFacultyofLawAntwerp,‘Access toRemedy inBelgium - TheUnitedNationsGuidingPrinciples onBusinessandHumanRights(UNGP)inBelgium,State-BasedJudicialandNon-JudicialMechanismsThatProvideAccesstoaRemedy’(Federal Institute for Sustainable Development (FISD 2017)<https://www.sdgs.be/sites/default/files/publication/attachments/brochure_acces_to_remedy_in_belgium_2017.pdf>accessed16July2018;Similarly,inIreland,severallegalandquasi-legalremediesareopento children and families whose rights under the UNCRC have been violated (e.g. courts, the EqualityTribunal,theOmbudsmanforChildren’soffice).Children’sRightsAlliance,‘BriefingNoteontheOptionalProtocol to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure’<http://www.childrensrights.ie/sites/default/files/information_sheets/files/BriefingNoteUNCRC3rdOptProtocol170914.pdf>accessed12July2018.294GROVERexplainsthatrepresentativesofchildvictimcomplainants,suchasNGOsorchildren’sparentsorthecomplainantsthemselvesareblockedfrombringingcomplaintsasagroup,unlesseachandeveryoneofthegroupisaccuratelyidentified.Grover(n287)23.295Grover(n287)218;Waschefort(n291)156.

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of the UNCRC in an adequate manner, the Committee has also issued several

implementationguidelinesfortheStates.296

2. Europeanchildren’srightslaw

INTRODUCTION.Europeanchildren’srightslawhasbeendevelopedbytheCouncilofEurope

andtheEuropeanUnion.AlthoughtheCoEandtheEUsharethesamefundamentalvalues

such as human rights, democracy and the rule of law, they remain separate entities

performing different - but complementary – roles.297 The development of these two

frameworks are significantly informed by the international children’s rights

framework.298

2.1 Fundamentalhumanrightsforall,includingchildren

INFORMED BY THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK.We have seen that although the European

Union itself is not a party to the UNCRC, all the Member States have ratified the

Convention. 299 In this regard, the European Commission stated in its 2011

CommunicationonanEUAgendafortheRightsoftheChildthatthe

“standards and principles of the UNCRC must continue to guide EU policies and

actionsthathaveanimpactontherightsofthechild”.300

296Formore informationseeUNCommitteeon theRightsof theChild, ‘GeneralCommentNo.5 (2003)GeneralMeasuresofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).297Council of Europe, ‘TheCouncil of Europe and theEuropeanUnion:DifferentRoles, SharedValues’<https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/european-union>accessed30August2018.298 E. Canetta and others, ‘EU Framework of Law for Children’s Rights’ (European Parliament)<http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2012/462445/IPOL-LIBE_NT(2012)462445_EN.pdf>accessed12July2018.299OnlyStatescanbesignatoriestotheConvention,buttheEUasaninstitutioncouldbinditselfthroughunilateraldeclarationortheconlusionofanaccessionProtocol.Canettaandothers(n298)9.300EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions:AnEUAgendafortheRights of the Child, COM (2011) 60’ 3 <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52010DC0245R(01)&from=EN>accessed16July2018.

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Likewise,theCouncilofEuropeisnotlegallyboundtotheUNCRCasanorganisation,but

allitsMemberStatesareindividualpartiestotheConvention.301Overtheyears,boththe

CouncilofEuropeandtheEuropeanUnionhaveincreasinglybuiltontheUNCRCwhen

adopting their fundamental human rights instruments. The provisions of these

instrumentsthatcontainobligationsforMemberStatesconcerningchildren’srightsmust

beinterpretedinlightoftheUNCRC.302Assuch,itisthemostpowerfulchildren’srights

instrumentinEurope.303

THECOUNCILOFEUROPEFRAMEWORK.TheCouncilofEurope304hashadaclearmandateto

protect and promote human rights ever since its establishment. In 1950, the Council

adopted its main human rights treaty, the European Convention on Human Rights

(“ECHR”), 305 protecting democracy and human rights. It creates an international

obligationtocomplyfortheMemberStatesandhasthusbeenincorporatedbyallofthem

intheirnational laws.Furthermore, theConventionestablishedtheEuropeanCourtof

HumanRights (“ECtHR”)306toensure complianceof the contractingpartieswith their

obligationsundertheConvention.

301EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights,‘HandbookonEuropeanLawRelatingtotheRightsofthe Child’ (2015) 30 <http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2015/handbook-european-law-child-rights>accessed12July2018.302EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights(n301)30.303Verhellen(n250)132.304TheCouncilofEuropeisaninternationalorganisationinStrasbourg,counts47MemberStatesandwasformedrightaftertheSecondWorldWartopromotedemocracyandprotecthumanrightsinEurope.ItshouldnotbeconfusedwiththeinstitutionoftheEuropeanCouncil(whichconsistsoftheheadsofstateorgovernmentfromtheMemberStates,aswellasthePresidentoftheEuropeanCommission)orwiththeEuropeanUnion(whichconsistsof28MemberStatesthathavedelegatedacertainpartoftheirsovereigntyonspecificmattersofjointinterests).Nonetheless,allthemembersoftheEuropeanUnionarealsomemberof the Council of Europe. For more information seehttp://www.coe.int/aboutcoe/index.asp?l=en&page=nepasconfondre.305EuropeanConventiononHumanRights.CETSNo.0051950.306TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsiscomposedbyajudgeofeachofthepartiestotheConventionandcanexaminecasesbroughtbynationalsofMemberStatesandnon-MemberStates,nationalsofnon-Member States, Council of Europe Member States against another Member State. Seehttp://www.coe.int/aboutcoe/index.asp?l=en&page=nepasconfondre.

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TheConventiononlyexplicitlyreferstochildrenintwoinstances307andassuch,thescope

for enforcing and protecting children’s rights was not immediately evident. 308

Nevertheless,thegeneralprovisionsoftheECHRareapplicabletoeveryone-including

children-andseveraloftheguaranteedrightsarerelevantforchildren.309TheCoEhas

also explicitly recognised a fundamental right to education, which is of particular

significancetochildren’slives.310Inaddition,theECtHRhasoftenreferredtotheUNCRC

throughoutitsextensivecaselawonchildren’srights.311AsidefromtheConventionand

relatedcaselaw,theCoEhasdevelopedotherlegalstandardsfortheprotectionofspecific

children’srights,includinginteraliatheireconomicandsocialrights,312theirprocedural

rights313andtheirrighttoprotectionagainstsexualexploitation.314Finally,wehavealso

seen(supra,chapterI)thattheactualisationofchildren’srightsonlineformsanimportant

partoftheCoE’sStrategyontheRightsoftheChild(2016-2021).315

307Article5ondeprivationoflibertyandArticle6.1onthespecialprotectiontobeawardedtochildrenatpubliccourthearings.308Kilkelly(n267)308.309Ofparticularrelevancetochildrenaretherighttorespectforprivatelife(Article8),theprohibitionoftorture(Article3),therighttolife(Article2),theprohibitionofslaveryandforcedlabour(Article4)andtherighttoafairtrial(Article6).310AdditionalProtocolno.1.Article2.Retrievedfromhttp://www.coe.int/en/web/echr-toolkit/protocole-1.311Verhellen (n250)133;EuropeanUnionAgency forFundamentalRights (n301)23.For instance inHARROUDJV.FRANCEtheECtHRdecidedthat“thepositiveobligationsthatArticle8laysontheContractingStatesinthismatter[acaseconcerningadoption],theymustbeinterpretedinthelightoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChildof20November1989”.SeeHarroudjvFrance[2013]ECtHR43631/09.Otherexamples include interalia:MaslovvAustria [2008]ECtHR1638/0323;Keeganv Ireland [1994]ECtHR16969/90;KTvNorway[2008]ECtHR26664/03;SahinvGermany[2003]ECtHR30943/96;SandMarpervtheUnitedKingdom[2008]ECtHR30562/04.312EuropeanSocialCharter.EuropeanTreatySeries-No.1631996.ManyoftherightsguaranteedbytheCharterarerelevanttochildren,includingtherightofthefamilytosocial,legalandeconomicprotection(article16)andtherighttoprotectionofhealth(article11).Inaddition,theChartercontainsanumberofrights thatarespecificallyapplicable tochildren: the rightof childrenandyoungpersons toprotection(article7),therightofchildrenandyoungpersonstosocial,legalandeconomicprotection(article17).FormoreinformationseeSecretariatoftheEuropeanSocialCharter, ‘Children’sRightsundertheEuropeanSocialCharter’<https://rm.coe.int/1680474a4b>accessed14January2018.313EuropeanSocialCharter.EuropeanTreatySeries-No.163.314Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (LanzaroteConvention),CETSNo.201.2012.315CouncilofEurope,‘StrategyontheRightsoftheChild2016-2021’(n166).

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CHARTEROFFUNDAMENTALRIGHTSOFTHEEU.IncontrasttotheCouncilofEuropeframework,

theoriginaltreatiesoftheEuropeanCommunitiesdidnotexplicitlyrefertohumanrights

ortheirprotection.316Casesconcerninghumanrightsviolationsinareaswithinthescope

ofEUlawthatcamebeforetheEuropeanCourtofJusticewerebroughtintotheso-called

generalprinciplesofEUlaw.Inordertopositionfundamentalrightsmorevisiblywithin

EUlaw,theEUproclaimedtheEuropeanCharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropean

Union(Charter) in2000,coveringawholerangeofcivil,political,economicandsocial

rights of EU citizens, while also synthesising the constitutional traditions and

internationalobligationscommontothedifferentMemberStates.317

The Charter enshrines children’s rights and obliges Member States to foresee such

protectionandcareforchildren,whichisnecessaryfortheirwellbeing.Article24ofthe

Charterrecognisesthatchildrenareindependentandautonomousholdersofrights.318

Childrenareexplicitlygrantedarighttofreedomofexpression319andmaybenefitfrom

thegeneralrightsoftheCharter(e.g.righttoeducation,privatelife).Furthermore,the

Charter recognisesthebest interestsof the childprinciple,320in lightofwhichanyEU

policy that directly or indirectly affects childrenmust be designed, implemented and

monitored.321AlthoughinitiallytheCharterwasmerelyapoliticalinstrument,itbecame

legallybindingasEUprimarylaw(seeArticle6(1)oftheTreatyontheEuropeanUnion)

with the entering into force of the Lisbon Treaty on the 1st ofDecember2009.322 As

316 A. Williams, ‘Human Rights in the EU’ in Damian Chalmers and Anthony Arnull (eds), The OxfordHandbook of European Union Law (Oxford University Press 2015) 252<http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199672646.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199672646-e-10>accessed17July2018.317EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRightsandCouncilofEurope(eds),HandbookonEuropeanData Protection Law (Re-ed, Publ Office of the Europ Union [u.a] 2014) 20<https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Handbook_data_protection_ENG.pdf>accessed25July2018.318EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheEuropeanParliament,theCouncil,theEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommitteeandtheCommitteeoftheRegions:AnEUAgendafortheRightsoftheChild,COM(2011)60’(n300).319“Suchviewsshallbetakenintoconsiderationonmatterswhichconcerntheminaccordancewiththeirageandmaturity.”320Para2Article24CharterofFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion.321Canettaandothers(n298)19.322ThecompetenceoftheEUregardingchildrenislimitedtotheelementscontainedinArticles81and82TFEU.

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mentioned,theCJEUhasalsoexpresslyrecognisedinitscaselawthatchildren’srights

needtobeprotectedandrequiresEUlawtotakedueaccountoftheUNCRC.323Finally,

theEUhasalsodevelopedaconsciousEUstrategyontherightsofthechild.324

DEFINITIONOFACHILD.InEurope,thesamelegalparameterofwhatconstitutesachildis

usedas theUNCRCframework.325Indeed,mostCouncilofEurope instrumentsrefer to

theUNCRCdefinition.Furthermore,althoughthereisnosingledefinitionofachildunder

EU law, the UNCRC definition is generally adopted in contexts where EU action

complementsactionsoftheMemberStates.326

3. Children’srightsandnewformsofcommercialcommunication

CHILDREN’SRIGHTSPROTECTEDOFFLINEMUSTALSOBEPROTECTEDONLINE.Sincethecreationofthe

UNCRC, there has been general agreement concerning children’s entitlement to

fundamentalrightsthatareofimportanceinthe(digital)mediaenvironment.327Across

theworld,childrenareengagingindigitalenvironmentsinwhichtheyplay,communicate

andsearchforinformation.AccordingtoLIVINGSTONEetal.,“anestimatedoneinthreeof

allInternetusersintheworldtodayisbelowtheageof18”.328Childrenareearlyadopters

of information and telecommunications technologies, which have a crucial role in

empoweringthembyenablingcommunicationandeducation.Inthisregard,theCouncil

of Europe highlights in its Strategy on the Rights of the Child (2016-2021) that

323ForexamplecaseC-540/03,EuropeanParliamentvCounciloftheEuropeanUnion(2006)ECR5769,37;asmentionedbyCanetta and others (n 298) 8. Thiswas initially left to national traditions andpublicinternationallaw.324EuropeanCommission, ‘TowardsanEUStrategyontheRightsoftheChild,COM(2006)367Final’(n273).325EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights(n301)17–18.326TheageatwhichchildrenacquirerightscanbedifferentincertainEUlawinstruments,forexampletheYoungWorkersDirectivedistinguishesbetweenyoungpeople(allunder18s)andadolescents(aged15to18).Directive94/33/ECof20August1994ontheprotectionofyoungpeopleatwork,OJ1994L216,Art.3.InotherareasofEUlaw(e.g.education,migration)itisleftuptotheMemberStatestodecide,andinthosecontextstheCRCdefinitionisgenerallyadopted.EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights(n301)18.SeealsoEuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights(n15).327Lievens,‘AChildren’sRightsPerspectiveontheResponsibilityofSocialNetworkSiteProviders’(n283)3–4. The rights concerning traditionalmediamostly fall under article 17 of the UNCRC (i.e. access toinformation,massmediaandprotectionagainstharmfulcontent).328Livingstone,CarrandByrne(n49)1.

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information and communication technologies affect their enjoyment of fundamental

rights.329Indeed, the digitisation of children’s lifeworlds330significantly influences not

onlyhowtheycanexercisetheirrights,butalsohowtheserightsmaybesupportedor

neglected.331Almosteverychildren’srightnowhasadigitaldimension(infra)andassuch

the principles and provisions of the children’s rights framework should be looked at

throughadigitallens.332

NEW FORMS OF ADVERTISING AND MARKETING RECONFIGURE CHILDREN’S RIGHTS. An important

domain inwhich children’s rightsare reconfiguredby internetuse, is advertisingand

marketing. 333 In their digitised lifeworlds, children’s and teenagers’ are increasingly

confronted with hybrid, immersive and personalised commercial messages. This

commercialisationhassignificantimplicationsforchildren’srightsandtheirprotection

(e.g. concerning responsiblities for the protection and proper implementation of the

framework). In this regard, children’s rights and principles require a translation into

standards and guidelines, not only for policyand regulation that addresses children’s

rightsinrelationtonewadvertisingandmarketingtechniques,butalsoforbusinesses

that address their commercial communication to children and even for parents and

childrenthemselves.

329CouncilofEurope,‘StrategyontheRightsoftheChild2016-2021’(n166).330ONEALIRWINclarifiesthatalifeworldis“theplacewherewework,play,liveandbreath”.Inthislifeworld,a human-technology connection takes place, which causes a transformation through our “everydayperception and lived experience of it”. S. O’Neal Irwin, Digital Media: Human–Technology Connection(Rowman&Littlefield2016)12.331 A. Third and others, Children’s Rights in the Digital Age [Documento Elettronico]: A Download fromChildrenaroundtheWorld(YoungandWellCooperativeResearchCentre2014).332More specifically itwas argued that “a digital-age specific interpretation of every article, adapted totoday’srealities”shouldbeapplied.UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneral Discussion “Digital Media and Children’s Rights”’ (2014) 10<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CRC/Discussions/2014/DGD_report.pdf> accessed 26October2017.SeealsoLievensandothers(n16).333Livingstone,CarrandByrne(n49)12.

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SECTIONII–CHILDREN’SRIGHTSANDPRINCIPLESINTHECONTEXTOFCOMMERCIAL

COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION. This section investigates the role of the children’s rights framework in

regulatingnewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildren.Morespecifically,

it identifies the principles that lie at the root of the United Nations children’s rights

frameworkandlooksathowtheymightbeunderstoodorenactedinthespecificcontext

ofnewadvertisingandmarketingtechniques.Furthermore,theroleandresponsibilities

of the relevant actors for realising children’s rights in a commercial communication

contextarebrieflyexamined.

1. Overarchingprinciplesthatunderpinachildrightsperspective

FOURBASICPRINCIPLES.InthecontextoftheUNCRC,theroleofStatesliesinfulfillingclear

obligations to each and every child. We have seen that to achieve an effective

implementationoftheConvention,statesshoulddevelopachildren’srightsperspective

throughout their government, parliament and judiciary. 334 According to the UN

CommitteeontheRightsof theChild,suchaperspectiveshouldconsiderthe fourkey

principlesof theUNCRC,which formthebasis for interpretingtheotherprovisions.335

TheprincipleshighlightthefundamentalvaluesunderlyingtheConvention,andaimat

ensuring a common philosophical approach. According to RUXTON, “the principles

constituteavisionofthechildasanindividual,whoseintegritymustberespected”.336

1.1 Children’sdevelopmentliesattheheartoftheframework

NOCONCRETEANDIMPLEMENTABLEDEFINITION.Perhapsthemostfundamentalhumanright’s

principleofthechildisenshrinedinarticle6UNCRCwhichstipulatestherighttohave

theirlivesprotectedfromthemomentofbirth,aswellastheirrighttobeabletosurvive,

334 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243)4.335UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.5(2003)GeneralMeasuresofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243)4.

336Ruxton(n257)16.

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growanddevelopappropriately.337Article6ismuchbroaderthanthemeresurvivalof

the childandshouldbe interpreted ina comprehensivemanner.338Although fostering

children’sdevelopment isoneof the central aimsof theConvention, thenotion isnot

clearlydefined.BoththeConventioninArticle27andtheUNCRCCommitteeinitsGeneral

Commentno.5ongeneralmeasuresfortheimplementationoftheConvention,interpret

developmentasaholistic concept, encompassing severaldimensions (i.e. thephysical,

mental, spiritual,moral and social dimension).339Furthermore, theUNCRCCommittee

hasoften referred todevelopment in its jurisprudenceas theprocessofbecomingan

adult,duringwhichthechilddevelops‘normally’orina‘healthy’manner.340

OPTIMAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH. Furthermore, PELEG stresses that during the drafting

process of the Convention the discussions also focused on the desired result of the

developmentprocess,namelythefulfilmentofthechild’shumanpotential.341First,the

UNCRCstrivesforanoptimalapproach,forinstancewitharticle29UNCRC,whichdefines

theaimsofeducation,requiringthateducationenablesthechildtodeveloptotheirfullest

potential. In this sense, ithas been argued that childrenhave ‘the right to become an

optimal person’. 342 Article 6 is understood as the platform for other developmental

principlesenshrinedintheConvention,suchasthechild’sbestinterestsandtheevolving

capacitiesofthechildprinciples,aswellasforotherrightsthatmayenablechildrento

reachtheirfullestpotential,includinginteraliatherighttoinformationandfreedomof

thought,schoolandeducationalgoalsandtherighttoparticipationinleisureandplay.343

Thisperspectivealsorecogniseschildrenasindividualsandallowstakingintoaccount

337Therightcanbetracedbacktothe1924GenevaDeclaration,whichstatesthat“thechildmustbegiventhemeansrequisiteforitsnormaldevelopment,bothmateriallyandspiritually”.GenevaDeclarationoftheRightsoftheChild1924.338M.Nowak,Article6:TheRighttoLife,Survival,andDevelopment(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2005)2.339 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).340N.Peleg,‘TheChild’sRighttoDevelopment’(UCL(UniversityCollegeLondon)2012).341Peleg(n340).342 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243);Willems(n259).343Lansdown(n245);GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.1(2001)Article29(1):TheAimsofEducation’.

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their inner capacities and their opinions on what they consider to be in their best

interest.344As there is noone rightway to develop, the right to optimaldevelopment

recognises that every child has different experiences and will therefore develop in

differentways,aslongasitenablesthechildtofulfilhisorherpotential.345

MINIMALDEVELOPMENTAPPROACH.Theoptimaldevelopmenttheoryhasbeencontestedby

scholarsarguingthatreality forcesus tobemoremodest inourambitions.Aminimal

approachisadvocated,whichattemptstotemperhighexpectationsandtobetterconnect

withtherelativeautonomyofchildrenandtheirrights,andtheresponsibilityofparents

in this regard, while preventing excessive government interference.346WEIJERS argues

thatiftheoptimaldevelopmentofthechildisthedesiredoutcomeofthedevelopment

process,itwouldleadtopaternalisticinterventionbythegovernmentinthelifestyleand

parentingmethodsofparents,andinhisopinionthegovernmentshouldonlyintervene

whenneededtopreventdamagetothedevelopmentofthechild.347Itisarguedherethat

suchapaternalisticapproachwouldarguablygoagainstchildren’sparticipatoryrights,

suchastherighttobeheard(article12UNCRC,infra),ortheparticipatorydimensionof

development (i.e. autonomy). Nevertheless, LIEFAARD’S point that the minimal

developmentviewistoonarrowinlightoftheUNCRCisconvincing.Asanalternative,

LIEFAARD advocates a children’s rights-based approach, which takes into account

children’shealthyandholisticdevelopment(aspromotedbytheUNCRC),aswellasthe

concernsofpaternalismandexpectationsofgovernments.348

BALANCINGPROTECTIONANDPARTICIPATIONINTHECONTEXTOFNEWADVERTISINGTECHNIQUES.The

right to development under the UNCRC also has different dimensions that need

consideration.TheUNCRCCommitteeemphasisesthatchildrenshouldbeabletodevelop

344 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).345Peleg(n340).346 I.Weijers, ‘Grondslagen van Jeugdstrafrecht’, Jeugdstrafrecht in internationaal perspectief (3de edn,Boom Lemma uitgevers 2014) <https://www.jongbloed.nl/boek/9789089740212/jeugdstrafrecht-ido-weijers>accessed16November2017.347Weijers(n346).348T.Liefaardandothers, ‘HetbelangvanhetkindendehooggespannenverwachtingenvanhetIVRK’(BoomCriminologie2016)<http://hdl.handle.net/1887/45678>accessed16November2017.

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thenecessarylifeskillstofacethechallengestheycanexpecttobeconfrontedwithinreal

life.349Theselifeskillsincludetheabilitytomakebalanceddecisions,resolveconflictsin

apeacefulmanner,beacriticalthinkeretc.Thus,itiscontendedthatinordertobeinline

withtheunderlyingchild’srighttodeveloptotheirfullestpotential,childrenshouldbe

educatedandempoweredtocopewithdigitaladvertising(i.e.adliterate)sothattheycan

growup tobe critical, informedconsumerswhomake theirownconscious choices in

today’s new media environment. However, the sophistication, immersiveness and

opaqueness of modern advertising practices, provides a significant challenge in this

respect. Therefore, it is argued that children need protection against those

advertisementsthattheydonotrecogniseassuchandcannotcriticallyprocess,thereby

renderingitimpossibleforthemtomakeabalancedcommercialdecision,andultimately

havinganegativeimpactontheirrighttodevelopment.AspertheUNCRCCommittee,

“children,asusersofinformationtechnologiesandrecipientsofinformation,maybe

exposed to actually or potentially harmful advertisements, spam, sponsorship,

personalinformationandcontentwhichisaggressive,violent,hateful,biased,racist,

pornographic,unwelcomeand/ormisleading”.350

TheCommitteefurtherdiscussedthistopicduringitsDayofGeneralDiscussionondigital

mediaandchildren’srightsin2014.Duringthediscussions,itwassuggestedtoalignthe

Committee’spositionwiththeUNSpecialRapporteurinthefieldofculturalrights.The

latterhadrecommendedStatepartiestoadoptlegislation,whichwould“prohibitallforms

ofadvertisingtochildrenunder12yearsofage,regardlessofthemedium,supportormeans

used, with the possible extension of such prohibition to 16 years of age and to ban the

practiceofchildbrandambassadors”.351However, thechild’sright todevelopmentalso

has an important participation dimension that should be kept in mind. According to

FORTIN,childrenwillbeunabletomakeasuccessfultransitiontoadulthoodunlessthey

349UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.1(2001)Article29(1):TheAimsofEducation’(n343).350GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.13(2011)TheRightoftheChildtoFreedomfromAllFormsofViolence’(2011).351UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion“DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’(n332)16.

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aregivenopportunitiestopracticetheirdecision-makingskillsandareprovidedwitha

dry-runofadulthood.352Fromthisperspective,banningallformsofadvertisingaimedat

children would not be compatible with the right to development. The European

Parliamentadvocatesamorenuancedapproach,by stressing that childrenneed tobe

protected against harmful practices such as aggressive ormisleading advertising (e.g.

advertisingwhichencouragesoverspendingandthepurchaseofvirtualgoodsorcredits

withtheirmobilephones).353

RESPONSIBILITIESFORSTATESANDPARENTS.Article18defines thatbothstatesandparents

have responsibilities regarding the development of children. First, parents have the

primary responsibility when it comes to the upbringing and development of their

children, inamanner consistentwith theevolving capacitiesof the child.It shouldbe

emphasisedthattherightsparentshave,arefunctionalrightsratherthanautonomous

parentalrights,meaningthattheyareconducivetochildren’srights.354Theprincipleof

theevolvingcapacitiesofthechildrequiresthatoncechildrenarecompetenttoexercise

their rights, they should be able.355The balancing act between children’s capacity to

exercisetheirrightsandtheirrelativelackofexperienceisalsoanecessaryexercisein

the context of commercial communication.356From a certain age, they will be better

equipped to understand the (commercial) impact of marketing and advertising and

thereforebetterequippedtoexercisetheirrights.Forinstance,arecentstudybyOfcom,

the British independent Regulator for Media and Communication, indicates that

children’scommercialmedia literacygradually increasesbetweentheagesof12to15

352Fortin(n262)11.353European Parliament (Committee on Culture and Education), ‘Report on Protecting Children in theDigital World (2012/2068(INI))’ (2012) <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A7-2012-0353+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN>accessed8November2017.354D.Reynaert,M.Bouverne-de-BieandS.Vandevelde,‘AReviewofChildren’sRightsLiteratureSincetheAdoptionoftheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild’(2009)16Childhood518,525.355 Thus, when children become more and more competent, parents have to fulfil fewer parentalresponsibilities.Reynaert,Bouverne-de-BieandVandevelde(n354)525.Statesshouldtakethisprincipleintoaccountwhenestablishingminimumagesonparticularissues.Lansdown(n245)7;Lievensandothers(n16).356Itimpliesontheonehandofferingthefullestpossibleprotectiontoallchildrenfromharm,forexample,misleading or aggressive advertising, while encouraging and nurturing rights relating to children'sautonomy,suchasfreedomofexpression,whichallowthemtogrowandparticipateinsociety.SeealsoLansdown(n245)15.

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years.357However, one should also bemindful of the emerging trends in commercial

communicationwheretheimpactofadvertisingliteracyisrestricted(e.g.advertisingthat

appealstoouremotionsorpersonalisedadvertising,supra).Second,Statesmustrespect

thisparentalresponsibilityandaidandsupportservicestoparents.Moreover,itisthe

roleoftheStatetoencouragechildrentodeveloptheirpersonalityandidentitytogrow

uptobecomeself-reliantandresponsibleadults.358

CHALLENGESOFPARENTINGINACOMMERCIALISEDWORLD.Parents,however,alsofacesignificant

parentingchallengesbecauseoftheincreasedcommercialisation.Afirstonerelatestothe

increased pressure to buy that is fuelled by advertising andmarketing. Indeed, social

scientistshavewitnessedan increase inparent-childconflictsasaconsequenceofnag

behaviour or so-called ‘pester power’.359Second, it is important to keep inmind that

adultsdonotnecessarilyhaveabetterunderstandingofnewadvertisingandmarketing

techniquesthantheirchildren,especiallywhenitcomestocomplextargetingtechniques

anddataprocessingpractices.Inthissense,VANDERHOFunderlinesthatparentsarenot

necessarily more empowered than their children in making decisions regarding the

processingof theirpersonaldata (dependingon theageandmaturityof the child).360

Indeed,parentsareoftenexpectedtobegatekeepersandsupervisors,yet,fornumerous

reasonstheythemselvesmightnotbemediaoradvertisingliterateenough,tounderstand

thecomplexityofchildren’sdigitallives.Stateshaveadutytoprovide“parentsandlegal

guardians with appropriate assistance in the performance of their child-rearing

responsibilities”.361Anexampleofsuchassistanceinrelationtonewformsofcommercial

communications could be the provision of adequate information by States to parents

about children’s use of digital technologies and associated commercial risks and

357S.LivingstoneandK.Olafsson,‘Children’sCommercialMediaLiteracy:NewEvidenceRelevanttoUKPolicy Decisions Regarding the GDPR. LSE Media Policy Project Blog.’<http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mediapolicyproject/2017/01/26/childrens-commercial-media-literacy-new-evidence-relevant-to-uk-policy-decisions-regarding-the-gdpr/>accessed17July2018.358 S. van der Hof and M. Groothuis (eds), Innovating Government, Normative, policy and technologicaldimensionsofmoderngovernment,(TheHague:TMCAsser,Berlin/Heidelberg:Springer,2011).359Rozendaalandothers(n42);McDermottandothers(n218).360vanderHof(n94).361Article18para2UNCRC.

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opportunities. 362 In this regard, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has

confirmedthatStateshaveaduty

“toprovideadequatetrainingandsupporttoparentsandothercaregivers[…],to

enhancetheirtechnicalskills,informthemabouttherisksandpotentialharm,learn

abouthowchildrenusetechnologyandbeabletosupportchildreninusingdigital

mediaandICTsinaresponsibleandsafemanner”.363

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE ADVERTISING INDUSTRY. Advertising and marketing may have an

importantimpactonchildren’sdevelopmentand,assuch,severalchildren’srightsareat

stake in this context (discussed infra). Accordingly, the advertising industry has an

importantrole toplay in theprotectionandpromotionofchildren’srights throughout

their advertising and marketing activities. The UNCRC Committee stresses that the

industryhas importantresponsibilitiesconcerningchildren’srights,and it isuptothe

Statetoensurethattheindustrymeetstheirresponsibilities.364Theresponsiblitiesofthe

advertising industryunderthechildren’srights frameworkandtheroleofadvertising

self-andco-regulationinthiscontextarefurtherdiscussedinpartIIIoftheresearch.

1.2 Non-discriminationinadvertisingormarketing

NON-DISCRIMINATIONASANUMBRELLARIGHT.AsecondguidingprincipleoftheUNCRC(aswell

asofotherhumanrightsinstruments365)canbefoundinarticle2,whichprotectschildren

againstallformsofdiscrimination.Itrelatestotheunderlyingideathatallchildrenare

bornwithfundamentalrightsandfreedomsandshouldnotbediscriminatedagainstfor

362 E. Lievens, ‘Is Self-Regulation Failing Children and Young People? Assessing the Use of AlternativeRegulatoryInstrumentsintheAreaofSocialNetworks’,Europeanmediapolicyforthetwenty-firstcentury :assessingthepast,settingagendasforthefuture(Routledge2016).363UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion“DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’(n332).364 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).365Forinstance,theUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights(1948),theInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(1966)andtheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(1966)allattribute important value to the principle of non-discrimination. However, according to BESSON, theprinciplehasnot sufficientlybeendeveloped in these instruments for themtoeffectivelycounterchilddiscrimination.S.Besson,‘ThePrincipleofNon-DiscriminationintheConventionontheRightsoftheChild’(2005)13InternationalJournalofChildren’sRights433,444.

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beingchildren,oronanyotherbasis(e.g.gender,race,religion).366Aschildrenhaveless

power than adults in nearly all cultures, they are more prone to discrimination. 367

AccordingtoABRAMSON,therighttonon-discriminationisanumbrellarightand,assuch,

it attaches toor formspartofother rightsof theConvention.368All rightsapply toall

children without exception, and it is up to the State to put into place protection

mechanisms and take positive actions to promote children’s rights free of

discrimination. 369 The UNCRC Committee stresses that, in order to mitigate

discrimination, States may have to introduce changes in their national legislation370 ,

administrationandallocationofresources,butalsointheireducationalsystemtochange

attitudes.371According toMCGONAGLE,childrenshouldbeeducatedabout their right to

non-discriminationaswellastheirresponsibilitytonotdiscriminatethemselveswhen

interacting with others in the digital environment.372 Moreover, the UNCRC requires

Statesto“activelyidentifyindividualchildrenandgroupsofchildrentherecognitionand

realisationofwhoserightsmaydemandspecialmeasures”.373Thisimpliesthattherightto

366Morespecifically,theUNCRCCommitteedefinesdiscriminationas“anydistinction,exclusion,restrictionorpreferencewhichisbasedonanygroundsuchasrace,colour,sex,language,religion,politicalorotheropinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status, andwhich has the purpose or effect ofnullifyingorimpairingtherecognition,enjoymentorexercisebyallpersons,onanequalfooting,ofallrightsandfreedom.”367 F. Sheahan, ‘Translating the Right to Non-Discrimination into Reality. Save the Children’ (2005)<https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/sites/default/files/documents/2617.pdf> accessed 8November2017.368B.Abramson,Article2:TheRightofNon-Discrimination(BRILL2008).369 Such positive action could include review of legislation, strategic planning, monitoring, raisingawareness,educationetc.Sheahan(n367).370Inthisregard,BESSONmentionsthattheCRCCommitteehasrepeatedlystressedthattheprincipleofnon-discrimination also applies to private institutions and individuals. This should be reflected intonationallegislation.Besson(n365)450.371 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).372T.McGonagle, ‘A Survey and Critical Analysis of Council of Europe Strategies for Countering “HateSpeech”’, The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses (CambridgeUniversity Press 2012) 456–498 <http://dare.uva.nl/search?metis.record.id=385322> accessed 8November2017.Inthisregard,LIEVENSetal.stressthatchildrenshouldhavethenecessarytoolsandskillstoactagainstanddealwiththeharmsthatmayresultfrominteraliaonlinediscrimination.Furthermore,policiesshouldbeextendedtoovercomedigitalexclusion,andtheyshouldbeflexibletotheextentthattheycanaddresstheneedsofallchildren.Lievensandothers(n16).373GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.5(2003)GeneralMeasuresofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(2003)

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non-discrimination does not necessarilymean that all children should be treated the

same,orasadults.374TheUNCRCCommitteemakesadistinctionbetweendiscriminatory

anddifferentialtreatmentandsometimesspecialmeasuresmaybenecessarytofoster

therightsofcertaingroupsofchildren.375Inrelationto(new)advertisingandmarketing

techniquesandtherighttonon-discrimination,severalconsiderationsarerelevant.

DIGITALEXCLUSIONANDAGEDISCRIMINATION.Non-discriminationrequiresallchildrenhaving

equal376accesstothedigitalenvironment,asitformsanimportantgatewayforexercising

their participation rights (e.g. right to freedom of expression, right to play, right to

freedom of association). 377 More specifically, children should be protected from age

discriminationinaccesstointeraliafacilities,services,informationandgoods.Themedia

hasan important role toplay in facilitatingaccess to thedigital commodities children

needtoexercisetheirparticipationrights.Childrenareoftenrepresentedinthe(digital)

media as a vulnerable group of internet users, with stories of child abuse and online

grooming making the headlines. 378 The storytelling lacks nuance and disregards the

distinctionbetweenthelargegroupofchildrenwhodoquitewellonlineandthosewho

are particularly vulnerable considering their cognitive (in)capabilities and socio-

emotional problems. 379 Furthermore, the broader issues of children’s rights, and in

particulartheirparticipationrights,areoftennotconsiderednewsworthy.MASCHERONIet

al. have argued that this “media framing of online risks might pose a challenge to

374The principle of non-discrimination prohibitsa different treatment of similar situations,without anobjectivejustification.Besson(n365)435.375Forinstancewithregardtochildrenwithdisabilities.W.Vandenhole,Non-DiscriminationandEqualityintheViewoftheUNHumanRightsTreatyBodies(Intersentianv2005)185.376Equalityandnon-discriminationaretwostatementsofthesameprinciple,i.e.apositiveandnegativeone.Besson(n365)434.377Lievensandothers(n16).378G.Mascheroni,A. JorgeandL.Farrugia, ‘MediaRepresentationsandChildren’sDiscoursesonOnlineRisks:FindingsfromQualitativeResearchinNineEuropeanCountries’(2014)8Cyberpsychology:Journalof Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace <https://cyberpsychology.eu/article/view/4310> accessed 18July2018.379Inthisregard,WOLAKetal.havepointedtoadifficultproblemforpublicpolicy,namelyaddressingtherisks of this vulnerable minority in a manner that is proportionate and without extending unduesurveillancetothemajorityofchildrenwhichisonlyoccasionallynaïveandrisk-taking.J.Wolakandothers,‘Online“Predators”andTheirVictims:Myths,Realities,andImplicationsforPreventionandTreatment.’(2008)63AmericanPsychologist111;SoniaLivingstone,LeslieHaddonandLondonschoolofeconomicsandpoliticalscience,EUKidsOnline:FinalReport.(Londonschoolofeconomicsandpoliticalscience2009).

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awareness-raisingandeducationcampaigns:childrenaremoreoftenexposedtostoriesthat

mightbeinstillingfearratherthanempoweringthemtotakeactionandtostandup for

themselves”.380

PERSONALISATIONAND EQUALITYOFCHILDRENASCONSUMERS.Digital exclusion is also closely

relatedtothephenomenonofpersonalisationandtheapplicationofconsumerprofiles.

In this regard, VANDERHOFwarns for theoften invisible underlying processes of data

processing and knowledge creation, which allows social sorting (i.e. systematically

categorisingandclassifyingindividualsforpurposesofidentificationorriskassessment).

Morespecifically,VANDERHOFstressesthat“Socialsortingcancreateandreinforcesocial

differences,forinstance,byexcludingtheeconomicallydeprivedfromcommercialservices

orbytargetingcertainminoritygroupsinsociety”.381Furthermore,personalisationmay

resultindifferentialtreatmentofconsumers,forinstancethroughpricedifferentiation382

orbyrestrictingconsumerchoiceanddiminishingpreferences.383Thisagainmayraise

significantproblemsregardingtheexerciseofchildren’sparticipationrightsinthedigital

environment.

STEREOTYPING,GENDERANDRACIALDISCRIMINATION.Finally,animportantconsiderationisthe

fact that stereotypes and discriminatory messages (for instance based on gender)

frequently recur in marketing and advertising both offline and online. Children are

particularlyvulnerabletosuchpractices,astheytendtoplacetrustincharactersfromTV

programmes,picture-books,TVgames,toyadvertisingetc.384Fromaveryyoungage,they

380Mascheroni,JorgeandFarrugia(n378).381S.VanDerHof,‘IAgree,orDoI:ARights-BasedAnalysisoftheLawonChildren’sConsentintheDigitalWorld’ [2016]Wis. Int’l LJ 34, 118; S. van der Hof and C. Prins, ‘Personalisation and Its Influence onIdentities, Behaviour and Social Values’,Profiling the EuropeanCitizen (Springer,Dordrecht 2008) 122<https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-6914-7_6>accessed8November2017.382 M. S. Kirsch, ‘Do-Not-Track: Revising the EU’s Data Protection Framework to Require MeaningfulConsentforBehavioralAdvertising’(2011)18Rich.JL&Tech.1,17.Forexamplethroughdynamicpricing,whichentailsthatserviceprovidersaskdifferentconsumerstopaydifferentprices.vanderHofandPrins(n381)122.383vanderHofandPrins(n381)122.384EuropeanParliament(CommitteeonWomen’sRightsandGenderEquality),‘ReportonHowMarketingand Advertising Affect Equality between Women and Men (2008/2038(INI))’ (2008)<http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A6-2008-0199+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN>accessed8November2017.

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learnbyimitationandmimickingwhattheyexperienceand,inthissense,discrimination

in advertising has a significant impact on children’s development and how they view

themselves. Inaddition,stereotypingmayconstituteabarrier toabalancedandequal

access to information communication technologies for children.385 In order to battle

genderdiscriminationindigitalmedia,theCouncilofEuropecalledontheMemberStates

totakeactionandpromoteequality.386Theadvertisingindustry,aswellasprovidersof

newmediasuchassocialnetworksorvideo-sharingplatformsmayalsoplayanimportant

rolehere.387

1.3 The best interests of the child as a primary consideration for regulators,

policymakers,advertisersandparents

THESTANDARDFORALLUNCRCPROVISIONS.Article3UNCRCrequiresthatthebestinterests

ofthechildshallbeaprimaryconsiderationinallactionsconcerningchildren.Assuch,

theprinciple requiresgovernments,public andprivatebodies to conduct child impact

assessmentsandevaluatetheimpactofanyproposedlaw,policyordecisiononchildren’s

rights, 388 including rules on digital advertising. The Convention does not provide a

definition of the concept, allowing a diversified and tailor-made implementation. 389

AccordingtotheUNCRCCommittee,theconceptisthreefold:(1)asubstantiverightfor

thechildtohavehisorherinterestsassessedandtakenasaprimaryconsiderationwhen

different interests are being considered; 390 (2) a fundamental, interpretative legal

385CitationMs.SandberginUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion “DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’ (n332)10. In this regard, theEUKidsOnlineprojectconcluded that “the historic tendency for boys, especially when younger, to havemore places to use theinternet,togetonlineearlier,andformoreofthemtousetheinternetthangirls,appearstobedisappearing.”Livingstone,HaddonandLondonschoolofeconomicsandpoliticalscience(n379)6.386Atthetimeofwriting,theCouncilofEuropewaspreparinganewrecommendationongenderequalitywhich also covers the Internet, social media and the role of advertising. See<https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/drafting-committee-sexism-recommendation> accessed30August2018.387 Council of Europe (Parliamentary Assembly, ‘Recommendation 2092 (2016) - Fighting the over-Sexualisation of Children’ (2016) <https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-EN.asp?fileid=22938&lang=en>accessed8November2017.388 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243).389VanDerHof(n381)120.390TheCommitteeclarifiesthat:Article3,paragraph1,createsanintrinsicobligationforStates,isdirectlyapplicable(self-executing)andcanbeinvokedbeforeacourt.UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,

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principlerequiringthatifalegalprovisionisopentomorethanoneinterpretation,the

interpretationwhichmosteffectivelyservesthechild’sbestinterestsshouldbeselected;

and (3) a procedural guarantee thatwhenever a decision has to bemade affecting a

specific child or a group of children, the decision-marking process must include an

assessment of the impact of the decision on the child or children concerned. 391

Furthermore,themeaningofthebestinterestsshouldbedeterminedonacase-by-case

basis, according to “the specific situationof the childor children concerned, taking into

consideration theirpersonal context, situationandneeds”.392The concepthasalsobeen

discussed inacademicliterature.EEKELAAR, for instance, isof theopinionthat the ‘best

interests’shouldbeunderstoodas:

“Basic interests, for example to physical, emotional and intellectual care

developmentalinterests,toenteradulthoodasfaraspossiblewithoutdisadvantage;

autonomyinterests,especiallythefreedomtochoosealifestyleoftheirown”.393

The principle sets the standard that underpins all the other provisions of the

Convention.394AccordingtoTOBIN,theprincipleisinformedaswellasconstrainedbythe

otherUNCRCprinciplesandrights.Inthissense,aproposedoutcomeforachildcannot

be said to be in the child’s best interestswhen it conflictswith the provisions of the

Convention.395TheUNCRCCommitteeconfirmsthatitisanindeterminate,dynamicand

‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(2013)2.391Inthisregard,thereisanobligationontheStatestoshowintheirjustificiationofadecisionhowtherighthasbeenrespected,whathasbeenconsideredinthechild’sbestinterestsandonthebasisofwhatcriteria,andhowthebalancehadbeenmade.UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390)2.392UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390)32.393JohnEekelaar,‘TheInterestsoftheChildandtheChild’sWishes:TheRoleofDynamicSelf-Determinism’(1994)8InternationalJournalofLaw,PolicyandtheFamily42.394Infact,theCRCreferstothechild’sbestinterestsinseveralprovisions,includinginteraliaarticle9ontheseparationfromparents,article10onfamilyreunificationandarticle18onparentalresponsibilities.395JohnTobin,‘BeyondtheSupermarketShelf:UsingaRightsBasedApproachtoAddressChildren’sHealthNeeds’(2006)14TheInternationalJournalofChildren’sRights275,287.

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subjective 396 concept, which requires an assessment appropriate to the specific

context.397

RESPONSIBILITIESANDBESTINTERESTSASSESSMENTS.TheUNCRCCommitteeclarifiesthatabest

interestsassessmentconsistsin“evaluatingandbalancingallelementsnecessarytomake

adecisioninaspecificsituationforaspecificindividualchildoragroupofchildren”.398The

principlealso requires thatStatesmustensure that the best interestsof the childare

taken as a primary consideration in decisions and actions undertaken by the private

sector.Inthecontextofdigitaladvertising,thiscouldbeinterpretedasrequiringthatthe

partiesinvolvedintheadvertisingchainmustconsiderthebestinterestsofchildrenwhen

developing advertising and marketing campaigns targeting this particular group of

consumers.399Furthermore,itimpliesthecreationofmechanismstoassesstheimpactof

governmentactionsortheactivitiesofthebusinesssectoronchildren,andtoeffectively

take these results into account when shaping policy and regulation. 400 Finally, the

principlerequiresStatestoensurethenecessaryprotectionandcareforthechild(para.

2) when individual parents are unable or unwilling to protect the child, and thus to

functionasasafetynet.401

1.4 Offeringchildrenavoiceinthedecision-makingprocess

CHILDREN’S RIGHT TO BE HEARD. The fourth guiding principle of the children’s rights

frameworkcanbefoundinarticle12UNCRC,therighttobeheard.Theprincipleentails

396Differentsocietiesmayattributedifferentmeaningtoit.MichaelFreeman,Article3 :TheBestInterestsof the Child (2007) 27–28. Examples of practices that are incompatiblewith the child’s best interestsprinciplecanbeextractedfromtheUNCRCreports,suchasinteraliacorporalpunishment,femalegenitalmutilation,alowminimumageformarriage,397UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390)2.398TheCommitteealsoprovidessomeexamplesofelementsthatshouldbetakenintoaccount,suchasthecharacteristicsofthechild(e.g.age,sex,levelofmaturity,experience,etc),thechild’sviews,thechild’srighttoeducation,etc.UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390)7.399VerdoodtandLievens(n3).400UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390)11;HodgkinandNewell(n261)43.401HodgkinandNewell(n261).

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that children should be able to actively participate in the promotion, protection and

monitoring of their rights. 402 The UNCRC Committee explains that this means that

childrenshouldhaveavoiceinthedecision-making,policymakingandthepreparation

and evaluation of laws andmeasures concerning them.403The notion of participation

highlights theneedfordialogueand information-sharingbetweenchildren,adultsand

otherstakeholders,sothatchildrencanlearnhowtheirviewscanshapetheoutcomeof

suchprocesses.404

CHILDREN’SPARTICIPATIONANDDEVELOPMENT.The secondparagraphof article12 requires

thatchildren’sviewsneedtobegivendueweightinaccordancewiththeirageandlevel

ofmaturity.Inotherwords,ifthechildmatures,hisorherviewsshallhaveincreasing

weight,forinstanceintheassessmentofachild’sbestinterests.405EEKELAARarguesthat

theunderlyinggoaloftheprincipleis“tobringachildtothethresholdofadulthoodwith

themaximumopportunitiestoformandpursuelife-goalswhichreflectascloselyaspossible

anautonomouschoice”.406Thisdoesnotentailafulldelegationofdecision-makingtothe

child,butratherallowingchildrentomakedecisionsincontrolledconditions,inorderto

enhancetheircapacitiesformaturewell-foundedchoices(supra).407

CHILDREN’S RIGHT TO BE HEARD BY THE ADVERTISING INDUSTRY. To achieve children’s

participationonline, theyshouldnotonlybeconsultedwhendeveloping legislationor

policies (e.g. initiatives fostering safe use of digital media), but also when setting up

services and other measures relating to digital media and ICT, and hence by the

402ThisprincipleappliestoallmeasuresadoptedbyGovernmentstoimplementtheConvention.Ruxton(n257)129.403UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.12(2009)TheRightoftheChildtoBeHeard’.404 To achieve such an exchange of information, states are encouraged to create platforms with allstakeholders,especiallychildren,at thenational, regionalandinternational level.UNCommitteeon theRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion“DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’(n332).405UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.14(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoHaveHisorHerBestInterestsTakenasaPrimaryConsideration(Art.3,Para.1)’(n390).406Eekelaar(n393)53.407V.Morrow(2004)15KingsCollegeLawJournal.ascitedbyFreeman(n396)7.

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industry. 408 This also applies to advertisers, who need to consult children when

developingdigitalmarketingcampaignsforchildren(e.g.inthecontextofpersonalised

advertisingthismeansconsultingchildrenwhencarryingoutadataprotectionimpact

assessment).409Theageandlevelofmaturityofthechildwillalsoplayanimportantrole

insuchanassessment.Furthermore,RUXTONcallsforthedevelopmentofchildfriendly

and accessible spaces, in which children can express themselves, for example using

technology such as (mobile) phones or the internet in general. 410 New media

environmentssuchassocialnetworkplatforms(e.g.Facebook,Snapchat,Instagram)and

blogs have lowered the threshold for sharing and self-expression significantly.411The

companiesprovidingtheseonlineservicestochildrenshouldalsoconsultchildrenand

take into account their interests when developing a corporate social responsibility

strategy(infra).412

2. Children’srightsreconfiguredbynewformsofcommercialcommunication

MULTI-DIMENSIONALITY OF THE RIGHTS AT STAKE. Aside from the general principles of the

UNCRC,severalchildren’srightsareatstakeinthecontextofcommercialcommunication

aimedatchildren,implyingresponsibilitiesfordifferentactors(i.e.theState,parentsand

the business sector). 413 As mentioned, the framework comprises three different

408UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion“DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’(n332)22.409VerdoodtandLievens(n3).410Ruxton(n257)33.411Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)271.412E.Lievens,‘Children’sRightsandMedia :ImperfectbutInspirational’,Children’srightslawintheglobalhuman rights landscape isolation, inspiration, integration? (Routledge 2017)<http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-8532067>accessed10November2017;UNICEF,UNGlobalCompactandSave the Children, ‘Children’s Rights and Business Principles’ (2012)<https://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc/human_rights/CRBP/Childrens_Rights_and_Business_Principles.pdf>accessed14November2017.Seealso the2014 ITUGuidelines for IndustryonChildOnlineProtection,recommendingindustrytodraw“uponinternalandexternalexpertiseandconsultwithkey stakeholders, including children, on child online safety mechanisms to obtain ongoing feedback andguidanceoncompanyapproaches”. InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion, ‘GuidelinesforIndustryonChild Online Protection.’ <https://www.itu.int/en/cop/Documents/bD_Broch_INDUSTRY0809.pdf>accessed19July2018.AscitedbyLievensandothers(n16).413TheUNCRCisacomprehensiveinstrumentandgroupsrightsspecificallycreatedforchildren,aswellaschild-specificversionsofgeneralfundamentalrights.Kilkelly(n267)311.

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perspectives414: participation, protection and provision. However, many rights in the

digitalageareactuallymulti-dimensionalandshouldbeconsideredandacknowledgedin

suchamanneratdifferent levels.415Therefore, this sectionanalyseshow the relevant

rights and responsibilities can be understood in the specific context of commercial

communication.Theresearchconsidersthemulti-dimensionalityofthechildren’srights

identified as relevant and takes into account the four fundamental principles of the

UNCRC(supra).Itaimstoprovideabalancedlensforthefurtheranalysisofthelegaland

self-regulatoryframeworkoncommercialcommunicationaimedatchildren.

2.1 Freedomofexpressionandaccesstoinformation(article13UNCRC,article

10ECHR,article11CFEU)

APREREQUISITEFORCHILDREN’SDEVELOPMENT.Afirstrightthatisrelevantinanadvertising

contextisthefreedomofexpression,afundamentalrightinanydemocraticsocietyand

deemed “one of the basic conditions for its progress and for the development of every

man”.416Thisfundamentalrighthasbeenincludedintoawidevarietyofinternational,417

414 VAN DER HOF talks in this regard of the conceptual frameworks of protection, emancipation andparticipation,anddevelopment.Theseconceptualframeworksshouldbeusedaslensesfortheanalysisoflegalprovisions,toensureabalancedapproachtowardslegalissuesinvolvingchildren.VanDerHof(n381)120.415Forinstance,LIEVENSetal.arguethatalthoughtherighttoprivacyinthedigitalenvironmentisoftenreducedinlegalandpolicydocumentstodataprotection,italsohasanimportantparticipatorydimension“insofarasitasitispartandparcelof individualautonomy,anecessarypreconditionofparticipation”.Assuch,childrenshouldbeconsultedduringthepolicymakingprocessandtheirperceptionsofprivacyshouldbedulytakenintoaccount.Lievensandothers(n16).416PernavItaly[2003]ECtHR48898/99[39].417AttheinternationallevelthemostimportantonesareArticle19ofthe1948UniversalDeclarationonHumanRights, 10December 1948 and Article 19 of the 1966 UN International Covenant on Civil andPoliticalRightsUnitedNations,16December1966.

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European418,419and national420legislative texts. Article 13UNCRC stipulates that this

rightincludes

“the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds,

regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or

throughanyothermediaofthechild’schoice”.421

The article has a broad scope of application and extends to allmeans of information

sharing.Assuch,itwillalsobeapplicabletoinformationsharedviatheinternetorany

other(future)communicationtechnology.422AccordingtoSMITH,therightisimportantfor

thedevelopmentofthechild,anditshouldnotbeaffectedbythefactthatchildrenmay

not have the same capacities as adults.423TheUNCRCCommitteementions children’s

right to freedom of expression and access to information in the context of online

advertisementspromotingcertaintypesofproductsandmessagesthatpotentiallyhave

418 At the European level, the core provision guaranteeing this right is article 10 of the ECHR,whichenshrines the freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas withoutinterferencebyanypublicauthority,andregardlessoffrontiers.Article10encompassesboththepassiveobligationforStatestorefrainfrominterferingwiththefreedomofexpressionoftheircitizensaswellasthe positive duty toensure that this freedom is not too restricted by private persons or organisations.AccordingtotheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights,Statesmayberequiredtoactivelytakemeasurestoprotect their citizens, “even in the sphere of relations between individuals”. D. Voorhoof, ‘Vrijheid vanmeningsuiting’inY.HaeckandJ.VandeLanotte(eds),HandboekEVRM :deel2 :artikelsgewijzecommentaar,vol1(Intersentia2004)925.Seeforinstance:ÖzgürGündemvTurkey[2000]ECtHR23144/93[42–43].419AttheEuropeanUnionlevel,article11oftheChartercorrespondstoarticle10ECHRandguaranteesthateveryonehastherighttofreedomofexpression,toholdopinionsandtoreceiveandimpartinformationand ideas without interference by public authority. Furthermore, this Article requires respect for thefreedomandpluralismofthemedia.Article11CharteroftheFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion,para2.420InBelgium,therelevantprovisionsarearticles19,25and150oftheBelgianConstitution.421LIEVENS highlights that according to theUNCRCCommittee it is not sufficient tomerely include the‘general’righttofreedomofexpressionapplicabletoeveryoneinacountry’sconstitution.Itisnecessary,toalsoexpresslyincorporatethechild’srighttofreedomofexpressioninlegislation.Lievens,‘Children’sRightsandMedia’(n412).Seeforinstance:UnitedNationsCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild(1996).GeneralGuidelinesforPeriodicReports,CRC/C/58:“StatespartiesarerequestedtoprovideinformationonthemeasuresadoptedtoensurethatthecivilrightsandfreedomsofchildrensetforthintheConvention,inparticularthosecoveredbyarticles7,8,13to17and37(a),arerecognizedbylawspecificallyinrelationtochildrenandimplementedinpractice,includingbyadministrativeandjudicialbodies,atthenational,regionalandlocallevels,andwhereappropriateatthefederalandprovinciallevels”.422Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)272.423L.Smith,‘ConventionontheRightsoftheChild:FreedomofExpressionforChildren’inT.McGonagleandY.Donders(eds),TheUnitedNationsandFreedomofExpressionandInformation:CriticalPerspectives(CambridgeUniversityPress2015)146.

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an adverse impact on children’s development. More specifically, in this regard, the

CommitteeurgesMemberStatestoadoptmeasurestoprotectchildrenindigitalmedia,

withoutviolatingtheirrighttoinformationandfreedomofexpression.424

BALANCINGPROTECTIONANDPARTICIPATIONOFTHECHILD...Therighttofreedomofexpression

is not an absolute right, but restrictionsmust be provided by law and necessary “for

respectoftherightsorreputationsofothers,orfortheprotectionofnationalsecurityorof

public order, or of public health or morals” (para. 2). 425 Furthermore, whenever

restrictionsareimposed,regardmustbehadforthechild’sbestinterests,andwhether

such limitations unduly restrict children’s use of or access to certain types of

expression.426However,findingtherightbalancebetweenthefreedomofexpressionand

information,andtheprotectionofminorscanbedifficult.Tacklingcertaincontentwhich

is deemed harmful to minors could lead to unwanted side-effects to the freedom of

expressionofadults,astheyshouldbeabletoaccessthecontentfreely.427

…WHILECONSIDERINGTHEPROTECTIONOFCOMMERCIALSPEECH.Whenconductingthebalancing

exercise,itisimportanttokeepinmindthattheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightshas

introducedcommercialcommunicationintothedomainoffreedomofexpressiondecades

ago. 428 Indeed, the Court recognises the protection of article 10 of the European

ConventiononHumanRightsfor“informationofacommercialnature”.Accordingly,the

balancing test of paragraph 2 of article 10will be applicable to any restriction of or

interferencewiththefreedomofcommercialspeech.Forinstance,theCourthasapplied

thebalancingtest for itsdecisionsontheadmissibilityofnationaladvertisingbans,429

424 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).425Thegroundsforrestrictionsareidenticaltothegroundslistedinarticle19para.3oftheInternationalCovenantofCivilandPoliticalRights.426Smith(n423)146.427Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)312–313.428In1973withthecaseconcerninganadvertisingfortheScientologyChurch.XandChurchofScientologyvSweden[1979]ECtHR7805/77.429ForinstanceinMarktInternVerlagGmbHandBeermannvGermany[1989]ECtHR10572/83.

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violationsofpublicmorals430andhumerousadvertising.431Inprinciple,theCourtdeems

national authorities tobe inabetterpositiontogive theiropinionon thenecessityof

content restrictions than the international judge. Thus, the Court recognises broad

discretionfornationalpolicyonrestrictionsonthecontentofadvertising.432However,

themarginofappreciationinsuchcasesisnotunlimited.

2.2 Freedomofthought(article14UNCRC)

ANABSOLUTERIGHTTOFREEDOMOFTHOUGHT.Childrenalsohavearighttofreedomofthought,

conscienceandreligionunderarticle14UNCRC.433Aspartoftheirdevelopmentprocess,

childrenneedaccesstoinformationtoformandformulatetheiropinions.Thepractical

implementationofthefreedomofthoughtis,therefore,intertwinedwithotherchildren’s

rights,suchasinteraliatherighttoaccesstomassmediasourcesandrighttofreedomof

430Forinstance,inSekmadienisLtd.VLithuania,theECtHRheldthatfiningaclothingcompanyforits“Jesus”and“Mary”advertisingcampaignbreacheditsfreedomofexpression.Morespecifically,theCourtdecidedthatnoteveryuseofreligioussymbolsinadvertisingcampaignswouldviolatepublicmorals.AccordingtotheCourt,“thedomesticauthoritiesfailedtostrikeafairbalancebetween,ontheonehand,theprotectionofpublicmoralsand the rightsof religiouspeople,and,on theotherhand, theapplicant company’s righttofreedomofexpression”.Inthisregard,MILKAITEclarifiesthatthejudgmentoftheCourtdoesnotmeanthereligious symbols can always be used for advertising purposes. Public authorities that evaluate the‘morality’ofsuchcommercialmessagesshould,however,provideproperandsufficientreasonsexplainingwhetherandhowthereligioussymbolsusedoffendreligiouspeopleand“especiallythepublicmoralswhichrarelyderivefromjustone(religious)tradition”.I.Milkaite, ‘SekmadienisLtd.v.Lithuania:CanReligiousFigures Be Featured in Commercial Advertising?’<https://strasbourgobservers.com/2018/03/13/sekmadienis-ltd-v-lithuania-can-religious-figures-be-featured-in-commercial-advertising/>accessed30August2018.431AccordingtotheCourt, theadvertisementswereabletocontributetoadebateofgeneral interesttosomedegree,astheydealt inasatiricalmannerwitheventsthathadbeenthesubjectofpublicdebate.BohlenandErnstAugustvonHannovervGermany[2015]ECtHR53495/09.SeeDirkVoorhoof,‘EuropeanCourtofHumanRights:BohlenandErnstAugustvonHannoverv.Germany’(IRISMerlin-TheAudiovisualLaw Information Wizard) <http://merlin.obs.coe.int/iris/2015/5/article1.en.html> accessed 30 August2018.432“OtherwisetheCourtwouldhavetore-examinethefactsandallcircumstancesofeachcase.TheCourtmustconfineitsreviewtothequestionwhetherthemeasurestakenonthenationallevelarejustifiableinprincipleandproportionate”.MarktInternVerlagGmbHandBeermannvGermany(n429).SeealsoJ.Kabel,‘SwingsontheHorizontal–TheSearchforConsistencyinEuropeanAdvertisingLaw.LegalObservationsoftheEuropeanAudiovisualObservatory’(CouncilofEurope,EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory1994)4.Casesthatreflectthisapproachincludeinteralia:CasadoCocavSpain[1994]ECtHRSeriesA.,No.285.,wheretheCourtheldthateven“objective,truthfuladvertisementsmightberestrictedinordertoensurerespectfortherightsofothersorowingtothespecialcircumstancesofparticularbusinessactivitiesandprofessions.";MarktInternVerlagGmbHandBeermannvGermany(n429);XandChurchofScientologyv.Sweden(n428).433Thisrightcanalsobefoundinthefollowingarticles:article18oftheUniversalDeclarationonHumanRights,article18oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,andarticle9oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms,article10CFEU.

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expression.Article14 is aimedat stateparties,whomustensure thespecific right for

children, by adopting legislation and takingmeasures.434However, the exercise of the

right remains within the minds of children, because as soon as they express their

thoughts,itwillfallwithinthesphereoftherighttofreedomofexpressionortherightto

privacy.435 Significant to note, is that restrictions on the freedom of thought are not

allowed,contrarytoforinstancethefreedomofexpression.436

THEIMPACTOFNEWADVERTISINGANDMARKETINGTECHNIQUES.Newadvertisingandmarketing

techniqueshaveanincreasingimpactonsociety’sculturalvaluesaswellasindividuals’

beliefsandaspirations(e.g.foodconsumption,tastes,beautycanons).Inthisregard,the

UNGeneralAssemblySpecialRapporteurinthefieldofculturalrightsreportsthat

“thedominanceofspecificnarrativesandworldviewspromotedthroughcommercial

advertisingandmarketing inpublic spaces, familyandprivate spheres, combined

with an increased deployment of techniques that may influence people at a

subconsciouslevel,raisesparticularconcernsintermsoffreedomofthought,opinion

and,morewidely,culturalfreedom.”437

Childrenmay face the risk of being manipulated if it is unclear to them that certain

information, content or entertainment is in fact a persuasive commercialmessage.438

Furthermore,ithasbeenarguedthattheubiquityofcommercialmessagesinchildren’s

livesand thepromotionof lifestylesbasedonconsumptionmay lead them tobecome

434E.Brems,ACommentaryontheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild-Article14:TheRighttoFreedomofThought,ConscienceandReligion(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2006)10–11.435Inthissense,BREMSarguesthattherighttofreedomofthoughtneverplayedanimportantroleasanindependentright.Brems(n434)11.436HodgkinandNewell(n261)195.However,thereisnoconsensusonthisissue.Forexample,MEUWESE,BLAAKandKAANDORParguethatrestrictionsareallowed.Accordingtotheseauthors,thethirdparagraph–whichcontainspossiblegroundsforexception–appliestothefreedomofthoughtaswell(althoughitisformulatedasfollows:“Freedomtomanifestone’sreligionorbeliefsmaybesubjectonlytosuchlimitationsasareprescribedbylawandarenecessarytoprotectpublicsafety,order,healthormorals,orthefundamentalrightsandfreedomsofothers”):Meuwese,BlaakandKaandorp(n266)131.437 F. Shaheed, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights’ (2014) A/69/286 3<https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/755488>accessed19July2018.438Anillustrationcanbefoundinchildren’schangingfoodchoices,asresearchhasrevealedthatchildrenwhoplayedadvergamespromotinglesshealthyfoodsweremorelikelytoselectlesshealthyfoodoptionsthanthosewhoplayedadvergamespromotinghealthierfoodoptions,whichmayleadtolongtermhealthconcernssuchasobesity.MontgomeryandChester(n88)65.

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more materialistic and attach more value to money. 439 According to ARNOLD and

THOMPSON, individual consumers (including children) operate within a sociocultural,

economicandpoliticalframework,thatshapestheirthinkingpatternsandfeelingsinthe

marketplace. 440 New advertising and marketing techniques arguably help shape this

frameworkforchildrenfromaveryyoungage.Inthisregard,theSpecialRapporteuralso

underlines the potential risk of normalising commercialisation when embedding

marketingandadvertisingprogrammesintheschoolenvironment.441Theinfluencethat

commercialcommunicationmayassertoverchildren’sdecision-making,necessitatesan

assessmentofthemeansusedbytheadvertisingindustry,consideringchildren’srights,

includingtheirrighttofreedomofthought.442

PARENTAL GUIDANCE. Parents and legal guardians have a right and a duty to provide

guidancetothechildintheexerciseofhisorherrighttofreedomofthought,inamanner

consistentwiththeevolvingcapacitiesofthechild.443AccordingtoBREMS,thisrightisan

accessorytothechild’sright,ratherthananautonomousparentalright.444Statesarenot

only obliged to respect this parental duty, but in certain cases theymay also have to

intervenetoencourageorobligeparentstofulfiltheirduty.445

2.3 Freedomofassociation(article15UNCRC)

CHILDREN’S RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION. Another right for childrenwhich could be

relevant inacommercialanddigitalcontext is theright to freedomofassociationand

peaceful assembly, asenshrined inarticle15of theConvention.446It isup toStates to

439S.J.Opreeandothers,‘Children’sAdvertisingExposure,AdvertisedProductDesire,andMaterialism:ALongitudinalStudy’(2014)41CommunicationResearch717.440Shaheed(n437)3.441IncertainUNMemberStatesadvertisingandmarketingisalreadypresentinschools(e.g. inBrasil).Shaheed(n437)15.442Shaheed(n437)12.443Article14paragraph2UNCRC.Meaningthatforchildrenwithnormalmentalcapacities,theroleoftheirparentsdiminisheswhentheygrowolder.444Brems(n434)25.445Brems(n434)28.446Equivalentsinotherhumanrightstreatiesarearticle20oftheUniversalDeclarationonHumanRights,article 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and article 11 of the European

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recognisethatchildrenhavesucharight.Similartothefreedomofexpression,theright

tofreedomofassociationisnotabsolutebutrestrictionsshouldconformtothelawand

needtobenecessaryinademocraticsociety.447AccordingtoDALY,thescopeofarticle15

couldbeunderstoodasremarkablybroad,encompassingchildren’sfamilyrelationships,

schoolattendance,rightsinpublicplaces,etc.448Moreover,itisarguedthatchildrenneed

theirrighttoassociatewithfriendsinpublictobepromotedbytheConventionbecause

theyoftenhavenowheretogo,449bothinanofflineandonlinecontext.450Inrelationto

thelatter,theCouncilofEuropehasclarifiedhowtherightappliesinanonlinecontext

(toallusers,notjusttochildren).Morespecifically,itentailsthe“freedomtochooseany

website, application or service in order to form, join,mobilise and participate in social

groups”;“therighttoprotestpeacefullyonline”;andthe“thefreedomtouseavailableonline

toolstoparticipateinlocal,nationalandglobalpublicpolicydebates,legislativeinitiatives

and public petitions and to participate in policy-making relating to how the Internet is

governed.”451

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN EXERCISING THIS RIGHT. Social media platforms can play an

importantroleintherealisationofthisparticipationright,asitoffersclearopportunities

forformingorjoininggroups.However,asthebusinessmodelsoftheseonlineplatforms

are usually based on the collection of user data and the provision of behavioural

advertising,theymayalsoraiseissuesfromachildren’srightsperspective(e.g.rightto

privacy,righttoprotectionagainsteconomicexploitation).Thefactthatcertainservice

Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Belgian government made the samereservationasforarticle13,cf.supra.447Andintheinterestsofnationalsecurityorpublicsafety,publicorder,theprotectionofpublichealthormorals,ortheprotectionoftherightsandfreedomsofothers(para.2Article15UNCRC).448A.Daly,ACommentaryontheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild,Article15:TheRightto Freedom of Association and to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly (Brill 2016)<http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004258839> accessed 14 November2017;Lievensandothers(n15).449Daly(n448);Lievensandothers(n16).450Lievensandothers(n16).451CouncilofEurope,‘RecommendationCM/Rec(2014)6oftheCommitteeofMinisterstoMemberStateson a Guide to Human Rights for Internet Users’ (2014)<https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_details.aspx?ObjectID=09000016804d5b31> accessed 19 July2018.

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providers452do not offer their services to young childrenmay also negatively impact

children’srightstoparticipateinonlinepublicspaces.453

2.4 Righttoprivacy(article16UNCRC,article8ECHR,articles7and8CFEU454)

THERIGHTTOPRIVACYISENSHRINEDINSEVERALLEGALINSTRUMENTS.Children’srighttoprivacy

hasgainedincreasingattentioninrecentyears.Therighttoprivacyiscrucialinadigital

mediaenvironment,whereadvertiserstargetchildrenwithcommercialmessagesintheir

personal sphere, through their mobile phones, tablets, or even their connected toys

(infra). Article 16 of the Convention protects children from arbitrary or unlawful

interferenceswith theirprivacy, family,homeor correspondence,norshould therebe

unlawful attackson theirhonour and reputation,which is considered inherent in any

truly democratic society.455This entails interferences by state authorities and private

organisations.456Moreover, paragraph 2 stipulates that there should be legislation in

placewhichprotectschildrenagainstsuchinterferences.Similarly,therighttoprivacyis

alsoenshrinedarticle8oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights,457whichnotonly

protects an individual from interference by public authorities, but also entails several

positiveobligationsfortheState.458Suchpositiveobligationsmay“involvetheadoptionof

measuresdesignedtosecurerespectforprivate lifeeveninthesphereof therelationsof

individualsbetweenthemselves”.459Anyrestrictionontherighttoprivacymustbe(1)in

452E.g.FacebookandSnapchatrestrictstheirservicestounder13sduetoUSChildren’sOnlinePrivacyProtectionAct(COPPA).453Lievensandothers(n16).454 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000/C 364/01). Retrieved fromhttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf.455Theright toprivacyisalso included inarticles7and8of theCharterofFundamentalRightsof theEuropeanUnion.Internationalequivalentsarearticle12oftheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsandarticle17InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights.456HodgkinandNewell(n261)216.457Accordingtoarticle8ECHR,“everyonehastherighttorespectforhisprivateandfamilylife,hishomeandhiscorrespondence”.458U.Kilkelly,‘TheRighttoRespectforPrivateandFamilyLife:AGuidetotheImplementationofArticle8oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights,HumanRightsHandbooks,No1’(CouncilofEurope2003)Humanrightshandbooks,No1<http://www.refworld.org/docid/49f17e212.html>accessed13November2017.459XandYvTheNetherlands[23].

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accordancewiththelaw,(2)necessaryinademocraticsocietyand(3)havealegitimate

interest. States are also granted a certain margin of appreciation when establishing

restrictions.460AsperKILKELLY,inareassuchastheprotectionofchildren,themarginof

appreciation has been considered to be especially wide. 461 Finally, the Charter of

Fundamental Rights of the EU not only embraces the right to private and family life

(article7462),butalsoexplicitlyestablishestherighttodataprotectionandthusraisesthe

level of protection to that of a fundamental right.463More specifically, article 8 of the

Charterdeterminesthat

“Everyonehastherighttotheprotectionofpersonaldataconcerninghimorher.In

addition,suchdatamustbeprocessedfairlyforspecifiedpurposesandonthebasis

oftheconsentofthepersonconcernedorsomeotherlegitimatebasislaiddownby

law.Everyonehastherightofaccesstodatawhichhasbeencollectedconcerning

himorher,andtherighttohaveitrectified”.

Article8alsoestablishes that an independentauthorityshall control compliancewith

theseobligations.

APOSITIVEOBLIGATIONFORSTATES.TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightshasrecognisedthe

importanceofchildren’sright toprivacyandtheprotectionof theirpersonaldata ina

digital environment throughout its case law. According to GROOTHUIS, the Court has

imposedapositiveobligationuponStates– inherent toarticle8ECHR464- toadopta

legislativeframeworkprotectingchildrenfromanygravetypesofinterferencewiththeir

460Kilkelly(n458)6.461Kilkelly(n458)7.462Article7oftheCharterdeterminesthat“everyonehastherighttorespectforhisorherprivateandfamilylife,homeandcommunications”.463AlthoughtheUNCRCdoesnotexplicitlyincludearighttodataprotection,TheEU’sFundamentalRightsAgency’sobservesthatUnderinternationallaw,therighttodataprotectionispartofthechild’srighttoprivacycontainedinArticle16oftheUNCRC.464TheECtHRrarelyreferstotheUNCRCinitscaselawonarticle8ECHR.Inthisregard,GROOTHUISbelievesthattheCourtcouldstrenghtenitscaselawbyreferringtoarticles16(2)and(3)UNCRContheprohibitionof arbitrary or unlawful interferences with children’s privacy and article 3 (2) UNCRC on Stateresponsibility.SeeM.M.Groothuis,‘TheRighttoPrivacyforChildrenontheInternet:NewDevelopmentsintheCaseLawoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights’,MindingMinorsWanderingtheWeb:RegulatingOnline Child Safety (TMC Asser Press, The Hague 2014) 151–152<https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-6265-005-3_8>accessed13November2017.

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privatelives,suchassexualexploitationonline.465Althoughnocasedealtspecificallywith

theuseofchildren’spersonaldataforadvertisingpurposesupuntilnow,itcanbeargued

thatMemberStatesalsohaveapositiveobligationtoadopta legislative frameworkto

protect children from unfair advertising practices (i.e. economic exploitation, infra).

Indeed,GROOTHUISarguesthat-followingthecaselawoftheECtHR–MemberStateshave

an obligation to keep their national legislation up to date, to protect children against

forms of exploitation by new technologies or social developments in the digital

environment.Thispositiveobligationisnotfulfilledbymerelyabstainingfrominterfering

withchildren’srightsandfreedoms. In fact, ithastwodimensions.First, theStatewill

haveto‘secure’thattheserightsandfreedomsmayeffectivelybeenjoyedbyindividuals

intheirjurisdiction(i.e.theobligationtoprovideforadequatelegalprotection).Thismay

require actively taking steps to protect individuals against violation of their rights by

others,beitindividualsorcompanies,byadoptinglegalframeworksorencouragingself-

orco-regulation.466Second, thepositiveobligationalsoentails thatStatesmayhaveto

takethestepsnecessarytomakethelegalprotectionoftherighteffective(i.e.practical

enforcement).467

DIFFERENTDIMENSIONSOFPRIVACY.Theadvancementsininternettechnologieshaveledto

the further (commercial) encroachmenton theprivate sphere.468Increasedcomputing

capabilities allow commercial entities to profile children’s online behaviour and

preferences,basedonwhichchildrenaretargetedwithtailoredmarketingcampaigns.469

465Groothuis(n464)154–155.SeealsothecaseofK.U.vFinland,concerningea12-year-oldchildwhohadbecomethetargetofanadvertisementofasexualnatureonanInternetdatingsitewithouthisknowledge,which included his age, name, a photo, etc. The ECtHR had to decidewhether or not internet serviceprovidershadtodisclosetheidentityoftheprivateuserwhohaduploadedtheinformationonawebsitethatmadethechildatargetforpaedophiles.TheCourtheldthat“boththepublicinterestandtheprotectionoftheinterestsofvictimsofcrimescommittedagainsttheirphysicalorpsychologicalwell-beingrequiretheavailabilityofaremedyenablingtheactualoffendertobeidentifiedandbroughtto justice.”KUvFinland[2008]ECtHR2872/02.466I.M.Sunde,‘EnforcingLegalProtectionagainstOnlineViolationofPrivacy’inD.J.B.SvantessonandSGreenstein (eds),Nordic Yearbook of Lawand Informatics 2010-2012, Internationalisation of Law in theDigital Information Society (Ex Tuto Publishing 2013)<https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/handle/11250/174974>accessed13November2017.467OsmanvtheUnitedKingdom[1998]ECtHR23452/94.asmentionedbySunde(n466)47.468Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).469A2015privacysweepofchildren’swebsitesandappsbyaninternationalcoalitionofdataprotectionauthorities,foundthatamajorityofthesewebsitesandappscollectspersonaldataoftheyoungvisitors

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Inthiscontext,ithasbeenarguedthattherighttoprivacyhasdifferentdimensionsinthe

digital environment which need to be considered, i.e. a protection and participation

dimension. 470 On the one hand, children’s private lives should remain free from

unreasonableconstraintsfromtheStateorfromotheractorssuchascommercialentities

online.Inrelationtothelatter,childrenoftendonotgraspthescopeoftheunderlying

dataprocessingactivitiesandbusinessmodelsofonlineactors.AccordingtotheOECDfor

example, children lack the awareness and capacity to foresee the potential long-term

privacy consequences of the disclosure of their personal data online. 471 Moreover,

researchhasshownthatchildrengenerallyconsiderthemselveshavingarighttoprivacy

online from their parents or peers (i.e. social privacy), rather than from the State or

commercialintrusion(e.g.trackingforbehaviouraladvertisingpurposes).472Asaresult,

theyformaparticularlyvulnerablegroupofonlineusersthatrequireprotection.

THERIGHTSTOPRIVACYANDDEVELOPMENTINTHECONTEXTOFPROFILINGANDONLINEBEHAVIOURAL

ADVERTISING. On the other hand, the right to privacy has an important participatory

dimension, as it is essential for individual autonomy and self-determination, and a

precondition of participation. This relates to having control over the aspects of the

identityonewantstoprojecttotheoutsideworld,oraccordingtoROUVROYandPOULLET

morefundamentally

“thecapacityofthehumansubjecttokeepanddevelophispersonalityinamanner

that allows him to fully participate in societywithout however, being induced to

conformhisthoughts,beliefs,behavioursandpreferencestothosethoughts,beliefs,

behavioursandpreferencesheldbythemajority”.473

without providing adequate information (see also infra). Global Privacy Enforcement Network (n 96).Furthermore, in 2017, the coalition found that website privacy notices are too vague and generallyinadequate.470Lievensandothers(n16).471OECD(n74)32.472Ofcom,‘SocialNetworking-AQuantitativeandQualitativeResearchReportintoAttitudes,BehavioursandUse’(Ofcom2008)<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/02_04_08_ofcom.pdf>accessed19July2018;Lievensandothers(n16).473 A. Rouvroy and Y. Poullet, ‘The Right to Informational Self-Determination and the Value of Self-Development: Reassessing the Importance of Privacy for Democracy’, Reinventing Data Protection?

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Inotherwords,therightstoprivacyanddataprotectionaimatsafeguardingthehuman

capacityforreflexiveself-determination474and,assuch,alsolinktothechild’srightsto

development,freedomofexpressionandfreedomofthought.Inthisregard,SAVIRIMUTHU

warnsthattheincreasedroleofalgorithmsindefiningchildren’sconsumerexperience

shouldnotdisregardthevalueofachild’semotionalspace,whichshouldnotbesubject

totheinsidethebox-thinkingthatconstitutesprofiling-baseddecisions.475Profilingand

behaviouraltargetinghavethecapacitynotonlytocompartmentalisechildren,butalso

toshapetheirpreferencesandinterestsaccordingly,ultimatelyaffectingtheirautonomy

and development. 476 We have seen that the right to development in a digital and

commercialisedsettingentailsthatchildren’sbasicneedsarefulfilled,sothattheycan

optimally develop into independent adults. This right guides the interpretation of the

otherprovisionsoftheUNCRC,includingtherighttoprivacy.Relatedtothis,ARIELYand

BERNS argue that the creation of profiles has a potential negative impact on the

developmentofchildren.Theauthorsstressthatthecollectionanduseofpersonaldata

forthepurposeofprofilingmayunderminechildren’srightstoexperimentfreelywith

andcriticallyreflectupontheirinteractions,asthedigitalenvironmenttheyareexploring

andarecommunicatinginisnolongerfreeofsupervisionandtracking.477Inotherwords,

thisformofsupervisioncouldhaveimportantchillingeffectsonchildren,forinstancein

theformofanunwillingnesstosearchforcertaininformation.Furthermore,thelackof

children’scontroloverthemanagementoftheirpersonaldataalsoaffectstheirabilityto

develop,learnandexperimentwiththeirownidentity.478Inthiscontext,thereisagainan

important tension between participation and protectionwhich States should keep in

(Springer, Dordrecht 2009) 59 <https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9498-9_2>accessed13November2017.474ThisisalsowhatRICHARDSdenotesas“intellectualprivacy”,i.e.havingourprocessesofgeneratingideasprotectedofthesurveillanceorinterferencebyothersbeforewemakethempublic.N.Richards,IntellectualPrivacy:RethinkingCivilLibertiesintheDigitalAge,vol6(OxfordUniversityPress2016).475J.Savirimuthu,‘UnfairCommercialPracties,theConsumerChildandNewTechnologies:WhatShouldWe Regulate? Some Policy Provocations’ (2014)<https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/european-childrens-rights-unit/BriefingNote.pdf>accessed13November2017.476VerdoodtandLievens(n3).477ArielyandBerns(n119).ascitedbySavirimuthu(n475).478ArielyandBerns(n119).ascitedbySavirimuthu(n475).

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mindwhendevelopingguidancedocumentsandpoliciesfortheprocessingofchildren’s

personal data. States have a responsibility to develop guidelines for increased

transparencyandraiseawarenessofprofilingactivitiesandbehaviouraladvertising,both

amongstchildrenandparents.However,itisalsoimportanttorecognisethelimitations

oftransparencyandempowermentofchildren(andtheirparentsforthatmatter)when

itcomestodataprocessingpractices.479Inthisregard,KEYMOLENmentionstheconceptof

‘invisible invisibility’, which entails that “the invisibility of these actions makes it rather

difficulttoescapethestateofconfidenceandactivelyengagewiththequestionifcuratorsare

trustworthy and if the actions they undertake are in linewith the interests of the users.”480

Children’srighttoprivacy,therefore,requiresspecificprotectionsforchildrenwhenitcomes

totheprocessingoftheirpersonaldataforadvertisingpurposes.481Heretoo,theageand

level of maturity of the child will play an important role. 482 Companies collecting

children’spersonaldata foradvertisingpurposesmustalsotaketheirresponsibility483

and carry out a thorough data protection impact assessment with attention to the

interestsand rightsof children (infra). Finally, it shouldbekept inmind thatparents

keeping track of a child’s use of the Internet and other new media or their digital

correspondence,forinstancethroughsoftware,couldconstituteaviolationofthechild’s

right to privacy.484When deciding on the use of such paternalisticmeasures, parents

shouldtakethechild’sbestinterestsintoconsideration,andconsultthechildaboutthe

informationthatisdisclosedtotheirparents,inaccordancewiththeirageandmaturity.

DIGITALDURABILITY.Finally,asmentioned,childrenhavearighttoexploreandexperiment

withtheirownidentity,bothintheofflineandonlineenvironment.Digitaldurabilityand

479Personaldatacollectedthroughprofilingmaynotonlybeusedforimprovingoradaptingthedeviceorservice,butalsoforotherpurposessuchastargetedadvertisingonotherwebsitesorapps.E.Keymolen,TrustontheLine:APhilosophicalExplorationofTrustintheNetworkedEra(WolfLegalPublishers2016)154.480Keymolen(n479)154.481Forexample,default limitationson theprocessingof children’spersonaldata forprofilingpurposescouldbeconsidered(infra).482 V. Verdoodt and E. Lievens, ‘De AVG Bekeken Vanuit Een Kinderrechtenperspectief Pluspunten,Knelpunten&Vraagstukken’[2017]Computerrecht.483K.C.MontgomeryandJ.Chester,‘DataProtectionforYouthintheDigitalAge:DevelopingaRights-BasedGlobalFramework’(2015)1EuropeanDataProtectionLawReview277,291.484Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)271.

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outdated informationmay present significant challenges in this respect. Children and

youngsters are often not (yet) capable of understanding the potential long-term

consequencesofsharingtheirorotherpeople’spersonaldataonline-infactthismaybe

true for most people given that the privacy implications can be incremental and

obscure.485Accordingly, they should be provided with the possibility to have certain

informationdeletedwhentheygrowup,sothattheyarenotboundbyvisions,statements

or preferences in which they can no longer find themselves. In practice, however,

exercising this right may not always be easy. First, VAN DER HOFmakes an important

distiction between (1) ‘data given’ - which is information given or published by the

individuals themselvesandofwhich they canask tobedeleted; (2) ‘datagivenoff’or

observeddata486-ofwhichmostpeopleareunawarethattheyarebeingcollectedand,

hence,mostlikelyunabletodelete;and(3)‘inferreddata’487-suchasprofiles,whichare

equallydifficulttobeawareofandtodelete.488Furthermore,BLUMEpointstothefactthat

allrelevantinterests(e.g.thepublicinterest)shouldbetakenintoconsideration.489

2.5 Righttohaveadiversityofmassmediasourcestochoosefrom(article17

UNCRC)

THE DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT IS CHILDREN’S GATEWAY TO INFORMATION. Another right which is

importantinthecontextofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildren,

485OECD(n74).Inthisregard,BOYDmentionsfourcharacteristicsofdatathatareimportant:persistence,replicability, scalability and searchability. For more information see D. boyd, ‘Social Network Sites asNetworked Publics: Affordances, Dynamics, and Implications’ in Z Papacharissi (ed), Networked self:Identity, community, and culture on social network sites (Routledge)<https://www.danah.org/papers/2010/SNSasNetworkedPublics.pdf>accessed9November2018.486 This category of data does not merely consist of content (i.e. communications, social media posts,picturesandvideo‘setc.)butalsoofmetadata(e.g.MAC-address,usage,socialconnections,howoftenyoucallwhom,whenandwhere,andotherlocationdata).vanderHof(n94)104–105.487AccordingtoVANDERHOF,“thedatagivenandgivenoff-andotherdata-arecaptured,processed,andthenanalyzedwithalgorithms,whichresultsinnewknowledgeconsistingofpatternsandcorrelations.Therefore,knowledge about someone can be inferred that was perhaps not disclosed by individuals because theyperceiveditastoopersonaltoshareonline.”vanderHof(n94)105–106.488vanderHof(n94)104–106.489Forexample,somechildrenwilllaterbecomepublicfigures(e.g.politicians)andwillsoonbeofinteresttoawideraudience.P.Blume,‘TheDataSubject’(2015)1EuropeanDataProtectionLawReview258.Forthisreason,theexerciseoftherighttodataerasureandtheretentionofdatashouldbeviewedfromadynamicandfundamentalrightsperspective.SeealsoVerdoodtandLievens(n482).

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isenshrinedinarticle17,therighttoaccesstoadiversityofmediaandinformation.More

specifically,thisarticlerequiresstatestoprovidechildrenwithaccessto

“informationandmaterial fromadiversityofnationaland international sources,

especiallythoseaimedatthepromotionofhisorhersocial,spiritualandmoralwell-

beingandphysicalandmentalhealth”.

Thereasoningbehindthisprovisionisthatfortheexerciseofotherfundamentalrights

(e.g.therighttofreedomofexpression,therighttobeheard),childrenneedtohaveaccess

tomediaandinformation.490AccordingtoWHEATLYSACINO,theessenceofarticle17isthe

diversity in mass media sources 491 and State’s duty to ensure that children and

adolescentshaveaccessto“avarietyofproducersanddisseminatorsofmovies,television

and radio programs, books, magazines, the Internet and other mass media

communications”492.493In addition, States have a series of obligations for encouraging

otheractorstoproduceanddistributematerialthatpromoteschildren’sandadolescents’

well-being, 494 which arguably could include the advertising industry. Following this

interpretation,therighttoaccesstomediahasaimportantprovisiondimension,butit

undoubtedly also has a participation dimension (i.e. access), as well as a protective

dimension(i.e.encouragethedevelopmentofguidelinesfortheprotectionofthechild

againstharmfulmaterial,abasisfortakingactionsagainstcertainharmfulcontent).The

digitalenvironmentisanimportantgatewaytoinformationandaccordingtotheCouncil

of Europe it is a primary source for information and communication for children.495

490Meuwese,BlaakandKaandorp(n266)144–145.491Withoutsuchadiverityofsources,therewillbealackofdiversityinthecontentavailbletochildren,limiting their choice as media consumers. S. Wheatley Sacino, A Commentary on the United NationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild,Article17:AccesstoaDiversityofMassMediaSources(Brill2011)7.492Sacino(n491)5.493Article17alsoreferstothe“importantfunctionperformedbythemassmedia”,butdoesnotprovideanyfurther clarifications on the concept. The Council of Europe, however, interprets this notion broadly,encompassing both traditional and onlinemedia. Council of Europe, ‘Internet Governance - Council ofEurope Strategy 2016-2019: Democracy, Human Rights and the Rule of Law in the Digital World’<https://rm.coe.int/16806aafa9>accessed10November2017.494Sacino(n491)11.495CouncilofEurope, ‘InternetGovernance-CouncilofEuropeStrategy2016-2019:Democracy,HumanRightsandtheRuleofLawintheDigitalWorld’(n493).

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However,nosimilarrightcanbefoundinothermajorhumanrightsinstruments.Inthis

regard, the UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to

freedom of opinion and expression believes that States have “a positive obligation to

promoteorfacilitatetherighttofreedomofexpressionandthemeansnecessarytoexercise

this right,which includes the internet”.496Furthermore, the EuropeanCourt ofHuman

Rights has recognised that “the Internet plays an important role in enhancing public’s

access to news and facilitating the dissemination of information in general”.497Finally,

researchhasshownthatchildrenthemselvesinfactconsideraccesstodigitalmediatobe

afundamentalright.498

IMPLICATIONS OF THE COMMERCIALISATION OF CHILDREN’S DIGITAL MEDIA. The increased

commercialisation of children’s digital media poses certain challenges for the

implementationof article17 inpractice.First,digitalmediamay transmit commercial

messageswhich are harmful to children (i.e. protection). For instance, when harmful

productsorservicesarepromoted,suchasgambling,alcoholorunhealthyfoods,orwhen

portraying unrealistic body images.499Second, the increased personalisationof digital

servicesandtargetingofadvertisingandmarketingofmediacontentorotherservices

mayinpracticeresultinarestrictedconsumerchoice(i.e.participation).Finally,article

17 also requires States to provide childrenwith age-appropriate information on their

rights (i.e.provision),whichmaybedifficult toachieve inpractice.Toovercomesuch

challenges,Statesareencouragedtopursueaproactivepolicythatstimulatesthecultural,

educationalandinformationalpotentialofmediawhenitcomestochildren,500notonly

in relation tomedia content, but also regarding commercial communication aimed at

them. Such a policy should focus inter alia on protecting the child against harmful

496F.LaRue,‘ReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthePromotionandProtectionoftheRighttoFreedomof Opinion and Expression’ (2011)<http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/17session/A.HRC.17.27_en.pdf> accessed 10November2017.497Lievens, ‘Children’sRightsandMedia’(n412).SeeMTEvHungary [2016]ECtHR22947/13.SeealsoLievensandothers(n16).498Thirdandothers(n331).499 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)8–9;OECD(n74)32.500D.Voorhoof,Media(Recht)EnKinder(Recht)En(Mys&Breesch1994)30.

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commercial influences through the media and on safeguarding children’s access to a

diversityofinformationandmediasources.Asmentioned,parentsalsohaveanimportant

responsibility under article 18 UNCRC to offer appropriate direction and guidance to

children(inamannerconsistentwiththeevolvingcapacitiesofthechild)whenexercising

their rights. 501 This provision could be interpreted as implying that parents have a

responsibilityto(dotheirbestto)supporttheirchildrenintheirapproachtonewmedia

and commercial communication. 502 Furthermore, States must “render appropriate

assistance to parents and legal guardians in the performance of their child-rearing

responsibilities”(infra).503This‘assistance’could,forexample,consistofStatesproviding

adequateinformationtoparents,regardingtherisksofcertainmediaoradvertisingto

whichtheirchildrencanbeexposed.504

2.6 Righttoeducationand(advertising)literacy(Articles28and29UNCRC)

EDUCATIONANDLITERACYASAMEANSFORCHILDREN’SDEVELOPMENT.Asmentioned,tobeinline

withchildren’srighttodevelopment,theyshouldnotonlybeprotectedfromharmfulor

misleadingadvertisingbutalsobeeducatedandempoweredtocopewithcommercial

communication(i.e.advertisingliterate).Itisthereforeimportanttoanalysechildren’s

educationrightsundertheConventioninthiscontext,whichareenshrinedinarticles28

and29.Theserightshaveadualdimension,ontheonehandrequiringStatestoprovide

accesstoeducationalinformationtoallchildrenandontheotherhandtoenablechildren

todevelopthelifeskillstooptimallyusesucheducationalandinformationalsourcesand

strengthen their capacity to enjoy the full range of human rights.505Considering this

501 For more details on parental responsibility, see M. Couzens, ‘Autonomy Rights versus ParentalAutonomy’inA.Alen(ed),TheUNChildren’srightsConvention:theorymeetspractice(Intersentia2006).502TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyhasalsotouchedupontheresponsibilitiesofparentsetal.inthisrespect:“19.Encouragemeasurestoprotectchildrenfromviolentorharmfulwebsites,computerprogrammesand games that negatively influence the psychological development of children, taking into account theresponsibilitiesofthefamily,parents, legalguardiansandcaregivers”: UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,‘Resolution-AWorldFitforChildren,A/RES/S-27/2’(2004)23RefugeeSurveyQuarterly225.ascitedbyLievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)277.503Article18para.2UNCRC.504HodgkinandNewell(n261)236.505Lievensandothers(n16);UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild, ‘GeneralCommentNo.1(2001)Article 29 (1): The Aims of Education’ (n 343) 2. This dual perspective can also be seen in several

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seconddimension,children’seducationrightsshouldbeviewedinconjunctionwiththe

generalprinciplesandrightsoftheConvention,inparticulartherighttodevelopment,as

well as children’sparticipationrights suchas interalia the child’sright to freedomof

expressionandtherighttofreedomofassociation.506AccordingtotheCouncilofEurope,

theprocessofdevelopingskillstousenewmediaandtechnologiesshouldgohand-in-

handwithlearningabouttheenjoymentofchildren’srightsandfreedomsonline.507

ADVERTISINGLITERACYSKILLS.Whereasarticle28containstherighttoeducation508,article

29addsaqualitativemeaningtoitbyestablishingtheaimsofeducation,i.e.theholistic

developmentofthefullpotentialofthechild(andassuchlinkingbacktothechild’sright

todevelopment).509Aschildrenareintheprocessofbecomingadults,theirsituationcan

alwaysbeperceivedasoneofeducation.Educationinthissensegoesfarbeyondformal

schoolingandentailsaccordingtotheUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild:

“thebroadrangeoflifeexperiencesandlearningprocesseswhichenablechildren,

individuallyandcollectively,todeveloptheirpersonalities,talentsandabilitiesand

toliveafullandsatisfyinglifewithinsociety”.510

AccordingtoVERHEYDE,thelifeskillschildrenareentitledtodevelopincludeinteraliathe

ability to make well-balanced decisions, to develop a healthy lifestyle and critical

internationalpolicydocuments,suchasOECD(n74);CouncilofEurope,‘RecommendationCM/Rec(2014)6oftheCommitteeofMinisterstoMemberStatesonaGuidetoHumanRightsforInternetUsers’(n451).506M.Verheyde,Article28:TheRighttoEducation(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2006)2.507CouncilofEurope,‘RecommendationRec(2006)12oftheCommitteeofMinisterstoMemberStatesonEmpowering Children in the New Information and Communications Environment’ (2006) 2<https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/committee-of-ministers-adopted-texts/-/asset_publisher/aDXmrol0vvsU/content/recommendation-rec-2006-12-of-the-committee-of-ministers-to-member-states-on-empowering-children-in-the-new-information-and-communications-environment>accessed10November2017.508AccordingtoVERHEYDE,theCRC’seducationrightscanbecategoriesas(1)therighttoeducation(i.e.theprovisionsregardingthepracticalorganisationandcontentofeducation),(2)therightineducation(i.e.theprotectionandparticipationrightsofchildreninschoolsettingsand(3)therightthrougheducation(i.e.theindirectimplementationoftheConvention’sstandardsbymeansofhumanrightseducation.Verheyde(n506)2.509UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.1(2001)Article29(1):TheAimsofEducation’(n343)2.510UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.1(2001)Article29(1):TheAimsofEducation’(n343)2.

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thinking,511 which are all crucial when it comes to coping with new advertising and

marketing techniques. Therefore, it is argued that children should also be enabled to

becomeadvertisingliterateadults,whichmeansthattheyshouldbeabletodevelopand

use their advertising-related knowledge, attitudes, and skills, such as the ability to

recognisecommercialmessages,tounderstandthepersuasiveintentofsuchmessages,

andtocriticallyevaluatethem,bothofflineandonline.512Nevertheless,itisimportantto

keep inmind the limitations of advertising literacy and the problems associatedwith

certainadvertisingtechniques(e.g.personalisationandemotionaltargeting).Thislinks

backtotherequirementimposedbythechildren’srightsframeworkoffindingabalance

between empowering the child (i.e. by encouraging their advertising literacy) and

protectingthechild(i.e.fromharmfulormisleadingadvertising).

ADVERTISING LITERACY POLICIES AND INITIATIVES. There is broad consensus that the digital

environmentoffersmanybenefitsforchildren’seducationanddevelopment,butalsothat

education and literacy initiatives are crucial means to empower children in this

environment.513Inthisregard,Statesshouldpromoteadvertisingliteracyinitiativesand

developpoliciesconsideringthechildren’srightsframework.514Inaddition,wecontend

thatthereshouldbespecificprotectionmeasuresforchildrenagainstthoseadvertising

techniqueswhereadvertisingliteracyisnoteffective.

2.7 Righttoengageinplayandrecreationalactivities(article31UNCRC)

PLAYANDRECREATIONCONTRIBUTETOCHILDREN’SDEVELOPMENT.Article31explicitlyrecognises

theimportanceofplayandrecreationinchildren’slives,duetoitspositiveimpactonthe

social, cognitive and personal development of the child. More specifically, article 31

requiresStatesto

511Verheyde(n506).512Rozendaalandothers(n42);LivingstoneandHelsper(n43).513Lievensandothers(n16).514Suchprogrammesorinitiativesshouldbereviewedandevaluatedonacontinuousbasis,consideringtheconstantevolutionofdigitaladvertisingandmarketingtechniques.Lievensandothers(n16).Inthisregard,theCouncilofEuroperecommendsthatfamiliarisationwithnewtechnologiesandservicesshouldbeginfromanearlystageofschooleducation.

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“recognizetherightofthechildtorestandleisure,toengageinplayandrecreational

activitiesappropriatetotheageofthechildandtoparticipatefreelyinculturallife

andthearts”.

AccordingtoDAVID,thedistinctionbetweentheterms‘play’and‘recreationalactivities’

liesinthedegreeofformalityandorganisationoftheactivities.Morespecifically,‘play’

canbeunderstoodasunstructuredinformalactivitiesofchildrenuncontrolledbyadults,

whereas ‘recreation’ refers tomore organised and formal activities such as sports or

creativearts.515Newmediatechnologieslikesocialnetworking,mobileappsandonline

games can play an important role by facilitating access to a variety of playful, social,

cultural and artistic activities. 516 The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child has

underlinedthat:

“Childreninallregionsoftheworldarespendingincreasingperiodsoftimeengaged

inplay,recreational,culturalandartisticactivities,bothasconsumersandcreators,

viavariousdigitalplatformsandmedia, includingwatchingtelevision,messaging,

socialnetworking,gaming, texting, listening toand creatingmusic,watchingand

makingvideosandfilms,creatingnewartforms,postingimages.”517

In this regard, Statesareencouraged todeveloppoliciesandadoptmeasures that are

needed toenableall children to take full advantageof theopportunitiesof thedigital

environment.518Thisentailsthatchildrenshouldhave(equal)accesstotheinternetand

newmediatechnologies(supra),andareeducatedandprovidedwiththenecessaryskills

touseandreapthebenefitsofsuchtechnologies.

AN INCREASED COMMERCIALISATION OF PLAY. Furthermore, an important consideration in

relation to article 31 is that, nowadays, children and their families are exposed to

515P.David,ACommentaryontheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChild,Article31:TheRighttoLeisure,PlayandCulture(Brill2006).516Hodgkin andNewell (n 261) 470;Meuwese, Blaak andKaandorp (n 266) 260. as cited by Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)278.517UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.17(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoRest,Leisure,Play,RecreationalActivities,CulturalLifeandtheArts(Art.31)’(2013).518UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.17(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoRest,Leisure,Play,RecreationalActivities,CulturalLifeandtheArts(Art.31)’(n517).

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increasedmarketingandacommercialisationofplay.Itwasoneofthemajorconcerns

broughtforwardbytheCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,duringitsDayofGeneral

Discussionin2014.Inthisregard,theCommitteearguesthatparentsexperiencemore

andmorepressuretopurchasecertaintoysandgameswhichmaybeharmful to their

children’sdevelopment.519Inaddition,childrenthemselvesarebeingtargetedbygame

andtoymanufacturers,whoembedcommercialmessagesdirectlyintochildren’sgaming

experiencesbothonlineandoffline.Examplesofsuchamarketingstrategyincludethe

delivery of commercial messages through in-game advertising, advergames, or even

interactive, connected toys.520Asmentioned, the data processing activitiesunderlying

these advertising techniques go beyond children’s understanding and therefore often

happenwithouttheirortheirparents’meaningfulconsent.521TheCommitteealsofears

thatglobalmarketinginthiscontextcanservetoweakenchildren’sactiveparticipation

inthetraditionalculturalandartisticlifeoftheircommunity.522Toovercomethis,theUN

CommitteeontheRightsoftheChildunderlinesthatarticle31requiresspecificactions

ofStates in thecontextofmarketingandmedia.Morespecifically,States“mustreview

theirpolicies concerning the commercialisationof toysandgames to children, including

through children’s television programmes and directly related advertisements, with

particularregardtothosepromotingviolence,girlsorboysinasexualwayandreinforcing

519TheCommitteementionsthefollowingexamples:“productsthatpromotetelevisionprogrammeswithestablished characters and storylines which impede imaginative exploration; toys with microchips whichrender the child as a passive observer; kitswith a pre-determined pattern of activity; toys that promotetraditionalgenderstereotypesorearlysexualizationofgirls;toyscontainingdangerouspartsorchemicals;realisticwartoysandgames.”UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.17(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoRest,Leisure,Play,RecreationalActivities,CulturalLifeandtheArts(Art.31)’(n517)15.;seealsoUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘Reportofthe2014DayofGeneralDiscussion“DigitalMediaandChildren’sRights”’(n332).520Forinstance,arecentreviewreportofthetermsofuseofconnectedtoysbytheNorwegianConsumerCouncil,foundthatthemyfriendCayladollwas“embeddedwithpre-programmedphrases,throughwhichtheyendorsedifferentcommercialproducts.Forexample,thedollCaylawillhappilytalkabouthowmuchsheloves different Disney movies.” Finn Myrstad, ‘Connected toys violate European consumer law :Forbrukerrådet’(6December2016)<https://www.forbrukerradet.no/siste-nytt/connected-toys-violate-consumer-laws/>accessed23July2018.521F. Lupiáñez-Villanueva and others, ‘Study on the Impact ofMarketing through SocialMedia, OnlineGames and Mobile Applications on Children’s Behaviour’ (European Commission 2016)<http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/consumer_evidence/behavioural_research/docs/final_report_impact_marketing_children_final_version_approved_en.pdf>accessed10November2017.522GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.17(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoRest,Leisure,Play,RecreationalActivities,CulturalLifeandtheArts(Art.31)’(2013)15.

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genderanddisabilitystereotypes”.Finally,Statesarealsorecommendedtolimitexposure

toadvertisingduringpeakviewinghoursforchildren.523

2.8 Protectionagainsteconomicexploitation(article32UNCRC)

BROADENINGTHENOTIONOF“ECONOMICEXPLOITATION”.Arightwhichhasnotbeenmentioned

frequentlyinthecontextofadvertisingisenshrinedinarticle32oftheConvention,i.e.

therighttoprotectionagainsteconomicexploitation.AlthoughtheConventiondoesnot

offeradefinitionofthenotion‘economicexploitation’,article32isgenerallyinterpreted

as thechild’sright toprotectionagainstchildlabour.524Nevertheless, itcanbeargued

that this notion is perhaps much broader, especially in the digital era. The notion

combines two distinct elements: (1) economic and (2) exploitation. First, ‘economic’

impliesthatthereisamaterialinterest,i.e.acertaingainorprofitthroughtheproduction,

distributionorconsumptionofgoodsandservices.525TheUNCommitteeontheRightsof

theChildrecognisesthat thismaterial interestmayhavean impactontheeconomyof

either the State, the community or the family. In the context of commercial

communication,theeconomicelementcouldbethefactthatcertaingoodsandservices

areadvertisedtowardschildren,potentiallyleadingtoanincreasedconsumptionofthe

advertised goods or services and, hence an increased gain or profit for the brand or

company.Thismaterialinterestofthecompanyinturnhasadirectimpactonthetargeted

childanditsfamily(i.e.ontheirconsumptionpattern).

EXPLOITATIVE ADVERTISING AND MARKETING. Secondly, according to the Committee’s

interpretation, ‘exploitation’ means ‘taking unjust advantage of another for one’s own

advantage or benefit’. 526 More specifically, this includes manipulation, misuse, abuse,

523GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.17(2013)ontheRightoftheChildtoRest,Leisure,Play,RecreationalActivities,CulturalLifeandtheArts(Art.31)’(2013)15.524L. Swepston,A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 32:Protection from Economic Exploitation (Brill 2012)<http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/9789004231467> accessed 13 November2017.525GeneralUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘UNCRCDiscussionDay1993,EconomicExploitationof Children, CRC/C/20’ (1993) 3<http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Documents/Recommandations/exploit.pdf>.526 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘UNCRC Discussion Day 1993, Economic Exploitation ofChildren,CRC/C/20’(n525)3.

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victimisation, oppression or ill-treatment. In this regard, the OECD has stressed that

childrenareexposed to significant consumer risks in thedigital environment. Indeed,

they may face inter alia “embedded ads, privacy-invasive practices, age-inappropriate

content, as well as the exploitation of their incredulity and inexperience resulting in

economic risks suchasoverspendingoronline fraudulent transactions”.527Furthermore,

VANDERHOF argues that treating children as the product rather than customerswhen

offeringthemonlineservices,forinstancebycollectingtheirpersonaldataandusingitor

reselling it for advertising purposes can also be perceived as a form of economic

exploitation. 528 The Committee underlines that States have an important role in

adequatelyincentivisingtheadvertisingindustrytoadoptfairadvertisingandmarketing

practices.529

2.9 Proceduralrights(articles6and13ECHR,article47CFEU)

Finally, children alsohave rights that grant them a number ofprocedural guarantees,

whichareparticularlyrelevantfortheresearchonthestructureofalternativeregulatory

instrumentsforadvertisingandmarketing(seeinfrapartIII).

RIGHTTOAFAIRTRIAL.First,childrenhavearighttoafairtrial,asenshrinedinarticle6of

theECHR,whichprovidesthat

“1.Inthedeterminationofhiscivilrightsandobligationsorofanycriminalcharge

againsthim,everyoneisentitledtoafairandpublichearingwithinareasonabletime

byanindependentandimpartialtribunalestablishedbylaw.”530

Thus,article6ECHRisapplicableineithercriminalcasesornon-criminalcaseswhere

civil rights and obligations are at stake. The ECtHR has developed an autonomous

527OECD(n74).528S.vanderHof,‘IAgree,orDoI:ARights-BasedAnalysisoftheLawonChildren’sConsentintheDigitalWorld’(2016)34Wis.Int’lLJ409,123.529 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).530ThesecondandthirdparagraphofArticle6ECHRcontinuewithapresumptionofinnocenceandanon-exhaustivelistofrightswhicharelinkedtothenotionoffairtrialincriminalcases.Ascriminalcaseswillberareinthecontextofcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildren,theanalysisfocusesonthefirstparagraphdealingwithnon-criminalcaseswherecivilrightsareatstake.

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interpretationoftheconceptof“civilrightsandobligations”,entailinginteraliathatthe

righttoafairtrialonlycomesintoplayifthereisadisputeconcerningcivilrightswhich

isgenuineandofaseriousnature531andrelates toanactualright.532Thisdisputecan

eitherbebetweenindividualsorbetweenanindividualandthestate.533TheECtHRhas

clarifiedthataninherentaspectoftheproceduralsafeguardsenshrinedinarticle6isthe

right to access to a court. 534 Furthermore, several procedural requirements are put

forwardbyarticle6:(1)afairandpublichearingandapubliclypronouncedjudgement,

(2)ahearingmustoccurwithinareasonabletimeframe,(3)casesneedtobedealtwith

byanindependentandimpartialtribunalestablishedbylaw.535

RIGHTTOANEFFECTIVEREMEDY.Anotherrightwhichcouldberelevanttotheresearchisthe

children’srighttoaneffectiveremedyunderarticle13ECHR,whichprovidesthat

“Everyonewhose rightsand freedomsasset forth in thisConventionare violated

shallhaveaneffectiveremedybeforeanationalauthoritynotwithstandingthat

theviolationhasbeencommittedbypersonsactinginanofficialcapacity.”

Althoughitisanindependentright536,therighttoaneffectiveremedywillnormallybe

invoked in conjunction with another fundamental right. The ECtHR has clarified the

essenceofarticle13:

“TheobjectofArticle13,asemergesfromtheTravauxpréparatoiresistoprovidea

meanswherebyindividualscanobtainreliefatnationallevelforviolationsoftheir

531SporrongandLönnrothvSweden[1982]ECtHRApplicationno.7151/75;7152/75.532TheECtHRhasclarifiedthatthesubstantiverightreliedonbytheapplicantinthenationalcourtsmusthavealegalbasisintheStateconcerned.DirectorateoftheJurisconsultoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights, ‘Guide on Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights - Right to a Fair Trial’ 7–8<https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Guide_Art_6_ENG.pdf>accessed17May2018.533Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)324.534GoldervTheUnitedKingdom[1975]ECtHRApplicationno.4451/70.535ForamoredetaileddiscussionseeLievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)323–327.536ThisentailsthataviolationofasubstantiverightoftheECHR(e.g.therighttoprivacy)doesnothavetobeestablishedfirst.

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Convention rights before having to set in motion the international machinery of

complaintbeforetheCourt”.537

EachoftheContractingPartiestotheECHRareleftwithadegreeofnationalprocedural

autonomy.Morespecifically,theyareallowedtochoosetheformofremediesofferedto

meettheirobligationsundertheECHR.RAINEYetal.highlightthatsuchremediesdonot

necessarily have to be judicial, but may include non-judicial mechanisms such as

Ombudsmanprocedures.538Therearetwoquestionsthatneedtobeaskedinthecontext

of article13ECHR, (1)doestheapplicanthaveanarguable complaint?And (2) is the

nationalremedyeffective?First,withregardtothearguabilitytest,theECtHRdecideson

theissueonacase-by-casebasis.539Second,theremediesprovidedmustbeeffectivein

practiceaswellasinlaw.TheECtHRhasclarifiedthroughoutitscaselawthattheremedy

mustbeonewhichenablestheapplicantstoraisetheirrightsinatimelymanner,andto

have them considered in national proceedings. 540 The violation should not only be

terminatedbutanyconsequencethereofshouldalsobeneutralised.541

CONCLUDINGREMARK.Withinthescopeof thisstudy, the issuethat ismost interesting is

which procedural guarantees or organisational elements can be recommended for

alternativeregulatoryinstruments,inlightofchildren’sproceduralrights.Thisquestion

willbefurtheranalysedinpartIIIoftheresearch.

537KudlavPoland[2000]ECtHR30210/96[152].538B. Rainey, E.WicksandC.Ovey, Jacobs,White andOvey: TheEuropean Convention onHumanRights(OxfordUniversityPress2017)139.539Rainey,WicksandOvey(n538)138.540Rainey,WicksandOvey(n538)141.541Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)329.

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CONCLUSION - AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE REGULATORY

FRAMEWORKFORCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION

CHILDREN’SRIGHTSANDNEWFORMSOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Inthefirstsectionofthis

chapter,weintroducedthechildren’srightsframeworkandexploredchildren’srightsin

the digital era. From this analysis, we conclude that both the digitisation and the

commercialisationof children’s lifeworlds impactsnotonlyhowchildrencanexercise

theirrightsbutalsohowtheserightsmaybeprotected,promotedorneglected.Inorder

toaddressthisreconfigurationofchildren’srightsandadapttothenewreality–children

asearlyadoptersofnewtechnologiesaccessingcommercialiseddigitalenvironmentsfor

play,communicationandinformationfromaveryyoungage-aspecificinterpretationof

therelevantprovisionsoftheUNCRCframeworkwasneeded.

CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AS AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR REGULATION. Therefore, the second

sectionof thechapter focusedonthe interpretationof therightsandprinciples in the

specificcontextofcommercialcommunication.Regardingtheroleofchildren’srightsin

regulating advertising,we contend that the interpretation of the rights and principles

shouldfunctionasacomprehensiveanalyticalframeworkinlightofwhichthelegislative

orself-andco-regulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildren

shouldbeevaluated.Fromthisinterpretativeexercise,anumberofimportantoutcomes

canbehighlighted.

AMULTI-DIMENSIONALAPPROACH:BALANCINGEMPOWERMENTANDPROTECTION.Theoverarching

conclusionoftheaboveanalysisisthatthetensionbetweentheobjectivesofprotection,

participationandprovisionofthechildisclearlypresentinthedigitalenvironment.On

the one hand, misleading or harmful advertisements online and the collection of

children’spersonaldataforadvertisingpurposesraisessignificantissuesinrelationto

inter alia children’s rights to development, privacy and protection against economic

exploitation.Ontheotherhand,children’srighttodevelopmentandself-determination

requires that children are educated and empowered to cope with commercial

communication, in accordance with the child’s evolving capacities as a ‘consumer’.

Furthermore,thedigitalenvironmentoffersgreatopportunitiesforchildren’srightsto

participation,education,andplay,andtheadvertisingindustryhasanimportantrolein

thecreationandmaintenanceofgood-qualitycontentandonlineservices forchildren.

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Accordingly, rather than a purely protectionist approach to regulating new forms of

commercialcommunication,itiscontendedthatabalanceisneededbetweenprotecting

children against those forms of commercial communication that are misleading or

harmfulorwhereadvertisingliteracyandeducationwouldnotbeasolution,andbetween

empowering and educating children and allowing them to practice their commercial

decision-makingskills.Keepinginmindtheneedforabalancebetweenprotectionand

empowerment,anumberofmorespecificconclusionscanbedrawn.

CHILDREN’S AUTONOMY AND COMMERCIAL DECISION-MAKING. Advertising and marketing

infiltrates nearly all aspects of children’s online lifes, their social media pages, the

environmentsinwhichtheyplaygames,wheretheysearchforinformation,etc.Inthis

regard,itisarguedthattheincreasedcommercialisationmayshapechildren’sthinking

patternsandfeelingsinthemarketplace,whichaffectsanumberofrightsincludingtheir

righttodevelopmentandautonomy,therighttofreedomofthoughtandtherighttoplay.

Furthermore,thecollectionofchildren’spersonaldataforadvertisingpurposesandthe

profilingandpersonalisationimpactstheirrightstodevelopment,privacyandprotection

against economic exploitation. In relation to this, it is necessary to emphasise that

childrenshouldbeabletomaintaintheirself-determinationaswellastheirautonomyin

commercialdecision-makingandbeprotectedfromcompartmentalisation.Furthermore,

theirabilitytoexperimentonlinewithoutsupervisionshouldalsobesafeguarded.

EDUCATION,ACCESSTOINFORMATIONANDADVERTISINGLITERACY.Linkingbacktotheneedfora

balancebetweenprotectionandempowerment,theanalysishighlightedthatchildrenare

alsoentitledtodeveloptheabilitytomakewell-balanceddecisions,todevelopahealthy

lifestyleand their critical thinking,whichareall crucialwhen it comes to copingwith

advertisingandmarketingpractices. In relation to this, it is contended that children’s

rightstoeducationandaccesstoinformationrequiresthatchildrenareprovidedwiththe

necessary opportunities to mature and practice their advertising-related knowledge,

attitudes,andskills,suchastheabilitytorecognisecommercialmessages,tounderstand

thepersuasiveintentofsuchmessages,andtocriticallyevaluatethem,bothofflineand

online.

BROADENINGTHENOTIONOFECONOMICEXPLOITATION.However, theanalysisof theemerging

trendsinadvertisinginthefirstchaptershowedthatcertainadvertisingtechniques(e.g.

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targetedadvertising,emotionaltargeting)areextremelyeffectivewhenusedonchildren.

Forsuchadvertisingpractices, thelimitsofadvertisingliteracyandeducationandthe

needforadditionalprotectionforchildrenarerecognised.Morespecifically,thisthesis

advocatestothebroadeningofthenotionofeconomicexploitationtoincludeexploitative

advertising. Targeting children with hidden or misleading commercial messages or

collecting children’s personal data and using or reselling them for advertising and

marketing purposes are practices that would fall under the notion of exploitative

advertising.

PROCEDURALSAFEGUARDS.Itwasalsodiscussedhowchildrenhaverightsthatgrantthema

number of procedural guarantees, which could be relevant for the structuring and

developmentofadvertisingself-andco-regulatoryinstruments.Morespecifically,their

rightstoafairtrialandeffectiveremedydemandthatwhenevercivilrightsorobligations

areatstake(e.g.advertising-relateddisputes):thereshouldbeafairandpublichearing;

within a reasonable time; independence and impartiality are to be expected from the

decision-making body; and any violation should be terminated and any consequence

thereofshouldbeneutralised.Theseproceduralelementswillbefurtherdiscussedinpart

IIIofthestudy.

DISTRIBUTIONOFRESPONSIBILITIES.Finally, theanalysisof the children’s rights framework

identified several actors as having responsibilities for realising these rights in a

commercialcommunicationcontext.Whereasparentshavetheprimaryresponsibilityfor

thedevelopmentandupbringingoftheirchildren,itisuptotheStatetoimplementthe

rightsandprinciplesintheirnationallegalsystems,toprovideparentswiththenecessary

supportand toensure thatbusinessesmeet their responsibilities regarding children’s

rights.Furthermore,webrieflymentionedthat theadvertising industryhas important

responsibilities in respecting and promoting children’s rights, which will be further

exploredinpartIIIofthestudy.

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PARTII-ASSESSMENTOFTHEREGULATORY

FRAMEWORKFORCOMMERCIALCOMMUNI-

CATIONINLIGHTOFCHILDREN’SRIGHTS

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CHAPTERI-PIECINGTOGETHERTHEREGULATORYPUZZLE

SITUATION.Thefirstpartoftheresearchhasprovidedanintroductiontotheresearchtopic

andaddressed the reconfigurationof children’s rightsandprinciples in the contextof

commercialcommunication.Theopeningchapterdiscussedtheconstitutiveelementsof

the research (i.e. children, commercial communication and advertising literacy) and

explored thedifficulties thathavearisenwiththeseelements in thedigital era. Itwas

found that new trends in the area of commercial communication present significant

challenges for children’s advertising literacy and their commercial decision-making

abilities.TheexaminationofthepolicyagendaatEUandinternationallevel(startingfrom

2008)demonstratedthat increasingattentionwasdrawntotheprotectionofchildren

againstthecommercialpressureonline,children’sprivacyanddataprotectionandthe

needforchildren’sadvertisingliteracyeducation.However,theexistinginstrumentsto

reachthesepolicygoalsarenumerousandfragmentedintolegislationandself-andco-

regulation,hencehighlightingtheneedforadetailedmappingandevaluation.Thesecond

chapterofthefirstpartthenanalysedindetailthekeychildren’srightsprinciplesand

standardsandtranslatedtheminthespecificcontextofcommercialcommunication.The

rightsandprincipleswillnowbeused in thesecondand thirdpartsof the studyasa

criticallenstoevaluatetheexistingregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunication

aimedatchildren.

THEREGULATORYFRAMEWORK.Theregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunicationis

fragmentedintobothlegislativeandalternativeregulatoryinstruments.Thisfirstchapter

of the secondpart of the research aims at piecing together this regulatory puzzle by

conductingamappingexerciseofexistingadvertisingregulationattheEUlevel.Itfocuses

mostly on EU legislation, as these supranational ruleswere either translated into the

nationallegalorderoraredirectlyapplicableinalltheMemberStates.Ofcourse,there

mightbesomeadditionalnationalrulesthatneedtoberespected,however,thiswould

entailafartooextendedscopeofanalysiswithintheframeworkofthisstudy.AttheEU

level, there are four important frameworks (or contexts) that need to be taken into

account: (1) the consumer protection framework (including the Unfair Commercial

PracticesDirective), (2) theAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective, (2) thee-Commerce

Directive, (3) the General Data Protection Regulation and the ePrivacy Directive. The

chapterprovidesanoverviewof the relevantprovisionsof eachof these instruments,

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includingtheprovisionsrelatedtotheirscopeofapplication,thegeneralrequirements

for commercial communication and the specific protections for children. In addition,

within each of these different contexts, an overview of relevant self-regulatory

instrumentsisgiven.542

SECTIONI-THECONSUMERPROTECTIONCONTEXT

THE CONSUMER PROTECTION FRAMEWORK. As a first important context, the consumer

protectionframeworkisanalysedinthissection,whichconsistsofthoseinstrumentsthat

are applicable to all forms of advertising andmarketing, regardless of the format or

medium.First, itdiscussestheprovisionsof theUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective

thatarerelevantinthecontextofcommercialcommunication.Second,itcoverstheself-

regulatory Code on Advertising Practice of the International Chamber of Commerce,

whichcontainsprovisionsthatareapplicabletoalladvertisingformatsaswellasspecific

protectionsforchildrenandadolescents.Thesetwoinstrumentsformanimportantlayer

ofprotectionforchildrenagainstharmfulormisleadingcommercialcommunication.

1. UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective

BACKGROUND:THEPROTECTIONOFCHILDRENASVULNERABLECONSUMERS.Accordingtoarticle38

of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, consumers are entitled to a high level of

consumerprotection.Inthisregard,HELBERGERetal.describethattherearetwodistinct

rationales thatunderlieEuropeanconsumer law,being (1)empowering consumersas

sovereignmarketactorsandprovidingthemwiththenecessaryrightsandinformation

toactinthatroleand(2)protectingconsumersinsituationswheretheyaretheweaker

party in commercial dealings and unable to protect their rights, interests and safety

themselves.543 One of the measures adopted by the EU to protect consumers in the

542Theselectionoftheinstrumentsthatwereincludedinthischapterwasdoneonathematicbasis,afterapreliminarymappingofadvertisingself-regulatoryinstrumentsconductedwithintheframeoftheAdLitProject.ForthecompleteoverviewseeV.Verdoodt,I.LambrechtandE.Lievens,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentSelf-andCo-RegulatoryFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReportin theFrameworkof theAdLitSBOProject.’<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017.ThechapterincludesinstrumentsatboththeinternationalandEUlevel.543 N. Helberger, F. J. Zuiderveen Borgesius and A. Reyna, ‘The Perfect Match? A Closer Look at theRelationshipbetweenEUConsumerLawandDataProtectionLaw’(2017)528,7.

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internalmarket is theUnfair Commercial PracticesDirective (“UCPDirective”),which

prohibitsunfaircommercialpractices.544TheUCPDirectiveisnotrestrictedtospecific

products,mediaortypesofmarketbehaviourandisthusquitebroad.Ithasprinciple-

based provisions, allowing it to catch fast-evolving products, services and sales

methods.545Ontheotherhand,itisalsonarrowerthanmostdirectivesasitonlyapplies

tobusiness-to-consumerpracticesandnottoallmarketparticipantsalike.546Itisbased

ontheprincipleoffullharmonisationandaimstoremoveinternalmarketbarriersand

increase legal certainty forboth consumersandbusinesses.547TheUCPDirective isof

particular interest in relation to advertising directed at children as it is one of the

cornerstones of EU consumer policy, explicitly recognising that children constitute a

groupofparticularlyvulnerableconsumersinneedofspecificprotection.Despitethefact

thatitisnowtenyearsold,theUCPDirectivehasbeenreceivingincreasingattentionin

thecontextofforinstancein-apppurchases.548

INTERPLAYWITHOTHERLEGALINSTRUMENTS.Dueto itsbroadscopeofapplication, theUCP

Directiveappliestomanycommercialpracticesthatarealsoregulatedbyothergeneral

or sector-specific EU legislation (infra). In this regard, the European Commission has

clarifiedthat:

544Directive2005/29/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncilof11May2005concerningunfairbusiness-to-consumercommercialpracticesintheinternalmarketandamendingCouncilDirective84/450/EEC,Directives97/7/EC,98/27/ECand2002/65/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilandRegulation(EC)No2006/2004oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncil(‘UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective’).545 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’ (2016) <http://ec.europa.eu/justice/consumer-marketing/files/ucp_guidance_en.pdf> accessed 9October2017.546F.Henning-Bodewig,‘Directive2005/29/EC&Directive2006/114/EC.’inO.Castendyk,E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008).547Recital5,12and13UCPDirective.548D.MacSithigh,‘MultiplayerGames:Tax,Copyright,ConsumersandtheVideoGameIndustries’(2014)5EuropeanJournalofLawandTechnology<http://ejlt.org/article/view/324>accessed28November2017.

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“TheDirectiveworksasa“safetynet”ensuringthatahighcommonlevelofconsumer

protection against unfair commercial practices can bemaintained in all sectors,

includingbycomplementingandfillinggapsinotherEUlaw”.549

Ifprovisionsofapplicablesector-specificlegislationoverlapwithprovisionsoftheUCP

Directive,thelexspecialisruleswillprevail.550Nevertheless,ithasbeenarguedthatthe

Directive applies to providers of audiovisualmedia service providers and advertisers

alongsidetheAVMSDirective,evenifrecital82negatestheparallelapplicationofthese

instruments.More specifically, COLE argues that given their application overlap in the

contextofnewconvergedmediaservices,therelevanceofthisexceptionisdebatable.551

FULLHARMONISATION.TheDirectiveprovidesfullharmonisationwithinitsbroadscopeof

application.However,anumberofimportantissuesstillrequireclarificationanditwould

takemanyyearsfortheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion(CJEU)toresolveallthese

questions.TheDirectivealsocontainsarudimentaryregulationofsanctionsandleavesit

up to the Member State to decide what constitutes adequate and effective means to

combatunfaircommercialpractices.552

549 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).550Accordingtoarticle3(4)UCPDirective:"incaseofconflictbetweentheprovisionsofthisDirectiveandotherCommunityrulesregulatingspecificaspectsofunfaircommercialpractices,thelattershallprevailandapplytothosespecificaspects".Furthermore,Recital10clarifiesthataprovisionofEUlawwillprevailovertheUCPDirectiveifthreeconditionsarefulfilled:(1)ithasEUlawstatus,(2)itregulatesaspecificaspectof commercial practices and (3) there is a conflict or overlap between the two provisions. EuropeanCommission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on the Implementation/Application ofDirective 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices, SWD(2016) 163 Final.’ (n 545). For a recentexampleseeDyson[2018]CJEUC-632/16.551 M. Cole, ‘New Forms of Commercial Communications in a Converged Audiovisual Sector’ [2014]Observatory/Observatoire/Informationsstellen-Shop 41–53 <http://shop.obs.coe.int/en/iris-legal-publications/23-iris-special-new-forms-of-commercial-communications-in-a-converged-audiovisual-sector.html>accessed16April2018;Blázquezandothers(n629)25.552Article11(1)UCPDirective.However,amereself-controlsystem(e.g.codeofconduct)wouldnotbesufficient.Consumersneedtobeabletotakelegalactionorbringthematterbeforeanadministrativebody.Henning-Bodewig(n546)1075.Furthermore,article13UCPDirectiverequiresMemberStatestolaydownpenaltiesforinfringementsofthenationalprovisionsthatimplementtheDirective,includinganactionforinjunctionandinterlocutoryprotectionbasedthereon.

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1.1 Scopeanddefinitions

SCOPE ANDDEFINITIONS.The UCP Directive is applicable to commercial practices, which

includescommercialcommunicationsuchasadvertisingandmarketingbyatrader.Such

commercial communication has to be “directly connected with the promotion, sale or

supplyofaproduct to consumers”.553TheDirectiveaimsatprotecting consumers from

unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices. Relatedly, consumers are to be

regardedas“anynaturalpersonwhoisactingforpurposesoutsideofhistrade,businessor

profession”,whichmay includechildren.554Important tonote is that theDirectiveonly

protectstheeconomicinterestsofconsumersandnootherinterestslikehealthandsafety

aspects of products. The Directive stipulates protections against unfair commercial

practicesonthethreedistinctlevelsnamely(1)thegeneralclause;(2)twosmallgeneral

clausesspecifyingprotectionsagainstmisleadingandaggressive commercialpractices

respectivelyand;(3)ablacklistcontainedinAnnexIthatspecifiescertainpracticeswhich

aredeemeddefactounfairasreferredtoinarticle5(5)oftheUCPDirective.Althoughthe

Directiveisconstructedinlinewiththesequencepresentedintheprevioussentence,in

effectitoperatesinreversewiththegeneralclauseactingasasafetynet.

1.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialpractices,includingadvertising

1.2.1 Unfaircommercialpractice

GENERAL RULE. The core provision of the Directive is article 5 (1), which contains the

generalprohibitionofunfaircommercialpractices.Accordingtothisarticle,acommercial

practiceshallbeunfairif

(a)itiscontrarytotherequirementsofprofessionaldiligence,and

(b)itmateriallydistortsorislikelytomateriallydistorttheeconomicbehaviourwith

regard to theproductof theaverage consumerwhom it reachesor towhom it is

553Article2(d)UCPDirective.554Article2(a)UCPDirective.

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addressed, orof theaveragememberof thegroupwhenacommercialpractice is

directedtoaparticulargroupofconsumers.

Thus, there is a two-step criterion for determining unfairness. 555 First, the lack of

professionaldiligenceofthetraderandsecond,theinfluenceontheeconomicbehaviour

oftheconsumer.AlthoughtheideaoftheDirectiveistoprotectallconsumersfromunfair

commercialpractices,theDirectivetakesasabenchmarktheaverageconsumer,whois

“reasonably well-informed and reasonably observant and circumspect” 556 , taking into

account social, cultural and linguistic factors. 557 Especially in relation to vulnerable

consumers558,recital19stressesthat

Wherecertaincharacteristicssuchasage,physicalormentalinfirmityorcredulity

make consumers particularly susceptible to a commercial practice or to the

underlyingproductandtheeconomicbehaviouronlyofsuchconsumersislikelyto

bedistortedby thepractice inaway that the trader can reasonably foresee, it is

appropriatetoensurethattheyareadequatelyprotectedbyassessingthepractice

fromtheperspectiveoftheaveragememberofthatgroup.(emphasisadded)

For instance, children might be particularly vulnerable to advertisements about

videogames, whereas teenagers are often targeted by rogue traders that promote

appealing products by exploiting teenagers’ immaturity and their lack of attention or

reflection(e.g.mobilephoneservicesadsayingthatbysubscribingtotheservice,they

willmakefriendsmoreeasily).559However,theaverageconsumertestisnotastatistical

555Henning-Bodewig(n546).556Article2(b)UCPDirective.557M.L.Chiarella,‘TheRegulationofChildConsumptioninEuropeanLaw:Rights,MarketandNewPerspectives’(SocialScienceResearchNetwork2009)SSRNScholarlyPaperID14402515<https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1440251>accessed28November2017.557EuropeanCommission,‘CommissionStaffWorkingDocument-GuidanceontheImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545)37.558Chiarella(n557).559EuropeanCommission,‘CommissionStaffWorkingDocument-GuidanceontheImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545)45.

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test.560Nationalcourtsandauthoritieswillhavetoexercisetheirownfacultyofjudgment,

havingregardtothecase-lawoftheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion,todetermine

thetypicalreactionoftheaverageconsumerinagivencase.ThisisalsowhytheEuropean

Commissionthoughtitwasappropriatetoincludeinthelistofpracticeswhichareinall

circumstancesunfairaprovisionwhich,withoutimposinganoutrightbanonadvertising

directedatchildren,protectsthemfromdirectexhortationstopurchase(infra).561

1.2.2 Misleadingcommercialpractice

MISLEADING COMMERCIAL PRACTICES. Deception is one of the examples the UCP Directive

mentions,whereunfairnessshouldbeassumedinparticular.562Therearetwotypesof

deception, (1) misleading commercial practices and (2) misleading omissions. A

commercial practice will be misleading if an average consumer takes a transactional

decision which he would normally not have taken, because he is deceived. 563 The

assessment should take into account the facts and circumstances of the specific case.

Moreover, particular points of reference include the nature of the product, its main

characteristics, the price, etc. 564 A misleading omission on the other hand concerns

materialinformationneededbytheaverageconsumer,tomakeaninformedtransactional

decision,therebycausinghimorhertotakeadecisionwhichheorshewouldnothave

takenotherwise.565Asmentioned,thebenchmarkistheaverageconsumer(thiscanbea

childwhenthecommercialcommunicationisaimedatchildren).Finally,theDirectivehas

addedapracticewhichisrelevantfornewadvertisingformatstoitsblacklistofpractices

whichareunderallcircumstancesprohibited.Morespecifically,AnnexIprohibits:

practicesusingeditorialcontentinthemediatopromoteaproductwhereatrader

haspaidforthepromotionwithoutmakingthatclearinthecontentorbyimagesor

560Recital18UCPDirective.561Recital18aswellasarticle5.3.andAnnexI,point28UCPDirective.562Henning-Bodewig(n546)1073.563Article6UCPDirective.564Seearticle6(1)subparagraphsa-gUCPDirective.565Article7UCPDirective.

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sounds clearly identifiable by the consumer (misleading commercial practices)566

(Emphasisadded)

ThiscouldbeofparticularrelevanceforadvertisementspostedbybloggersorTwitter

accountholderswhoarebeingpaidtodosobythebrand.567

1.2.3 Aggressivecommercialpractice

AGGRESSIVECOMMERCIALPRACTICES.TheUCPDirectiveprotectsconsumersagainstso-called

‘aggressive’commercialpractices.AccordingtotheUCPDirective,marketingtechniques

areaggressive,ifthey“byharassment,coercionorundueinfluencesignificantlyimpairthe

freedomofchoiceorconductoftheaverageconsumer”.568Althoughactualharassmentor

coercion(includingtheuseofphysicalforce)arenotrealisticinthecontextofadvertising,

themilderformofinfluence-undueinfluence-couldbeapplicable.569Thequalification

ofundueinfluencewilldependonthespecificitiesoftheparticularcase.Therefore,when

it comes to children, the assessment should take into account children’s innocence

resulting in a much lower threshold than for adults. Of particular relevance is the

provisionincludedinthelistofpracticeswhichareinallcircumstancesunfairaprovision

which,without imposing an outright ban on advertisingdirected at children, protects

themfromdirectexhortationstopurchase.Indeed,AnnexIliststhefollowingpractices

asbeingaggressive:

“practiceswhichincludeinanadvertisementadirectexhortationtochildrentobuy

advertised products or persuade their parents or other adults to buy advertised

productsfor(aggressivecommercialpractices).”

Thus, thekeyelementhere is thedirectexhortationtochildren. Indeed, it isanunfair

practiceforsellerstoexhortchildrentopesteranadulttobuyadvertisedproducts.This

566AnnexI,point28and11UCPDirective.567L.Scaife,HandbookofSocialMediaandtheLaw(InformaLawfromRoutledge2015)346.568Article8UCPDirective.569Byundueinfluenceismeantthatthecompanyholdsapositionofpowerinrelationtotheconsumerandexploitsthistoexertpressure,inordertosignificantlyrestricttheconsumer’sabilitytomakeaninformeddecision.Article2(j)UCPDirective.

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ban is valid for all media, including television as well as internet advertising.570 For

instance,theTVadvertisement“YourfavouritebookisnowoutonDVD–tellyourdadto

buyitforyou!”wouldconstituteanaggressivecommercialpractice,prohibitedunderthe

UnfairCommercialPracticesDirective.571Conversely,mereindirectexhortationsdonot

automaticallyconstituteunfaircommercialpractices.Anindirectexhortationrequiresan

intermediatestepbetweentheadvertisementandthedecisiontobuy,andonlygenerally

presentstheoptionstodothis.ForinstanceinacasebeforetheAustrianSupremeCourt,

awebsiteoperatorhadadvertisedavideogameforschoolchildren(upto14years)both

on the website and on Austrian television. 572 The advertisement contained general

wordingsuchas‘nowavailable’and‘available inretail’.Inaddition,itincludedinfoon

how to order the product (e.g. reference to the website link). Both the court at first

instanceandthecourtofappealruledthattheseadvertisementsweredirectexhortations

aimedat children.However, theAustrianSupremeCourtoverruled thesedecisionsas

thesewereonlyindirectexhortations.

1.3 Refitexercise

OUTCOME OF THE REFIT EXERCISE. In 2017, the European Commission conducted a

comprehensiveevaluationofthesixdirectivesthathavebuiltupthecorehorizontalEU

consumerandmarketinglaw,includingtheUCPDirective.573InitsFitnessCheckreport,

theCommissionconcludedthat

570EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationToTheEuropeanParliament,TheCouncilAndTheEuropeanEconomicAndSocialCommitteeOntheApplicationoftheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective-AchievingaHighLevelofConsumerProtectionBuildingTrustintheInternalMarket’(2013)<https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52013DC0138>accessed31July2018.571EuropeanCommission,‘CommunicationToTheEuropeanParliament,TheCouncilAndTheEuropeanEconomicAndSocialCommitteeOntheApplicationoftheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective-AchievingaHighLevelofConsumerProtectionBuildingTrustintheInternalMarket’(n570).572AustrianSupremeCourt,VideospielD-Universe,9July2013,https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/ucp/public/index.cfm?event=public.cases.showCase&caseID=570&articleIDaccessed31July2018.573The otherDirectives that formedpart of theRefit Exercise are theUnfair Contract TermsDirective93/13/EEC, the Price Indication Directive 98/6/EC, the Consumer Sales and Guarantees Directive1999/114/EC, the Injunctions Directive 2009/22/EC and the Misleading and Compartive AdvertisingDirective2006/114/EC.

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“the substantive rules of the evaluated directives are capable of addressing the

existingconsumerproblems,includingnewinfringementsintheonlineenvironment

eveniftheywereadoptedbeforetheageofe-commercekickedin”.574

Therefore, rather than reviewing the legislative instruments, theCommission stressed

that the key solution to achieving a higher level of consumer protection lies in a

combinationofabetterenforcementoftheexistingrulesandincreasedawarenessamong

consumers,tradersandenforcementbodies.575Inthisregard,therecentrevisionofthe

Consumer Protection Cooperation and the new Regulation (EU) 2017/2394 can be

mentioned.576ThisRegulation,whichwillbeapplicableasof17January2020,laysdown

aframeworkforcooperationfornationalauthoritiesfromallcountriesintheEuropean

Economic Area to jointly address breaches of consumer rules when the trader and

consumerareestablishedindifferentcountries.577

2. Self-regulation:ICC-Code

INTERNATIONAL CHAMBER OF COMMERCE (“ICC”). Aside from legislative instruments, the

industry itselfhasalsoplayedasignificantrole in theprotectionofconsumersagainst

harmful commercial practices. At the international level, the business organisation

bringingtogethernumerousenterprisesofdifferentsectorsallovertheworldistheICC.

Themainactivitiesof theorganisationare setting rules, resolvingdisputesandpolicy

advocacy.TheICCcollaborateswiththeUnitedNations, theWorldTradeOrganisation

andseveralotherbodies.Ithasbeenofferingguidanceonmarketingandadvertisingever

since1937anditsCodeonAdvertisingPractice(“ICCCode”)hasbeenthefoundationof

manyself-regulatoryinitiativesoftheadvertisingsector.578Moreover,itsprovisionshave

574EuropeanCommission,‘CommissionStaffWorkingDocument:ExecutiveSummaryoftheFitnessCheckReport,SWD(2017)208Final’2.575EuropeanCommission,‘CommissionStaffWorkingDocument:ExecutiveSummaryoftheFitnessCheckReport,SWD(2017)208Final’(n574)2.576Regulation(EU)2017/2394of theEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof12december2017oncooperationbetweennationalauthoritiesresponsiblefortheenforcementofconsumerprotectionlawsandrepealingRegulation(EC)No2006/2004.577For instance, theNetwork regularly carries out EU-wide screenings ofwebsites (‘sweeps’) to checkwhether a given sector is complying with consumer rules. For more information seehttps://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/factsheet_ensuring_consumer_rights_en.pdf.578DurovicandMicklitz(n142)36.

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also served as a basis for the development of the Directive onmisleading and unfair

advertising in 1987 aswell as the predecessor of the AVMS Directive, the Television

withoutFrontiersDirective(infra),withrespecttotelevisionadvertisingin1984.579More

specifically,itisbasedonthegeneralprinciplesofhonesty,legalcompliance,truthfulness

anddecencyofadvertisementsbyprovidingethicalguidelinesthatcreatealevelplaying

fieldforadvertisersacrossdifferentsectorsandusingdifferentadvertisingformats.As

such,theICCbelievesthatthereislessofaneedforlegislativeaction.580TheCodeaimsat

enhancingharmonisationsandcoherenceof therules,however, the ICC itselfdoesnot

haveanypowerstorequirenationalSRO’stoadoptorimplementtheCodeinauniform

way.581Each national ICC Committee or groupmay appoint delegates to take part in

meetingsoftheICCCommissiononMarketingandAdvertising,whichconvenestwicea

year toexaminemarketing- andadvertising- relatedpolicy issuesof interest toworld

business.Moreinparticular,theCommissionrevisesdraftsofcodes,rulesandopinions

andoutlinesstrategiesforthefuture.

2.1 Scopeanddefinitions

SCOPE.TheICCCodeappliesto:

“Alladvertisingandothermarketingcommunicationsforthepromotionofanykind

ofgoodsandservices,corporateandinstitutionalpromotionincluded”.

Morespecifically,itappliestocommercialcommunicationsintheirentirety,includingall

words,music, images, etc.The revisedCodecoversboth traditional andnew formsof

commercialcommunication,followingtheICCpolicydecisionof2006.Italsoincludesa

chapterondigitalinteractivemediatechniques(ChapterD)onallkindsofplatformsor

579 European Audiovisual Observatory, ‘Co-Regulation of the Media in Europe’ (2003)<https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/IRIS-Special-Co-regulation-of-the-Media-in-Europe.pdf>accessed31July2018.580ICC,‘ICCandtheCode’<http://www.codescentre.com/about-us.aspx>accessed31July2018.581 P. Verbruggen, ‘Enforcement of Transnational Private Regulation of Advertising Practices:Decentralization, Mechanisms and Procedural Fairness’ in Fabrizio Cafaggi (ed), Enforcement ofTransnationalRegulation:EnsuringComplianceinaGlobalWorld(EdwardElgarPublishing2012)304.

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devices. Moreover, the Code contains specific provisions regulating the use of online

behaviouraladvertising.

DEFINITION OF A CHILD. As there are significant differences in defining the term “child”

acrossdifferentcountries,theprovisionsoftheICCCodethatapplywhenadvertisingis

aimedatchildrenshouldbeinterpretedaccordingtolocalrules.Importanttonoteisthat

inthecontextofthedataprotectionrules(e.g.rulesonbehaviouraladvertising),there

arespecificprovisionsoftheCodethatareapplicabletochildren12yearsandunder(e.g.

theparentalconsentrequirement).Inthisregard,theICChasclarifiedinitsStatementon

CodeInterpretation(2016)thattheCodedistinguishesbetweenchildren(under13s)and

youngsters (under 18s). The ICC opted for this distinction because of the following

reasons:

“theveryrealdifferences in teens’ interestsascomparedtochildren, thepractical

impediments to obtaining parental consent where data collection from teens is

concerned, sensitivities about teen privacy rights, and respect for freedom of

commercialcommunicationswheretheprincipalaudienceisadults”.582

Moreover,theICCrecognisesthedifferentcognitiveabilitiesandstressesthatrulesthat

trytotreatteenagerslikechildrenaresimplyunworkable.583

REASONABLECONSUMER.TheprovisionsoftheICCCodeshouldbeinterpretedinlightofthe

advertising format used and its potential impact on the ‘reasonable consumer’.

Accordingly,regardmustbehadforthecharacteristicsofthetargetedconsumergroup,

includingtheirknowledge,experience,butalsocultural,socialandlinguisticfactors.This

isofparticular importancewhen the targetedconsumergroupconsistsof children, as

theirnaturalcredulityandinexperienceshouldbekeptinmind.584

582ICC,‘ICCReleasesStatementonAgeConsiderationsforMarketingandAdvertisingtoChildrenandTeens-ICC-InternationalChamberofCommerce’(2016)<https://iccwbo.org/media-wall/news-speeches/icc-releases-statement-age-considerations-marketing-advertising-children-teens/>accessed31July2018.583Therealityofthematteristhatteenagersoftenhavemoney,whereaschildrenusuallydonot.584 Article 18 ICC Code; ICC, ‘Interpretation of the Consolidated ICC Code’ (2014)<http://www.codescentre.com/icc-code/general-provisions.aspx#gen1>accessed31July2018.

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Thefollowingsubsectionswillprovideanoverviewoftheprovisionsthatareapplicable

to all advertising formats (including inter alia television advertisements, digital

advertisements such as advergames and personalised advertising). It includes both

general principles as well as principles that are only applicable if the commercial

communicationisaimedatchildren.

2.2 Substantiverequirementsforalladvertisingformats

BASICPRINCIPLES.Article1oftheICCCodeliststhebasicprinciplesuponwhichalltheother

provisionsarebuilt. Firstof all, commercial communicationneedstobehonest and it

shouldnotabusethetrustofconsumers.Morespecifically,itmustnotexploitconsumers’

lack of experience or knowledge, which in relation to children could be of particular

importance. Furthermore, commercial communication should be decent (article 3 ICC

Code)andtruthful(article5ICCCode).

IDENTIFICATION.Acrucialrequirementforbothtraditionalandnewformsofcommercial

communication is the identification requirement of article 9 of the ICC Code. This

provisionrequiresthat:

“Marketing communications should be clearly distinguishable as such, whatever

theirformandwhateverthemediumused.”

In particular, the Code stresses that in cases where the advertisement appears on a

mediumwhichcontainsnewsorothereditorialcontent, theadvertisementsshouldbe

portrayedinsuchawaythatitisreadilyrecognisableassuchandthattheidentityofthe

advertiserisalsoapparent.Similarly,commercialmessagesshouldnotbedisguisedasfor

exampleprivateblogs,user-generatedcontentorindependentreviews.

2.3 Specificprotectionsforchildren

SPECIALCAREFORCHILDREN.Ofparticularrelevancetotheprotectionofchildrenandyoung

people against certain forms of advertising is article 18 of the ICC Code. This article

requiresspecialcarefromadvertisersandmarketersthatdevelopadvertisingcampaigns

for children and young people.More specifically, (1) such advertisements should not

underminepositivesocialbehaviour,lifestylesandattitudes;and(2)productsthatare

unsuitable for children should not be advertised in media targeted to them, or

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advertisements targeted towards children should not appear on media where the

editorialcontentisnotsuitableforchildren(e.g.anonlinewineshop).Inaddition,theICC

Codehighlightsthreeimportantaspectswhichadvertisersandmarketersneedtotakein

toaccount:

Focus Article18ICCCode–Childrenandyoungpeople

Children’s

inexperience

and

credulity

Whendemonstratingaproduct’sperformanceanduse:

ü Donotunderstatetheskillneededtoproducetheresult

shown;

ü Donotexaggeratethetruecharacteristicsoftheproduct

(e.g.size,value,durability);

ü Providesufficientinfoifadditionalproductsareneeded.

Enablechildrentobeabletodistinguishbetweenrealityandfantasy.

Ensurethatcommercialcommunicationsdirectedtochildrenshouldbe

clearlydistinguishabletothemassuch.

Avoidanceof

harm

ü Do not use any statement or visual treatment that could harm

childrenmentally,morallyorphysically;

ü Donotportraychildreninunsafesituationsorencouragethemto

engageinharmfulactions.

Socialvalues

ü Do not suggest that possession or use of the product will give

physical,psychologicalorsocialadvantagesoverotherchildren(or

thatnotpossessingtheproductwouldresultinadisadvantage);

ü Haveregard forparents’authorityandrespectsocialandcultural

values;

ü Donotincludeadirectappealtochildrentopersuadetheirparents

tobuythespecificproduct;

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ü Present the price in such a way that children have a realistic

perceptionof the valueof theproduct (e.g. donot imply that the

productiswithinreachofthefamilybudget);

ü Wheninvitingchildrentocontactthemarketer,encouragethemto

obtainparentalconsent.

Table4:ICCCodeProvisionsonchildrenandyoungpeople(Source:article18ICCCode)

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SECTIONII-THEAUDIOVISUALMEDIASERVICESDIRECTIVECONTEXT

BACKGROUND.Sincethedevelopmentofaudiovisualmedia,companieshavenaturallyused

thismeansofcommunicationtoinformviewersontheirproductsandservices.Thefirst

steps towardsanEUaudiovisualpolicydateback to theearly1980s, triggeredby the

developments of satellite broadcasting. 585 As broadcast signals did not stop at the

national border, the EU adopted certainminimum standards on audiovisualmedia in

1989forallMemberStatesintheTelevisionwithoutFrontiersDirective(“TWFD”)586.In

relationtoadvertising,theTWFDregulatedcertainaspectswhicharelargelytypicalfor

television advertising such as hidden advertisements, sponsorship, the separation of

programmes and commercials and maximum hourly amounts. For other aspects of

advertising,theTWFDtookamorehorizontalapproachbylayingdownspecificrulesfor

instance in relation to the protection ofminors and restrictions for the protection of

health.587Duetothetechnologicalandmarketdevelopmentsthisframeworkwasrevised

andamendedin1997and2007andfinallyrenamedAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective

(“AVMS Directive”) and codified in 2010.588 Since its revision in 2007, new types of

services and user experiences have emerged, which significantly changed people’s

viewing habits and particularly among the younger viewers. Although the television

remainsanimportantscreenforconsumingaudiovisualmediacontent,moreandmore

viewershavemoved to tabletsand smartphones towatch contentondemand. In this

regard,theEuropeanCommissionannouncedinitsDigitalSingleMarketStrategythatit

would review the functioning of the rules of the AVMS Directive in 2016, under the

Regulatory Fitness and Performance Programme (REFIT) of the Better Regulation

585‘EUAudiovisualandMediaPolicies-HistoricalFramework|Europa’<http://ec.europa.eu/archives/information_society/avpolicy/reg/history/index_en.htm>accessed23July2018.586E.J.Dommering,‘GeneralIntroductionTowardsaEuropeanMediaLaw’inO.Castendyk,E.J.DommeringandAlexanderScheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)14.587‘EUAudiovisualandMediaPolicies-HistoryofTVwF|Europa’<http://ec.europa.eu/archives/information_society/avpolicy/reg/history/historytvwf/index_en.htm>accessed23July2018.588O.CastendykandL.Woods,‘Part2-EuropeanMediaLaw’inO.Castendyk,E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)273.

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Framework.589The goal of the reviewwas to ensure that Europe's audiovisualmedia

landscape ismade fit forpurpose in thedigital age. Inpreparationof this review, the

Commission launched a public consultation in July 2015, to gather inputs on the

functioning and impact of the Directive and on policy options for the future of the

Directive. 590 The synopsis report showed a lack of consensus amongst the various

stakeholders concerning commercial communications. 591 The revision of the AVMS

Directive followed the Ordinary Legislative Procedure whereby the European

Commission,theEuropeanParliamentandtheCouncilactjointlyandonequalfooting.592

TheEUlegislatorsexplicitlyrecognisedtheevolutionsinthemarketofaudiovisualmedia

servicesdue to theongoing convergence of television and internet services in their final

text.593These evolutions, necessitated the creation of a level-playing field for audiovisual

mediaservices.ThissectionofthePhDresearchfocusesonthe2018versionoftheAVMS

Directive.594

589EuropeanCommission,‘REFITEvaluationandImpactAssessmentoftheEUAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective 2010/13/EU (AVMSD)’ <http://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/roadmaps/docs/2015_cnect_006_cwp_review_avmsd_iia_en.pdf>accessed2April2018.590EuropeanCommission,‘ContributionsandPreliminaryTrendsofthePublicConsultationonAudiovisualMedia Services (AVMSD)’ (Digital Single Market) <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/contributions-and-preliminary-trends-public-consultation-audiovisual-media-services-avmsd>accessed10April2018.591 European Commission, ‘Synopsis Report of the Public Consultation on Directive 2010/13/EU onAudiovisual Media Services (AVMSD) - A Media Framework for the 21st Century’ 5<https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/report-public-consultation-review-audiovisual-media-services-directive-avmsd>accessed10April2018.592Blázquezandothers(n551)62.TherevisedDirectivewillenterintoforceafteritspublicationintheEUOfficialJournal(onthetwentiethday).TheEPandtheCouncilagreedonthetranspositionperiod,whichistolastfor21months.CounciloftheEuropeanUnion,‘ProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilAmendingDirective2010/13/EUontheCoordinationofCertainProvisionsLaiddownbyLaw,RegulationorAdministrativeAction inMemberStatesConcerning theProvisionofAudiovisualMediaServices(AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective)inViewofChangingMarketRealities-Analysisofthe Final Compromise Text with a View to Agreement’ (2018) 2<http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-9817-2018-INIT/en/pdf>accessed25July2018.593Recital1oftheFinalCompromiseText.594Toavoidconfusion,anyreferencestotheformerAVMSDirectivewillbeindicatedbytheterm‘2010AVMSDirective’.Theversionwediscussed in this sectionof thePhD is:Proposal foraDirectiveof theEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncil,amendingDirective2010/13/EConthecoordinationofcertainprovisions laid down by law, regulation or administrative action in Member States concerning theprovisions on audiovisual media services (Audiovisual Media Services Directive) in view of changingmarketrealities2018.HereafterAVMSDirective.

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MINIMUM HARMONISATION. Ever since the TWF Directive the objective of European

broadcasting legislation has been minimum harmonisation. 595 The aim of the AVMS

DirectiveistopromotethefreemovementofaudiovisualmediaserviceswithintheEU

and at its core is the country of origin principle.596To ensure that freemovement is

acceptableinthedifferentMemberStates,theAVMSDirectivedefinescertainminimum

requirementsthataudiovisualmediaserviceprovidersmustabide.597Accordingly,itis

leftuptotheMemberStatestodecidewhetherornottoenactstricterregulations.598The

AVMSDirectivealsocontainsseveralconceptsthatneedtobeinterpretedbytheMember

States in their national laws. For instance, the concept ‘audiovisual media service’ is

definedbyreferringtoseveralunclearsub-concepts,allwhichlackclarityinscopeand

substance.599

SCOPE.TheterritorialscopeoftheAVMSDirectiveislimitedtoserviceprovidersunderEU

jurisdiction,600whichrequiresthattheyareeither(1)establishedinaMemberState,601

595V.Little,‘AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective:Europe’sModernizationofBroadcastServicesRegulations’[2008]JournalofLaw,Technology&Policy14,223.596ThisentailsthatprovidersofaudiovisualmediaservicesonlyhavetoabidebytherulesoftheMemberStatewithjurisdictionoverthem,butcanoperateinallMemberStates.F.J.CabreraBlázquezandothers,‘On-DemandServicesandtheMaterialScopeoftheAVMSD’[2016]IRISPlus,EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory74,21.597Blázquezetal.clarifythata“receivingmemberstatewithstricterrulesthanthoselaiddownbytheAVMSDcannotrestrictthereceptionofservicesfromanothermemberstateonthebasisofthosestricterrules.Exceptionsapplyinspecificcircumstances,setoutintheAVMSD.”Blázquezandothers(n596)21.598Article4oftheAVMSDirective:“MemberStatesshallremainfreetorequiremediaserviceprovidersundertheirjurisdictiontocomplywithmoredetailedorstricterrulesinthefieldscoordinatedbythisDirective,providedthatsuchrulesareincompliancewithUnionlaw.”599R.MansellandM.Raboy,TheHandbookofGlobalMediaandCommunicationPolicy(JohnWiley&Sons2011).600Article2(1)oftheAVMSDirective.601Accordingtoarticle2para3oftheAVMSDirective,amediaserviceproviderisestablishedinaMemberStateif (a) itsheadoffice is inthatMemberStateandtheeditorialdecisionsabouttheaudiovisualmediaservicearetakeninthatMemberState,or(b)itsheadofficeheadofficeinoneMemberStatebuteditorialdecisions on the audiovisualmedia service are taken in anotherMember State, it shall be deemed to beestablished in theMember Statewhere a significant part of theworkforce involved in the pursuit of theprogramme-relatedaudiovisualmediaserviceactivityoperates.Ifasignificantpartoftheworkforceinvolvedinthepursuitoftheprogramme-relatedaudiovisualmediaserviceactivityoperatesineachofthoseMemberStates,themediaserviceprovidershallbedeemedtobeestablishedintheMemberStatewhereithasitsheadoffice.Ifasignificantpartoftheworkforceinvolvedinthepursuitoftheprogramme-relatedaudiovisualmediaserviceactivityoperatesinneitherofthoseMemberStates,themediaserviceprovidershallbedeemedtobeestablishedintheMemberStatewhereitfirstbeganitsactivityinaccordancewiththelawofthatMemberState,providedthatitmaintainsastableandeffectivelinkwiththeeconomyofthatMemberState;(c)ifamediaserviceproviderhasitsheadofficeinaMemberStatebutdecisionsontheaudiovisualmediaserviceare

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(2)useasatelliteup-linksituated inthatMemberState602or(3)usesatellitecapacity

appertaining to thatMemberState.603As regards itsmaterial scopeof application, the

Directivefirstofallcoversbothlinearandon-demandaudiovisualmediaservices(e.g.

scheduled programming delivered via Internet or mobile networks).604In relation to

theseservices,itadoptsatwo-tierapproach,whichentailsthatcertainbasicrulesapply

toallaudiovisualmediaserviceswhereastherulesspecifictobroadcasterswillonlyapply

to linear audiovisualmedia services. Second, after its latest revision, the scope of the

Directive has broadened to include video-sharing platforms,605forwhich a number of

specificprovisionsareapplicable.Third,socialmediacouldalsofallwithinthescopeof

theDirective,iftheprovisionofprogrammesanduser-generatedvideosconstitutesan

essential functionality of that service. The audiovisual content may not be merely

ancillaryorformonlyaminorpartoftheactivitiesofthatservice.606

1. Definitions

DEFINITIONS. The scope of the Directive can be further delineated by examining the

definitions of the main concepts, such as audiovisual media service, audiovisual

commercialcommunicationandaudiovisualmediaserviceprovider.Thedefinitionofa

takeninathirdcountry,orviceversa, itshallbedeemedtobeestablishedintheMemberStateconcernedprovided that a significant part of theworkforce involved in the pursuit of the audiovisualmedia serviceactivityoperatesinthatMemberState.602Article2,para4a)oftheAVMSDirective.603Article2,para4b)oftheAVMSDirective.604ThescopeoftheAVMSDwasconsiderablyextendedin2010incomparisontoitspredecessortheTWFD,whichonlycoveredtraditionalbroadcasting.TheintentionoftheEuropeanCommissionatthetimewasthattheapplicationoftheruleswouldnotbedependentuponthedeliveryplatformused.ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)806.605Article1(aa)oftheAVMSDirectivedefinesavideo-sharingserviceas:“aserviceasdefinedbyArticles56and57oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnionwheretheprincipalpurposeoftheserviceorofadissociablesectionthereoforanessentialfunctionalityoftheserviceisdevotedtoprovidingprogrammes,user-generatedvideos,orboth,tothegeneralpublic,forwhichthevideo-sharingplatformproviderdoesnothave editorial responsibility, in order to inform, entertain or educate, by means of an electroniccommunications network within the meaning of point (a) of Article 2 of Directive 2002/21/EC and theorganisationofwhichisdeterminedbythevideo-sharingplatformprovider,includingbyautomaticmeansoralgorithmsinparticularbydisplaying,taggingandsequencing.”606Inthisregard,itwillbeuptotheEuropeanCommissiontoissueguidelinesonthepracticalapplicationofthecriterionofessentialfunctionality.

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video-sharingserviceisdiscussedinthenextchapter,sectionthree,inrelationtovlogging

advertising.

1.1 Audiovisualmediaservice

DEFINITION.Thenotionofaudiovisualmediaservice isacentraldefinitiontowhichthe

otherdefinitionsof theAVMSDirective relate.607An audiovisualmedia service covers

both television broadcasts (linear) and on-demand (non-linear) audiovisual media

services (e.g., Netflix) irrespective of the delivery platform used.608 To qualify as an

audiovisualmediaservice,seven(cumulative)constitutiveelementsneedtobefulfilled609:

Criterion Covered Excluded

Economicactivity A service normally provided forrenumeration by a public orprivateserviceenterprise.

Primarily non-economic activitiesnot in competitionwith televisionbroadcasting (e.g. personalwebsites or weblogs, privatecommunications, or user-generated content, videoblogswithoutadvertisingorbanners).

Editorialresponsibility

Only audiovisual media servicesin which a professional mediaserviceproviderisresponsibleforthe editorial design and finalcompilation of a programme forbroadcastinginaccordancewithafixedprogrammescheduleor forviewing on-demand fromcatalogue.

A-posterioricontrol(e.g.Youtube).

607ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)812.608Definedasfollowsunderarticle1(a)(i)oftheAVMSDirective“aserviceasdefinedbyArticles56and57oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnionwhichisundertheeditorialresponsibilityofamediaserviceproviderandtheprincipalpurposeofwhichistheprovisionofprogrammes,inordertoinform,entertainoreducate,tothegeneralpublicbyelectroniccommunicationsnetworkswithinthemeaningofpoint(a)ofArticle2ofDirective’2002/21/EC.”609Article1(a)(i)AVMSDirective.

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Programmes610 Moving images with or withoutsound constituting an individualitem in a schedule or catalogue.Includingon-demandAVMS.

Audio-only services (e.g. radio,electronic versions of newspapersandmagazines,blogs).

Principal purposeor principlepurpose of adissociablesectionthereof

Focusonaudiovisualaspect. Service with ancillary audiovisualaspect (e.g. websites that containaudiovisual elements only in anancillarymannerlikeatravelagent,carmanufacturer).

Inform, entertain,educate

Impact on the way people formtheiropinions.

Audiovisual content with noeditorial aspects (e.g. webcams ofski resorts), the purpose of theaudiovisual content is to promoteforpurelycommercialpurposetheproductorserviceadvertised(e.g.avideochannelonYouTubeofacarcompany with solely promotionalvideosaboutcars)611

Generalpublic ‘Mass media’, ‘that is, which areintended for reception by, andwhich could have a clear impacton,asignificantproportionofthegeneralpublic’.

Privatecorrespondence(suchase-mail and faxes) or distribution ofprogrammestoarestrictedgroup,‘narrowcasting’ (i.e. promotionspots on internal video circuit ofsupermarket).

Electroniccommunicationsnetwork

In line with the e-commerceDirective. Examples are theprovisionofserviceviatelephonelines (such as xDSL), cable,satellite and wirelesscommunication systems such asGSM,UMTSandWifi.

Sendingfilmsbypost.

Table1:Criteriaforaudiovisualmediaservices612

610Thiscategoryisfurtherdiscussedbelowundertheheadingaudiovisualcommercialcommunication.611PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHvDeutscheUmwelthilfeeV[2018]CJEUC-132/17.612ValerieVerdoodt,ELievensandLHellemans,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentLegalFrameworkofAdvertisingAimedatMinors.’(2015)<www.adlit.be/output>.

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1.2 Audiovisualcommercialcommunication.

RELATIONSHIP AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA SERVICE AND –COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION. A second

important concept of the AVMS Directive is ‘audiovisual commercial communication’

(“ACC”). Interestingly, the concept has also been included in the definition of an

audiovisualmediaservice.Assuch,dependinghowarticle1(a)isread,itcouldbeargued

thataudiovisualcommercialcommunicationiseitheraseparatecategoryofaudiovisual

mediaservicesinadditiontotelevisionbroadcastsandon-demandservices,orsomething

that is not a service in its own right butwhich forms an integral part of a television

broadcastoron-demandservice.613ThisdistinctionisimportantastheAVMSDirective

providesasetofgeneralrequirementsforaudiovisualmediaservicesandasetofspecific

requirements for audiovisual commercial communications. In other words, it can be

questionedwhetherthegeneralrequirements(e.g. theprohibitionofhatespeech)are

also applicable to audiovisual commercial communication. CHAVANNES and CASTENDYK

explainthattheoriginalproposaloftheEuropeanCommission(2005)didnotcategorise

audiovisualcommercialcommunicationasaservice,butratherasaseparateentitythat

accompaniesaudiovisualmediaservices.614Thisisalsoreflectedinthetextofarticle1

(h)AVMSDirective,615whichdefinesanaudiovisualcommercialcommunicationas:

“imageswithorwithoutsoundwhicharedesignedtopromote,directlyorindirectly,

the goods, services or image of a natural or legal entity pursuing an economic

activity; such images accompany or are included in a programme or in a user-

generated video in return for payment or for similar consideration or self-

promotional purposes. Forms of audiovisual commercial communication include,

interalia,televisionadvertising,sponsorship,teleshoppingandproductplacement.”

(emphasisaddedbyauthor)

613Forinstance,thepreviousrecital22ofthe2010AVMSDirectivestatedthat:“ForthepurposesofthisDirective,thedefinitionofanaudiovisualmediaserviceshouldcovermassmediaintheirfunctiontoinform,entertainandeducate thegeneralpublic,and should includeaudiovisual commercial communication […]”(emphasisaddedbyauthor).614ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)819.615P.ValckeandE.Lievens,‘RethinkingEuropeanBroadcastingRegulation:UnravelingEurope’sPolicyfortheDigitalMediaLandscape:CriticalAnalysisoftheAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective’(VUBPress2009)127–164.

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Thelegislator’sideaatthetime(2010)wastoestablishacommonsetofrulesapplicable

toalldifferentformsofpromotionalactivities.616Thissetofrulesincludedforinstance

rulesontheprotectionofminors,publichealthprovisions,etc.Moreover,thestructural

function of this article was to cover potential legal gaps and loopholes.617 From this

definition, twokey concepts canbeextracted,namely (1) imageswith thepurpose to

promoteand(2)programme.

PURPOSETOPROMOTE.First,theimages(withorwithoutsound)aswellasthepersonor

entity making them or on whose behalf the communication is made, must have a

promotionalpurpose.Totheextentthisintentisinvisible,circumstantialevidencemay

helptoidentifythisintent.618Anindicatorcan,forexample,befoundinthefactthatan

announcement is made against financial compensation or that there are financial

interestsbetweentheprogrammemakerandtheownerof theproduct,evenwhenno

financialcompensationwasforeseen.619

PROGRAMME.Second,theimagesshouldaccompanyorformpartofaprogramme,620aset

of moving images with or without sound621 constituting an individual item within a

scheduleoracatalogueestablishedbyamediaserviceproviderandtheformandcontent

ofwhicharecomparabletotheformandcontentoftelevisionbroadcasting.Inshort,the

imagesneedtobepartofatelevisionbroadcast(whichisscheduled)oranon-demand

service(whichhasacatalogue) inwhich itseemssufficient for theserviceproviderto

haveascheduleorcatalogue.622UndertheformerAVMSDirective,on-demandservices

616ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)821–822.617ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)821–822.618Similartotheinterpretationintheconceptoftelevisionadvertising(seeinfra).619DeghelderevsVRT[2000]VRM2000/42;DirkVoorhoofandPeggyValcke,Handboekmediarecht(Larcier2014)561<http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-5766382>accessed25July2018.620Article1(b)AVMSDirective.621Silentmoviesareincludedbutelectronicmagazinesandnewspapers,audiotransmissionsandradiobroadcastesarenot.622Ausercannotselectanon-demandservicewithoutbeingabletoaccessthecatalogueinsomeformbutthatdoesnotmeanthecatalogueneedstobeavailableintheformofacompletelistofprogrammes:asearchenginemightequallyprovideaccesstotheavailablecontentandcontentmadeavailableinsuchafashionwouldpresumablyqualifyasconstitutinganitemwithinacatalogue.Abroadcastservice:theschedulewillgenerallybepublicisedinadvance,buttheserviceisabroadcastingserviceeveniftheschedulebecomesapparentbywatchingthevariousprogrammesastheyarebroadcast;ValckeandLievens(n615)127–164.

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hadtobe“television-like”,meaningthat forviewerstheyhadtobecomparablewitha

televisionbroadcast623andthenatureandthemeansofaccesstotheservicewouldlead

the user to reasonably expect a regulatory protection within the scope of the AVMS

Directive. In other words, a service’s form and content needed to be sufficiently

comparabletotheformandcontentoftelevisionbroadcasting.624Thisrequirementwas

deletedintherevisedAVMSDirective,andassuch,programmesofanylength,including

shortvideoclips,nowfallwithinthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.625

CJEUCASELAWONTHESCOPEOFTHEAVMSDIRECTIVE.Furthermore, theCJEUhasprovided

clarificationsregardingthescopeofapplicationoftheAVMSDirectiveinitscaselaw.For

instance,in2015theCJEUassessedwhethernewspaperandmagazinewebsiteshosting

avideosectionwouldfallunderthedefinitionofaprogrammeandassuch,wouldhave

tocomplywiththesubstantiverequirementsoftheAVMSDirective.Recital28ofthe2010

AVMS Directive explicitly excluded electronic versions of newspapers andmagazines

fromitsscopeandrecital22statedthattheDirectiveisnotapplicableto‘allservicesthe

principalpurposeofwhichisnottheprovisionofprogrammes,i.e.whereanyaudiovisual

contentismerelyincidentaltotheserviceandnotitsprincipalpurpose’.626Inlightofthis,

theCJEUclarifiedthatrecital28

“cannotbeunderstoodasmeaningthatanaudiovisualservicemustsystematically

beexcludedfromthescopeof[AVMSD]solelyonthegroundthattheoperatorofthe

622ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)821–822.623ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)821.624However,thenotionofprogrammehad-inanycase-tobeinterpretedinadynamicway,takingintoaccountdevelopmentsintelevisionbroadcasting.Examplesofprogrammesincludefeature-lengthfilms,sportsevents,situationcomedies,documentaries,children’sprogrammesandoriginaldrama.ValckeandLievens(n615)127–164.625Article1(b)oftheAVMSDirective.626AccordingtoWOODS:“recital28inidentifyingnewspaperandmagazinesisaformofsubspeciesofthisgeneral rule” in recital 22 AVMS Directive. L.Woods, ‘AudiovisualMedia Services Regulation and The“Newspaper Exception’’”’ <http://eulawanalysis.blogspot.com/2015/10/audiovisual-media-services-regulation.html>accessed24November2017.

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website of which that service is a part is a publishing company of an online

newspaper”.627

As such, the CJEU recognised the possibility of abuse and the need for consumer (or

viewer)protection.628TheCJEUcontinuedbystatingthatadistinctionshouldbemade

betweenthevideosection629andothersectionsofthemagazineornewspaperwebsites

towhich theAVMSDirectivewouldnotapply. Inpractice,630thismeans thatwebsites

incorporating both textual and video content, will have to comply with different

requirementsforthesameadvertisingtechniquesdependingonthemediuminwhichthe

message isdelivered.631In lightof this, therevisedDirectiveexplicitlymentionsthata

dissociable section of a service that is not an audiovisualmedia servicemay also fall

withinthescopeoftheDirective,ifthisspecificsectioncomplieswiththedefinition.632

In February 2018, the CJEU also discussed the meaning of ‘accompanying or being

included inaprogramme’andtheconceptsaudiovisualmediaserviceandaudiovisual

commercialcommunicationinthePeugeotDeutschlandcase.PeugeotDeutschlandhada

videochannelonYouTubecontainingshortpromotionalvideos fornewpassengercar

models.Inshort,theCJEUfirstdecidedthatsuchapromotionalvideochanneldoesnot

haveasitsprincipalpurposetheprovisionofprogrammesinordertoinform,entertain

oreducatethegeneralpublic.633Thepurelypromotionalpurposeofthechannelsuffices

toexcludeitfromthescopeofthedefinitionofanaudiovisualmediaserviceunderarticle

1(1)(a)(i)oftheAVMSDirective.Second,theCJEUanalysedwhetheronesinglevideoon

627Woods(n626).628Woods(n626).629In this regard, theCJEUconfirmed that the lengthofvideos isnot thedetermining factor in suchanassessment,andthatthereneedstobealinkbetweenthecontentofthenewspaperwebsiteandthevideos.CaseC-347/14NewMediaOnlineGmbHv.Bundeskommunikationssenat,21October2015.630WOODSwarnsthatthedifficultyherelies indrawingtheboundarybetweeneditorialandaudiovisualcontent,especiallyiftherearenostructuresseparatingthem.Woods(n626).631Forinstance,thepromotionofagoodorserviceintegratedwithinanewsarticle(nativeadvertisement)requirescompliancewiththerequirementsforcommercialcommunicationinthelexgeneralis(seeinfrae-CommerceDirective),whereasthepromotioninavideoformatrequirescompliancewiththerequirementsoftheAVMSDirective.632Recital3oftheAVMSDirective.633PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHv.DeutscheUmwelthilfeeV(n611)paras21–24.

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thechannelcouldfallunderthedefinitionofanaudiovisualcommercialcommunication

underarticle1(1)(a)(ii)oftheAVMSDirective.AccordingtotheCourt,thevideoscould

not be regarded as accompanying or being included in a programme, as they are

individual elements independent of one another.634Furthermore, the CJEU dismissed

Peugeot Deutschland’s argument that the promotional images were situated at the

beginningandtheendofthevideoconcerned,andthereforeaccompanyorareincluded

inthatvideo,whichinitselfconstitutesaprogramme.AccordingtotheCourt,suchavideo

ispromotional in its entiretyandas such, “itwouldbeartificial toassert thatonly the

imagesatthebeginningandtheendofthevideopursueadvertisingpurposes”.635

1.3 Mediaserviceprovider

DEFINITION.AnotherkeynotionintheAVMSDirective,andmorespecificallyinrelationto

determiningtheactorresponsibleforcomplyingwiththerequirementsforaudiovisual

commercialcommunication,isthemediaserviceprovider.UndertheDirective,amedia

serviceprovideristhenaturalorlegalpersonwitheditorialresponsibilityforthechoice

oftheaudiovisualcontentoftheaudiovisualmediaserviceanddeterminesthemannerin

which it is organised. 636 This editorial responsibility also constitutes one of the

cumulativerequirementsforthedefinitionofanaudiovisualmediaservice.637Itentails

theexerciseofeffectivecontrolbothovertheselectionoftheprogrammesandovertheir

organisationeitherinachronologicalschedule(televisionbroadcasts)orinacatalogue

(on-demandaudiovisualmediaservices).Eventhoughtheconceptof‘effectivecontrol’is

vague and not conclusive, CHAVANNES andCASTENDYK seem to interpret the exercise of

effectivecontrolintermsoftheabilityto

634PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHv.DeutscheUmwelthilfeeV(n611)para28.635PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHv.DeutscheUmwelthilfeeV(n611)paras29–30.636Article1(d)AVMSDirective.637ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)822–827.

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“authorisethebroadcastingormakingavailableoftheprogramme.Inotherwords,

thepossessionofthebroadcastingrightsdetermineanentity’spossessionofeffective

control,eveniftheactualtechnicaltransmissionisperformedbyanotherentity.”638

Effective control may be exercised in different ways, for instance, by selecting the

programmesthatshouldbeacquiredfortransmission,ordeterminingwhichprogramme

shouldbebroadcastduringwhichparticulartimeslot.Moreover,itneedstobelookedat

intermsoffinalorendresponsibilityfortheselectionorprogramming.639Importantto

noteisthatitdoesnotrelatetocontroloverthecontentofacertainprogramme.640Inline

withthis,editorialresponsibilityfortheprogrammingofaservicedoesnotnecessarily

implyany legal liabilityundernational lawfor theprogrammecontentor theservices

provided.641

2. Substantiverequirementsforaudiovisualcommercialcommunications

RESTRICTIONS FOR REASONS OF PUBLIC INTEREST. The AVMS Directive contains certain

limitationsonduration,frequencyandharmfulcontentofcommercialcommunications,

butalsorestrictionsthatenableviewersnottoconfusecommercialmessageswithother

parts of the programme. According to OSTER, these limitations to the freedom of

commercialspeechmaybejustifiedbyoverridingreasonsrelatedtothepublicinterest,

asaudiovisualmediainparticularhaveagreatimpactonviewersandmayshapeoreven

mislead the public opinion.642 These reasons may be inter alia consumer protection,

editorial independence of the programmeprovider andmaintaining a certain level of

programmequality.

TWO-TIERAPPROACHTOLINEARANDON-DEMANDSERVICES.TheAVMSDirectiveacknowledges

that a number of core societal values should be applicable to all audiovisual media

638ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)823.ThisisalsoconfirmedbyRecital19,whichexcludesnaturalorlegalpersonswhomerelytransmitprogrammes(forwhichtheeditorialresponsibilitylieswithanotherparty)fromthedefinitionofamediaserviceprovider.639ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)824.640ChavannesandCastendyk(n36)824.641Article1(c)AVMSDirective.642J.Oster,EuropeanandInternationalMediaLaw(CambridgeUniversityPress2016)168.

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services,includingrequirementsforaudiovisualcommercialcommunications.However,

italsosetsoutlighterregulatoryrequirementsforon-demandservicesascomparedto

linear services.643The reasoningbehind this two-tierorgraduatedapproach644is that

usershaveahigherdegreeofcontrolandchoicewhenitcomestoon-demandservices,as

theycandecideonthecontentandthetimeofviewing.645Thefollowingsubsectionsfirst

discussthegeneralprinciplesandprovisionsforaudiovisualcommercialcommunication

whicharenotspecificallyaimedat theprotectionof childrenbutofmediaviewers in

generalandareapplicabletoeitherallaudiovisualmediaservicesorexclusivelytolinear

services.Itthencontinueswiththespecificprotectionsforminors.

2.1 Generalprinciplesandprovisions

GENERALPRINCIPLES.ThetwomostimportantprinciplesoftheAVMSDirectiveinrelation

tocommercialcommunicationare(1)theprincipleofidentificationand(2)theprinciple

ofseparation.AsperSCHAAR,“theseprinciplescodifythefundamental646conceptoffairness

inadvertising”.647Bothprinciplesareaimedatreconcilingtheprincipleof freedomto

produce(television)advertisingwithadequateprotectionforbothaudiovisualworksand

thegeneralpublic,seenasbothviewersandconsumers.648Inconcreto,compliancewith

threekeyprincipleswasenvisaged649:(1)protectingtheconsumer,(2)guaranteeingthe

643J.Metzdorf, ‘TheImplementationoftheAudiovisualMediaServicesDirectivebyNationalRegulatoryAuthorities National Responses to Regulatory Challenges’ (2014) 5 JIPITEC<http://www.jipitec.eu/issues/jipitec-5-2-2014/3998>.644Thisgraduatedapproachentailsinteraliathatasidefromthegeneralprinciple(i.e.theidentificationprinciple) applicable to all forms of audiovisual commercial communications, there is an additionalprinciplethatappliessolelytotelevisionadvertising(i.e.theseparationprinciple).Inaddition,the2010AVMSDirectivecontainedanumberofotherrestrictionsfortelevisionadvertising,buttheywereadaptedinthelatestrevisioninordertoleveltheplayingfieldbetweentraditionalandnewmediaserviceproviders.645Recital55AVMSDirective;Blázquezandothers(n596)21.646M.E.PriceandS.Verhulst(eds),RoutledgeHandbookofMediaLaw(Routledge2013).647O.Schaar,‘TelevisionAdvertising,SponsorshipandTeleshopping’inO.Castendyk,E.J.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)479.648EuropeanCommission,‘InterpretativeCommunicationonCertainAspectsoftheProvisionsonTelevisedAdvertisinginthe“TelevisionwithoutFrontiers”Directive(2004/C102/02)’3.649O.Castendyk,‘Directive89/552/EEC“TelevisionwithoutFrontiers”Directive.’inO.Castendyk,E.J.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)312–313;O.Schaar,‘Directive89/552/EEC“TelevisionwithoutFrontiers”Directive.Article1TWFD’inO.Castendyk,E.J.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)492–493;O.CastendykandO.Schaar,‘Directive2007/65/EC“AudiovisualMediaServices”Directive.Article10AVMSD’inO.Castendyk,E.J.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)945.

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neutralityofmediainviewoftheeconomiccompetitionofthirdpartiesand(3)ensuring

the editorial integrity of television programmes. 650 Protecting the consumer against

disguised messages 651 seems the most obvious. If it is not clear what constitutes

advertising or when the line between editorial and commercial content is blurred,

viewerscanbemisledastothenatureofwhattheysee.Thesameisvalidinrelationto

competingmarketplayers,whowanttobejudgedfairlyandoneditorialgroundsbythe

media,notbecauseacompetitorhaspaidmoretothemediaenterprise.652Further,the

mandatoryseparationandidentificationoftelevisionadvertisingguaranteestheeditorial

integrityoftelevisionprogrammes.653Inanenvironmentinwhichcompanieswanttobe

perceivedpositively,undueinfluencingofeditorialandfictionalcontentisnotunlikely.

As such activities could undermine the function of television as a “as a medium of

information,education,socialandculturaldevelopmentandentertainment”,654theyshould

beprevented.655AsphrasedbyCASTENDYCK

“moneyshouldnotbuylove,anditshouldalsonotbeabletobuy‘truth’(i.e.secretly

paid expert opinions, disguised as ‘independent science’) or editorial or fictional

content”.656

The principlesof identification andseparation have been implemented in the various

Member States by means of national legislative and/or self-regulatory instruments

(infra).

650O.Castendyk,‘WerbeintegrationImTV-Programm–WannSindThemenPlacementsSchleichwerbungOderSponsoring?’[2005]ZUM857.651J.Kabel,‘TheSearchforConsistencyinEuropeanAdvertisingLaw’[2003]IRISPlus,LegalObservationsoftheEuropeanAudiovisualObservatory8,3;Schaar(n599)492–493;Castendyk(n599)313.652Castendyk(n649)313.653Schaar(n649)492.654Section228oftheCouncilofEurope,‘EuropeanTreatySeries-No.132ExplanatoryReporttotheEuropeanConventiononTransfrontierTelevision’<https://rm.coe.int/16800cb348>accessed25July2018.,makingreferencetotheCouncilofEurope,CommitteeofMinisters,‘RecommendationNo.R(84)3oftheCommitteeofMinisterstoMemberStatesonPrinciplesonTelevisionAdvertising.’<https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?documentId=09000016804dc8b4>accessed25July2018.655Schaar(n649)492.656Castendyk(n650)857.

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2.1.1 The principle of identification and other requirements for all forms of

audiovisualcommercialcommunication

THEIDENTIFICATIONPRINCIPLE.Theprincipleofidentificationcanbefoundinarticle9(a)oftheAVMSDirective(andarticle19),whichrequiresthat

“audiovisual commercial communications shall be readily recognisable as such.

Surreptitiousaudiovisualcommercialcommunicationshallbeprohibited;”657

Article9oftheAVMSDirectiveisapplicabletoallaudiovisualmediaservices.Assuch,

this article links the in 2010 introduced concept of audiovisual commercial

communicationtotheidentificationprinciple,whilealsoaddinginasecondsentencethe

prohibitionofsurreptitiousaudiovisual commercial communication.However, various

attemptsduring the2010 legislativeprocess towiden the scopeof article9 (i.e. as to

integratethewords‘keptquiteseparablefromotherpartsoftheprogrammeservice’658)

as well as further specifying it (i.e. adding the words ‘distinguishable from editorial

content’659)werenotupheld.Theprovisionsofarticle9applytoalltypesofaudiovisual

commercial communicationused in linearaswell ason-demandmedia services.660As

mentioned, the principle of identification is also withheld in article 19 of the AVMS

Directivefocusingontelevisionadvertisingandteleshopping.

657TheconceptfindsitsoriginsinthepredecessoroftheAVMSDirective,morespecificallyinarticle10oftheTelevisionwithoutFrontiersDirective(TWFD).658TheEPwasinfavourtowidenthescopebynotonlymaintainingtheprincipleofidentificationbutalsointroducingtheprincipleofseparation“audiovisualcommercialcommunicationmustbeclearlyidentifiableassuchandkeptquiteseparablefromotherpartsoftheprogrammeservice,intermsofbothtimeandspace,byopticalandacousticmeans”.EuropeanParliament,‘ReportontheProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilAmendingCouncilDirective89/552/EEContheCoordinationofCertainProvisionsLaiddownbyLaw,RegulationorAdministrativeActioninMemberStatesConcerningthePursuitofTelevisionBroadcastingActivities.’(2006).(Amendment111,Art.1point6,Art.3g,point(a)).659Also,theproposaltospecifytheprincipleofidentificationfurtherbyadditionallyintroducing‘distinguishablefromeditorialcontent’wasnotupheld.EuropeanParliament,‘ReportontheProposalforaDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilAmendingCouncilDirective89/552/EEContheCoordinationofCertainProvisionsLaiddownbyLaw,RegulationorAdministrativeActioninMemberStatesConcerningthePursuitofTelevisionBroadcastingActivities.’(n658).(Amendment113,Art.1point6,Art.3g,point(b)).660K.Böttcherandothers,‘Directive2007/65/EC“AudiovisualMediaServices”Directive.Article3eAVMSD’inO.Castendyk,E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)898.

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ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTSFOR ALLFORMSOFAUDIOVISUALCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Aside

fromtheidentificationprincipleandtheprohibitiononsurreptitiousadvertising,article

9of theAVMSDirective containsanumberof restrictions foraudiovisual commercial

communications that should be kept in mind, including restrictions on the use of

subliminaltechniques;discrimination;andencouragementsofbehaviourprejudicialto

healthorsafetyorbehaviourgrosslyprejudicial to theprotectionof theenvironment.

Finallysuchcommunicationsalsomustnotprejudicerespectforhumandignity.

2.1.2 Theprincipleofseparationandotherrequirementsfortelevisionadvertising

PRINCIPLEOFSEPARATION.Aspartofthegraduatedapproach,theAVMSDirectivecontains

additionalrulesthatarespecificallyapplicabletotelevisionadvertisingandteleshopping.

Morespecificallyarticle19oftheAVMSDirectivedefinesthat:

“Television advertising and teleshopping shall be readily recognisable and

distinguishablefromeditorialcontent.”

Thisso-called‘principleofseparation’canbetracedbacktoarticle10TWFD,requiring

thattelevisionadvertisingandteleshoppingshallbekept‘quiteseparate’fromotherparts

oftheprogrammeservice.Thegoalofthisprincipleistoguaranteetheeditorialintegrity

of television programmes.661 Important to note is that it is only applicable to linear

audiovisualmediaservicesandthatthereisnocorrespondingprovisionforon-demand

services(i.e.thegraduatedapproach).662Furthermore,article19oftheAVMSDirective

statesthat

“Withoutprejudicetotheuseofnewadvertisingtechniques,televisionadvertising

andteleshoppingshallbekeptquitedistinctfromotherpartsoftheprogrammeby

opticaland/oracousticand/orspatialmeans.”

Thisspecificationofthemeansisbroaderthantheoriginalwordingofarticle10TWFD:

the option to use ‘spatial’ means was added during the 2010 revision of the AVMS

Directive. Interestingly, recital 81 of the 2010 AVMS Directive emphasises that the

661Hellemans,LievensandValcke(n75).662CastendykandSchaar(n649)947.

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principleofseparationshouldnotpreventtheuseofnewadvertisingtechniques,which

was also confirmed by the European Commission in its 2004 interpretative

communication.663For example, in relation to split screen advertising (i.e. advertising

consisting of the simultaneous or parallel transmission of editorial content and

advertising content 664 ), the European Commission stressed that the principle of

separation between advertising and editorial content should, therefore, not be

interpretedasprohibiting it.However, splitscreenadvertisingmustbe in compliance

with the principle of separation in the AVMS Directive. Accordingly, split screen

advertisingmustbereadilyrecognisableassuchandkept clearlyseparate fromother

partsoftheprogrammebyacousticoropticalmeansaimedatpreventingtheviewerfrom

mistakingadvertisingforeditorialcontent.AccordingtotheEC,“aspatialseparationby

optical and/oracousticmeans isadequate, provided it identifiesadvertising clearlyand

enablestheviewertoreadilyrecogniseit”.665

QUANTITATIVERULES. Aside from the principle of separation, theDirective also contains

certainquantitativerulesfortelevisionadvertisingandteleshopping.Theseruleswere

adapted during the latest review of the Directive, in order to level the playing field

betweentraditionalandnewmediaserviceproviders.First,therevisedDirectivegrants

more flexibility to television broadcasters regarding the insertion of advertising and

teleshoppingcommercials.Morespecifically,thehourlylimitof20%wasreplacedbya

20%dailylimit,whichappliesbetween6amand6pm.Furthermore,duringprimetime

(i.e. from6pm to12am),broadcast timemaynot containmore than20%advertising

messages.Additionally,broadcastsoftelevisionfilms,cinematographicproductionsand

news programs may be interrupted by advertising messages or teleshopping

commercialsonceperscheduledperiodofatleast30minutes.Thisisalsoapplicableto

663EuropeanCommission,‘InterpretativeCommunicationonCertainAspectsoftheProvisionsonTelevisedAdvertisinginthe“TelevisionwithoutFrontiers”Directive(2004/C102/02)’(n648).664Forexample,oneormoreadvertisingspotsappearinawindowduringthetransmissionofaprogrammeinsuchawaythattwoseparateimagesarevisibleonthescreen.Providedthespacesetasideforadvertisingisnotexcessive,thistechniqueenablestheviewertocontinuetowatchtheeditorialprogrammeduringthetransmissionofanadvertisingspot;CommissionInterpretativeCommunication,nr.41.665EuropeanCommission,‘InterpretativeCommunicationonCertainAspectsoftheProvisionsonTelevisedAdvertisinginthe“TelevisionwithoutFrontiers”Directive(2004/C102/02)’(n648)s47.

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children’sprogrammes,providedthat theprogrammelastsat least30minutes666 (i.e.

excluding teleshopping commercials as they are forbidden during children’s

programmes).

2.2 Protectionofminorsinrelationtoaudiovisualcommercialcommunication

PROTECTIONOFMINORS.TheAVMSDirective contains certain protections for children in

relationtoaudiovisualcommercialcommunications,whichapplytobothlinearandon-

demand media services. The basic rule protecting minors in view of audiovisual

commercialcommunicationcanbefoundinarticle9(1)goftheDirective.667According

tothisprovision:

“Audiovisual commercial communications shall not cause physical or moral

detrimenttominors.Therefore,theyshallnot

- directly exhortminors to buy or hire a product or service by exploiting their

inexperienceorcredulity,

- directly encourage them to persuade their parents or others to purchase the

goodsorservicesbeingadvertised,

- exploitthespecialtrustminorsplaceinparents,teachersorotherpersons,or

- unreasonablyshowminorsindangeroussituations.”

Thephrasingofthisprovisionandinparticulartheuseoftheword“directly”limitsits

scopeofapplication.Indeed,notmanyadvertisementsarecalling“directly”uponthechild

tobuyacertainproductorserviceortousetheirso-called“pesterpower”toconvince

theirparentsintobuyingitforthem.GARDEexplainsthat“marketingtochildrentendsto

becovert”.668Inthisregard,ithasbeenarguedthatithasbecomeevermoredifficultto

666Children’sprogrammesthatareshorterthan30minutesmaynotbeinterruptedbycommercials.Article20(2)oftheAVMSDirective.667Thisprovisionisapplicabletobothtelevisionadvertisingandteleshoppingaswellastoadvertisingonon-demandservices.668A.Garde,‘TheBestInterestsoftheChild’inJ.DevennyandM.Kenny(eds),EuropeanConsumerProtection:TheoryandPractice(CambridgeUniversityPress2012)190.

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preciselydeterminethescopeoftheEUprovisionsontheprotectionofminors.669Indeed,

theactuallevelofprotectionishardtodecipher,especiallygiventheconstantevolution

ofnewtechnologiesandeconomicdevelopmentsinthefieldof(on-demand)audiovisual

services.

SPONSORSHIP AND PRODUCT PLACEMENT. The Directive also contains restrictions on the

amountofmarketingtochildreninprogrammes,applicabletobothlinearandon-demand

audiovisual media services. First, Member States may further choose to prohibit the

showing of a sponsorship logo during children’s programmes, documentaries and

religious programmes. 670 Second, under the Directive, product placement shall be

prohibited in children’sprogrammes.671Productplacement is any formof audiovisual

commercialcommunicationwhichconsistsof“theinclusionoforreferencetoaproduct,

serviceorthetrademarkthereofsothatitisfeaturedwithinaprogramme,inreturnfor

paymentorforsimilarconsideration”.672Conversely,theplacementofproductionprops

orprizesofinsignificantvaluecanbeincludedinchildren’sprogramme.673

LIMITATIONSTOTELEVISIONADVERTISING.Finally, theDirectiveprovidescertainprotections

forchildrenthatexclusivelyapplytotelevisionadvertising.Asidefromtheprincipleof

separation,article20oftheAVMSDirectivedefinesthatchildren’sprogrammesmaynot

be interrupted by television advertising or teleshopping if they are shorter than 30

minutes.674Thus,foreachscheduledperiodofatleast30minutes,atelevisionadvertising

669EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory,TheProtectionofMinorsintheCaseofNew(Non-Linear)Media-EuropeanLegalRulesandTheirNationalTranspositionandApplication(S.Nikoltcheved,CouncilofEurope2012)9–10.670Article10(4)oftheAVMSDirective.671Article11oftheAVMSDirectivestatesthat“Productplacementshallbeallowedinallaudiovisualmediaservices,exceptinnewsandcurrentaffairsprogrammes,consumeraffairsprogrammes,religiousprogrammesandchildren’sprogrammes”.(Emphasisadded)672Article1(1)(m)AVMSDirective.ANGELOPOULOSclarifiesthatproductplacementactuallyescapestheprincipleofseparation,withtransparencyasanadequatesafeguardforviewerinterests(i.e.theidentificationprincipleremainsapplicable).Nevertheless,itisnotallowedinchildren’sprogrammes.C.Angelopoulos,ProductPlacementinEuropeanAudiovisualProductions(EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory2010)10<http://dare.uva.nl/search?metis.record.id=337442>accessed25July2018.673C.Angelopoulos,ProductPlacementinEuropeanAudiovisualProductions(EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory2010)17<http://dare.uva.nl/search?metis.record.id=337442>accessed25July2018.674Aprogrammequalifiesasachildren’sprogrammeif-takingintoconsiderationitscontent,formandtimeoftransmission–itistargetedatpersonsbelowacertainagethreshold.ThisthresholddiffersinthedifferentEUMemberStates,forinstanceintheNetherlandsitissetat12yearswhereasintheUKitisset

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may interrupt the programme, but only if the scheduled duration of the programme

exceeds30minutes.Finally,wementionedpreviouslythatteleshoppingcommercialsare

forbiddenduringchildren’sprogrammes.675

PRODUCT-SPECIFICPROVISIONS.Furthermore,theDirectiveprovidescertainprotectionsfor

children against all forms of audiovisual commercial communications for harmful

products (e.g., food, tobacco, alcohol). 676 However, these provisions are not further

discussedinthisPhDastheyfocusonthecontentofthecommercialmessage,ratherthan

theadvertisingformatortechniqueused.

3. Self-regulation

ICCCODE.Attheinternationallevel,theprovisionsoftheICCCodearealsoapplicableto

audiovisualcommercialcommunications(supra).

NATIONAL INITIATIVES. In addition, a broad variety of self-regulatory instruments

implementing aspects of the AVMS Directive (i.e. on the protection of minors from

harmful audiovisual content in both television broadcasting and in on-demand

audiovisualmediaservicesarepresentedandcommercialcommunication)existat the

nationallevel.677Consideringthatthefocusofourmappingexerciseliesonadvertising

regulationattheEUlevel,theseinstrumentsarenotanalysed.

at 16 years. Angelopoulos (n 672) 17. See also Dutch Medialaw 2008, Article 3.19a (2) and OfcomBroadcastingCode,Section10.5.675Article20(2)oftheAVMSDirective.676Article9(1)(d-f)oftheAVMSDirective.677 For an overview and assessment of the effectiveness of these national initiatives see EuropeanCommission,Directorate-GeneralofCommunicationsNetworks,Content&Technology., ‘EffectivenessofSelf and Co-Regulation Study in the Context of Implementing the AVMS Directive’ (2016)<https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/audiovisual-and-media-services-directive-self-and-co-regulation-study>accessed30August2018.

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SECTIONIII-THEE-COMMERCEDIRECTIVECONTEXT

1. Thee-CommerceDirective

BACKGROUND. The European Union has traditionally invested and encouraged the

developmentofelectroniccommerce.678In1997,theEuropeanCommissionlaunchedits

European Initiative in the sector of Electronic Commerce, “to encourage the vigorous

growth of electronic commerce in Europe”. To achieve such growth, the Commission

recognised the importanceof a coherent regulatory frameworkat theEuropean level,

whichisbasedonanumberofprinciples,includingthesinglemarketfreedoms,taking

intoaccountbusinessrealitiesandmeetinggeneralinterestobjectiveslikeprivacyand

consumerprotectioneffectivelyandefficiently.679Themainobjectiveofthee-Commerce

Directive,680adopted in2000, is tocontributetotheproper functioningof the internal

marketbyensuringthefreemovementofinformationsocietyservices.681

SCOPE. The territorial scope of the e-Commerce Directive is limited to those service

providers thathaveanestablishment682inoneof theMemberStatesof theEU.683The

678A.R.LodderandA.D.Murray,EURegulationofE-Commerce:ACommentary(EdwardElgarPub2017)19.679 European Commission, ‘Communication of 18 April 1997: A European Initiative in the Sector ofElectronic Commerce’ (18 April 1997) <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Al32101>accessed12April2018.680Directive2000/31/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof8June2000oncertainlegalaspectsofinformationsocietyservices,inparticularelectroniccommerce,intheInternalMarket(Directiveonelectroniccommerce).(Hereaftere-CommerceDirective).681Article1ofthee-CommerceDirective.682Recital19ofthee-CommerceDirectiveclarifiesthat:Theplaceatwhichaserviceproviderisestablishedshouldbedeterminedinconformitywiththecase-lawoftheCourtofJusticeaccordingtowhichtheconceptofestablishment involves the actual pursuit of an economic activity through a fixed establishment for anindefiniteperiod;thisrequirementisalsofulfilledwhereacompanyisconstitutedforagivenperiod;theplaceof establishment of a company providing services via an Internet website is not the place at which thetechnologysupportingitswebsiteislocatedortheplaceatwhichitswebsiteisaccessiblebuttheplacewhereitpursuesitseconomicactivity;incaseswhereaproviderhasseveralplacesofestablishmentitisimportanttodeterminefromwhichplaceofestablishmenttheserviceconcernedisprovided;incaseswhereitisdifficulttodeterminefromwhichofseveralplacesofestablishmentagivenserviceisprovided,thisistheplacewheretheproviderhasthecentreofhisactivitiesrelatingtothisparticularservice.683 Article 3 (1) and recital 58 clarify that the Directive does not apply to service providers that areestablishedinthirdcountries.Morespecifically,article3(1)statesthat:1.EachMemberStateshallensurethattheinformationsocietyservicesprovidedbyaserviceproviderestablishedonitsterritorycomplywiththenational provisions applicable in the Member State in question which fall within the coordinated field.

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Directiveisofahorizontalnatureand,assuch,appliesacrossallareasoflawtouching

upon the provision of information society services (e.g. private law, criminal law). It

providesalightandflexibleapproachfore-commerce,meaningthattheDirectiveonly

addressesthoseelementsthatareneededtoensuretheproperfunctioningoftheinternal

market.684Oneoftheseelementsrequiringregulationiscommercialcommunicationsin

onlineservices.685

1.1 Definitions

1.1.1 Informationsocietyservice

INFORMATION SOCIETY SERVICE. According to recital 17, the e-Commerce Directive is

applicableto“anyservicenormallyprovidedforremuneration,atadistancebyelectronic

meansandat the individualrequestofarecipientofservices”.Thus, foraserviceto fall

withinthescopeoftheDirective,ithastobeanalysedwithinthecontextofthesefour

conditions:(1)normallyprovidedforremuneration,(2)atadistance,(3)byelectronic

meansand (4)at the individual requestof the recipient.Of these four conditions, the

requirementforaservicetobeprovidedbyelectronicmeansisthemoststraightforward.

It refers to digital, online or mobile services as they are provided and received via

electronicequipment.Furthermore,therequirementthattheservicehastobeprovided

atadistanceentailsthatthepartiesinvolved(i.e.theserviceproviderandtheconsumer)

arenotsimulateneouslypresent.LODDERandMURRAYunderlinethatthecrucialaspectin

this regard is that parties cannot communicate face-to-face.686Third, the requirement

thattheserviceisprovidedattheindividualrequestisfulfilledif,forinstance,theuser

(emphasisadded).Formore informationsee J.Riordan,TheLiabilityof Internet Intermediaries (OxfordUniversityPress2016)380.684 P. Valcke and E. Dommering, ‘Directive 2000/31/EC-’e-Commerce’ Directive’ in O. Castendyk, E.DommeringandA.Scheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008)1084.Indeed,inits1997Communication,theEuropeanCommissionunderlinesthatregulationisonlyneededifthefreemovementofelectroniccommerceservicescannotbeeffectivelyachievedbymutualrecognitionofnationalrulesandofappropriateself-regulatorycodes.EuropeanCommission,‘Communicationof18April1997:AEuropeanInitiativeintheSectorofElectronicCommerce’(n679).685Asidefromthis,theDirectivealsocontainsotherprovisionsthanthoserelatedtoadvertising,buttheseremainoutsidethescopeofthisPhD.686LodderandMurray(n678)24.

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downloadsamobileapplicationorregistersonawebsite inordertoreceiveacertain

service.Thelastcondition,however,islessstraightforward.

NORMALLYPROVIDEDFORREMUNERATION.Therequirementshouldbeinterpretedbroadlyand

not just actual monetary payment. The e-Commerce Directive clarifies that services

financedbyadvertisingarealsoincludedunderthescopeoftheDirective(forinstance

thiscouldincludeaccesstowebsitecontent).687Morespecifically,recital18statesthat

“informationsocietyservicesarenotsolelyrestrictedtoservicesgivingrisetoon-line

contracting but also, in so far as they represent an economic activity, extend to

serviceswhicharenotremuneratedbythosewhoreceivethem,suchasthoseoffering

on-line information or commercial communications, or those providing tools

allowingforsearch,accessandretrievalofdata.”688

TheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnionhassupportedthisbyfindingthatservices,as

definedbyarticle57oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(“TFEU”),do

notnecessarilyrequirepaymentbytheusersthemselves.689Furthermore,theEuropean

DataProtectionSupervisor(“EDPS”)hasstatedinitsanalysisoftheoverlapbetweendata

protection,consumerprotectionandcompetitionlawthatitworksfromtheassumption

that all three of these areas are applicable to “free” services.690 Recital 18 of the e-

CommerceDirectivealsospecifiesthatwhereastelevisionandradiobroadcastingwould

notfallunderthedefinition,serviceswhicharetransmittedpointtopoint,suchasvideo-

on-demandortheprovisionofcommercialcommunicationsbyelectronicmailwouldbe

consideredinformationsocietyservices.Finally,informationsocietyservicesalsoinclude

687Recital18e-CommerceDirective.688Inthisregard,LODDERandMURRAYrefertothecommonphrase‘ifsomethingisfree,youaretheproduct’.LodderandMurray(n678)22.689GiuseppeSacchiReferenceforapreliminaryruling:TribunalecivileepenalediBiellavItaly[1974]CJEUC–155/73;BondvanAdverteerdersvtheNetherlands[1988]CJEUC-352/85.690EuropeanDataProtectionSupervisor,‘PreliminaryOpinion-PrivacyandCompetitivenessintheAgeofBigData:TheInterplaybetweenDataProtection,CompetitionLawandConsumerProtectionintheDigitalEconomy’ <https://edps.europa.eu/sites/edp/files/publication/14-03-26_competitition_law_big_data_en.pdf>accessed25July2018.

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servicesinhostinginformationprovidedbyarecipientoftheservice(e.g.onlinesocial

networks691).

1.1.2 Commercialcommunication

COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Underarticle2(f)ofthee-CommerceDirective,commercial

communicationisdefinedas

“anyformofcommunicationdesignedtopromotedirectlyorindirectly,thegoods,

services or image of a company, organisation or person pursuing a commercial,

industrialorcraftactivityorexercisingaregulatedprofession.’”.

This definition should be interpreted broadly and entails both direct and indirect

promotion,asawaytopreventcircumventionofthebanoncommercialcommunications

for certain products (e.g., tobacco, alcohol). 692 The commercial character of the

communication entails that it promotes goods or services of a certain company or

organisation.693Excludedfromthisdefinition is themereownershipofawebsiteore-

mail address, linking to a commercial site without getting paid for it, providing

informationnotconstitutingpromotion,consumer-testingservices,andpriceorproduct

comparisons.694

1.1.3 Informationsocietyserviceprovider

INFORMATIONSOCIETYSERVICEPROVIDER.Aninformationsocietyserviceprovidercanbeany

naturalor legalpersonprovidingan informationsocietyservice.695Thiscouldbe inter

alia social network providers, internet service providers and providers of mobile

messengerapplications.ForaserviceprovidertobeestablishedinaMemberStateofthe

691AsconfirmedbytheCJEU,forinstanceinSabamvNetlog[2012]CJEUC-360/10.692A.Lodder,‘EuropeanUnionE-CommerceDirective-ArticlebyArticleComments’(SocialScienceResearchNetwork2007)SSRNScholarlyPaperID100994573<https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1009945>accessed22November2017.693 However, the definition does not extend to promotional messages from organisations such asGreenpeaceorScientology.ValckeandDommering(n684)1097.694ValckeandDommering(n684)1097.695Article2(b)e-CommerceDirective.

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European Union, it has to effectively pursue an economic activity using a fixed

establishmentforanindefiniteperiod.696

1.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialcommunications

IDENTIFICATIONAND INFORMATIONREQUIREMENTS.Thee-CommerceDirectiveestablishesde

facto obligations for advertisers, by requiring Member States to implement rules

regardingtheidentificationofcommercialmessagesandtheinformationtobeprovided

togetherwithcommercialcommunicationswhicharepartoforconstituteaninformation

societyservice. Inotherwords, theregulatoryregimeof thee-CommerceDirectiveon

commercial communications consistsof identificationand transparency requirements,

and in this sense differs from the AVMS Directive (i.e. no specific protection for

children).697Morespecifically,article6determinesthefollowingconditions:

(a)thecommercialcommunicationshallbeclearlyidentifiableassuch;698

(b)thenaturalor legalpersononwhosebehalf thecommercialcommunication is

madeshallbeclearlyidentifiable;

(c)promotionaloffers,suchasdiscounts,premiumsandgifts,wherepermittedinthe

MemberStatewheretheserviceproviderisestablished,shallbeclearlyidentifiable

assuch,andtheconditionswhicharetobemettoqualifyforthemshallbeeasily

accessibleandbepresentedclearlyandunambiguously;

(d)promotionalcompetitionsorgames,wherepermittedintheMemberStatewhere

the service provider is established, shall be clearly identifiable as such, and the

conditionsforparticipationshallbeeasilyaccessibleandbepresentedclearlyand

unambiguously.

UNSOLICITEDCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Furthermore, thee-CommerceDirectiveobliges

MemberStatestoimplementrulesconcerningunsolicitedcommercialcommunications

696Article2(c)e-CommerceDirective.Furthermore,Article2(c)clarifiesthat“thepresenceanduseofthetechnical means and technologies required to provide the service do not, in themselves, constitute anestablishmentoftheprovider”.697Oster(n642)227.698Thisistheidentificationprinciple,whichcorrespondstoarticle9(a)oftheAVMSDirective.

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by electronic mail. In particular, the Member States need to oblige service providers

establishedintheirterritorywhomakeuseofunsolicitedcommercialcommunications,

toensurethatsuchcommunication“shallbeidentifiableclearlyandunambiguously”.699

Finally,eachMemberStatemusthavemeasuresinplacetoensureserviceprovidersof

suchcommunicationstoconsultonaregularbasisandrespecttheopt-outregisters,in

which natural persons can register if they do not want to receive such commercial

communications.700

EXEMPTIONFORHOSTINGPROVIDERS.Furthermore,theDirectivecontainsanumberofliability

exemptionsforcertainserviceproviders.701Therationaleoftheseexemptionsisthatin

thelate1990sseveralMemberStatecourtshadruledthatonlineintermediariescouldbe

heldliableforthecontentthatwasuploadedbyusers.Yeteventually,theideagrewin

Europethatintermediariesshouldbeprotectedagainstliabilityforcontentoriginating

fromthirdparties,butonlyiftheywerepreparedtocooperatewhenitcomestocontent

removalorblockingaccessto illegalorharmfulcontent.702Theseexemptionscouldbe

relevantinthesituationwherethirdpartiesuploadillegalorharmfuladvertisementson

platformssuchasFacebookorYouTube.Article14ofthee-CommerceDirectivecontains

aliabilityexemptionforprovidersofhostingservicesforillegalwebcontentuploadedby

theusersoftheservice.Inessence,ahostingserviceisanyservicewhichconsistsofthe

storageofinformationattherequestoftherecipientoftheservice(e.g.socialnetwork

providers).703Hosting providers can only benefit from the liability exemption if three

699Article7e-CommerceDirective.700Article7§2e-CommerceDirective.701Nowadays,commercialmessagesareoftenspreadviasocialnetworksitesbytheusersthemselves.Ifsuch commercial messages are harmful or illegal, the question may rise whether the social networkplatformcouldbeliableforanydamageresultingfromthis(i.e.secondaryliability).G.Sartor,‘ProvidersLiability: From theECommerceDirective to theFuture’ (EuropeanUniversity Institute 2017) 4; P. VanEecke, ‘OnlineServiceProvidersandLiability:APlea foraBalancedApproach’ (2011101)48CommonMarketLawReview1455.702VanEecke(n701).ascitedbyB.VanAlsenoyandV.Verdoodt,‘LiabilityandAccountabilityofActorsinSocialNetworkingSites,SpionProject’(2014)23.703VanAlsenoyandVerdoodt(n702)23.Morespecifically:“Atypicalexampleofahostingserviceisthatofa“webhostingcompany”,whichprovideswebspacetoitscustomerswhocanthenuploadcontenttobepublishedonawebsite.However,thehostingexemptionisdefinedinbroadtermsandmaybenefitanyonlineserviceproviderstoringinformationattherequestofitsusers”.

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conditions are fulfilled: (1) absence of knowledge 704 of the illegal web content, (2)

absenceofcontrol705and(3)expeditiousactionuponobtainingawarenessovertheillegal

activityorwebcontent.706

2. Self-regulation: FEDMA Code of Conduct on E-Commerce & Interactive

Marketing

BACKGROUND. In the latenineties consumershad lowconfidence ine-commerce.At the

time, therewereanumberof legalobstacles to theproper functioningof the internal

market,whichplacedaburdenonthedevelopmentofinformationsocietyserviceswithin

theCommunity.707Morespecifically,divergencesinlegislationandlegaluncertaintyasto

whichnationalrulesappliedtosuchservicesnegativelyaffectedconsumers’confidence.

Against this backdrop, the Federation of European Direct Marketing (“FEDMA”), an

organisationrepresenting708theDirectandInteractiveMarketingsectorattheEuropean

Level709issuedaCodeofConductone-CommerceandInteractiveMarketing(“CodeonE-

Commerce”),followingtheenteringintoforceoftheE-CommerceDirective.710Withthe

704Thus,thehostmaystillbeheldliableonceithasobtainedknowledgeoffactsorcircumstancesfromwhichtheillegalactivityorwebcontentisapparent.SeeA.Kuczerawy,‘IntermediaryLiability&FreedomofExpression:RecentDevelopmentsintheEUNotice&ActionInitiative’(2015)31ComputerLaw&SecurityReview46.705Forexample,iftheillegalcontentwasintroducedbyanemployeeofthehost,thelatterwillnotbeabletobenefitfromtheliabilityexemption.706VanAlsenoyandVerdoodt(n702)24.707 European Economic and Social Committee, ‘The Database on Self- and Co-Regulation Initiatives:Federation of European Direct and Interactive Marketing (FEDMA)’ (29 January 2007)<https://www.eesc.europa.eu/en/policies/policy-areas/enterprise/database-self-and-co-regulation-initiatives/48>accessed25July2018.708FEDMA’smaintasksarethepromotionandprotectionoftheDirectandInteractiveMarketingsectoratpan-Europeanlevel,aswellasprovidingthesectorwithinformation,educationandtraining.709 Amongst its members are (1) national members, i.e. the national Direct Marketing Associations(hereafter“DMAs”)whichrepresentusers,serviceprovidersandmedia/carriersofdirectmarketingand(2)directcompanymembers.FEDMA, ‘EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing’ <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/content/european-code-practice-use-personal-data-direct-marketing>accessed26July2018.Atthemoment,FEDMAreportstohavearound400directmembersinmorethan30countriesaswellasnearly10000indirectmembers(throughtheirmembershipinnationalDirectMarketingassociations).M.Macenaite,‘ProtectingChildren’sPrivacyOnline:A Critical Look to Four European Self-Regulatory Initiatives’ (2016) 7 European Journal of Law andTechnology<http://ejlt.org/article/view/473>accessed21June2018.710Article16ofthee-CommerceDirectivestatesthat“MemberStatesandtheCommissionshallencouragethea)drawingupofcodesofconductatCommunitylevel,bytrade,professionalandconsumerassociationsandorganisations,designedtocontributetotheproperimplementationofarticles5to15”.

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Code on E-Commerce, FEDMA aims “to contribute to the growth of an e-commerce

environment conductive to online direct marketing and at the same time protective of

consumer interests”.711Inordertoremovebarriers to thedevelopmentofcross-border

services within the Community which members might offer via the internet, it was

considered necessary to establish a set of professional rules on consumer and child

protection or public health, andguarantee compliance at the Community level.712The

Code forms part of FEDMA’s trustmark system (i.e. the “Ring of Confidence” for e-

commerce).Companiesadhering to theCodeonE-Commerce candisplayaGuarantee

Sealontheirwebsite.713Inaddition,companiesacceptaconsumercomplaintresolution

mechanism714andlinktoonlineAlternativeDisputeResolutionsystems.

2.1 Scope

SCOPE.WiththeCodeofE-Commerce,FEDMAaimstosetastandardofethicalbusiness

conductforonlinemarketersthat(1)sellgoodsorservicesor(2)provideinformationas

partof,orfollowuptoasale(itisapplicabletobothproductorservicepromotionthrough

theweband/or throughemail).715It is applicableonly toonline commercial relations

between businesses and consumers (including e-commerce and commercial

communications).TheprovisionsshouldbereadinconjunctionwiththeotherFEDMA

711 FEDMA, ‘Code on E-Commerce & Interactive Marketing’<http://www.oecd.org/internet/ieconomy/2091875.pdf>accessed26July2018.712Inthisregard,theEUconsideredthatcodesofconductatCommunitylevelwouldbetheperfectmeansto define principles regarding professional ethics in the context of commercial communication. SeeEuropeanEconomicandSocialCommittee(n707).713Forseriousand/orconsistentbreachesoftheCode,thenationalDMAmaydecidetowithdrawaFEDMArecognisedguaranteesealofacertainmarketer.ThematterwillthenbereferredtotheFEDMAMonitoringCommitteeforapprovalbeforeexecution.FEDMA,‘CodeonE-Commerce&InteractiveMarketing’(n711).714Asafirststep,marketersshouldhaveeffectivein-housecomplaintmechanismsinplace,whichshouldbe confidential, freeand easy for consumers to access. Themarketer should alsomake every effort toresolvecomplaintsinasatisfactorymannerwithinaspecifiedtimeperiod(notexceeding30days).Ifthecomplaintcannotbedealtwithatthein-houselevel, theconsumershouldhaveredresstotheNationalDirectMarketingAssociations.Finally,ifanationalDMAisunabletosolvetheproblemduetocross-borderaspects, FEDMA can investigate the complaint itself. For these situations, the Code foresees that theinvestigation is conducted by the FEDMA Monitoring Committee. FEDMA, ‘Code on E-Commerce &InteractiveMarketing’(n711).715IntroductionoftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.

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Codes(infra)andshouldbeinterpretedinaccordancewiththeframeworkofapplicable

laws.

2.2 Substantiverequirementsforcommercialcommunications

PRINCIPLE OF IDENTIFICATION. The Code on E-Commerce first of all contains a section of

provisions that apply to all forms of online commercial communications. 716 These

principles reflect the general principles as contained in the e-Commerce Directive. 717

Morespecifically,article3.1oftheCodeprovidesthat:

- Consumerscanbeconfidentthatallonlinecommercialcommunicationshallbeclearlyidentifiableassuch.

- Theoriginatorofthecommunication(i.e.anaturalorlegalperson)shouldlikewisebeclearlyidentifiable.

- Allpromotionaloffersandgamesshallbeclearlyidentifiableassuch.

MISLEADING COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION. Furthermore, Articles 3.3 and 3.4 of the Code

protect consumers against misleading commercial communications. More specifically

Article3.3definesthatconsumersmaynotbemisledaboutthenatureoftheproductor

servicebeingpromotedoroffered.Moreover,consumer’sfreedomtoexitsitesshouldnot

berestricteddeceptively.Searchtermsalsohavetoreflectthecontentofthesiteinafair

manner. Article 3.4 on theother handdetermines that price comparisonsmay not be

misleading;mustcontainthestartandenddateoftheofferand;mustshowanyspecific

conditionsthatmayapply.

RESPECTINGTHESENSIBILITIESOFCHILDREN.TheCodealsocontainscertainrulesformarketers

that target children or for whom children are likely to constitute a section of their

audience.Severalfactorsthatdefinewhetherornotacommercialcommunicationaimed

atchildrenisharmfularehighlighted.Morespecifically,thecommercialcommunication:

716Section6oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.717 For more information on the e-Commerce Directive see V. Verdoodt, E. Lievens and L. Hellemans,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentLegalFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReport intheFrameworkoftheAdLitResearchProject.’(2015)<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017.

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- should not exploit a child’s credulity, loyalty, vulnerability or lack of

experience;

- should take into account the age, knowledge and level ofmaturity of the

intendedaudience;

- shouldnotcontainanyadvertisingmaterialsuitableonlyforadults;

- shouldnotencouragechildrentoenteradultwebsites,copyunsafepractices

norcommunicatewithstrangers;

- should encourage children to obtain parental consent before purchasing

goods/services;

- shouldnotcontainanofferofcredit.

EVIDENCEOFADVERTISINGCLAIMS.Finally,onlinemarketersalwaysneedtohaveevidencefor

anyclaimsmadeintheiradvertisements.718

718Article3.5oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.

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SECTION IV - THE GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION AND THE EPRIVACY

DIRECTIVECONTEXT

BACKGROUND.Asmentionedabove,thecollectionofpersonaldataforpersonalisationand

targeted advertising purposes is one of the major trends in the area of commercial

communication. Children have become a datafied generation and are increasingly

targeted with personalised commercial messages. 719 Under the EU Charter of

FundamentalRights,EUcitizenshavetherighttotheprotectionoftheirpersonaldata.720

The EU legislative framework on data protection - which is also applicable to the

processingofchildren’spersonaldata-hasbeenundergoingsignificantreformsinrecent

years. First, the Data Protection Directive721which was adopted in 1995 (i.e. the old

regime),hasbeenreplacedbytheEUGeneralDataProtectionRegulation(“GDPR”),722

which devotes specific attention to the protection of children’s personal data.723The

GDPRwasadoptedbytheEUParliamentandCouncilonApril27th,2016,andbecame

applicable on May 25th, 2018. Although the EU legislator opted for a high level of

harmonisationbyadoptingaregulation,theGDPRstillleavesamarginofmanoeuvreto

theEUMemberStatesregardingthe implementationofcertainprovisions, includinga

numberofprovisionsthatareimportantforchildren.Hence,atthemomentofwriting,

therealimpactofthechangesonthedailylivesofchildrenandtheexerciseoftheirrights

719LuptonandWilliamson(n94).720TherecognitionofdataprotectionasakeypersonalrightofEUcitizenswasalsoconfirmedwiththeadoptionoftheLisbonTreaty,witharticle39TEUandarticle16TFEUprovidingspecificprovisionsondataprotection.Indeed,Article16imposesanobligationontheEUlegislatortoestablishaclearandunequivocallegalframeworkfordataprotection.D.Clifford,‘EUDataProtectionLawandTargetedAdvertising:Consentand the Cookie Monster - Tracking the Crumbs of Online User Behaviour’ (2014) 5 JIPITEC 195–196<http://www.jipitec.eu/issues/jipitec-5-3-2014/4095>.721Directive95/46/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof24October1995ontheprotectionofindividualswithregardtotheprocessingofpersonaldataandonthefreemovementofsuchdata1995.722EuropeanUnion(ParliamentandCouncil)(2016)Regulation(EU)2016/679of27April2016ontheprotectionofnaturalpersonswithregardtotheprocessingofpersonaldataandonthefreemovementofsuchdata,andrepealingDirective95/46/EC(GeneralDataProtectionRegulation),OJ4May2016,L119/1.723 In contrast, the recent proposal for an ePrivacy Regulation does not contain specific references tochildren:ProposalforaRegulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilconcerningtherespectforprivatelifeandtheprotectionofpersonaldatainelectroniccommunicationsandrepealingDirective2002/58/EC(RegulationonPrivacyandElectronicCommunications)2017.

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remains unclear. Second, the ePrivacy Directive 724 provides a regulatory regime for

citizen’s communications data and operates as a lex specialis framework to the

requirementsprovidedbythelexgeneralisRegulation(i.e.theGDPRandpreviouslythe

Data Protection Directive). This legislative instrument is currently also being revised.

Aside from these legislative instruments, the advertising industry has developed a

number of self-regulatory instruments that play an important role in regulating the

deliveryofpersonalisedadvertisingtochildren.

1. TheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation

DATAPROTECTIONDIRECTIVE.UpuntilMay2018,theDataProtectionDirectiveremainedthe

core legal instrument applicable to the processing of personal data in the European

Union.725TheunderlyingideaoftheDirectivewasthatinordertorealiseafreeflowof

services, capital, people and goods on the EU’s internalmarket, a free flowof data is

necessary.Toachievethis,allMemberStatesneededtoadheretoauniformlevelofdata

protection. 726 The Data Protection Directive further clarified the privacy principles

stemming from fundamental rights documents and defined certain general data

protectionprinciplesthatneededtobetakenintoaccountwheneverpersonaldatawas

processed.Duetothenatureofthislegalinstrument,theMemberStateshadtoimplement

theprovisionsoftheDirectiveintheirnationallegalsystems.

GENERAL DATA PROTECTION REGULATION. Although the key principles of data protection

remainthesame, theGDPRintroducesseveral importantchanges.Forthepurposesof

thisthesisthemostimportantchangesconcerntheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldata

724Directive2002/58/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof12July2002concerningtheprocessingofpersonaldataandtheprotectionofprivacyintheelectroniccommunicationssector(Directiveonprivacyandelectroniccommunications)2002(OJL201)37.725Directive95/46/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof24October1995ontheprotectionofindividualswithregardtotheprocessingofpersonaldataandonthefreemovementofsuchdata(OJL281)31.(hereinafterDataProtectionDirective).726EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights(FRA)andCouncilofEurope(2014).HandbookonEuropeandataprotectionlaw.Luxembourg:PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,18.

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foradvertisingpurposesandtheconcernsthatmayariseregardingtheimplementation

oftheprovisionsinthisregardarediscussedbelow.727

TERRITORIALSCOPE.Withregardtotheterritorialscope,article3oftheGDPRprovidesthat

theGDPRappliesto(1)theprocessingofpersonaldatainthecontextoftheactivitiesof

anestablishmentofacontrolleroraprocessorintheUnion,regardlessofwhetherthe

processingtakesplace in theUnionornot; (2) theprocessingofpersonaldataofdata

subjectswhoareintheUnionbyacontrollerorprocessornotestablishedintheUnion,

where the processing activities are related to: (a) the offering of goods or services,

irrespectiveofwhetherapaymentofthedatasubjectisrequired,tosuchdatasubjectsin

theUnion;or(b)themonitoringoftheirbehaviourasfarastheirbehaviourtakesplace

withintheUnion;and(3)theprocessingofpersonaldatabyacontrollernotestablished

in the Union, but in a place where MemberState law applies by virtue of public

international law. This expansion of the territorial scope (compared to the Data

ProtectionDirective)entails that foreignbusinessesprocessingEUresidents’personal

dataforadvertisingpurposeswillhavetocomplywiththerulesoftheGDPR.

MATERIALSCOPE.TheGDPR isunderpinnedby thepremise thatnaturalpersonsshould

havecontroloftheirownpersonaldata.728ThematerialscopeoftheGDPRisverybroad.

Morespecifically,accordingtoarticle2,theGDPRappliesto

“theprocessingofpersonaldatawhollyorpartlybyautomatedmeansandtothe

processingotherthanbyautomatedmeansofpersonaldatawhichformpartofa

filingsystemorareintendedtoformpartofafilingsystem.”

Assuch,therearetwokeyconceptsthatdeterminethematerialscope,i.e.(1)processing

and(2)personaldata.Theseconceptswillbediscussedmoreintodetailbelow.

727ThissectionofthePhDisatranslationandadaptationofthefollowingtwoarticles:VerdoodtandLievens(n482);E.LievensandV.Verdoodt, ‘LookingforNeedlesinaHaystack:KeyIssuesAffectingChildren’sRights in the General Data Protection Regulation’ [2017] Computer Law & Security Review<http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S026736491730314X>accessed3November2017.728Recital7GDPR.

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1.1 Definitions

A. PERSONALDATAANDPROCESSING

PERSONALDATA.Accordingtothearticle4(1)oftheGDPR,personaldatais

“any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person (‘data

subject’); an identifiable natural person is one who can be identified, directly or

indirectly,inparticularbyreferencetoanidentifiersuchasaname,anidentification

number,locationdata,anonlineidentifierortooneormorefactorsspecifictothe

physical,physiological,genetic,mental,economic,culturalorsocialidentityofthat

naturalperson”.

An identifiable person is a person who can be identified, directly or indirectly, in

particularbyreferencetoanidentificationnumberortooneormorefactorsspecificto

hisphysical,physiological,mental,economic,culturalorsocialidentity.Inshort,aperson

isidentifiableifanyonecanascertainhisorheridentity,directlyorindirectly,through

reasonablemeans.729Theinterpretationofpersonaldataisverybroadandincludesfor

instanceaperson’sfirstname,surname,dateofbirth,IPaddressandmobileappdata.730

PROCESSING.ThesecondkeyconceptthatdefinesthescopeofapplicationoftheGDPRis

“processing”.Processingentailsaccordingtoarticle4(2)oftheGDPR:

729Recital26oftheGDPRprovidesthat:“Todeterminewhetheranaturalpersonisidentifiable,accountshouldbetakenofallthemeansreasonablylikelytobeused,suchassinglingout,eitherbythecontrollerorbyanotherpersontoidentifythenaturalpersondirectlyorindirectly.Toascertainwhethermeansarereasonablylikelytobeusedtoidentifythenaturalperson,accountshouldbetakenofallobjectivefactors,suchasthecostsofandtheamountoftimerequiredforidentification,takingintoconsiderationtheavailabletechnologyatthetimeoftheprocessingandtechnologicaldevelopments”.730Ingeneral,theGDPRappliesinanycasewheretheuseofappsonsmartdevicesinvolvestheprocessingofpersonaldataofindividuals.Manytypesofdatastoredorgeneratedbyamobiledevicearetobeconsideredpersonaldata.Thesedatausuallydonotonlyhaveasignificantimpactontheprivatelivesofusersbutalsopotentiallyonotherindividuals,suchasapplicationdevelopers.Often,thesedataareindeedcollectedandprocessedonthedeviceitselfandthen-inalaterstage-transferredtoathirdparty'sinfrastructure,withouttheknowledgeoftheenduser.Examplesaregeo-locationdata,contacts,uniquedeviceandcustomeridentifiers(suchasIMEI13,IMSI14,UDID15andmobilephonenumber),creditcardandpaymentdata,phonecalllogs,SMSorinstantmessaging,browsinghistory,informationsocietyserviceauthenticationcredentials(especiallyserviceswithsocialfeatures)picturesandvideosandbiometrics(suchasfacialrecognitionandfingerprinttemplates).Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(2013)7–8<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2013/wp202_en.pdf>accessed14November2017.

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“anyoperationorsetofoperationswhichisperformeduponpersonaldata,whether

or not by automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage,

adaptation or alteration, retrieval, consultation, use, disclosure by transmission,

disseminationorotherwisemakingavailable,alignmentorcombination,blocking,

erasureordestruction.”

The scope ofwhat constitutes processing is thus extremely broad.Nearly all types of

actionperformedonpersonaldata(suchascollection,storage,use,removaletc.)canbe

qualifiedas‘processing’.

B. CONTROLLER,PROCESSORANDDATASUBJECT

DATACONTROLLERANDPROCESSOR.Article4 (7)of theGDPRdefinesa ‘controller’ as “the

naturalorlegalperson,publicauthority,agencyorotherbodywhich,aloneorjointlywith

others,determinesthepurposesandmeansoftheprocessingofpersonaldata”.Assuch,the

GDPR allows more than one legally separate entity to act as a controller and decide

togethertoprocessdataforasharedpurpose.731A‘dataprocessor’ontheotherhandis

“anaturalorlegalperson,publicauthority,agencyorotherbodywhichprocessespersonal

data on behalf of the controller”.732The Article 29Working Party733has defined two

requirementsforthequalificationasprocessor,i.e.beingaseparatelegalentityfromthe

controller and processing the personal data on the latter’s behalf.734In short, a data

controlleristheentitydeterminingthepurposeandmeansofapersonaldataprocessing

activitywhereasadataprocessoristheentitywhoprocessesthepersonaldataonbehalf

ofthecontroller.Toclarify,acontrollercanprocesspersonaldatawithoutcontractingthe

731ForadetaileddiscussionseeB.VanAlsenoy,‘RegulatingDataProtection:TheAllocationofResponsibilityandRiskamongActorsInvolvedinPersonalDataProcessing’(2016).732Article4(8)GDPR.733 The Article 29 Data Protection Working Group (“Working Party”) is a European advisory bodycomprising of representatives of the national data protection authorities. Although the opinions of theWorkingPartyarenotbinding,significantauthoritativevalueisattachedtothem,asalltheMemberStatearerepresentedinthisbody.Asof25May2018theArticle29WorkingPartyceasedtoexistandhasbeenreplacedbytheEuropeanDataProtectionBoard(EDPB).ThewebsiteoftheEDPBcanbeconsultedunderthefollowingaddress:https://edpb.europa.eu/.734Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion1/2010ontheConceptsof“Controller”and“Processor”,WP169’5<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2010/wp169_en.pdf>accessed26July2018.

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services of a processor. The distinction is fact-based735 and is complex in an online

marketingenvironment,withitsvarietyofstakeholdersinvolvedinthedevelopmentand

distributionofnewadvertisingformatsaswellastheincreasingcross-borderandcloud

environmentsetting.

ADVERTISINGENVIRONMENT–IT’SCOMPLICATED.Inanadvertisingenvironment,stakeholders

mayrangefromappdeveloperstodevicemanufacturers,appstores,thirdparties,and

advertisers - allwith potential subcontractors and affiliates - and, of course, the data

subjects(e.g.children).Assuch,actorscannotalwaysbeclearlydefinedgiventhecomplex

factualsituation.Multipleentitiesmightdeterminethepurposeandmeansofprocessing

activitiesleadingtoseveralseparatecontrollersorajointcontrollership,whichcanbe

the case in a multinational where various subsidiaries participate in the cloud

environment.736Consider for example an international toy companywith subsidiaries

(separate legalentities)spreadworldwide.Thepurposeandcollectionof thepersonal

data could be decided at global and local level in case of a localmarketing campaign

where,intheend,thecollecteddatawillbeusedatglobalaswellaslocallevelforfurther

marketingpurposes.Also,multipleprocessors could come intoplay: an infrastructure

providermayoutsource(partofthe)workattributedtohimtosubcontractors,leadingto

a cascade of processors. For information purposes, we provide some examples of

qualificationsascontrollerorprocessorintheadvertisingenvironment,737asmentioned

bytheArticle29WorkingPartyintheiropiniononappsonsmartdevices;738

735Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion1/2010ontheConceptsof“Controller”and“Processor”,WP169’(n734)5.736Foradetaileddiscussionontherolesandresponsibilitiesoftheactorsinvolvedinacloudcomputingenvironment,seeVanAlsenoy(n731)383–425.737Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)9–13.738Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730).

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Actor Potentialqualification

Appdevelopers Responsibleforthecreationoftheappand/ormakingitavailabletoendusers,

couldbequalifiedasdatacontrollerstotheextenttheydeterminepurposeand

means.

OS and device

manufacturers

Canbeconsideredascontrollersoreven,whererelevantjointcontrollersfor

anypersonaldata theyprocess fortheirownpurposes, suchas thesmooth

runningof thedevice, security etc.Thiswould includeuser generateddata

(such as user details at registration), data automatically generated by the

device (for example if the device has a ‘phone home’ functionality for its

whereabouts)orpersonaldataprocessedbytheOSordevicemanufacturer

resultingfromtheinstallationoruseofapps.

Appstore An app store records login credentials aswell as the history of previously

boughtapps.Italsoaskstheusertoprovideacreditcardnumberthatwillbe

storedwiththeaccountoftheuser.Theappstoreisthedatacontrollerfor

theseoperations.Onthecontrary,websitesthatallowthedownloadofanapp

tobeinstalledonthedevicewithoutanyauthenticationmayfindthattheyare

notprocessinganypersonaldata.

Thirdparties Third parties (such as analytics providers and communication service

providers) can qualify as data controllers or data processors. When they

purelyexecuteoperationsfortheappowner,forexampleprovideanalytics

withintheapp,theydon’tprocessdatafortheirownpurposesnorsharethese

datawithdevelopersandassuchqualifyasdataprocessor.Whenthey,onthe

otherhand,collectinformationacrossappstosupplyadditionalservicesuch

as analyse figures at a larger scale (app popularity, personalised

recommendation), they collect personal data for their own purpose and

qualifyasdatacontroller.

Metrics

provider

Acompanyprovidesmetricsforappownersandadvertisersthroughtheuse

oftrackersembedded,bytheappdeveloper,withinapps.Thetrackersofthe

companyarethereforeabletobeinstalledonmanyappsanddevices.Oneof

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itsservicesistoinformappdeveloperswhatotherappsareusedbyauser,

throughthecollectionofauniqueidentifier.Thecompanydefinesthemeans

(i.e.trackers)andpurposesofitstoolsbeforeofferingthemtoappdevelopers,

advertisersandothersandthereforeactsasadatacontroller

Table2:Controller-processorintheadvertisingchain(Source:Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onappsonsmartdevices).

CONTROLLER-PROCESSORRELATIONSHIP.UndertheDataProtectionDirective,processorswere

onlyindirectlyaccountableincaseofnon-compliancewiththedataprotectionrules.In

contrast, the GDPR contains a substantial number of provisions which are directly

relevanttoprocessors,imposingonthemarangeofobligationsandrenderingthemliable

towardsdatasubjects.739VANALSENOYunderlinesthatthisalsomeansthatprocessorsare

accountabletoregulatorsand,assuch,canbefinedincaseofnon-compliancewiththeir

obligationsundertheGDPR.Despitetheincreasedobligationsimposeduponprocessors

by the GDPR, the nature of the relationship between controllers and processors has

remained largely the same. The processor is essentially perceived as an agent of the

controller,whomayonlyprocesspersonaldatainaccordancewiththeinstructionsofthe

controller.740FurthermoreundertheGDPR,boththecontroller741andprocessor742may

beliablefornon-compliancewiththeirobligations.

DATASUBJECT.Asmentioned,thedatasubjectistheindividualtowhomthepersonaldata

relate.Thedatasubjectdoesnothavetobeidentified,butcanalsojustbe‘identifiable’

(i.e.,tobedetermined,takingintoaccount“allthemeanslikelyreasonablytobeusedeither

bythecontrollerorbyanyotherpersontoidentifythesaidperson”).743Importanttonote

isthatthedatasubjecthascertainrightswhichcanbeenforcedagainstthecontroller.

739ForanoverviewofallrelevantarticlesseeVanAlsenoy(n731)269.740VanAlsenoy(n731)270.741Article82(2)GDPRstatesthat“anycontrollerinvolvedinprocessingshallbeliableforthedamagecausedbyprocessingwhichinfringesthisRegulation.”742Article82(2)GDPRstatesthat“aprocessorshallbeliableforthedamagecausedbyprocessingonlywhereithasnotcompliedwithobligationsofthisRegulationspecificallydirectedtoprocessorsorwhereithasactedoutsideorcontrarytolawfulinstructionsofthecontroller.”743Recital26GDPR.

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1.2 Principlesfortheprocessingof(children’s)personaldata

DATAQUALITYPRINCIPLES.Thegeneralprinciplesregardingdataqualityasspecifiedbythe

GDPRneedtoberespectedwhenprocessingchildren’spersonaldata.Morespecifically,

personal data need to be processed in a fair, lawful and non-excessive manner for a

specific purpose and based upon legitimate grounds. The following table provides an

overviewoftherelevantprinciplesoftheGDPRandincludessomeelementsthathave

beeninterpretedbytheArticle29WorkingParty.

Principle Article Comment

Fair, lawful and

transparentprocessing

5 (1)(a)

GPDR

The personal data of children need to be processed

lawfully, fairly and in a transparent manner. Since

children’smaturityisstilldeveloping,thisprincipleneeds

tobeinterpretedstrictly.744

Purposelimitation 5(1)(b)

GDPR

Thedatacanonlybecollectedforspecified,explicitand

legitimatepurposesandnotfurtherprocessedinaway

incompatiblewiththeinitiallyspecifiedpurpose(s).

Dataminimisation 5 (1) (c)

GDPR

Onlyadequate,relevantandnon-excessivedatacanbe

collectedand/orfurtherprocessed.Thecollectingentity

needs to carefully consider which data are strictly

necessary to meet the goal or, for mobile apps for

example,thedesiredfunctionality.745

744Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(2009)7<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2009/wp160_en.pdf>accessed27November2017.745Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)17.

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Accuracy 5(1)(d)

GDPR

Personal datamust beaccurate and, where necessary,

keptuptodate.Everyreasonablestepmustbetakento

ensure that data are inaccurate or incomplete, having

regardtothepurposeforwhichtheywerecollectedorfor

whichtheyarefurtherprocessed,areerasedorrectified.

Inshort,onlydatanecessarytoreachthepurposecanbe

collected and these data should be kept updated. As

childrenareconstantlydeveloping,datacontrollersmust

payparticularattentiontothedutytokeeppersonaldata

up-to-date.746

Storagelimitation 5(1) (e)

GDPR

Whennolongernecessaryforthepurposesofcollection,

personaldatashouldeitherbedeletedorkeptinaform

which does not allow identification. This principle is

particularly important for children. As they are

developingalot,datarelatedtothemcouldveryquickly

change and become outdated, so that it becomes

irrelevant to the original purpose of collection. Such

informationshouldbedeleted.747

Integrity and

confidentiality

5 (1) (f)

GDPR

Personaldatamustbeprocessedinamannerthatensures

appropriate security, including protection against

unauthorised or unlawful processing and against

accidentalloss,destructionordamage,usingappropriate

technicalororganisationalmeasures.

746Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)7.747Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)8.

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Accountability 5 (2)

GDPR

The controller shall be responsible for, and be able to

demonstrate compliance with, paragraph 1

(‘accountability’).

Table3:PrinciplesasinterpretedbytheArticle29DataProtectionWorkingParty.Source:Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,Opinion2/2009ontheprotectionofchildren'spersonaldata(Generalguidelinesandthespecialcaseofschools).

1.3 SpecificprotectionsforchildrenundertheGDPR

COMPARISONWITHTHEDATAPROTECTIONDIRECTIVE.UndertheDataProtectionDirective748no

distinctionwasmade between children and adults. TheDirective did not contain any

child-specificprovisionsand,assuch,underthetermsoftheDirectivedatacontrollers

had to complywith the same set of legal requirements for processing personal data,

regardlessoftheageofthedatasubjects.However,inturndatasubjectscouldrelyonthe

samerightsandprinciples regardlessof theirage. In2006, theEuropeanCommission

launcheditsEUStrategyontheRightsoftheChild,749recognisingchildren’srightsasa

priorityacrossdifferentpolicydomains.In2009,theArticle29WorkingPartyissuedan

opinion on the protection of children’s personal data, referring explicitly to the 2006

Strategy. 750 In this opinion, general principles and guidelines for the processing of

children’s personal data are discussed (e.g. concerning consent). The Working Party

emphasisedthattheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldatarequiresextracareandshoud

beguidedbythebestinterestsofthechildprinciple.751Thisideahasbeenreiteratedin

other opinions, such as the one on smart devices, in which app developers are

748 For a detailed discussion of the processing of children’s personal data under the ‘old regime’, seeVerdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n612).749EuropeanCommission,‘TowardsanEUStrategyontheRightsoftheChild,COM(2006)367Final’(n273).750Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744).751AccordingtotheArticle29WorkingParty,achild’ssituationneedstobelookedatfromtwopointsofview,astaticandadynamicone.Morespecifically,“fromthestaticpointofview,achildisapersonwhohasnotyetachievedphysicalandpsychologicalmaturity.Fromadynamicperspective,achildisintheprocessofdevelopingphysicallyandmentallytobecomeanadult.”Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)4–5.

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recommendedtointerprettheprinciplesofdataminimisationandpurposelimitationin

a more stringent way when children are involved, 752 or in its opinion on online

behaviouraladvertisingwhichstatesthat“adnetworkprovidersshouldnotofferinterest

categoriesintendedtoservebehaviouraladvertisingorinfluencechildren”753.

SPECIFIC PROTECTION UNDER THE GDPR. The fact that children merit ‘specific protection’

regardingtheirpersonaldatahasnowbeenexplicitlyacknowledgedbytheEUlegislator

intheGDPR.Recital38GDPRexplainsthatchildrenarelessawareoftherisksandthe

potentialconsequencesoftheprocessingoftheirpersonaldataontheirrights.Moreover,

theGDPRrecognisesthattheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldatamayresultinrisksto

the rights and freedoms of natural persons. 754 Children merit specific protection

especiallywhentheirpersonaldataisusedformarketingpurposes,forthecreationof

profiles and for the collection of their data when using services offered directly to a

child.755TheGDPR refers to this specificprotection in several recitals and provisions,

sometimes explicitly and at other times more implicitly. The following subsections

containanoverviewofthenewelementsofthisprotectionintroducedbytheGDPRand

thepotentialconsequencesorissuesregardingtheirimplementationinpractice.

1.3.1 Definitionofachild

LACK OF A DEFINITION. First, it is important to note that the GDPR does not contain a

definitionof‘achild’.Asaresult,itisnotentirelyclearuntilwhatagechildrencanbenefit

fromthespecificprotectionthatisreferredtoinrecital38.Inits2009opinion,theArticle

29WorkingPartyrefersinthisregardtotherelevantinternationalinstruments,suchas

theUNCRC,indicatingthatachildshouldbeunderstoodasanypersonundertheageof

18years,unlessheorshehasacquiredlegaladulthoodbeforethatage.756Althoughthis

752Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)26.753Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2010onOnlineBehaviouralAdvertisingWP171’(2010)20<http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/privacy/index_en.htm>.754Recital75GDPR.755Recital38GDPR.756Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)3.

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interpretation was integrated in the initial proposal for a GDPR of the European

Commission,itdisappearedinthelaterEuropeanParliamentandCounciliterations.

EVOLVINGCAPACITIESOFTHECHILD.Duringthelegislativeprocessthebroadinterpretationof

children as under-18 gave rise to criticism, including from the US Department of

Commerce, which argued that it could have a negative impact on the rights of older

children(e.g.13or16to18yearolds,infra).757Yet,fromachildren’srightsperspective,

the exercise of the rights under the GDPR should not necessarily be the same for all

children.TheUNCRCreferstotheimportanceoftheevolvingcapacitiesofchildren,and

theirlevelofmaturity,inexercisingtheirrights.758TheArticle29WorkingPartystressed

inthisregardthattheexerciseofchildren’srightsshouldbeadaptedtotheleveloftheir

physicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.759

1.3.2 Theagethresholdforconsent760

ARTICLE8GDPR.Notwithstandingthepossibilityforthedatacontrollertorelyincertain

circumstancesonotherlegitimategroundsforprocessing(e.g.legitimateinterestofthe

controller,necessary for theperformanceof a contract),761theGDPR is fundamentally

builtonthenotionof the informeddatasubject,whoagrees ina freelygiven,specific,

informedandunambiguousmanner762tohavinghisorherpersonaldataprocessed.As

such,theGDPRisunderpinnedbytheideathatatransparentandsimpleexplanationof

the purpose(s) of the processing of personal data allows a data subject to make an

informeddecision.763Itseemsobviousthat thisprocess ismorecomplex inrelationto

757MontgomeryandChester(n483)289.758Article5(i.e.evolvingcapacitiesofthechild)andarticle12(i.e.therighttobeheardinaccordancewiththeageandmaturityofthechild)UNCRC.759TheArticle29WorkingPartyexplicitlyreferstotherighttodevelopmentofthechildinthiscontext,laiddowninarticle6UNCRC.760Foranextensiveanalysisofthisissue,cf.M.MacenaiteandE.Kosta,‘ConsentforProcessingChildren’sPersonalDataintheEU:FollowinginUSFootsteps?’(2017)26Information&CommunicationsTechnologyLaw146;vanderHof(n93).761Article6GDPR.762Cf.thedefinitionofconsentinrecital32GDPRandarticle4(11)GDPR.763B.J.Koops,‘TheTroublewithEuropeanDataProtectionLaw.’[2014]InternationalDataPrivacyLaw3;N. Fisk, ‘The Limits of Parental Consent in an Algorithmic World.’

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children. The GDPR does recognise this and has introduced specific ‘protection’ for

childreninarticle8,whichdefinestheconditionsforconsentasalegitimategroundfor

processingchildren’spersonaldata.764

INFORMATIONSOCIETYSERVICE.Article8isbyfarthemostdebatedprovisionoftheGDPRin

relationtochildren.Thearticlestatesthat,inrelationtotheofferof‘informationsociety

services’ ‘directly to a child’ and when the data controller relies on consent as a

legitimationground,theprocessingofachild’spersonaldatashallonlybelawfulifthe

child is at least 16 years old.765If the child is younger, parental consent needs to be

obtained.Afirstessentialquestionthatarisesiswhichservicesfallwithinthescopeof

thisarticle.Informationsocietyservicesaredefinedas“anyservicenormallyprovidedfor

remuneration,atadistance,byelectronicmeansandattheindividualrequestofarecipient

ofservices.”766Suchservicesdonotnecessarilyrequirepaymentbytheusersthemselves.

Ithasbeenestablishedthatservices financedbyadvertisingwouldalso fallunderthis

definition (i.e. the alleged ‘free’ services such as social media, search engines, news

portals,etc.).767However,itislessclearwhetheronlineservicesforchildrenprovidedby,

<http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/mediapolicyproject/2016/11/28/the-limits-of-parental-consent-in- an-algorithmic-world/>.764Notethatthethirdparagraphofarticle8GDPRemphasisesthatthefirstparagraph,inrelationtotheserequirementsforconsent,“shallnotaffectthegeneralcontractlawofMemberStatessuchastherulesonthevalidity,formationoreffectofacontractinrelationtoachild”.Itremainsunclearatpresentwhattheactualimpactofthisparticularparagraphwillbeinpractice.765Notethat intheCommissionProposaltheagethresholdwassetat13;formoreinformation:see K.McCullagh,‘TheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation:APartialSuccessforChildrenonSocialNetworkSites?’inT.BräutigamandS.Miettinen(eds),Dataprotection,privacyandEuropeanregulationinthedigitalage(Unigrafia 2016) <https://ueaeprints.uea.ac.uk/61415/4/Mc_Cullagh_2016_book_chapter_SNS.pdf>accessed26July2018.766Article4(25)GDPRrefersto‘informationsocietyservice’as“aserviceasdefinedinpoint(b)ofArticle1(1)ofDirective(EU)2015/1535oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncil”.767 In its Guidelines on Consent, the Article 29Working Party clarifies that “Where a service has twoeconomicallyindependentcomponents,onebeingtheonlinecomponent,suchastheofferandtheacceptanceofanofferinthecontextoftheconclusionofacontractortheinformationrelatingtoproductsorservices,including marketing activities, this component is defined as an information society service, the othercomponentbeingthephysicaldeliveryordistributionofgoodsisnotcoveredbythenotionofaninformationsociety service.” Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, ‘Guidelines on Consent under Regulation2016/679’ 24 <http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/article29/item-detail.cfm?item_id=623051> accessed27July2018.

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forexample,non-profitoreducationalorganisationswouldorcouldincertainsituations

fallwithinthescopeofarticle8.768

DIRECTLY OFFERED TO A CHILD. Second, it is unclearwhat ismeant by a service ‘directly

offeredtoachild’.IsthislimitedtoservicessuchasYouTubeKids,forinstance,whichare

targetedatchildren,ordoesthisincludeallservicesthatareactuallyusedbychildrenon

aregularbasis?Inthisregard,theArticle29DataProtectionWorkingPartyhasclarified

that

“ifaninformationsocietyserviceprovidermakesitcleartopotentialusersthatitisonly

offering its service to persons aged 18 or over, and this is not undermined by other

evidence(suchasthecontentofthesiteormarketingplans)thentheservicewillnotbe

consideredtobe‘offereddirectlytoachild’andArticle8willnotapply”.769

THEMARGINOFDISCRETIONCONCERNINGTHEAGETHRESHOLD.Article8doesallowMemberStates

tolowertheagethresholdof16yearstoaminimumof13years.IfMemberStatesuse

this option, it would mean that in practice different age thresholds would apply

throughouttheEuropeanUnion.Thisentailsthatcompaniesprovidingonlineservicesin

differentMemberStateswillhavetorespectdifferentrulesacrosstheEuropeanUnion,

requiringextraeffortsandinvestments,inparticularforsmallerplayers.Theextentto

which thiswill be necessary depends onwhetherMember Stateswill require service

providerstocomplywiththeagethresholddeterminedinthecountryinwhichtheyare

establishedorinthecountrywheretheirusersreside.770Asidefromthisdiscussion,itis

768MacenaiteandKosta(n760).769Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘GuidelinesonConsentunderRegulation2016/679’(n767)25.770ThefirstoptionentailsthatacompanyestablishedinMemberStateAbutofferingitsservicesinMemberStateBwillneedtocomplywiththeagelimitoftheformer.Exceptionscouldbemadeiftheestablishmentissolelymadeforcircumventingthisrule.AsecondoptionimpliesthatforservicesofferedwithinMemberStateBtheagethresholdofthatMemberStatewillapplyregardlessofwhethertheproviderisestablishedin Member State A. Perhaps, other criteria might be considered as well. This question of privateinternational law is being discussed in a group of experts of the Member States; cf.http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetail&groupID=3461 andI.Milkaiteandothers,‘RoundtableReport:TheGeneralDataProtectionRegulationandChildren’sRights:QuestionsandAnswersforLegislators,DPAs,Industry,Education,StakeholdersandCivilSociety’(2017)<https://www.betterinternetforkids.eu/web/portal/practice/awareness/detail?articleId=2018677>accessed26July2018.Furthermore,theArticle29WorkingPartyencouragestheMemberStatestochose

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importanttonotethatmanyoftheseproviders(also)haveestablishmentsintheUnited

States, where their services are subject to the rules of the Children’s Online Privacy

Protection Act (COPPA). 771 COPPA requires that websites and services that are

specificallytargetedatchildrenorserviceproviderswhoreasonablyshouldknowthat

theyarecollectingpersonaldataofchildrenunder13,obtainpriorparentalconsent.In

viewof the implementation of theGDPR, national (draft) implementing acts, national

consultations and guidance documents by the data protection authorities have been

publishedinthedifferentMemberStates.Fromthesedocuments,itcanbeconcludedthat

theimplementationofarticle8isfragmentedacrosstheEU,andthatalltheoptionsfor

theagelimit(i.e.13772,14773,15774and16775yearsold)havebeenchosenbyatleastone

MemberState.776

CONSIDERATIONSONTHEAGETHRESHOLDFROMDIFFERENTFIELDSOFSTUDY.Theimplementation

ofarticle8andthesettingofagethresholdshasbeendiscussedbyscholarsofdifferent

fieldsofstudy.First,socialsciencestudieshaveshownthatchildrengraduallybecome

‘medialiterate’and‘commerciallyliterate’astheyageandbecomemoremature(between

the ages of 12 and 15 years). 777 As children grow older, research indicates that

establishinganagethresholdthatistoohighcouldencourageyoungsterstocircumvent

protectionmechanisms such as age-gating systems, considering the important role of

online platforms in their lives (e.g. to communicate with their friends, express their

for a harmonised approach. Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, ‘Guidelines on Consent underRegulation2016/679’(n767)25.771Children’sOnlinePrivacyProtectionActof1998,15U.S.C.6501-6505.772Forexample:Belgium,Denmark,Latvia,Estonia,Finland,etc.773Forexample:Austria,Bulgaria,Cyprus.774Forexample:CzechRepublic,France,Greece,Slovenia.775Forexample:Croatia,Germany,Hungary,Ireland,etc.776Foranup-to-dateoverviewofthenationaldecisionsconcerningtheimplementationofarticle8oftheGDPRseeI.MilkaiteandE.Lievens,‘GDPR:UpdatedStateofPlayoftheAgeofConsentacrosstheEU,June2018’<https://www.betterinternetforkids.eu/web/portal/practice/awareness/detail?articleId=3017751>accessed31August2018.777LivingstoneandOlafsson(n357).

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creativityandaccessinformation).778Anothercrucialconcernthatisrelatedtotheage

threshold and the requirement to obtain parental consent is related to the fact that

companiesmightstopofferingtheirservicestochildrenunderthethreshold.Ifchildren

areexcludedfrominformationsocietyservicesthatmattertothem,theywillbedenied

importantparticipationrights,779suchas theright to freedomofexpression780andthe

righttofreedomofassembly.781Finally,thereisariskthatadolescents-i.e.minorsabove

the established age threshold - are forgotten. This group of youngsters are equally

awarded universal children’s rights such as the right to privacy and freedom of

expression.Consideringtheimmensepopularityofsocialnetworkingservicesandmobile

applications amongst this age group, as well as the sometimes-associated privacy-

intrusivepractices,ithasbeenarguedbyMONTGOMERYandCHESTERthatguidelinesanda

policyonanappropriatelevelofprotectionforadolescentsshouldalsobedeveloped.782

Moreover,onlineserviceprovidersshould,asidefromthespecificrequirementsofarticle

8,stilltakeintoaccountotherprovisionsintheGDPRthatarerelevantforall‘children’

(hence all under-18s), such as the necessity for transparent and ‘child-friendly’

informationaboutdatacollectionandprocessing(infra).Inanycase,itisessentialthat

legislatorscarefullybalanceanydecisioninthiscontextandadoptanagethresholdthat

recognisestherealityofchildren’sdailydigitallives.

778AccordingtoLIVINGSTONE,researchhasdemonstratedthebenefitsofformallyincludingmediaeducationintotheschoolcurriculumofchildrenandyoungsters.Thegapinthelevelofcommercialliteracybetween13to16-year-oldscouldbereducedbyextendingmediaeducationtoallchildren,inparticularfromtheageof11,ifnotearlier,tolearnthemtocriticallyreflectonandcopewithinthecommercialdigitalenvironment,withouttheneedforaparentalconsentrequirement.LivingstoneandOlafsson(n357);McCullagh(n765).779Inthisregard,VANDERHofmentionsthat“allowingchildrentodeveloptheircapacitiesbyhavingtheirownspaceinwhichtoenjoytheirrightsandfreedomscreatesmoreandmoreopportunitiesforparticipationinsociallife.”{Citation}780Article12UNCRC.781Article17UNCRC.782MontgomeryandChester(n483)291.

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1.3.3 Verification

THE REQUIREMENT OF VERIFICATION. If a data controller relies on consent as a legitimate

groundforprocessingpersonaldataofchildrenundertheagethresholdinthecontextof

theservicesmentionedabove,thecontroller:

“shall make reasonable efforts to verify in such cases that consent is given or

authorised by the holder of parental responsibility over the child, taking into

considerationavailabletechnology”783(emphasisadded).

EventhoughtheGDPRexplicitlyintroducestheconceptofverification,article8doesnot

includecriteriatoassesswhatconstitutes‘verifiableconsent’ora‘reasonableeffort’.The

Belgian DPA stresses that this does not imply a ‘commitment of result’ for the data

controller.784Furthermore, it is not entirely clearwhat ismeantwith consent that “is

authorised” instead of given.785Questions also arise as towhether the data controller

needs to obtain ‘fresh’ consent for existing data processing practices concerning

children’s personal data, (1) if the prior obtained consent does not fulfil the GDPR-

standard786or (2)when the child reaches theageof consent.787Additionally, it can be

questionedwhethertheverificationrequirementalsonecessitatesageverification.The

Article 29Working Party in its 2018 Guidelines on Consent clarified that controllers

783Article8,para.2GDPR.784 Gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit, ‘De Versterkte Toestemming’<https://www.gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit.be/de-versterkte-toestemming>accessed27July2018.785Forinstance,inFrancethishasledtotheadoptionofaprovisionrequiringjointconsent(i.e.minorandparents)fortheprocessingofaminor’spersonaldata,iftheminorisundertheagethreshold(inFrancethisis15years).MILKAITEandLIEVENSpointoutthat“thisisaveryspecificprovisionwhichisnotfoundinothernationalimplementationlawsanditremainstobeseenhowexactlyitwillbeimplementedinpractice.”I.MilkaiteandE.Lievens, ‘GDPR:UpdatedStateofPlayoftheAgeofConsentacrosstheEU,June2018’<https://www.betterinternetforkids.eu/web/portal/practice/awareness/detail?articleId=3017751>accessed31August2018.786Recital171GDPRprovidesinthisregardthat“toallowthecontrollertocontinuesuchprocessingafterthedateofapplicationofthisRegulation,itisnotnecessaryforthedatasubjecttogivehisorherconsentagainifthemannerinwhichtheconsenthasbeengivenisinlinewiththeconditionsofthisRegulation”.(Emphasisadded).787Inthisregard,theArticle29WorkingPartyprovidedthat“iftheprocessingofachild’sdatabeganwiththeconsentoftheirlegalrepresentative,thechildconcernedmay,onattainingmajority,revoketheconsent.Butifhewishestheprocessingtocontinue,itseemsthatthedatasubjectneedgiveexplicitconsentwhereverthisisrequired.”Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)5.

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providinginformationsocietyservicestochildrenonthebasisofconsenthavetomake

reasonable efforts to verify whether the user is over the age of digital consent.

Importantly,“ifachildgivesconsentwhilenotoldenoughtoprovidevalidconsentontheir

own behalf, then this will render the processing of data unlawful.” 788 The verification

measuresneedtobeproportionatetothenatureandrisksoftheprocessingactivities.789

INSPIRATIONFROMCOPPA.Interestingtonoteisthatarticle40,para2(g)GDPRreferstothe

possibilityofdraftingcodesofconductonthemannerinwhichparentalconsentistobe

obtained. Inspirationcanbe found intheUnitedStates.TheCOPPARuleprovidesthat

parentalconsentcanbeobtainedbyanymeans,ifthemethodcanreasonablyensurethat

the person providing consent is the parent of the child. Additionally, the COPPARule

contains several non-exhaustive options fromwhich companies can select.790The list

mentionsinteraliathe‘print-and-send’method,bywhichparentscansignaconsentform

andsenditbacktothecontroller;theuseofacreditcardorotheronlinepayingsystem;

mechanismswhereparentscancallafreetelephonenumberorsetupavideo-conference

withspeciallytrainedpersonnel.Selectinganappropriatemethodshouldbedoneona

case-by-casebasis.Forinstance,differentmethodsarerecommendedwhencompanies

sharechildren’spersonaldatawiththirdpartiesorifchildrenpublishthedatathemselves

788Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘GuidelinesonConsentunderRegulation2016/679’(n767)25.789TheWP29alsoprovidesanexampleinitsguidelines:“Anonlinegamingplatformwantstomakesureunderagecustomersonlysubscribetoitsserviceswiththeconsentoftheirparentsorguardians.Thecontrollerfollowsthesesteps:

Step1:asktheusertostatewhethertheyareunderorovertheageof16(oralternativeageofdigitalconsent)Iftheuserstatesthattheyareundertheageofdigitalconsent:

Step2:serviceinformsthechildthataparentorguardianneedstoconsentorauthorisetheprocessingbeforetheserviceisprovidedtothechild.Theuserisrequestedtodisclosetheemailaddressofaparentorguardian.

Step3:servicecontactstheparentorguardianandobtainstheirconsentviaemailforprocessingandtakereasonablestepstoconfirmthattheadulthasparentalresponsibility.

Step4:incaseofcomplaints,theplatformtakesadditionalstepstoverifytheageofthesubscriber.

Iftheplatformhasmettheotherconsentrequirements,theplatformcancomplywiththeadditionalcriteriaofArticle8GDPRbyfollowingthesesteps.”Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘GuidelinesonConsentunderRegulation2016/679’(n767)26.790FederalTradeCommission,‘ComplyingwithCOPPA:FrequentlyAskedQuestions-AGuideforBusinessand Parents and Small Entity Compliance Guide.’ (Federal Trade Commission, 20 March 2015)<https://www.ftc.gov/tips-advice/business-center/guidance/complying-coppa-frequently-asked-questions>accessed26July2018.

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(e.g. on social media, online fora), 791 than when the data is only used for internal

purposes.792Inadditiontothelistedmethods,companiesthatdevelopnewverification

mechanismscanapplytotheFederalTradeCommissiontohavethempre-approved.793

1.3.4 Transparentinformation

INFORMATIONOBLIGATION.Considering the focuson specific and informedconsent in the

GDPR, the data controller’s information obligation forms a crucial part of the specific

protectionthatchildrenmerit.Forconsenttobevaliditshouldbegivenfreelyandinan

informed manner. The consent requirement thus goes hand in hand with the data

subject’srighttobeinformed.Article12GDPRdeterminesthatusersshouldbeprovided

with information concerning the processing of their personal data “in a concise,

transparent,intelligibleandeasilyaccessibleform,usingclearandplainlanguage”.Recital

58clarifiesthat,whenprovidedtochildren,theinformationshouldbeformulatedin“such

aclearandplainlanguagethatthechildcaneasilyunderstand”.Themannerinwhichthis

shouldbedoneinpracticecanbedeterminedbymeansofacodeofconduct(article40

para2(g)GDPR).

EVIDENCE-BASED APPROACH. Furthermore, research insights into effective provision of

informationtousersorconsumerscanbeusefulinthisregard.HELBERGER,forinstance,

warnsthatprovidinginformationtousersdoesnotautomaticallyleadtoinformedusers.

Theprocessofprovidinginformationtouserswillonlyempowerthemifthishappensin

anefficientandeffectiveway.794This isevenmoresowhenchildrenareconcerned. It

requiresaspecialefforttomakeinformationattractiveandunderstandabletochildrenof

differentages,forexamplebyvisualisationorproducingshortvideoclips.Inthiscontext,

791FederalTradeCommission(n790).792Includingthemethodsmentionedabove,butalsotheso-called‘e-mailplusmethod’,wherefirsttheemailaddressoftheparentisaskedandafteracertainperiodaconfirmationemailissend.793Forinstancein2015,anewmethodwasapprovedbytheFTC,whichmakesuseofphotographsandfacial recognition technology (“FaceMatch to Verified Photo Identification”, or FMVPI). Federal TradeCommission, ‘FTCGrantsApproval forNewCOPPAVerifiableParentalConsentMethod’ (FederalTradeCommission,19November2015)<https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2015/11/ftc-grants-approval-new-coppa-verifiable-parental-consent-method>accessed26July2018.794N.Helberger, ‘FormMatters:InformingConsumersEffectively-(StudyCommissionedbyBEUC)’5–8<http://www.beuc.eu/publications/x2013_089_upa_form_matters_september_2013.pdf.> accessed 26July2018.

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co-creationmethodswheredesigners, lawyersandchildrenwork together tosimplify

informationcouldbeuseful.795

THE ARTICLE 29 WORKING PARTY RECOMMENDATIONS. The Article 29 Working Party has

recommendedtheuseoflayered-notices,offeringadualsystemconsistingof(1)ashorter

notice, containing the basic information to be providedwhen collecting personal data

eitherdirectlyfromthedatasubjectorfromathirdparty,accompaniedbya(2)more

detailednotice,preferablyviaahyperlink,whereallrelevantdetailsareprovidedwhich

arenecessarytoensureafairprocessing.796Ofcourse,thenoticeneedstobepostedin

therightplaceandattherighttime(i.e.theyshouldappeardirectlyonthescreen,prior

tothecollectionofinformation).Theuseoflayerednoticesmaybeevenmoreappropriate

inthecaseofmobileapps,giventhesizeofthescreenofmobiledevices.Withregardto

mobileapps,theArticle29WorkingPartyrecommendstoprovideaclearoverviewofthe

collecteddataand,evenfurther,requestagranularconsentforeachtypeofdatawhichis

inparticularaccessedbymobileapps.797Theuseofcookiesalwaysrequiresadditional

textandconsent(seealsoarticle5(3)ePrivacyDirective,infra).Usersneedtobeableto

accessallnecessaryinformationaboutthedifferenttypesorpurposesofcookiesbeing

usedbythewebsiteorapp,thequalificationasafirstorthirdpartycookieandtheexpiry

date.Thiscouldbeachievedforexample,byprominentlydisplayingalinktoadesignated

locationwhereallthetypesofcookiesusedbythewebsitearepresented.798

795E.Wauters,V.DonosoandE.Lievens, ‘OptimizingTransparencyforUsersinSocialNetworkingSites’(2014)16info8.796Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2009ontheProtectionofChildren’sPersonalData(GeneralGuidelinesandtheSpecialCaseofSchools).WP160.’(n744)10;Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion10/2004onMoreHarmonisedInformationProvisions,WP100’8–9<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2004/wp100_en.pdf>accessed27July2018;Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘GuidelinesonTransparencyunderRegulation2016/679,Wp260’<http://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/article29/document.cfm?action=display&doc_id=51025>accessed31August2018.797Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)27.798Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)3–4.

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1.3.5 Directmarketing

DIRECTMARKETINGASALEGITIMATEGROUNDFORPROCESSING?Recital38emphasises that the

processingofpersonaldataofchildrenformarketingpurposesmeritsspecificprotection.

Article21statesthatdatasubjectshavetherighttoobjectatanytimetoprocessingof

their personal data for direct marketing. Yet, according to recital 47 GDPR, direct

marketingmay constitute a legitimate interest of the controller under theGDPR, and

henceofferalegitimationgroundotherthantheconsentofthedatasubject.799Whenthis

ground isreliedupon, thecontrollermustbalance itsownlegitimate interestwiththe

interests or the fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject, taking into

consideration the reasonableexpectationsofdata subjectsbasedon their relationship

withthecontroller.800Whenthedatasubjectsarechildren,article6,1)(f)GDPRindicates

that the interests of children may override the interests of the data controller more

easily.801Hence,whenthislegitimationgroundisusedinrelationtochildren’spersonal

data,itmustbeassumedthataheavierresponsibilityisimposedonthedatacontroller.

Yet,howdatacontrollersmustundertakethisbalancingexerciseinpracticeremainsa

sourceoflegaluncertainty.

1.3.6 Profiling

THECONCEPT.Children’sactivitiesinthedigitalenvironmentrevealasignificantamountof

informationontheir lives,personal interestsandpreferences.Given today’s advanced

technologiesandhugestoragecapacitiesthisinformationcanbecontinuouslycollected,

799Recital 47GDPR: “The processing of personal data fordirectmarketing purposesmaybe regarded ascarriedoutforalegitimateinterest”.Yet,accordingtotheBelgianPrivacyCommissionobtainingconsentofthe data subject isabestpractice, in the light of informational self-determination. Achieving abalancebetweenthelegitimateinterestofthecontrollerandinterestsorfundamentalrightsandfreedomsofthedatasubjectisverydifficultinpractice;whenthebalanceislost,theprocessingwillneedtobediscontinued.Gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit, ‘Aanbeveling Nr 02/2013 van 30 Januari 2013 Betreffende DirectMarketing En Bescherming van Persoonsgegevens [Recommendation No. 02/2013 of 30 January 2013RegardingDirectMarkingandtheProtectionofPersonalData]’12.800Recital47GDPR.Thisbalancingexercisemustbeundertakencontinuously,andassoonastheinterestsofthecontrollerdonolongeroutweightheinterestsofthedatasubjecttheprocessingmustbestopped:Gegevensbeschermingsautoriteit(n799)13–15.801Article 6, 1) (f) GDPR states that as a final legitimation ground that “processing is necessary for thepurposesofthelegitimateinterestspursuedbythecontrollerorbyathirdparty,exceptwheresuchinterestsare overridden by the interests or fundamental rights and freedoms of the data subject which requireprotectionofpersonaldata,inparticularwherethedatasubjectisachild”.Emphasisaddedbytheauthors.

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processedandstored indetailedprofiles, for instancebydeploying cookiesandother

trackingtools.802Suchprofilescanbeappliedtocategoriseindividualsandpredicttheir

preferencesorfuturebehaviourbasedonstatisticalmethods.803Inthisway,profilesare

very valuable to online service providers aswell as to third parties (e.g. advertising

networks) who will be able to offer targeted advertising to children or take other

decisions in related to those children with specific profiles.804This is a complex and

largelyopaqueor‘invisible’805processwhichisverydifficulttounderstandforchildren

(oradultsforthatmatter).

PROVISIONSANDRECITALSONPROFILING.MuchattentionisdevotedtoprofilingintheGDPR.806

Thenotionisdefinedinarticle4(4)as:

“anyformofautomatedprocessingofpersonaldataconsistingoftheuseofpersonal

datatoevaluatecertainpersonalaspectsrelatingtoanaturalperson,inparticular

toanalyseorpredictaspectsconcerningthatnaturalperson'sperformanceatwork,

economic situation, health, personal preferences, interests, reliability, behaviour,

locationormovements”.807

Recital75GDPRfindsthatprocessingofpersonaldata“inordertocreateorusepersonal

profiles” may give rise to risks to the rights and freedoms of natural persons.808The

802 F. J. Zuiderveen Borgesius, ‘Improving Privacy Protection in the Area of Behavioural Targeting’(UniversityofAmsterdamIViR2015);Kosta (n95).Recital30GDPRalsomentions theuseof internetprotocoladdressesorotheridentifierssuchasradiofrequencyidentificationtags,“leavingtraceswhich,inparticularwhencombinedwithuniqueidentifiersandotherinformationreceivedbytheservers,maybeusedtocreateprofilesofthenaturalpersons”.803CouncilofEurope,‘RecommendationCM/Rec(2010)13ontheProtectionofIndividualswithRegardtoAutomatic Processing of Personal Data in the Context of Profiling’ <https://rm.coe.int/16807096c3>accessed27July2018.804Y.Poullet,‘E-YouthbeforeItsJudges–LegalProtectionofMinorsinCyberspace’(2011)27ComputerLaw&SecurityReview6,11.Anexampleofadecisionormeasurevis-à-visachildinthecommercialsphereisadaptingthepriceofaspecificproductorservice,basedontheconsumerprofileofthechild.805 See the work of E. KEYMOLEN, who has coined the notion ‘invisible visibility’ in relation to onlineinteractions: E. Keymolen, ‘Onzichtbare Zichtbaarheid. Helmuth Plessner Ontmoet Profiling’ (2006);Keymolen(n478).806Theword‘profiling’appears21timesintheGDPR.807Emphasisaddedbytheauthor.ForasimilardefinitionseealsoCouncilofEurope, ‘TheProtectionofIndividualswithRegardtoAutomaticProcessingofPersonalDataintheContextofProfiling’(n803).808Recital75GDPRunderlinesthattheprocessingofpersonaldatamayresultinarisktotherightsandfreedomsofnaturalpersons,inparticular“[…]wherepersonalaspectsareevaluated,inparticularanalysing

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preambleoftheGDPRprovidesatwofoldprotectionforchildreninrelationtoprofiling.

First,circumstancesinwhichpersonaldataofchildrenareprocessedinordertocreate

personaloruserprofilesareexplicitly acknowledgedas requiringextraprotection.809

Second,accordingtorecital71,adecisionthatmayincludeameasureevaluatingpersonal

aspectsrelatingtoadatasubjectthatisbasedsolelyonautomatedprocessingshouldnot

concernchildren.810However,thisisonlyprohibitedasfarasadecisionproduceslegal

effectsfororsimilarlysignificantlyaffectsthechild.811Contrarytoearlierinterpretations

ofthisrecital,812theGDPRdoesnotprohibitthesolecreationofpersonaloruserprofiles

ofchildren.Thispointofviewisalsounderpinnedbythedebatesintheprocessofthe

dataprotectionreform,duringwhichvariousMemberStatesobservedthatprofilingisa

typeor formof automatedprocessing thatdoesnotnecessarily result in the takingof

decisions or measures that produce legal effects or similarly affect data subjects. 813

Moreover,initsrecentguidelinesonautomatedindividualdecision-makingandprofiling,

the Article 29 Working Party confirms that there is no absolute prohibition on the

profiling814ofchildrenintheGDPR.815Indeed,theWorkingPartyrecognisesthatunder

orpredictingaspectsconcerningperformanceatwork,economicsituation,health,personalpreferencesorinterests,reliabilityorbehaviour,locationormovements,inordertocreateorusepersonalprofiles”(emphasisadded).809Recital38GDPR.810Recital71,firstparagraph,finalsentenceGDPR.811Recital71,firstparagraph,finalsentenceGDPR.812Seeforinstance:S.vanderHof,‘NoChild’sPlay:OnlineDataProtectionforChildren’inS.vanderHof,B.vandenBergandB.Schermer(eds),MindingMinorsWanderingtheWeb:RegulatingOnlineChildSafety(TMCAsserPress,TheHague2014)137<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-6265-005-3_7>accessed27July2018;Macenaite(n709)7.813 Council of the European Union, ‘Presidency Note Concerning Profiling. Interinstitutional File:2012/01(COD)’ 5<http://register.consilium.europa.eu/doc/srv?l=EN&f=ST%2010617%202014%20INIT>accessed27July2018.814TheICOexplaineditwell,byclarifyingthat“therulesinArticle22oftheGDPRrelatetosolelyautomateddecisions(whichcanincludeprofiling)ratherthantotheprocessofprofilinginitself”.ICO,‘WhatIfWeWanttoProfileChildrenorMakeAutomatedDecisionsaboutThem?’ (25May2018)<https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/children-and-the-gdpr/what-if-we-want-to-profile-children-or-make-automated-decisions-about-them/>accessed30July2018.815However,theWorkingPartyrecommendsdatacontrollersnottorelyupontheexceptionsinArticle22(2)GDPR to justify suchprofiling (i.e. necessary for the performance of a contract, authorised by law,consentofthedatasubject).Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘GuidelinesonAutomatedIndividualDecision-MakingandProfilingforthePurposesofRegulation2016/679’(2017).

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certain circumstances itmay be necessary for controllers to carry out such decision-

making, for instance to protect children’swelfare.816In contrast to the preamble, the

general‘profilingarticle’–article22GDPR–doesnotmentionanythinginrelationtothe

specificprotectionthatchildrendeserve.817

PROFILINGFORDIRECTMARKETINGPURPOSES.Finally,specificrulesexistinrelationtoprofiling

fordirectmarketingpurposes.Datasubjects,includingchildren,havetherighttoobject

at any time toprofiling to theextent that it is related todirectmarketing.818Thedata

controllerneedsclearlyandexplicitlytoinformthedatasubjectofthisright.819

1.3.7 Righttoerasure(‘righttobeforgotten’)

THERIGHTTOERASURE.Inadditiontotheprotectionmeasuresdescribedabove,theGDPR

confirmsdatasubjects’righttoerasureofpersonaldata.Recital65GDPRclarifiesthat

thisrightisparticularlyrelevantforchildrenthathavegiventheirconsentnotbeingfully

awareof therisks involvedbytheprocessing,andwho laterwanttoremovepersonal

data,especiallywhenbeingmadepublicontheinternet.Accordingtoarticle17GDPR,

thisrightentails thatdatasubjectsmayrequiretheerasureofpersonaldatawhenno

longernecessaryforthepurposesforwhichtheyhavebeencollected;whenconsentis

withdrawnortheyobjecttotheprocessing;whentheprocessingisunlawful;whenthe

personal data have to be erased for compliance with a legal obligation; or when the

personaldatahavebeencollected inrelationtothedirectofferof informationsociety

servicestoachild.820Yet,therighttoerasureisnotabsolute.Whenconsideringwhether

816Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty, ‘GuidelinesonAutomatedIndividualDecision-MakingandProfilingforthePurposesofRegulation2016/679’(n815).817Earliercase-lawoftheCourtofJusticeoftheEuropeanUnion(CJEU)hasshownthatrecitalsfromthepreamblemustbeusedtointerpretprovisionsinthelegislation,andthatcourtsmayrelyuponthemtoexercisetheirsupervisorytasks.Arecital,however,cannotbeusedasagroundtodeviatefromaprovisionofadirectiveorregulation.SeePMoskofAEvEthnikosOrganismosKapnou[1997]CJEUC-244/95,ECRI-06441;L.HumphreysandC.Santos,‘MappingRecitalstoNormativeProvisionsinEULegislationtoAssistLegalInterpretation’<http://icr.uni.lu/leonvandertorre/papers/jurix2015.pdf>accessed27July2018.818Recital70andArticle21,(2)GDPR.819Recital70GDPR.820Article17GDPR.

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arequestshouldbegrantedotherinterests,suchastherighttofreedomofexpression

andinformation,andthepublicinterest,mustbetakenintoaccount.821

1.4 Otherprovisionswithapotentialimpactonchildren

DATAPROTECTIONBYDESIGNANDBYDEFAULT.Furthermore,theGDPRcontainsanumberof

provisionsandrecitalsthatcouldprovetobeofparticularimportancefromachildren’s

rightsperspective.Thefirsttwoprovisionscanbeframedwithintheresponsibilitiesof

datacontrollers.First,article25GDPRexplicitlyreferstotheprinciplesofdataprotection

bydesignanddataprotectionbydefault.Itstatesthatdatacontrollersshouldimplement

appropriatetechnicalandorganisationalmeasurestointegratenecessarysafeguardsand

protecttherightsofdatasubjectsandtoensurethat,bydefault,onlypersonaldatathat

arenecessaryforeachspecificpurposeoftheprocessingareprocessed.Assessingwhich

measuresresult inanappropriate levelofprotectionshouldhappenonacase-by-case

basis,takingintoaccount“thestateoftheart,thecostofimplementationandthenature,

scope, context and purposes of processing as well as the risks of varying likelihood and

severity for rights and freedoms of natural persons posed by the processing”. 822 This

provisionoffersthedatacontrollerthepossibilitytobuildaspecificlevelofprotection

forchildrenintothetechnologyortheofferofservices,ortousedifferentdefaultsettings

forchildren.823

DATAPROTECTIONIMPACTASSESSMENT.Inaddition,theGDPRalsoincludesanobligationfor

datacontrollerstoassesstheimpactofprocessingoperationsthatarelikelytoresultina

highrisktotherightsandfreedomsofdatasubjects,priortotheprocessing(i.e.a‘data

protectionimpactassessment’;DPIA).824Recital91statesforinstancethataDPIAmust

becarriedoutwhenpersonaldataareprocessedfortakingdecisionsregardingspecific

naturalpersonsbasedonprofiling.Theprocessingofpersonalofdataofchildrenisnot

821Article17,para3GDPR.822Recital83GDPR.823 S. van der Hof and E. Lievens, ‘The Importance of Privacy by Design and Data Protection ImpactAssessments in Strengthening Protection of Children’s Personal Data under the GDPR’ (2018) 23CommunicationsLaw33.824Article35GDPR.

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explicitlymentionedasaprocessingactivitythatcarriesahighrisk,825butinthelightof

recital38,itcouldbeconsideredagoodpracticetocarryoutaDPIAinsuchcases.When

undertakingaDPIAadata controllershouldadopta children’s rightsperspective that

takesintoaccountthefullrangeofchildren’srightsatstakeaswellasthebestinterests

ofthechild.826

AWARENESS-RAISING.Finally,article57GDPRentruststhesupervisoryauthoritieswiththe

taskofpromotingpublicawarenessandunderstandingoftherisks,rules,safeguardsand

rightsinrelationtoprocessing.Specificattentionshouldbepaidtoactivitiesaddressed

specificallytochildren.

2. Processingchildren’selectroniccommunicationsdata–ePrivacyframework

SPECIFICRULESFORELECTRONICCOMMUNICATIONS.Anotherimportantlegalinstrumentatthe

European level is the ePrivacy Directive, 827 which provides specific rules for the

electronic communications sector and complements the General Data Protection

Regulation.TheePrivacyDirectiveisthemainlegalinstrumentcrystallisingarticle7of

theEuropeanCharterofFundamentalRights(i.e.therighttorespectforprivatelife)into

secondaryEU law.828Itprovides specificrules forelectronic communications services,

including rules on the confidentiality of communications and on data breach

notifications. 829 Over the years, the telecom sector has been undergoing significant

825Notethatinrecital75inrelationtotheresponsibilityofthecontrollerprocessingof“personaldataofvulnerablenaturalpersons,inparticularofchildren”isconsideredapotential“risktotherightsandfreedomsofnaturalpersons”.826UNICEFhasdevelopedachildren’srightsimpactassessmenttoolforcompanies;formoreinformation;cf.https://www.unicef.org/csr/css/Children_s_Rights_in_Impact_Assessments_Web_161213.pdf.827Directive2002/58/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof12July2002concerningtheprocessingofpersonaldataandtheprotectionofprivacyintheelectroniccommunicationssector(Directiveonprivacyandelectroniccommunications)2002(OfficialJournalL201).828BEUC,‘PositionPaper:ProposalforaRegulationonPrivacyandElectronicCommunications(e-Privacy)’2 <http://www.beuc.eu/publications/beuc-x-2017-059_proposal_for_a_regulation_on_privacy_and_electronic_communications_e-privacy.pdf> accessed 3April2018.829Recital10oftheePrivacyDirectiveclarifiesthattheDataProtectionDirectiveremainsapplicable“toallmattersconcerningtheprotectionoffundamentalrightsandfreedomswhicharenotspecificallycoveredbytheprovisionsofthisDirective,includingtheobligationsonthecontrollerandtherightsofindividuals”.

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changes, resulting in several updates of the rules in order to keep up with the new

developments.830

2.1 ePrivacyDirective

SCOPE. In contrast to the GDPR, the scope of the ePrivacy Directive is not limited to

personal data, 831 as it protects communications from unwanted intrusions or

interferencesregardlessofwhetherpersonaldataisinvolved.832Furthermore,itsmain

obligationsonlytriggerresponsiblitiesfortraditionaltelecomoperators.833Additionally,

thisDirectiveprovidescertaingeneralrulesontheuseoflocationdataorthestorageof

information on the devices of end-users (e.g. users of social media), which could be

applicablewhenitcomestonewadvertisingformatsaimedatminors.Theapplicationof

thesegeneralprovisionsisnotlimitedtoelectroniccommunicationservicesandinclude

for instance article 5 (3) on cookies and spyware and article 13 on unsolicited

communications.

CONFIDENTIALITYOFCOMMUNICATIONS.Oneof theobjectivesof theePrivacyDirective is to

ensureconfidentialityofcommunications.Accordingly,article5oftheDirectivecontains

a prohibition on intercepting or surveilling electronic communications aswell as any

storage of (or subsequent access to) information on the terminal equipment of end-

users,834unless(a)theusersconcernedhaveconsentedor(b)thereexistsanexplicitlegal

authorisation.835Thescopeofapplicationofthisarticleisgeneralandnotlimitedtothe

830 DLA Piper, ‘European Telecommunications Network Operator’s Association (ETNO) Study on theRevision of the EPrivacy Directive’ (2016) 9–11<https://etno.eu/datas/publications/studies/DPTS_Study_DLA_04082016_ePrivacy_Final.pdf> accessed16April2018.831Recital24oftheePrivacyDirectivestatesthat“TerminalequipmentofusersofelectroniccommunicationsnetworksandanyinformationstoredonsuchequipmentarepartoftheprivatesphereoftheusersrequiringprotectionundertheEuropeanConventionfortheProtectionofHumanRightsandFundamentalFreedoms.”(emphasisadded).832BEUC(n828)2.833ThesewerethemainproviderscollectingelectroniccommunicationsdataatthetimeoftheadoptionoftheDirective.834Article5(3)ePrivacyDirective.835Article5(1)ePrivacyDirective;SeealsoBrendanVanAlsenoy,‘RightsandObligationsofActorsinSocialNetworkingSites’33<https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/453689>accessed4August2017.

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electroniccommunicationssector.Thus,thisprovisionwillapplytoapplicationswhich

runonmobiledevicesandonanyotherend-userdevicesandthereforeberelevantfor

most online social network providers, website operators, application providers and

trackers.836

USEOFLOCATIONDATA. Location data are often processed in digitalmobile networks to

enablethetransmissionofcommunications.Thiscategoryincludesalldataindicatingthe

geographicpositionof theterminalequipmentofauser, likethe latitude, longitudeor

altitudeof the terminal equipment; thedirectionof travelof theuser;or the time the

locationinformationwasrecorded.837Suchdatacanbeusefulforadvertiserswhowant

to provide location-based direct marketing. The ePrivacy Directive contains specific

requirementsfortheprocessingoflocationdatainitsarticle9.However,accordingtothe

Article29WorkingParty,article9oftheePrivacyDirectiveonlyappliestoprovidersof

communicationservicesandassuchwillnotbeapplicabletoadvertisers.838Nevertheless,

location data are generally regarded as personal data. Therefore, advertisers have to

complywiththegeneralrequirementsfortheprocessingofpersonaldataundertheGDPR

iftheywanttomakecollectoruselocationdataforadvertisingpurposes.

2.2 ProposalforanePrivacyRegulation

EUROPEAN COMMISSION PROPOSAL. On January 10, 2017, the European Commission (EC)

adopted itsProposal foraRegulationonPrivacyandElectronicCommunications.The

proposedRegulationcontainsnewandmorestringentprivacyobligationsthataresaid

tohaveanimportantimpactononlineadvertisinganddirectmarketing(andonnearly

all companies in the EU that are involved in online business). 839 The Commission

considersthealigmentof theePrivacyruleswiththeGDPRasessential forensuringa

836VanAlsenoy(n835)34.837Article2(c)ePrivacyDirective.838Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion13/2011onGeolocationServicesonSmartMobileDevices,WP185’<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2011/wp185_en.pdf>accessed27July2018.839S.Cadiot,‘StatusUpdateontheEUE-PrivacyRegulationProposalDiscussions’(TheWSGRDataAdvisor,1September2017)<https://www.wsgrdataadvisor.com/2017/09/eu-e-privacy-regulation/>accessed3April2018.

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consistentEUframeworkondataprotectionandprivacy.Furthermore,thereviewofthe

ePrivacyDirectivewasalsotriggeredbythemajoradvancesindigitaltechnologiesofthe

lastdecadeandtheriseofoverthetopservicesincludinginternet-basedmessagingand

voiceoverIPwhicharecurrentlynotcoveredbytheDirective.InthecontextofthePhD

research,themostimportantchangesproposedbytheEC’sproposalrelatetoitsscope,

to existing rules on the use of cookies, direct marketing and the confidentiality of

communications.

EXPANDEDSCOPE.TheproposedRegulationsignificantlyexpandsitsscopeofapplication.

First, regarding territorial scope, it doesnotonly envisage entities in the EU, but any

electronic communication service provided to end-users within the EU and devices

locatedintheEU,regardlessoftheserviceprovider’slocation.Second,theproposalnow

explicitly includes Over-the-Top communications services (OTTs) (i.e. online services

thatcouldtoacertainextentsubstitutetraditionalmediaandtelecomservices,suchas

Skype,WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger).840As the user group of these services for a

significant part consists ofminors, it is important to seewhether the proposed rules

reflecttheirrightsandinterests,especiallyinthecontextofdigitaladvertising.

CONSENT. The EC’s proposal brings about some substantial changes for the online

advertisingindustry.Mostnotably,itadaptsexistingrulesoncookies,directmarketing

andconfidentialityofcommunications.841First,theProposalintroducestheapplication

ofthe‘GDPR-gradeofconsent’,alsofortheplacementandaccessingofcookies.Article

7(4) of the GDPR requires consent to be ‘freely given, specific, informed and

unambiguous’ andmustbeexpressedbywayof a ‘statementorbya clearaffirmative

action.’Ontopofthat,itshouldbejustaseasytowithdrawasitistogiveconsent.

COOKIES.TheProposalalsoadaptsotheraspectsofthecookierules(andbroadensthem

toother tracking techniques, likedevice fingerprinting).Firstparty functional cookies

840InlinewiththedefinitionofanelectroniccommunicationsservicecontainedintheproposedElectronicCommunicationsCode.841N. JohnsonandG.Graham, ‘TheDraftEPrivacyRegulationand Its ImpactonOnlineAdvertisingandDirectMarketing’<http://marketinglaw.osborneclarke.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2017/04/DBL-January-2017-4-6.pdf>.

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thatarenecessarytoprovideaninformationsocietyservicearealreadyallowedwithout

consent today.However, theProposalbroadensthisapproach:suchcookiesno longer

needtobe‘strictly’necessary,normusttheservicebe‘explicitly’requestedbytheend-

user(e.g.formfilling,languagepreferenceandshoppingcartfunctionalities).Cookiesfor

firstpartyanalyticsarealsoallowed,evenwithoutconsent.Additionally, the legislator

wantedtodealwithexcessivecookieconsentbannersandconsumerfatigue,byallowing

consenttocookiesthroughbrowsersettings(whentechnicallypossibleandfeasible).For

‘trackingcookies’,however,theconsentconditionsarestricter:consentcanonlyvalidly

begrantediftheusertakes‘affirmativeaction’toactivelyselectconsenttotracking.Itis

evenstipulatedthatallbrowsersshouldbeconfiguredtoprovideuserswiththeabilityto

select options relating to cookies, fingerprinting etc. upon installation. The proposal

placesaburdenonbrowsersupplierstoequipallnewsoftwarewiththisfeature.When

browsersoftwareisalreadyinstalled,compliancewouldberequiredatthetimeofthe

firstupdateofthesoftware.

DIRECT MARKETING. Furthermore, the rules on direct marketing will apply to

communicationssentusingabroaderrangeoftechnologies,includinginstantmessaging

services and in-app notifications. All types of unsolicited electronic direct marketing

communicationswouldbeprohibitedbytheproposedRegulation,unlessthesenderhas

obtainedtheend-user’sconsentinadvance.However,thereisanexceptionfortheuseof

emails already collected during previous sales when it concerns direct marketing of

similargoodsandservicestothosealreadysoldtotheseconsumersandprovidedthatthe

consumershavebeenclearly,distinctlyandfreelygiventheopportunitytoobjecttosuch

furtheruseoftheirdata.

NOREFERENCESTOCHILDREN. Finally, it is interesting to note that the proposed ePrivacy

Regulationdoesnotcontainanyreferencetochildren.ThisisincontrastwiththeGDPR’s

explicitrecognitionofchildrenasavulnerablegroupofconsumersthatdeservespecific

protection,especiallyinthecontextofprofilingandmarketing.

POSITIONOFTHEEUROPEANPARLIAMENT.Within theEP, theproposedePrivacyRegulation

wasassignedtotheCivilLibertiesCommittee(LIBE)andmorethan800amendments

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weresubmittedbymid-July2017.842InOctober2017,theEPadopteditspositiononthe

e-Privacy Regulation.843 In general, the EP proposes to tighten the rules of the EC’s

Proposal.Anumberofamendmentsareparticularlyrelevanttoourresearch.First,oneof

themainpointsofdisagreementoftheEParetheCommission’sproposalsonconsentand

preventing the further processing of data. The EP does not allow electronic

communications service providers to (1) rely on their legitimate interest to process

metadata,and(2)furtherprocessmetadatafornewpurposes(e.g.bigdata,marketing)

withouttheconsentoftheuser,ifthenewpurposesareconsideredcompatiblewiththe

purposesforwhichthedatawasinitiallycollected.Second,theEPproposestoexpandthe

scope of the confidentiality principle to data related to or processed by devices (for

instancecookies).Third,regardingtherulesondirectmarketing,theEP’samendments

clarifythattherighttowithdrawalofconsentmustbeavailablefreeofcharge.Finally,the

EP widened the scope of direct marketing communications to include any form of

advertising,regardlessoftheformittakes.

DISCUSSIONSINTHECOUNCIL.Atthetimeofwriting,theMemberStateshadnotreacheda

commonpositionontheproposede-PrivacyRegulation.Themainpointsofdiscussion

amongst the Member States are the lawful grounds for processing electronic

communications data (other than consent), introducing a possibility for further

compatibleprocessingofelectroniccommunicationsmetadata,protectingusers’terminal

equipmentinformationandprivacysettings.844

842See <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-connected-digital-single-market/file-jd-e-privacy-reform>accessed31August2018.843EuropeanParliament(CommitteeonCivilLiberties,JusticeandHomeAffairs),‘ReportontheProposalforaRegulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilConcerningtheRespectforPrivateLifeandthe Protection of Personal Data in Electronic Communications and Repealing Directive 2002/58/EC(RegulationonPrivacyandElectronicCommunications)(COM(2017)’(2017).844CounciloftheEuropeanUnion,‘PresidencyText-ProposalforaRegulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilConcerningtheRespectforPrivateLifeandtheProtectionofPersonalDatainElectronicCommunications and Repealing Directive 2002/58/EC (Regulation on Privacy and ElectronicCommunications)’ <https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_10975_2018_INIT&from=EN>accessed31August2018.

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3. Self-regulation

Theadvertising industryhasalsoresponded to the increasedcollectionof consumer’s

personal data for targeted advertising purposes. Several industry organisations

(international andEuropean) have developed self-regulatory instruments or guidance

documents,addressingtheprotectionofchildreninthisspecificcontext.

3.1 ICCCode

THE ICC CODE. First, the International Chamber of Commerce Consolidated Code of

AdvertisingandMarketingPracticecontains–asidefromprovisionsthatareapplicable

to all forms of commercial communication 845 – provisions on the protection of

(children’s)personaldata.846

GENERALDATAPROTECTIONPRINCIPLES.Inthisregard,article19oftheICCCodedetermines

therequirementsthatneedtobekeptinmindwhenprocessingpersonaldata.Personal

datashouldonlybecollectedforaspecifiedandlegitimatepurpose;shouldbestoredonly

foraslongasneededtoachievethespecifiedpurpose;shouldbeaccurateandkeptupto

date;andshouldbeadequate,relevantandnotexcessiveinrelationtothepurposefor

whichtheyarecollected.Furthermore,adequatesecuritymeasuresshouldbe inplace

andanythirdpartytowhichthedataistransferredshouldrespectanadequatelevelof

security.

CHILDREN’SPERSONALDATA. Aside from the general data protectionprinciples, article 19

contains additional requirements for the collection of children’s personal data. These

requirementsapplytochildrenunder13years.If,forexample,awebsiteprovider(i.e.the

datacontroller)collectschildren’spersonaldata,he/shewillhavetoofferguidanceto

parents or legal guardians aboutways to protect their children’s privacy (if feasible).

Moreover, children should be stimulated to request their parents’ permission before

providingtheirpersonaldataviadigitalinteractivemedia.Thisrequiremententailsthat

845FormoreinformationontheInternationalChamberofCommerceasanorganisationandthegeneralprinciplesoftheICCCodeseesection4.2ofthischapter.846InternationalChamberofCommerce(n137).

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aparentalconsentmechanismshouldbeinplace,withareasonabledegreeofverifiability.

However, the ICC Code does not mention any specific consent nor verification

mechanisms. Accordingly, itwill be up to each individual data controller to install an

appropriatemechanism.TheCodealsorequiresparentalconsentforusingchildren’sdata

foraddressingmarketingcommunicationstotheparentsorotherfamilymembersaswell

asforanytransferofdatatothirdparties.Furthermore,theCodealsocontainsspecific

provisionsconcerningonlinebehaviouraladvertising. Inrelationtochildren, themost

importantprovisionisarticleD7.4,whichprohibitsthecreationofsegmentsspecifically

designedtotargetchildren12andyoungerforOBApurposes.

3.2 EASABestPracticeRecommendationonOnlineBehaviouralAdvertising

THEORGANISATION.AttheEUlevel,arelevantinitiativehasbeendevelopedbytheEuropean

AdvertisingStandardsAlliance(“EASA”).Asmentionedinthefirstpartofthisstudy,EASA

was set up as a non-profit organisation promoting ethical standards in advertising

through self-regulation in 1992. 847 It unites national self-regulatory organisations

(“SROs”)andorganisationsrepresentingtheadvertisingindustryinEuropeandbeyond.

The organisation has assisted in the set up of several self-regulatory mechanisms in

Europeandithaspromotedself-regulationasanalternativetodetailedlegislationatthe

EUpolicylevel.In2002,EASA’smissionwasexpandedtoincludetheadoptionofBest

Practice Recommendations to guide SROs, in order to strengthen and extend self-

regulation in Europe. 848 EASA is funded by the membership fees paid by SROs and

industry associations. In addition, EASAhas become amember of the Commissionon

MarketingandAdvertising, thereby takingupamore central role in theadoptionand

revisionoftheICCCodes.849

847Formoreinformationseehttp://www.easa-alliance.org/.848P.Verbruggen, ‘Gorillas intheCloset?PublicandPrivateActorsintheEnforcementofTransnationalPrivateRegulation’7Regulation&Governance512.849 Verbruggen, ‘Case Study Report – Transnational Private Regulation in the Advertising Industry.Conductedwithin the Framework of the Research Project Constitutional Foundations of TransnationalPrivateRegulation’(n143).

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3.2.1 Conceptanddefinition

BESTPRACTICERECOMMENDATIONS.From theabove,EASAhasamandate todevelopBest

PracticeRecommendations (“BPRs”) foradvertisingpractices.BPR’s canbedivided in

twosubcategories,(1)operationalBPR’s,whichofferguidanceregardingtheoperation,

structureandproceduresofSRO’s,and(2)blueprintBPR’swhichprovideguidanceon

theremitandcodesofSRO’s.850EASAdevelopedablueprintBPRononlinebehavioural

advertising(“OBA”),whichwasagreeduponbythewholeadvertisingeco-systemandall

SRO’sattheEuropeanlevel.TheBPRdoesnot,however,constituteaEuropeancodeand

it is not formally binding. Itmerely presents a blueprint of guidance for a European

implementation strategy. This means that the national SRO’s are free to adopt the

recommendations in theirnationalself-regulatorycodesandtheymayalsogobeyond

that.851

ONLINEBEHAVIOURALADVERTISING.TheBPRdefinesonlinebehaviouraladvertisingas:

“thecollectionofdatafromaparticularcomputerordeviceregardingwebviewing

behavioursovertimeandacrossmultiplewebdomainsnotunderCommonControl

for thepurposeofusing suchdata topredictwebuserpreferencesor interests to

deliver online advertising to that particular computer or device based on the

preferences or interests inferred from such web viewing behaviours. Online

BehaviouralAdvertisingdoesnotincludetheactivitiesofWebSiteOperators(First

Party),AdDeliveryorAdReporting,orcontextualadvertising(e.g.advertisingbased

onthecontentofthewebpagebeingvisited,aconsumer’scurrentvisittoawebpage,

orasearchquery).”852(Emphasisadded)

850 European Advertising Standards Alliance, ‘Best Practice Recommendation on Online BehaviouralAdvertising’ 7 <http://www.easa-alliance.org/sites/default/files/EASA%20Best%20Practice%20Recommendation%20on%20Online%20Behavioural%20Advertising_0.pdf>accessed12April2018.851EuropeanAdvertisingStandardsAlliance(n850)7–8.852EuropeanAdvertisingStandardsAlliance(n850)7–8.Ibidem,10.

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3.2.2 Recommendationsforbestpractices

CHILDRENANDOBA.SimilartotheICCCode,theBPRstandardrequiresthatcompaniesdo

not create segments that are specifically designed to target children using online

behaviouraladvertising.However,whatisnotrestrictedisthecollectionofOBAdatain

ordertomarketchildren’sproductstoparentsorotheradults.853

NOTICEANDCHOICE.AccordingtotheBPR,thirdpartiesthatareengagedinOBAshouldhave

aclearprivacynoticeontheirwebsiteabouttheirdataprocessingpracticesandprovide

alinktotheOBAConsumerChoicePlatform(infra).Moreover,suchcompanieshaveto

provideanenhancednoticetointernetusersiftheyprocessdataforOBApurposesona

websiteormobileappthatisnotcontrolledbythem.854Moreover,theyshouldimplement

auser-friendlymechanism(i.e.aniconlinkingtotheOBAConsumerChoicePlatform)that

allowsinternetuserstoexercisetheirchoicewithregardtotheprocessingoftheirdata

forOBApurposes.

EASILY ACCESSIBLE MECHANISMS FOR COMPLAINTS. Finally, EASA recommends that easily

accessiblemechanismsforcomplaintsshouldbedeveloped,andtheseshouldbeinteralia

transparent,coordinatedandconsumersshouldbeabletofilecomplaintsintheirlocal

language.855Moreover,asaminimumrequirement,SROsshouldtakeappropriateaction

against persistent and repeated offenders, including the referral to appropriate legal

authorities.

3.3 IABEuropeEUFrameworkforOnlineBehaviouralAdvertising

INTERACTIVEADVERTISINGBUREAUEUROPE(“IAB”Europe).Anotherself-regulatoryinitiated

originatesfromtheIABEurope,aEuropeanbusinessorganisationthatdevelopsindustry

standards, offers legal advice, education and training and conducts research for the

Europeandigitaladvertisingindustry.Itsmembersincludealargenumberofplayersof

853PrincipleIII–SensitiveSegmentation,A.Children’sSegmentation.854PrincipleI–Notice,A.2ThirdPartyNoticetoConsumers.855PrincipleIV–ComplianceandEnforcementProgrammes.

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the advertising industry.856IABEurope promotes self-regulation and has laid down a

structure for codifying industry best practices on online behavioural advertising.

Moreover, the framework establishes certain principles that aim at increasing

transparencyandchoiceforinternetuserswithintheEU.

3.3.1. AimandscopeoftheFramework

AIM. The IAB Europe members that have worked jointly on and have signed the EU

Framework for OBA commit to implementing the Framework’s consumer-friendly

standards,whenmakinguseofonlinebehaviouraladvertising.TheFramework isself-

regulatory and creates obligations for any of the members that self-certify their

compliancewith theprinciples.Theprinciplesare intended toassist companieswhen

designingtheirsystemsandcontractsrelatingtoonlinebehaviouraladvertisements,to

becompliantwiththeapplicable law.TheFrameworkdoesnot,however,regulatethe

contentnorthedeliveryoftheonlineadvertisements.857

SCOPE.TheFrameworkisapplicabletoOBA,whichisdefinedasfollows:

“thecollectionofdatafromaparticularcomputerordeviceregardingwebviewing

behavioursovertimeandacrossmultiplewebdomainsnotunderCommonControl

for thepurposeofusing suchdata topredictwebuserpreferencesor interests to

deliver online advertising to that particular computer or device based on the

preferences or interests inferred from such web viewing behaviours.” (Emphasis

added)

Explicitlyexcludedfromthisdefinitionare(1)theactivitiesofwebsiteoperators,(2)the

actualadvertisingdeliveryorreportingor(3)contextualadvertising(i.e.basedonthe

contentofthewebpagethatiscurrentlyvisitedbytheconsumerorasearchquery).The

Framework establishes several principles and standards for OBA, which can be

856Formoreinformationseehttp://www.iabeurope.eu/directory-member/adform/.857 IAB Europe, ‘EU Framework for Online Behavioural Advertising.’ <http://www.iabeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/2013-11-11-IAB-Europe-OBA-Framework_.pdf>accessed27July2018.

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subdividedintooneprinciplespecificallyapplicabletochildrenandtherestmoregeneral

principlesondataprotectionandprivacy.

3.3.2 PrinciplesforOBA

CHILDRENANDOBA.Importanttonoteinthecontextofcommercialcommunicationaimed

atchildrenisthatinlinewiththeICCCode,Principle4.AoftheFrameworkstatesthat:

“companies agree not to create segments for OBA purposes that are specifically

designed to target children. For the purposes of this provision, children refers to

peopleage12andunder.”(Emphasisadded)

Aside from this specific protection for children, the Framework also contains more

generalprinciplesregardingdataprotectionandprivacy.

NOTICEANDCHOICE.The first twoprinciplesof theFrameworkdealwiththeconceptsof

noticeandchoice.InternetusersmustbegivennoticeoftheOBAdatacollectionanduse

practicesbytherelevantthirdparties858aswellasthewebsiteoperator(i.e.ofitsOBA

arrangementswiththirdparties).Secondly,thirdpartieshavetoprovideinternetusers

with a mechanism to exercise their choice regarding the use of their data for OBA

purposes(Principle II). Important tonote is that theminimumrequirement isopt-out

consent,withamorerobustconsentrequirementforsensitivedata.859

EDUCATION. Aside from the information that is required for the notice and choice

mechanism,companiesthatemployOBAandarecommittedtotheFrameworkshould

informindividualsandbusinessesaboutOBA,includinginteraliaonhowdataiscollected,

858Thenoticeshouldincludethefollowinginformationof thethirdparty:(a)their identityandcontactdetails;(b)thetypesofdatacollected,(c)purposesforprocessingandrecipientsofthedata,(d)aneasytousemechanismtoexercisetheirchoice,(e)thefactthatthecompanycommitstotheFrameworkandfinally(f) a link to the OBA User Choice Site. Accessed at http://www.iabeurope.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/2013-11-11-IAB-Europe-OBA-Framework_.pdfon06.09.2016.859N.KingandP.WegenerJessen,‘ProfilingtheMobileCustomer–IsIndustrySelf-RegulationAdequatetoProtect Consumer PrivacyWhen Behavioural Advertisers Target Mobile Phones? – Part II’ (2010) 26ComputerLaw&SecurityReview595.WiththeadoptionoftheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation,theseprinciplesrequireanupdateasRecital32clarifiesthat“consentshouldbegivenbyaclearaffirmativeactestablishingafreelygiven,specific,informedandunambiguousindicationofthedatasubject’sagreementtotheprocessingofpersonaldatarelatingtohimorher”.

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how the user may exercise his choice regarding OBA and how data is used for OBA

purposes(PrincipleV).

SECURITY.Accordingtothesecurityprinciple,companiescanonlyretainthedataobtained

andusedforOBApurposesforaslongasitisnecessarytofulfilalegitimatebusinessneed

(Principle III.B). Furthermore, companies should implement appropriate “physical,

electronicandadministrativesafeguards”fortheprotectionofthedatacollectedandused

forOBApurposes(PrincipleIII.A).

SENSITIVEDATA.Ifcompanieswanttocollectandusesensitivedata(otherthanchildren’s

data)forOBApurposes,theywillhavetoobtainthepriorexplicitconsentoftheinternet

user,inaccordancewithdataprotectionlegislation(PrincipleIV.B).However,theOBA

Principlesdonotaddresssituationswhereprofilingmaybesounfairordiscriminatory

thatitshouldnotbeallowed,apartfromtheprofilingofunder-13s.

AUDITS.TheFrameworkalsorequirescompaniestosubmittoindependentauditsoftheir

self-certified commitments.PrincipleVI.Calsoestablishes theminimumelements that

shouldbedemonstratedinanaudit.

COMPLAINT-HANDLING.Finally,theOBAPrinciplesalsoincluderequirementsforcomplaint-

handlingmechanisms.First,consumersshouldbeabletofilecomplaintsdirectlytothe

company. Second, consumers should have easy access to transparent and easily

recognisable mechanisms for handling complaints through independent, alternative

disputeresolutionmechanisms(likenationaladvertisingself-regulatoryorganisations)

intheirownlocallanguage.Toavoidmultipleenforcementmechanisms,companiesand

alternativedisputeresolutionmechanismsshouldcoordinatetheirefforts.Decisionsof

non-complianceshouldbepublished,includinginthelanguageofthecountrywherethe

complaintwasfirstlaunched.

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3.4 FEDMACodesofconduct

Finally,theFederationofEuropeanDirectMarketingalsodevelopedtworelevantcodes

containing general data protection provisions and provisions containing specific

protectionsforchildren.860

3.4.1 FEDMA European Code of Practice for the Use of Personal Data in Direct

Marketing

AIM.TheFEDMACodeofPractice for theUseofPersonalData inDirectMarketing isa

Europeandataprotectioncodeofpracticeforpractitioners(i.e.directmarketers).More

specifically, it is a self-regulatory initiative in the advertising sector to regulate data

gatheringformarketingpurposes.TheCodewasdraftedincollaborationwiththeArticle

29Working Party861and provides an interpretation of the European Data Protection

Directive in the context ofdirectmarketing.862TheArticle29Working Party is of the

opinion that the FEDMA Code and Annex fulfil these requirements. The FEDMAData

Protection Committee has to report annually to the Article 29Working Party on the

applicationoftheCode.Additionally,forcertainareasofpractice,theCoderecommends

higher standards of practice than those established by the Directive. With the Code,

FEDMAaimstocreateageneralstandardorcustomandpracticefortheentireindustry

ontheimplementationofdataprotectionrulesindirectmarketing.863

860Formoreinformationontheorganisation,seesectionIIofthischapterofthestudy.861Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion4/2010ontheEuropeanCodeofConductofFEDMAfor the Use of Personal Data in Direct Marketing, WP 174’ (2010) <http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2010/wp174_en.pdf> accessed 14November2017.862Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion3/2003ontheEuropeanCodeofConductofFEDMAfor the Use of Personal Data in Direct Marketing’ (2003) <http://ec.europa.eu/justice/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2003/wp77_en.pdf> accessed 31 July 2018. In thisregarditshouldbekeptinmindthatarticle27oftheDataProtectionDirectiverequiredthatanycodeofconductsubmittedunderthisarticle(liketheFEDMACodeandAnnex)hadtobeof“sufficientqualityandinternalconsistencyandmustprovidesufficientadded-value, intermsofbeingsufficientlyfocussedonthespecificdataprotectionquestionsandproblemsintheorganisationorsectortowhichitisintendedtoapplyandofferssufficientlyclearsolutionsforthosequestionsandproblems”.863FEDMA,‘EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing’(n709).

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A. SCOPEANDDEFINITIONS

SCOPE.FEDMA’snationalmembershaveagreedthattheirnationalcodesofpracticeshall

atleastofferthesamelevelofprotectionfordatasubjectsasprovidedbytheFEDMACode

(orofferahigherlevelofprotection).TheCodeisaninstrumentofbestpracticethatisto

beinterpretedinaccordancewiththeframeworkofapplicabledataprotectionlegislation.

TheCodeisdesignedtobeappliedbydirectmarketerswithintheEUandthosenon-EU

countrieswithdataprotectionlegislationsimilartoEUlegislation,whenusingpersonal

datafortheirmarketingpractices.Assuch,itisaninstrumentthatcouldcontributetothe

spreadingoftheEUdataprotectionstandardsacrosstheglobe.

DEFINITIONOFDIRECTMARKETING.AccordingtotheFEDMACode,directmarketingistobe

understoodas:

“the communication by whatever means (including but not limited to mail, fax,

telephone,on-lineservicesetc...)ofanyadvertisingormarketingmaterial,whichis

carriedoutby theDirectMarketer itself oron itsbehalfandwhich isdirected to

particularindividuals”.

DEFINITIONOFACHILD.TheCodecontainsgeneralprinciplesondataprotectionappliedto

directmarketing,aswellasspecificprovisionsthatapplytotheprocessingofchildren’s

personaldata.TheCodedefineschildrenas“anyindividualagedunder14yearsoldunless

otherwisedefinedinnationallegislation/self-regulation”.Thissubsectionfocusesonthose

provisionsthatspecificallyapplytochildren’spersonaldata(i.e.Section2.6oftheCode).

B. PRINCIPLESREGARDINGCHILDREN’SPRIVACYANDDATAPROTECTION

B.1 DirectMarketing-offlineandonline

NOTICEANDCHOICE.Directmarketersthatcollectchildren’spersonaldataarerequiredto

make‘everyreasonablyeffort’toensurethattheconcernedchildand/ortheparentare

properlyinformedaboutthepurpose(s)forprocessingthedata.Suchanoticeshouldbe

prominent,readilyaccessibleandunderstandablebychildren.Directmarketersalsohave

to obtain parental consent prior to the processing of the data, in accordance with

applicablelawsandself-regulation.Furthermore,theydonotonlyhavetoobtainparental

consent, but they also have to use every reasonable endeavour to verifywhether the

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consentwasactuallygivenbytheparentoftheconcernedchild(andforinstancenotby

thechildhimself).

DATA SUBJECTS RIGHTS. According to the Code, parents should be able to exercise their

children’srightsasdatasubjects.Morespecificallytheserightsare(inlinewithEUdata

protectionlegislation)therighttoobjecttotheprocessingoftheirchild’sdataortothe

disclosureofthatdatatoathirdparty,therighttoaccessandrectification,anddeletion

of the data in case the processing does not comply with applicable data protection

legislation.

GAMES.Finally,inrelationtogames,directmarketersshouldnotdemandmorepersonal

datathanisstrictlynecessarywhenchildrenwanttoparticipateinagame,whenthey

mayreceiveaprizeorinrelationtoanyotheractivityinvolvingapromotionalbenefit.

B.2 Directmarketing–online

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS ANNEX. Complementary to the provisions of the Code of

Practice, FEDMA also adopted an Electronic Communications Annex that contains

provisions specifically applicable to online direct marketing (or electronic mail

marketing).864It aims at providing cross-bordermarketerswithguidelines on how to

behavewhen engaged in onlinemarketing.865More specifically, the provisions of the

Annexcanbecategorisedas(1)generalprovisionsfortheprocessingofpersonaldata

and(2)provisionsspecifictotheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldata.Thissectiononly

coversthoseprovisionsthatspecificallyapplytochildren’spersonaldata(Section6ofthe

Annex).

864 FEDMA, ‘European Code of Practice for the Use of Personal Data in Direct Marketing - ElectronicCommunications Annex (the On-Line Annex)’ <http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2010/wp174_annex_en.pdf> accessed 14 November2017.865Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion4/2010ontheEuropeanCodeofConductofFEDMAfortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing,WP174’(n861).

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PARENTALCONSENT. Directmarketerswillhave toobtainpriorparental consent for the

processingofpersonaldataofchildrenwhohavenotyetreachedtheagerequiredbylaw

togivetheirconsent.Importanttonoteisthatparentsmaywithdrawtheirconsentatany

pointintime.Forchildrenthathavereachedthisage,theAnnexoffersamodelclausethat

directmarketersmayuseforobtainingthechild’sconsent:

AGEVERIFICATIONMECHANISM.Directmarketersarealsorequiredtohaveanageverification

mechanisminplace.Themechanismshouldbeabletoguaranteethattheageofthechild

aswellastheauthenticityoftheparentalconsenthasbeeneffectivelychecked.TheAnnex

does not provide any further guidance regarding the type of mechanism, butmerely

requires that direct marketers use “reasonable efforts”. In this regard, FEDMA also

recognisesthatatthemomentthereisnouniversallyacceptedageverificationsystem.

LIMITATIONS.Furthermore,theAnnexcontainscertainlimitationsdirectmarketersneed

tokeepinmind:

ü Data of family members: These data cannot be collected from the child,

withoutthepermissionofthepersontowhomthedatarefer.866

ü Sensitivedata:867Directmarketersmaynotinvitechildrentosharethistype

ofdatawithoutthepriorconsentoftheirlegalrepresentative.

866Nevertheless,dataregardingtheidentityandaddressoftheparentorlegalrepresentativemaystillbeprocessedforauthorisationandverificationpurposes.FEDMA,‘EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing-ElectronicCommunicationsAnnex(theOn-LineAnnex)’(n864).867Sensitivedataaredatarevealingtheracialorethnicorigin,politicalopinions,religiousorphilosophicalbeliefs,trade-unionmembership,ortheprocessingofdataconcerninghealthorsexlifeofthechild,aswell

Figure1:Modelclauseforchildren'sconsent(Source:Annexp.14,http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2010/wp174_annex_en.pdf)

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ü Incentivise children to share more data: Direct marketers may not

incentivisechildrentoprovidetheirownpersonaldataorpersonaldataofa

third party formarketing purposes, in exchange for amaterial or virtual

reward.868

INFORMATION.Finally,directmarketerswhowanttoprocesschildren’sdatawillhaveto

inform them about the processing. This information has to be expressed in easily

understandablelanguage.

C. COMPLAINT-HANDLING

COMPLAINTHANDLINGATTHENATIONALLEVEL.AstheFEDMACodeisaEuropeaninitiative,the

establishmentofmechanismstohandlecomplaintsregardingtheapplicationoftheCode

is left to the national DMA’s. Complaints are usually handled by special compliance

boards,ethicscommitteesorsimilarcommissionsestablishedatthenationallevel.869

CROSS-BORDERCOMPLAINTS.IfanationalDMAisunabletosolvetheproblemduetocross-

borderaspects,FEDMAcaninvestigatethecomplaintitself.Forthesesituations,theCode

foreseesthattheinvestigationisconductedbytheDataProtectionCommittee,whichis

aninternalbodyofrepresentativesof(1)nationalDMA’s,(2)FEDMAand(3)companies

thataredirectFEDMAmembers.However,nocross-bordercomplaintshavebeenfiled

withtheDataProtectionCommittee.AccordingtoMACENAITE,thismaybeduetopractical

difficulties related to the complaint mechanism. 870 When individuals want to file a

complaintconcerningonlinedirectmarketing,itmaybedifficultforthemtoprovethat

asthefinancialsituationofthechildoranythirdpartysuchastheirfriendsorfamily.FEDMA,‘EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing-ElectronicCommunicationsAnnex(theOn-LineAnnex)’(n864).868Thisincludesinvitationstoprovidepersonaldatainordertobeabletoparticipateinagameofchance,tombolaorlottery.FEDMA,‘EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing-ElectronicCommunicationsAnnex(theOn-LineAnnex)’(n864).869Macenaite(n709).870Macenaite(n709).

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theadvertisementwasservedtothemandthatitconstitutesaviolationoftheFEDMA

Code.871

3.4.2 FEDMACodeofConductonE-Commerce&InteractiveMarketing

Aside from theCodeonDirectMarketing,FEDMA’sCodeone-Commerce (supra) also

containscertainprovisionthatspecificallyapplytotheprocessingofchildren’spersonal

data(i.e.Section6oftheCode).872Asageneralprinciple,theCodeguaranteesthat:

“willrespectthesensibilitiesofchildrenandshallprotecttheprivacyofchildren,for

examplebydemandingparentalconsentforanypersonaldata-collection.”

Thus, direct marketers should obtain prior parental consent for the processing of

children’spersonaldata.TheCodeusestheterms‘minor’and‘child’interchangeablyand

notesthataslongasthereisnoconsensusonanagelimitacrosstheEU,marketersshould

respecttheapplicablenationalregulations.

EDUCATING PARENTS. Aside from the parental consent requirement, marketers have to

educateparentsoncurrentsoftwaretoolsandtechnologies, for instance inrelationto

privacy enhancement or the supervision of online activities. Parents should be

encouragedtobemoreinvolvedintheirchildren’sonlineactivities.Moreover,theCode

recommendsthatmarketersattempttomonitortheextenttowhichchildrenusetheir

websites.

VERIFIABLEPARENTALCONSENT.TheFEDMACoderequiresmarketerstoverifywhetherthe

consentgiveninrealitystemsfromtheparent/guardian/teacher.873TheCoderequires

thatbeforeanypersonaldataofchildreniscollectedbyawebsite,theyfirsthavetosupply

theirage.However,theCodedoesnotcontainanyfurtherguidanceonwhatverification

mechanismswouldbeappropriate,orwhatfeaturestheyrecommend.

871Verbruggen,‘GorillasintheCloset?’(n848).872Inaddition,Section5of theFEDMACodeone-Commercecontainsgeneralprovisionsonconsumerprivacyanddataprotection(inrelationtoinformationobligationsanddatasubjectrights).873Inlinewitharticle8GDPR.

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INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS. Marketers also have to comply with certain information

requirementsundertheFEDMACode.Firstofall,theyshouldprovideaclearnoticeof

theirrequestfordatacollection,witheasy-to-understandexplanationsofthepurposesof

collection.Moreover,marketersshoulduseawarenessnoticesforchildrenthatencourage

themtoaskforparentalconsentbeforeenteringpersonaldata.874Parentsshouldalsobe

informedandhavetherighttoobjecttothedisclosureoftheirchildren’spersonaldatato

thirdparties.875

PROTECTIONAGAINSTUNSOLICITEDEMAIL.Marketershavetotakethenecessarystepstoavoid

thatchildrenaretargetedwithunsolicitedcommercialemailcommunicationwhichdoes

notrelatetotheirinterests.876

LIMITATIONS. Finally, the Code contains a number of limitations to the collection of

children’spersonaldata.Indeed,marketersmaynotcollectmoredatafromthechildthan

isnecessaryforhis/herparticipationinthewebsiteactivities.877Furthermore,thechild’s

access toawebsitemustnotbedependingonthecollectionofdetailedpersonaldata.

Other incentives suchasprizeoffersandgames shouldalsonotbeused toencourage

childrentosharemoreoftheirdata.

874“Suchnoticesshouldbedisplayedatthepointwheretheinformationisrequested,beclear,prominentandeasilyunderstandablebyyoungchildren.”SeeArticle6.8.3oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.875Article6.8.4oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.876Article6.8.6oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.877Article6.8.2oftheFEDMACodeonE-Commerce.

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SECTIONV–INTERIMCONCLUSION

PIECINGTOGETHERTHEREGULATORYPUZZLE.Theaimof this chapterwas twofold.The first

objectivewastopiecetogetherthepuzzleofinstrumentsregulatingadvertisingattheEU

level. To achieve a balanced and future-proof regulatory framework for commercial

communication in line with children’s rights, it is crucial to be aware of the existing

regulatorycontext.Thisdescriptive-analyticaloutlinefocusedonfourdifferentcontexts

of EU legislation, combinedwith ARIs at the European or international level that are

relevanttothespecificcontext.

THE CONSUMER PROTECTION CONTEXT. The starting point of themapping exercisewas the

consumerprotectionframework.First,theUCPDirectivewasanalysed,whichcontains

general rules that advertisers need to keep in mind. More specifically, the Directive

prohibitsanyunfaircommercialpractice,includingmisleadingoraggressivecommercial

communication. These rules are applicable regardless of the form or delivery of the

commercialmessageand,assuch,provideanimportantsafetynetforchildren.Likewise,

theICCCodecontainsgeneralprovisionsandspecificprotectionsforchildreninrelation

to advertising and marketing. It was found that the ICC Code also applies to both

traditionalandnewadvertisingformatsandthatitisbasedonthegeneralprinciplesof

honesty,legalcompliance,truthfulnessanddecencyofadvertisements.

THE CONTEXT OF THE AVMS DIRECTIVE. Second, the revised Audiovisual Media Services

Directivewasanalysed,asthecornerstoneofmediaregulationintheEU.Itwasfound

thatthisDirectivecontainsthegeneralrulesandprinciplesforaudiovisualcommercial

communication,suchastelevisionadvertisingoradvertisinginon-demandserviceslike

Netflix.Theserulesandprinciplesincludemostimportantlytheidentificationprinciple,

aprohibitionofdirectexhortationstochildrentobuy,aprohibitiontotheuseofharmful

contentinadvertisingandspecificrulesforproductplacementandsponsoring.Moreover,

itwas concludedthat the revisedDirective recognises theevolutions in themarketof

audiovisualmediaservices,forinstancebylevelingtheplaying-fieldbetweentraditional

and newmedia services providers and broadening its scope to include video-sharing

platforms(andtoacertainextentsocialmediaplatforms).Thenextchapterofthispart

of the thesiswill analysewhether this broadened scope also impacts advertisements

distributedthroughsuchplatforms.

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THECONTEXTOFTHEE-COMMERCEDIRECTIVE.Third, itwasexplained that thee-Commerce

Directive contains identification and information requirements for commercial

communications which are part of or constitute an information society service (e.g.

sponsoredsearchresults,advertisementsonsocialmedia).Inthiscontext,FEDMA’sself-

regulatory initiative on e-Commerce and interactive marketing was discussed, which

provides similar protection for consumers. In addition to the identification and

information requirements, it was found that the FEDMA Code provides specific

protectionsagainstmisleadingcommercialcommunications.

THE CONTEXT OF THE GDPR AND EPRIVACY DIRECTIVE. Finally, with regard to advertising

formats that collect and process children’s personal data, it was found that different

legislativeandself-regulatoryobligationsandprinciples,whichruninparallel,apply.The

discussioncontinuedonhowtheGDPRexplicitlyrecognisesthatchildrenneedspecific

protectionwhenitcomestotheprocessingoftheirpersonaldata,andespeciallywhen

this happens for advertising purposes. Furthermore, there needs to be a legitimate

groundforsuchprocessing,thismeansthattheremustbeconsentgiven,dependingon

theageofthechild,bytheparentsorbytheparentsandthechild.Anumberofimportant

data protection principlesmust also be adhered to: for instance, the personal data of

children need to be processed fairly and lawfully, the data can only be collected for

specified,explicitandlegitimatepurposesandmustnotbe furtherprocessed inaway

incompatiblewiththeinitiallyspecifiedpurpose(s),andonlyadequate,relevantandnon-

excessive data can be collected and/or further processed. According to the ICC, IAB

EuropeandEASA,behaviouraladvertisingshouldnotbeaimedatchildren12yearsor

under.Inaddition,theePrivacyDirective–whichiscurrentlyunderreview–containsthe

provisionsfortheprocessingofconsumer’scommunicationsdata.

PREPARATIONFORTHENEXTCHAPTER.Asasecondobjective,thischapteraimedatlayingthe

basisforthelegalevaluationofhownewformsofcommercialcommunicationfitwithin

thisregulatoryframework,whichwillbeconductedinthenextchapter.Alllegalelements

that could be relevant in this specific commercial context were listed and briefly

described. In the next chapter, these legal elementswill be further discussed and the

provisionswill be applied to specific use cases, in order to identify and describe the

precisegapsoroverlapswithregardtonewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimed

at children. Ultimately, it aims at answering the question as to whether the current

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framework needs new legal elements (substantive, procedural or organisational) to

ensurethatchildrenareadequatelyprotectedagainstharmfulormisleadingadvertising

andareenabledtodeveloptheiradvertisingliteracyskills.

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CHAPTERII-EVALUATIONOFTHECURRENTREGULATORYFRAMEWORK

OVERVIEW.Afterthepresentationandclarificationoftheissuesrelatedtochildrenandnew

formsofcommercialcommunicationandadetailedanalysisoftheroleofchildren’srights

inregulatingsuchformsinthefirstpartofthestudy,thefirstchapterofthissecondpart

providedadescriptive-analyticaloverviewofthelegalelementscontainedintheexisting

regulatory framework for commercial communication at the EU level. From these

previous chapters, an important research question follows: how do new advertising

formats and their specific features – i.e. integration, interaction, personalisation and

emotionalappeal–fitwithintheidentifiedregulatoryframework,whilekeepinginmind

children’s rights and principles? In short, this chapter aims to discover any gaps or

overlapsandhighlightwhatlegalelementsareneededtoattainafuture-proofregulatory

frameworkforcommercialcommunication.

SELECTIONOFADVERTISINGFORMATS.Theevaluationconsistsofthreeusecases,whichwere

selectedonthebasisof twofactors: (1)popularityand(2) the levelofrisk itposesto

children’sadvertisingliteracy.Thepopularityoftheformatswasextractedfromstudies

onchildren’sandadolescent’smediause878andtheformsofcommercialcommunication

thatareemployedthemostinthesemedia.879Thesecondfactorwasextractedfromarisk

assessment, todeterminewhichof theseadvertising formatswereperceivedashighly

riskyforchildrenandyoungsters.880Asaresult,thefollowing(bothpopularandrisky)

advertisingformatswereselected:(1)advergames,(2)personalisedadvertisingand(3)

digitalinfluencersandvloggingadvertising.Theseformatsalsoreflectoneormoreofthe

featuresdescribedinthefirstchapterofthefirstpartofthisPhD(i.e.‘emergingtrendsin

theareaofcommercialcommunication’).Eachsectionwillfirstconceptualisethespecific

advertisingformat,thepersuasivetacticsemployedandtheimpactthereofonchildren’s

advertisingliteracy.Referenceismadetothechildren’srightsandprinciplesthatwehave

878Zaroualiandothers,‘MediabezitEn–GebruikBijMinderjarigen.EenRapportinHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(n46).Thestudyshowedforinstancethat70%of3-4yearoldsisalreadyactiveonline,showingtherelevanceofassessingadvertisingtechniquesthataresentviatheinternet.Also,thepopularityofgamingamongstyoungchildren,especiallyboys,wasanelementthatwasconsidered.879DaemsandDePelsmacker(n63).880Vanwesenbeeckandothers(n6).

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analysed in the second chapter of the first part of the PhD. Second, the regulatory

frameworkthatisapplicabletothespecificusecaseoradvertisingformatisevaluated,in

lightoftheserightsandprinciples.Morespecifically,theevaluationconsistsoftwosteps:

(1)evaluatingwhethertheexistingrulesareapplicabletotheselectedadvertisingformat

and(2)evaluatingwhetherthereareanygapsoroverlapsthatwouldhindertheeffective

realisationofchildren’srightsandprinciples.

SECTIONI-ADVERGAMES881

THECONCEPT.A prime example of an advertising format inwhich all four trends could

potentially occur are ‘advergames’. This is an online phenomenon wherein the

commercial message is immersed into the digital gaming content through brand or

productplacement.Advergamesareomnipresent inchildren’sonlineenvironmentsas

theyareinexpensiveandcostonlyafractionoftheexpensesrequiredtolaunchtelevision

advertisements.Oncethegameiscreated(e.g.awebsiteoramobileapp),thereareno

further distribution costs unless the game is updated.882They are highly effective in

capturing children’s attention,whichwouldotherwisebehard to reach thesedays.883

Morespecifically,advergamespresentstimulatingandmotivatingcontent,appealinglay-

outs,fantasy-worldaspectsandgamingelementswhichareallattractivetochildrenand

especiallysuitedtotriggeranemotionalresponsefromthem.884Inaddition,advergames

mayalsobepersonalised,whichmayevenincreasetheiremotionalimpactonthechild.885

Such integrated, interactive, emotions-evokingandpotentiallypersonalisedmarketing

techniques challenge the traditional boundaries set in the context of conventional

881ThissectionofthePhDisanadaptationofthefollowingarticle:Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).882 A. E. Staiano and S. L. Calvert, ‘The Influence of Advergames on Children’s Consumer Choices andBehavior’, Advertising to Children (Palgrave Macmillan, London 2014)<https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137313256_12>accessed9November2017.883 S. M. Grimes, ‘Kids’ Ad Play: Regulating Children’s Advergames in the Converging Media Context’<http://www.academia.edu/183317/Kids_Ad_Play_Regulating_Childrens_Advergames_in_the_Converging_Media_Context>accessed7November2017.884NairnandHang(n87).885Forinstance,GamePill,amarketing-designcompanyphrasesitasfollows:“Gamesofferindividualusersapersonalisedexperience.Itisthisexperiencethatgivesusersahighlevelofengagementandpowerfulrecallthat many brands desire.” Available at http://gamepill.com/gamification-advergaming-transmedia-our-guide-to-game-marketing-terms/.

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advertising and will therefore be assessed in the context of the current regulatory

framework to determine their legality, as well as in light of children’s fundamental

rights.886

1. Integration, interaction, emotional appeal and personalisationmay all be

partofthegame

1.1 Persuasivetacticsandchildren’srightsimplications

PERSUASIVETACTICS.Advergamesarefirstofallcharacterisedbyastronginterplaybetween

commercial and non-commercial or editorial content. 887 We have seen that such a

mixturecanprovetobeconfusingandchildrenareoftenunabletodistinguishbetween

thecommercialmessage(referencetotheproductorservice,oreventhebrand)andthe

non-commercialcontent,incasuthegamingelements(e.g.‘story’,movingfromonelevel

toanother).888Inthisregard,RANEYetal.foundthatifgameplayersarenotawareofthe

advertisementsthatareembeddedwithinthegamestheyplay,theirdefenceswouldbe

lowerandtheyprocesscommercialcommunicationinadifferentmanner.889Inaddition,

research on advergames promoting food brands showed that the immersive and

interactivenatureofthegameshadthepotentialtoinfluencechildren’spreferencesfor

the specific brands, evenwhen they understood the persuasive intent of the game.890

More recently, DE JANS et al. found that children especially requested the advertised

productmoreafterexposuretoanadvergamecomparedtoothernewformatssuchas

sponsored content and they had less understanding of the persuasive intent of

advergames compared to traditional advertising (i.e. television commercial or online

banner).891Advergamesasatechniquemaycapitaliseontheemotionofthegames(i.e.

886SeealsoVerdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).887SeepartIchapterIsection2.2.888Rozendaalandothers(n42).889A.A.Raneyandothers,‘AttheMovies,ontheWeb:AnInvestigationoftheEffectsofEntertainingandInteractiveWebContentonSiteandBrandEvaluations’(2003)17JournalofInteractiveMarketing38.890V.MallinckrodtandD.Mizerski,‘TheEffectsofPlayinganAdvergameonYoungChildren’sPerceptions,Preferences,andRequests’(2007)36JournalofAdvertising87.891Vanwesenbeeckandothers(n6).

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thattheyarefuntoplay)bycreatingpositivebrandawareness892andattitudetowards

the product or service.893Games can improvemoods andwe have seen that those in

positivemoods (i.e. happy) are less likely to process information in a systematic and

criticalwayincomparisontothoseinnegativemoods,thusleavingthemmoreopento

persuasion. 894 Indeed, it appears well established that mood or emotional state

determines how individuals process information and influences whether they do so

superficially or in detail, thereby having consequences on the effect of advertising

campaigns.895Thiseffectisimportantconsideringthatadvergameshaveapositiveeffect

on resulting intended 896 and actual behaviour. 897 Finally, as the advancements in

technologyallow for thepersonalisationof content (i.e. the targetingof certaingames

towardsidentifiedchildren),thismaybeparticularlyworryinggiventhepositiveeffect

of advergames on moods, the corresponding increasing effectiveness of advertising

campaignsandtheconsequencesforchildren’scommercialdecision-making.

ACHILDREN’SRIGHTSPERSPECTIVE.Fromtheanalysisofthechildren’srightsandprinciplesit

followedthat,inthecontextofcommercialcommunication,abalanceisrequiredbetween

protectingchildrenagainstharmfulormisleadingadvertisingandeducatingthemtobe

abletocopewithadvertisinginthedigitalenvironment.Inthecontextofadvergames,of

particularrelevancearethechild’srighttodevelopment(article6UNCRC),linkedwith

interaliatheprotectionagainsteconomicexploitation(article32UNCRC), theright to

play (article 31 UNCRC), the freedom of thought (article 14 UNCRC) and the right to

privacy(article16UNCRC).First,thefactthatchildrendonotrecogniseadvergamesas

havingacommercialpersuasiveintentunderminestheirabilitytoprocessthemessage

critically.Asaresult,childrenfacetheriskofbeingmanipulated.Inrelationtothis,this

thesis supports a broader notionof economic exploitation under the children’s rights

892M.L.Gross,‘AdvergamesandtheEffectsofGame-ProductCongruity’(2010)26ComputersinHumanBehavior1259.893CaubergheandDePelsmacker(n84).894Rozendaalandothers(n42).895Hullett(n124).896MallinckrodtandMizerski(n890).897F.Folkvordandothers,‘TheEffectofPlayingAdvergamesThatPromoteEnergy-DenseSnacksorFruitonActualFoodIntakeamongChildren’(2013)97TheAmericanJournalofClinicalNutrition239.

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framework,toincludeotherformsofexploitationasidefromchildlabour.Second,gaming

andplayhaveanimportantroleinthedevelopmentprocessofchildren.Inthisregard,

newmedia technologies like mobile apps and online games can facilitate access to a

variety of playful and social activities. However, as mentioned above, embedding

commercialmessagesstraightintochildren’sgamingexperiencecouldleadchildrento

normalisethecommercialisationofplay.Inturn,thismayhaveasignificantimpacton

how they think, feel andact in themarketplace.898Finally, the (potential) collectionof

personal data through advergames presents a risk to children’s fundamental rights of

privacy and data protection.899 The best interests of the child principle demands an

adequate protection of children’s privacy andpersonaldata, by giving effect as far as

possible to these fundamental rights. 900 These rights should be balanced with the

interestsofbusinessesandtheirrighttofreedomofcommercialspeech.901Nevertheless,

the child’s best interest principle requires advertisers to take into account a child’s

immaturityandvulnerability,whichdemandsadequateprotectionandcare.

1.2 Blurredlines,mixedemotionsandtheexistingregulatoryframework

CONCEPTUALDISTINCTION.Theanalysisoftheprotectionsoftheregulatoryframeworkinthe

context of advergames can be subdivided according to the conceptual differences

betweenontheonehandtheuseofemotionsinadvertisingtechniques,andontheother

handtheactualinfluenceofsuchemotionsondecisionmaking.902Inrelationtothelatter,

“adecision”(orcontract)mustbemade inorderto invoketheapplicationof the legal

protections(suchasthosefoundintheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirectiveprotecting

consumersfrombeingmisledintransactionaldecisions).Incontrast,theformerfocuses

898E.J.ArnouldandC.J.Thompson,‘ConsumerCultureTheory(CCT):TwentyYearsofResearch’(2005)31JournalofConsumerResearch868.Andthusaffectbothchildren’srightstoplayandtofreedomofthought.899Thisisfurtherdiscussedinthesecondusecaseontargetedadvertising.900Andinwhichpersonaldatahasabroadscope,i.e.anyinformationallowinganindividualtobeidentified,directlyorindirectly,rangingfromanameoverabirthdate,e-mailaddress,IPaddressorphoto.Article29Data ProtectionWorkingParty, ‘Opinion4/2007on the Concept of PersonalData.WP136.’ (2007) 29<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2007/wp136_en.pdf>accessed21November2017.901XandChurchofScientologyv.Sweden(n428).902Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).

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moreontheemotionalappealof theadvergamein itselfandthepotentiallydeceptive

mixingofcommercialandnon-commercialcontenttherein.

1.2.1 The mixing of commercial and non-commercial content and advergames’

emotionalappeal

ADVERGAMESANDTHEIREMOTIONALAPPEAL.Theuseofemotionsinadvertisingcampaignshas

longbeenrecognisedassignificant.Marketersaimtoevokeemotionalresponsesinorder

tocreateawarenessandpositivebrandassociation,andanemotionaldesireforaproduct

orservice.Inthisregard,article18oftheICCConsolidatedCodenotesthatspecificallyin

relationtochildren

“Marketing communications should not suggest that possession or use of the

promotedproductwillgiveachildoryoungpersonphysical,psychologicalorsocial

advantagesoverotherchildrenoryoungpeople,orthatnotpossessingtheproduct

willhavetheoppositeeffect.”

Thisappearstorestrictadvergames’useofemotiontocreateadesireforaproductor

serviceinordertoadvanceinthegame(e.g.requiringthepurchaseofaparticularproduct

inordertogettothenextlevelinthegame).However,itisalsoimportanttonotethat

advergamesasatechniquemaycapitaliseontheemotionofthegames(i.e.thattheyare

funtoplay)bycreatingpositivebrandawareness.Accordingly,theidentificationofsuch

contentneedstobemadeclearinordertoallowtheconsumertomakeinformedchoices

indecisionmakingwithoutbeingunwittinglyinfluenced.

IDENTIFICATION IS THE KEY REQUIREMENT FOR ADVERTISERS. Although the importance of

emotionsandmoodshaslongbeenempiricallyestablishedbymarketersandinvestigated

by communication science researchers, the legal approach toadvertisingandemotion

manipulation has been somewhat mute. According to REED and COALSON, traditional

protections in the context of advertising have focused on deceptive practices and

misrepresentations by marketers. 903 Throughout our mapping exercise, we found

903ReedandCoalson(n112).

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protectionsagainstmisleadingadvertisementsanddeception inboth legislative904and

alternativeregulatoryinstruments.905Inparticular,wediscoveredthattheidentification

principle (i.e. commercial communication needs to be recognisable as such) is the

commonthreadinalloftheseinstruments.However,first,weneedtoquestionwhether

theseinstrumentsapplytoadvergames.

INFORMATIONSOCIETYSERVICES.AttheEUlevel,wefoundthatthee-CommerceDirective906

contains certain provisions relating to commercial communications, 907 which are

applicable to advergames. More specifically, the Directive stipulates that commercial

communications “which are part of, or constitute, an information society service”must

clearly identify promotional competitions or games and present the conditions for

participation in a clear and unambiguousway andmake them easily accessible.908As

mentioned,909servicesfinancedbyadvertising910couldalsofallwithinthedefinitionof

informationsocietyservices911andservicesdonotnecessarilyrequirepaymentbythe

usersthemselves.912

904Thee-CommerceDirective,AVMSDirective,UCPDirective.905E.g.theICCConsolidatedCode.906Themainobjectiveofthis legal instrumentistoestablishaninternalmarketforinformationsocietyservices.Oneofthetopicsthatrequiredregulationandisnecessarytoachievethisobjectiveiscommercialcommunicationsinonlineservices.Directive2000/31/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof8June2000oncertainlegalaspectsofinformationsocietyservices,inparticularelectroniccommerce,intheInternalMarket(Directiveonelectroniccommerce).907UnderArticle2(f)ofthee-CommerceDirective,commercialcommunicationisdefinedas“anyformofcommunicationdesignedtopromote”.Thisdefinitionshouldbeinterpretedbroadlyandentailsbothdirectandindirectpromotion,asawaytopreventcircumventionofthebanoncommercialcommunicationsforcertainproducts(e.g.,tobacco,alcohol).908Article6(d)Directive2000/31/ECof theEuropeanParliamentandof theCouncilof8 June2000oncertainlegalaspectsof informa-tionsocietyservices, inparticularelectroniccommerce, intheInternalMarket(2000)OJL178.Article6(a)e-CommerceDirectivealsorequirescommercialcommunicationingeneraltobeclearlyidentifiableassuch.909SuprapartII,chapterI,sectionIIIofthePhDresearch.910Recital18e-CommerceDirective.911Asareminder,theseservicescanbe“anyservicenormallyprovidedforremuneration,atadistance,byelectronicmeansandattheindividualrequestofarecipientofservices.”Recital18e-CommerceDirective.912GiuseppeSacchi.Referenceforapreliminaryruling:TribunalecivileepenalediBiellavItaly(n689);BondvanAdverteerdersvtheNetherlands(n689).

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AUDIOVISUALMEDIASERVICES.Inadditiontothee-CommerceDirective,theAVMSDirective

wasoutlined,which contains certainprinciplesandsubstantive requirements that are

applicableto‘audiovisualcommercialcommunication’.However,theapplicationofthis

legal instrument to advergames is unlikely. Although advergames in theory could be

interpretedasfallingwithinthedefinitionofanaudiovisualcommercialcommunication

asdefinedbyarticle1(h)AVMSDirective,913recital22stipulatesthatthedefinitionofan

audiovisualmediaservice

“should excludeall services theprincipalpurposeofwhich isnot theprovisionof

programmes,i.e.whereanyaudiovisualcontentismerelyincidentalto theservice

andnotitsprincipalpurpose.”

Therecitalgoesontonotethat

“gamesofchanceinvolvingastakerepresentingasumofmoney,includinglotteries,

bettingandother formsofgamblingservices,aswellasonlinegamesandsearch

engines(…)shouldalsobeexcludedfromthescopeofthisDirective.””

Assuch,theprecisescopeofapplicationoftheDirectiveissomewhatunclearasalthough

advergamesaregamesperse,onecouldarguethatthegameitselfismerelythemeansfor

the delivery of the audiovisual commercial communication.914 In this regard, certain

authorshavearguedinfavouroftheapplicabilityoftheAVMSDirectivetoadvergames,

buttheirargumentsarehardlyconcreteandconvincing.915Ofparticularsignificancefor

advergames would be article 9(1)(a) which bans surreptitious advertising and thus

promotestheprincipleoftransparency.ThefinaltextoftherevisedDirectivedoesnot

provide a clear answer to thematter, but the explicitmentioning of games has been

deleted.

913Asareminder: “Imageswithorwithoutsoundthataredesignedtopromote,directlyor indirectly,thegoods,servicesorimageofanaturalorlegalentitypursuinganeconomicactivity.Suchimagesaccompanyorareincludedinaprogrammeinreturnforpaymentorforsimilarconsiderationorself-promotionalpurposes.Forms of audiovisual commercial communication include, inter alia, television advertising, sponsorship,teleshoppingandproductplacement.”914Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).915SteinerforinstanceclaimsthattheblanketexemptionintheRecitalismerelyameansofinterpretation,andnotpartoftheenforceabletextoftheDirective.ThomasSteiner,‘AdvertisinginOnlineGamesandECAudiovisualMediaRegulation’(SocialScienceResearchNetwork2008)SSRNScholarlyPaperID1101363<https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1101363>accessed22November2017.

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SELF-REGULATION.Similarly,theICCConsolidatedCodeinarticle9emphasisesthefactthat

marketingcommunications“shouldbeclearlydistinguishableassuch,whatevertheirform

andwhateverthemediumused”.Thisarticlegoesontostatethat“whenanadvertisement

appearsinamediumcontainingnewsoreditorialmatter,itshouldbesopresentedthatit

is readily recognisable as an advertisement and the identity of the advertiser should be

apparent”.Particularlyrelevanttoadvergamesisarticle18oftheCode,whichprovides

thatmarketersshouldnotmakeitdifficultforchildrenandyoungpeopletodistinguish

betweenrealityandfantasyandthemarketingcommunicationsaimedatchildrenshould

beeasilydistinguishabletothemassuch.

ADVERTISINGCUESANDADVERTISINGLITERACY.Thus, itcanbeconcludedthatmarketersare

legally required to identifyadvergamesas commercial content, so that consumersare

able tomake informeddecisionswithoutbeingunwittingly influenced. Inpractice, the

principleofidentificationhasledcertainadvertiserstouseatypeoflabelling916or‘cues’

tomakecommercialcontentrecognisable.AccordingtovanREIJMERSDALetal.,disclosing

thecommercialnatureofadvergamesallowsthoseinapositivemoodtobecomemore

criticaloftheadvertisingmessagefollowingdisclosureofthecommercialintent.917More

specifically,

“thedisclosuremadethemmoreawareofthepersuasivenatureoftheadvergameas

indicatedbyhigherpersuasionknowledge,which in turn ledtomorebrandrecall

andmorenegativegameandbrandattitudesthanwithoutadisclosure.Theseresults

seem to indicate that, with a disclosure, people in a positive mood process the

advergameonamoreelaborateandcriticallevelthanwithoutadisclosure.Inthis

situation, disclosures activate people’s persuasion knowledge; that is, their

916Forinstance,Facebookusestheterm‘sponsored’foradvertisingmessagesthatappearinthenewsfeedofFacebookusers.A‘SponsoredStory’isamixbetweenuser-generatedcontentandpro-motionalcontent.Auser’sactionrelatedtoapromotionalmessageisshownwithapromotionalmessagein‘NewsFeed’,seeB. Van Alsenoy and others, ‘From SocialMedia Service to Advertising Network - A Critical Analysis ofFacebook’sRevisedPoliciesandTerms’<https://www.law.kuleuven.be/citip/en/news/item/facebooks-revised-policies-and-terms-v1-2.pdf>.917E.A.vanReijmersdalandothers,‘DisclosingthePersuasiveNatureofAdvergames:ModerationEffectsofMoodonBrandResponsesviaPersuasionKnowledge’(2015)34InternationalJournalofAdvertising70.

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knowledgeaboutthecommercialsourceandpersuasiveintentoftheadvergame.”918

Theauthorsfoundthatasthoseinnegativemoodswerealreadycriticaloftheadvergame

theyweremoreaware and, asa result, thedisclosureof theadvergame’s commercial

naturefailedtohaveadiscernibleimpactincontrasttothoseinpositivemoods.Thelink

betweenemotionsanddecisionmakingisthereforesignificantanditseemsapparentthat

disclosing the commercial intent of advergames and adequately identifying the

commercialcontent,canallowtheconsumertobecomemoreawareandcriticalofthe

marketingmessage.919Inlinewiththesefindings,DEPAUWetal.foundthatchildrencan

beempoweredbyexplainingthemwhereto look foradvertisingtacticsandhowthey

operate (e.g. by an advertising cue). The authors argued that an increased tactic

awarenessandcomprehensionofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationwouldallow

children to make a conscious decision about commercial products or services. 920

According to HUDDERS et al., identification of the commercial message is a necessary

preconditionforadvertisingliteracytohaveaneffect.921

LIMITSTOTHEIDENTIFICATIONPRINCIPLE.Fromasubstantiveperspective,theintegrationof

thecommercialandnon-commercialcontentpresentsaclearchallengeinrelationtothe

identification principle. Although the industry has created several labels and tools to

signpostcommercialcontentandenhancetransparency,thesetoolswillonlybeeffective

if all factors are considered. This includes elements such as cross-media use (where

uniform labels are used across different media and different advertising formats),

adoptionprocessesbyusersorviewers,specificcognitivecharacteristicsand levelsof

advertisingliteracyofspecificusergroups(suchasminors)andregularmonitoringof

efficiency. 922 Recent studies on the effectiveness of the current standard of

918Reijmersdalandothers(n917).919Verdoodt,CliffordandLievens(n7).920Morespecifically,childrenwereable to takeintoaccount theperspectiveofotherchildren,whichisessentialtoformawell-balancedmoraljudgementaboutadvertising.DePauwandothers(n60).921Huddersandothers,‘SheddingNewLightonHowAdvertisingLiteracyCanAffectChildren’sProcessingofEmbeddedAdvertisingFormats’(n1).922D.CliffordandV.Verdoodt,‘IntegrativeAdvertising:TheMarketing’darkSide’orMerelytheEmperor’sNew Clothes?’ (2017) 8 European Journal of Law and Technology <http://ejlt.org/article/view/547>accessed8August2017.

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implementationofthisrequirementshowedthatdisclosurecharacteristicsmayhavean

important impact on visual attention of individuals and in turn visual attention on

advertisingrecognition.ROOZENDAALandVANREIJMERSDALstressthatdisclosurescanonly

contributetoincreasedtransparencyifviewersseethedisclosure,understanditandare

given the opportunity to process it (i.e. store it in theirmemory).923In order for this

process to be successful, the disclosure needs to be formulated in clear and

understandablelanguageanddesignedandplacedinsuchamannerthatviewerseasily

spotit.Inaddition,WOJDYNSKIandEVANSdiscoveredthattheoftenusedwords‘sponsored’

or ‘advertising’ led in fact to greater advertising recognition, compared to vague

disclosure language. However, in a second study, the authors analysed the actual

placementoftheadvertisingcueandfoundthatthetechniqueoftenusedbyindustry(i.e.

the top-placed disclosure) was seen as relatively ineffective in attracting the visual

attentionoftheconsumer.924Conversely,amiddle-positioneddisclosureoradisclosure

within the content could be more effective in garnering attention and increasing

consumer awareness. 925 These studies highlight the need for a more structured,

standardisedandevidence-basedapproachtothe implementationof the identification

requirement. The lack of qualitative criteria and standards for assessing advertising

disclosuresorcuesinpracticeallowsforawideberthofinterpretationbytheadvertising

industry.

1.2.2 Deception,personalisationandinfluenceddecisionmaking

ADVERGAMESANDTHEUCPDIRECTIVE.Inaddition,itisimportanttodiscussadvergamesin

lightoftheconsumerprotectionmechanismswedescribedinthepreviouschapter.More

specifically, the UCP Directive protects consumers - including children - from unfair

business-to-consumer commercial practices. As described above such commercial

practicesincludeadvertisingandmarketingbyatrader,ifthecommercialmessagecauses

923EstherRozendaalandEvaAvanReijmersdal,‘HoeKandeTransparantievanReclameinOnlineVideo’sVergrootWorden Voor Minderjarigen? Een Literatuuronderzoek Naar de Effecten van Vermeldingen’<https://www.cvdm.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Literatuuronderzoek-Transparantie-Rozendaal-Van-Reijmersdal.pdf>accessed23November2017.924B.W.Wojdynski andN. J. Evans, ‘GoingNative: Effects of Disclosure Position and Language on theRecognitionandEvaluationofOnlineNativeAdvertising’(2016)45JournalofAdvertising157.925WojdynskiandEvans(n924).

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theconsumertotakeadecisionthatheorshewouldnototherwisehavetaken.926The

Directivestipulatesthatcommercialcommunicationneedstobe“directlyconnectedwith

the promotion, sale or supply of a product to consumers”.927In this regard, it could be

questioned whether branding (e.g. promoting a brand’s image rather than a specific

product)wouldalsofallunderthedefinition,asitdoesnotdirectlypromoteaproduct.

According to TRZASKOWSKI, this exclusion does not seem to be intended by the EU

legislators, yet it does complicatemarketing regulation unnecessarily.928The average

consumer will be the benchmark for assessing if an advergame aimed at children is

unfair.929Especially in relation to vulnerable consumers930such as children, who are

particularly susceptible to advertising, the assessmentwould be carried out from the

perspectiveoftheaveragememberofthatparticulargroup.931Theactualassessmentof

determiningwhatatypicalreactionofachildwouldbeinrelationtoaspecificadvergame

isleftuptothenationalcourtsandauthorities,whiletakingintoaccountthecaselawof

theCJEU.

PROVIDINGADVERGAMESWITHOUTDISCLOSURE.TheUCPDirectiveprotectsconsumersagainst

deception (either through a misleading practice or an ommission) by traders. If an

advertisertargetsanadvergametochildren,deliberatelywithoutprovidinginformation

on the commercial nature of the game (e.g. a label or disclosure), this could perhaps

qualifyasanommission.Moreover,inthepreviouschapter,itwasdiscussedhowtheUCP

Directive has a blacklist of commercial practices which are under all circumstances

prohibited.Oneofthesepracticesareadvertisementsthatuseeditorialcontentforthe

promotionofaproduct,whereatraderhaspaidforthepromotionbutdoesnotmakethis

926Art.2(d)inconjunctionwithArt.5UCPD.927Article2(e)UCPDirective.928J.Trzaskowski,‘User-GeneratedMarketing–LegalImplicationsWhenWord-of-MouthGoesViral’(2011)19InternationalJournalofLawandInformationTechnology348.929 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).930Chiarella(n557).931Recital 19 UCP Directive.We have also seen that there is a two-step criterion for determining theunfairnessofaparticularadvertisingtechnique:first,thelackofprofessionaldiligenceofthetraderandsecond,theinfluenceontheeconomicbehaviouroftheconsumer.Henning-Bodewig(n546).

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clear in the content or by accompanying images or sounds that would be clearly

identifiablefortheuser.932Thus,itisarguedthatprovidinganadvergamewithoutsome

sortoflabellingofitscommercialintentcouldalsofallwithintheblack-listedmisleading

practice.

CHILDREN AND TRADITIONAL CONTRACTUAL PROTECTIONS. Aside from general consumer

protectionmechanismsprotecting informedcommercialdecision-making, it shouldbe

noted that traditionally there are additional legal protections for children. More

specifically, protections for children have focused on their capacity to contract. For

instance, incommonlawonlycertaincontractswithminorsareentirelyvalid,namely

contracts for necessaries and beneficial contracts of service. All other contracts are

voidable at the option of the minor reflecting their vulnerable status and restricted

capacitytocontract.Similarprotectionshaveevolvedincivillawjurisdictions,theextent

ofwhichisdependentonwhetherornottheminorhasreachedthenecessarylevelof

discernment.933However,itshouldbenotedthatsuchprotectionsfailtoadequatelydeal

with the emotional conditioning nature of advergames as they focus on the actual

purchasingratherthantheestablishingoftheparticulardesireforaproductorservice.

Asaresulttheymayhaverestrictedapplicationasthemereprovisionofadvertisingdoes

notinitselfcreateacontractualrelationshipasitwouldconstituteanoffer.

PERSONALISATION.Advergamescanalsobeusedasmechanismsforgatheringpersonaldata

withaccessto thegamepotentiallyconditionalupontheprovisionof this information

thus forminganagreement.As such, it canbeargued that the contractualprotections

mentioned above could be applicable in such a context. Advergames could present a

means of gathering children’s valuable personal data in exchange for the accessing of

content services. Such data gathering and its application present additional risks to

children given the increase in computing capacity. With the proliferation of digital

932AnnexI,point28and11oftheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective.933For instance,according to theBelgianCivil Code, if aminor has not reached the necessary level ofdiscernment(i.e.12yearsold),anylegalactionswouldbeinvalid.Thismeansthatthecourtisobligedtodeclaretheagreementinvalidonrequestoftheparentsortheconcernedminor,whereasthecontractingpartycannotrequestinvalidation(Article1125BelgianCivilCode).Iftheminorhasreachedthenecessarylevelofdiscernment,itwilldependontheimpactofthelegalaction,aswellasonwhetherornottheactionprejudicedtheminor(Article410BelgianCivilCode).

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technologies,childrenareincreasinglygainingaccesstotheinternetwheretheyactas

consumerstherebyengagingincontractualagreementsonamuchmorefrequentbasis.

Although online contracts involving monetary consideration should practically

necessitate adult participation (i.e. as children generally do not have access to online

paymentmethods),contractsinvolvingnon-monetaryconsideration(e.g.accesstosocial

media inexchange forpersonaldataasconsideration)oftenslipundertheradar.This

reflects the general public’s lack of awareness of the underlying legal significance

associatedwithonlinebrowsing.Suchdatagatheringinvokestheapplicationofthedata

protectionandprivacyframeworkandallowsforthepersonalisedtargetingofmarketing

campaigns. Targeting childrenwith personalised advertising forms a second use case,

whichwillbediscussedinthenextsection.

2. Identifiedgapsoroverlaps

LEGALLYCOMPLIANT,BUTNOTCHILD-FRIENDLY?Fromouranalysis,itcanbeconcludedthata

myriadofprovisionsapply in thecontextofadvergames,presentinganumberof legal

issues. This jigsawreflects the complex nature of the area and the various competing

interests involved. Having traced and applied the framework, it appears difficult to

concludethatadvergames intheircurrent formasamechanismforadvertisingarede

factocompliant.Giventheirrelianceonthemergingandblurringofcommercialandnon-

commercialcontent,thereisamisalignmentbetweenmodernadvertisingpracticesand

traditional consumer protection standards. However, it remains unclear why such

practiceshaveescapedscrutiny.Scalabilityvis-à-visinvestigationsontheenforcementof

legalrequirementsinanonlineenvironmentremainsanissueinthisregard.Thismay

provide someexplanation,nevertheless itdoesnotprovidea justification tonot truly

assessthelegalityofthispracticeandtolegislateforthesocialimplicationsassociated

withsuchinvasivemeansofadvertising.Moreover,giventheimportanceofdata-driven

business models and the emergence of increased personalisation, the gathering of

children’spersonaldataandthepotentialforthepersonalisationofadvergamesraises

concernswhichneedtobeaddressed.Thisisnottoconclude,however,thatadvergames

areinvariablyinviolationofthelegalrequirements.Indeeditmaybepossibletosatisfy

therequirementsfromapurelylegalperspective,butfromachildren’srightsperspective

regardmustbehadforbestpracticerecommendations.

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NEEDFORSTANDARDDISCLOSURESANDQUALITATIVEREQUIREMENTS.Advergamespresentclear

challenges as they involve the mixing of commercial and non-commercial content,

renderingitdifficultforconsumersingeneral,andchildreninparticular,toadequately

recognise the marketing purpose. The identification principle requires that even

integrated advertisements need to be recognisable as such. However, a consistent

interpretationofhowtoimplementthisidentificationrequirementiscurrentlymissing.

The creation of labelsor cues indicating the commercial nature of an advergame and

enhancing transparency about commercial motives could be a possible solution.

However, thedevelopmentofsuchtechniqueswouldneedtotake intoaccountall the

different elements, including findings from social science studies. Moreover, such

qualitativeadvertisingstandardsshouldbeadoptedinacollaborativemanner,byvarious

responsibleregulatoryauthoritiesandtheadvertisingindustry.

ADVERTISINGLITERACY.Inordertoadequatelydealwiththeseissues,acomprehensiveand

collaborative solution is required. It is crucial to ensure that the next generation of

internet users is better educated and prepared for coping with new advertising

techniques.Inthisregard,itshouldbenotedthatadvertisingliteracydoesnotendwith

identification.Usersmustalsobeaidedinordertohelpthemunderstandthepersuasive

intent of commercial communications. Such advertising-literacy development would

allow users to critically evaluate commercial communications and understand their

persuasiveintent.934

PRECAUTION IS BETTER THAN CURE. From an ethical point of view, it has been questioned

whether it is acceptable or responsible to target young consumers with commercial

messages,iftheydonotrecognisethemassuch.935Eventhoughthereiscurrentlylittle

evidence for a causal link between the emergence of new means of advertising and

targeting (such as advergames) and negative sociological developments (e.g., obesity

amongstchildren),itisnecessarytoconsideraprecautionaryapproachinthecontextof

children.Hence,theimportanceofthismatterextendsbeyondapurelylegalanalysisand

934CliffordandVerdoodt(n922).935AustinandReed(n217).

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requiresabalancingofsocio-economicinterests,whichalegislativeframeworkshould

reflect,inordertoalignitselfwithchildren’srightsandthechild’sbestinterestsprinciple.

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SECTIONII-TARGETINGCHILDRENWITHPERSONALISEDADVERTISING936

THE CONCEPT. Increased computing capabilities allow commercial entities to track

children’sonlinebehaviourandpreferences,onthebasisofwhichtheyarethenprofiled

andtargetedwithtailoredmarketingcampaigns.937Whiletheadvertisingindustryargues

that personalised advertising (e.g. online behavioural advertising or location-based

advertising) is more relevant and efficient,938 the tracking, profiling and targeting of

childrenmayraisesignificantquestionsfromachildren’srightsperspective.

1. Personalisation:Tracking,profilingandtargeting,threedifferentsteps

Beforepersonalisedadvertisementsaretargetedatchildren,achainofeventstakesplace.

TRACKING. First, children’s personal data are collected, on the basis of which the

commercialmessagemaybetailored.Forinstance,foronlinebehaviouraladvertising939

–aspecificformofpersonalisedadvertising–thiswouldbethetrackingormonitoringof

children’sonlinebehaviour.940Itmayconsistinteraliaoftrackingtheirsearchhistory,

media consumption (e.g. videos,songs,newsarticles) andcommunicationdata.941The

majorityofexistingonlinetrackingtechnologiesarebasedoncookies,orusecookiesas

936ThissectionofthePhDisanadaptationofthefollowingbookchapter:VerdoodtandLievens(n3).937PewInternetandAmericanLifeProject,‘Teens,privacyandonlinesocialnetworks–HowteensmanagetheironlineidentitiesandpersonalinformationintheageofMySpace’(2007).938 H. Beales, ‘The Value of Behavioral Targeting’ (2010) 1 Network Advertising Initiative<https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e2eb/6726f5a29d9c14dafaf056be9a3ade877b0a.pdf> accessed 24October2017;Boerman,KruikemeierandZuiderveenBorgesius(n102).939 BOERMAN et al. define online behavioural advertising as: “the practice of monitoring people’s onlinebehaviour and using the collected information to show people individually targeted advertisements”.Boerman,KruikemeierandZuiderveenBorgesius(n103).AccordingtotheIABEuropeFramework,OBAis“thecollectionofdatafromaparticularcomputerordeviceregardingwebviewingbehavioursovertimeandacrossmultiplewebdomainsnotundercommoncontrolforthepurposeofusingsuchdatatopredictwebuserpreferences or interests to deliver online advertising to that particular computer or device based on thepreferences or interests inferred from suchweb viewingbehaviours.” Seealso: Article 29WorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2010ononlinebehaviouraladvertising’(2010)WP171.940Otherformsincludelocation-basedadvertisingorfor instancesocialadsincludingfriends’names,oradvertisingbasedonotherelementssuchasaperson’sage,sex,etc.941 Frederik J Zuiderveen Borgesius, ‘Mensen Aanwijzen Maar Niet Bij Naam Noemen: BehaviouralTargeting, Persoonsgegevens En de Nieuwe Privacyverordening’ [2016] Tijdschrift voorConsumentenrechtenhandelspraktijken<https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/1786>accessed17October2017.

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thebackbone.942KOSTAclarifiesthatcookiesarefilesthatcontaincertaininformationon

specificusersandtheirinterestsandpreferences.943Theinformationistransmittedvia

the cookie froma server to thewebbrowserof theuserandbackeach time theuser

accessesaserver’spageusingthesamebrowser.Asaresult,KOSTAexplains,thewebsite

‘knows’whatlanguageorthetypeofadvertisingspecifiedusersprefer.944Otherpopular

technologies include plugins and device fingerprinting. 945 In 2015, an international

network of data protection authorities conducted a privacy sweep of 1494 children’s

websites and apps, which showed that 67% of the websites and apps were in fact

collecting children’s personal data and 50% shared this personal data with third

parties.946

PROFILING.Asecondstepthatformspartoftheservingofpersonalisedadvertisingconsists

ofprofiling.Profilingcanbeunderstoodasadataminingmethod,which involvesdata

harvestingandconversionofdata intoprofiles.Morespecifically,BOSCOetal.describe

profilingasan(semi-)automatedprocesstoexamine largedatasets inordertocreate

classesorcategoriesofcharacteristics.947Thecategoriescanbeusedtogenerateprofiles

(i.e. sets of correlated data) of inter alia individuals, groups or places. Subsequently,

statisticalmethodscanbeusedtogenerateanalyticalinformationregardingfuturetrends

or topredict futurebehavioursordevelopments. Inotherwords,profiling transforms

dataintoanewformofknowledge,byidentifyingpatternsthatareinvisibletothehuman

eye.948A similar definitionwas adopted in the Recommendation of the Committee of

942G.SkoumaandL.Léonard,‘On-LineBehavioralTracking:WhatMayChangeaftertheLegalReformonPersonal Data Protection’, Reforming European Data Protection Law (Springer 2015)<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9385-8_2> accessed 11 August 2017;ZuiderveenBorgesius,‘PersonalDataProcessingforBehaviouralTargeting’(n95);Kosta(n95).943Kosta(n95).944Kosta(n95).945 I. Altaweel, N. Good and C. J. Hoofnagle, ‘Web Privacy Census’ [2015] Technology Science<https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2703814>accessed25October2017.946GlobalPrivacyEnforcementNetwork(n96).947F.Boscoandothers,‘ProfilingTechnologiesandFundamentalRightsandValues:RegulatoryChallengesandPerspectivesfromEuropeanDataProtectionAuthorities’,ReformingEuropeanDataProtectionLaw(Springer2015)<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9385-8_1>accessed11August2017.,4.948M.Hildebrandt,‘Profiling:FromDatatoKnowledge’(2006)30DatenschutzundDatensicherheit-DuD548;ClaudeCastelluccia,‘BehaviouralTrackingontheInternet:ATechnicalPerspective’inSergeGutwirth

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Ministers of the Council of Europe on the protection of individuals with regard to

automatic processing of personal data in the context of profiling.949According to that

Recommendation, profiling is an automatic data processing technique that consists of

applyinga‘profile’toanindividual,particularlyinordertotakedecisionsconcerningher

orhimor foranalysingorpredictingherorhispersonalpreferences,behavioursand

attitudes.950ThisRecommendationspecifiesthatprofilingentailsthatdataonindividual

behaviour or characteristics are collected, are then analysed to correlate certain

behaviour(alcharacteristics),withthiscorrelationsubsequentlyappliedtoanidentified

oridentifiablepersoninordertodeductprevious,currentorfuturecharacteristics.951

TARGETING. Third, on the basis of a specific consumer profile, advertisers tailor their

commercialmessagestohaveamorepersuasiveeffect.Messagesaretargetedatpersons,

includingchildren,whohavebeenprofiledaspotentiallyinterestedinorreceptivetothe

productsorservicesthatarepromoted.


PERSUASIVE TACTICS. In the first chapter of the first part of the PhD, we analysed the

emerging trends in the area of commercial communication and the persuasive tactics

employed under each of these trends. One of these trends was the emergence of

personalisedadvertisingformats,suchasonlinebehaviouraltargetingorlocation-based

targeting.Itwasconcludedthatadvertisementsthatcorrespondwiththeinterestsand

behavioursofconsumersleadtomorepositivebrandattitudes.952Inaddition,consumers

–andinparticularchildrenandyoungsters-aremostlyunawareofthedataprocessing

practices behind the advertisements and have a really low understanding of the

and others (eds), European Data Protection: In Good Health? (Springer Netherlands 2012)<http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/978-94-007-2903-2_2>accessed16October2017.949CouncilofEurope,‘TheProtectionofIndividualswithRegardtoAutomaticProcessingofPersonalDataintheContextofProfiling’(n803).950CouncilofEurope,‘TheProtectionofIndividualswithRegardtoAutomaticProcessingofPersonalDataintheContextofProfiling’(n803).We951Thisdefinitionalsocorresponds to thedefinitionprovidedbyarticle4 (4)of theGDPRasdiscussedsupra.952Calvert(n67).;Caubergheandothers(n28).

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persuasion tacticsused.Asa result, childrenareunable tomakea critical commercial

decision or decision related to their privacy,making personalised advertising formats

particularlyeffective.953

ACHILDREN’SRIGHTSPERSPECTIVE.Fromouranalysisofthechildren’srightsframework,954

weconcludedthat the largelyopaquepracticesandtechniquesemployed,pairedwith

children’s low level of advertising literacy vis-à-vis personalised advertising affects a

number of children’s rights. 955 First, the creation of profiles may negatively impact

children’s development, as the collection and use of personal data for the purpose of

profilingmayunderminetheirrightstoexperimentwithandcriticallyreflectupontheir

interactions.956Moreover, the lackof controlby childrenovertheirpersonaldatamay

harmtheircapacities todevelop,get toknowandexperimentwiththeirownidentity.

Second,childrenhavedifficultiesunderstandingtheconceptofcommercialprivacyand

targeted advertising techniques. 957 In this regard, personalised advertisements may

shapechildren’spreferencesandinterests,whichessentiallyaffectstheirdevelopment,

autonomyandfreedomofthought.958Third,thecollectionofchildren’spersonaldataand

usingitorresellingitforadvertisingpurposescanbeperceivedasaformofeconomic

exploitation.959Finally, inallactionsconcerningchildrentheirbest interestsshouldbe

theprimaryconsideration(article3UNCRC).960TheprinciplealsorequiresthatStates

mustensurethatthebestinterestsofthechildaretakenasaprimaryconsiderationin

decisionsandactionsundertakenby theprivate sector. In the contextofpersonalised

953Boerman,KruikemeierandZuiderveenBorgesius(n103).954PartI,ChapterII,SectionII,2.4.955Includinginteraliachildren’srighttodevelopment(article6UNCRC),righttoprivacy(article16UNCRC)andrighttoprotectionagainsteconomicexploitation(article32UNCRC).956ArielyandBerns(n119).Forinstance,theremaybechillingeffectsiftheyknowtheyarebeing‘watched’,whichlimitsthemintheircommunicationwithfriendsandtheirparticipationonline.957OfcomOfficeofCommunications(n472);Lievensandothers(n16);Zaroualiandothers,‘Adolescents’Advertising Competences and Institutional Privacy Protection Strategies on Social Networking Sites:ImplicationsforRegulation’(n110).958Savirimuthu(n475).959S.vanderHof,‘IAgree,orDoI:ARights-BasedAnalysisoftheLawonChildren’sConsentintheDigitalWorld’(2016)34Wis.Int’lLJ409,123.960 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 5 (2003) General Measures ofImplementationoftheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(Arts.4,42and44,Para.6)’(n243)para45.

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advertising, this could be interpreted as requiring that the parties involved in the

advertisingchainmustconsiderthebestinterestsofchildrenwhenprofilingchildren,and

tailoringandtargetingtheiradvertisementstothisparticulargroupofconsumers.

ADVERTISERS’ INTERESTS. These considerations should be offset against the fact that

advertisingrevenueallowsforthedevelopmentofchildren’smediacontentanddigital

platforms. At the moment, the dominant business model for online services remains

advertising-based. Users often do not have to pay for the services, but in exchange

personalinformationarecollectedandadvertisementsarepartoftheenvironment.As

such,thecreationofcontentandonlinespacesenablestheexerciseofotherchildren’s

rights, including inter alia their right to information, to access and to participation in

digitalmedia.Moreover,forchildrentogrowuptobecritical,informedconsumers,within

these spaces they should have the opportunity to develop and practice advertising

literacyskillswhichareneededtomakebalancedcommercialdecisions.Theregulatory

frameworkinplace,encompassingbothself-regulationandlegislation,shouldenablethe

reconciliation of the interests of children and advertisers in relation to personalised

advertising.

1.2 Personalisedadvertisinginthecurrentregulatoryframework

1.2.1 Collectingandprocessingofchildren’spersonaldataundertheGDPRandthe

proposedePrivacyRegulation

TWOEUINSTRUMENTS.Inthepreviouschapter,wefoundthatattheEUlevel,thecollection

andprocessingofchildren’sdataiscoveredbytheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation

and the ePrivacy Directive. The GDPR pays particular attention to children and

acknowledgesthattheymerit‘specificprotection’regardingtheirpersonaldataandthat

the processing of children’s personal data may result in risks to their rights and

freedoms.961Suchspecificprotectionshouldbeawardedtochildrenespeciallywhentheir

personaldataareprocessedinthecontextofmarketingandprofiling,orinrelationto

servicesoffereddirectlytoachild.962Advertisersthatwanttoprocesschildren’spersonal

961Recital75GDPR.962Recital38GDPR.

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dataforthedeliveryofpersonalisedadvertising963willhavetocomplywiththeprinciples

and requirements for data controllers and the specific protections for children in the

GDPR.964

LEGITIMATEGROUNDFORPROCESSING.Oneof theserequirementsentails thatpersonaldata

may only be processed to the extent that there is a ‘legitimate ground’ justifying the

processing.965Inthecontextofpersonalisedadvertising,theconsentofthedatasubject966

orthelegitimateinterestofthecontrollerarepossiblelegitimationgrounds.Iftheformer

isrelieduponasalegitimategroundforprocessingchildren’spersonaldata,article8of

the GDPR requires verifiable parental consent for the processing of personal data of

childrenunder16(orlower967)inthecontextof‘informationsocietyservices’968directly

offeredtoachild.969Regardingthe latterground,recital47GDPRspecifies that ‘direct

marketing’ may constitute a legitimate interest for the controller and hence offer a

legitimationgroundother than the consentof thedata subject.970This,however,must

entailacarefulbalancingofthelegitimateinterestofthecontrolleragainsttheinterests,

fundamental rights and freedoms of children. 971 If children are involved, the GDPR

963Ithasbeenarguedbybehaviouraltargetingcompaniesthat,aslongastheydonottienamestodatatheyhold about individuals, they do not process any personal data, and that, therefore, the data protectionframeworkdoesnotapplytothem.ZUIDERVEENBORGESIUS,however,arguesthatwhendataisusedtosingleoutanindividualtotargethimorherwithtailoredadvertising,thedataprotectionlegislationshouldapply:Zuiderveen Borgesius, ‘Mensen Aanwijzen Maar Niet Bij Naam Noemen: Behavioural Targeting,PersoonsgegevensEndeNieuwePrivacyverordening’(n941).964Seesupra:PartII,ChapterI,SectionIII,1.2-1.3.965Article6GDPR.966Theconsenthastobefreelygiven,specific,informedandunambiguous.Thedefinitionofconsentcanbefoundinrecital32GDPRandarticle4(11)GDPR.967Inthepreviouschapter,wehaveseenthatMemberStatesmaylowerthisthresholdtoaminimumof13years.Foramappingoftherecentnationalguidanceandproposals inthiscontext,seeEvaLievensandMilda Milkaite, ‘Better Internet for Kids - Age of Consent in the GDPR: Updated Mapping’ (2017)<https://www.betterinternetforkids.eu/web/portal/practice/awareness/detail?articleId=2019355>accessed26July2018.968 Information society services (e.g. social media, search engines, apps) often rely on personalisedadvertisingasanessentialelementoftheirbusinessmodel.969FormoreinformationseeE.LievensandV.Verdoodt,‘LookingforNeedlesinaHaystack:KeyChildren’sRightsIssuesintheGeneralDataProtectionRegulation’[2017]ComputerLaw&SecurityReview.970Recital47GDPR.971Inthisregard,MACENAITEandKOSTAarguethatthisprocessinggroundpotentiallyprotectschildrenmorethanrelyingonconsent,shoulddatacontrollersfullyconsiderall factorsofdataprocessingandensurechildren’sinterestsandfundamentalrightsaredulytakenintoaccount.MacenaiteandKosta(n760).

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clarifiesthattheirinterestsmayoverridethoseofthecontrollermoreeasily,implyinga

heavier responsibility for controllersusing thisground forprocessing (article6,1) (f)

GDPR). Yet, in relation to directmarketing it has been argued by theBelgian Privacy

Commissionthatobtainingconsentremainsabestpractice.972Alsoinrelationtoonline

behavioural advertising it has been argued by scholars that consent is the only

appropriatelegitimationgroundfortheprocessingofpersonaldata.973

PROCESSINGCHILDREN’SCOMMUNICATIONSDATA.Advertisersthatemploytrackingtechnologies

such as cookies974and process children’s communications data also have to take into

accounttherulesof theePrivacy framework.Asanalysed inthepreviouschapter, this

legalframeworkiscurrentlybeingreviewedanditisexpectedthattheproposedePrivacy

Regulation(whichwillreplacetheePrivacyDirective)willbringaboutimportantchanges

fortheplayersinvolvedintargetedadvertising.Morespecifically,itwashighlightedthat

theproposedRegulationwillrequire the same typeof consentas in theGDPR for the

placementandaccessingofcookiesortheuseofothertrackingtechnologies(e.g.device

fingerprinting).975Inthisregard,theEuropeanParliamenthasproposedanamendment

requiringthatusersaretobeprovidedwithgranularsettingsforconsent,distinguishing

between different categories: (1) tracking for commercial purposes or for direct

marketingfornon-commercialpurposes(e.g.behaviouraladvertising);(2)trackingfor

personalisedcontent;(3)trackingforanalyticalpurposes;(4)trackingoflocationdata;

972 Belgian Privacy Commission, ‘Recommendation No. 02/2013 of 30 January 2013 Regarding DirectMarketing and the Protection of Personal Data’ (2013) 12<https://www.privacycommission.be/sites/privacycommission/files/documents/aanbeveling_02_2013.pdf>accessed14November2017.973ZuiderveenBorgesius,‘PersonalDataProcessingforBehaviouralTargeting’(n95).974Article5(3)oftheDirectiveprovidesthattheinstallationofandaccesstocookiesonusersterminalequipment(e.g.smartphones,laptops)isonlyallowedwiththeirconsent,exceptfor‘functionalcookies’or‘similartechnologies’.975Art.7(4)oftheGDPRrequiresconsenttobe‘freelygiven,specific,informedandunambiguous’andmustbeexpressedbywayofa‘statementorbyaclearaffirmativeaction.’Recital20oftheParliament’sdraftlegislative resolutionrequiresin relation to tracking that “users should receiveall informationabouttheintendedprocessing inclearandeasilyunderstandable language.”EUROPEANPARLIAMENT,Draft legislativeresolutionontheproposalforaregulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilconcerningtherespect forprivate lifeand theprotectionofpersonaldata inelectroniccommunicationsandrepealingDirective 2002/58/EC (Regulation on Privacy and Electronic Communications), 23 October 2017,http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A8-2017-0324&language=EN(hereafter“EPDraftLegislativeResolution”).

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(5) providingpersonal data to third parties (including providing unique identifiers to

match with personal data held by third parties). 976 Furthermore, one of the other

amendmentsexplicitlystatesthattheRegulationshouldpreventtheuseoftrackingor

cookiewalls(i.e.abarrier thatuserscanonlypass if theyconsentto trackingbythird

parties)977.AccordingtotheEP,“trackingwallsdonothelpuserstomaintaincontrolover

theirpersonalinformationandprivacyorbecomeinformedabouttheirrights”.978

NO SPECIFIC PROTECTION FORCHILDREN INTHE EPRIVACY FRAMEWORK.Yet,whereas theGDPR

explicitlyrecogniseschildrenasavulnerablegroupofindividualsthatdeservespecific

protectionwhenitcomestotheprocessingoftheirpersonaldata,especiallyinthecontext

of profiling and marketing, the analysis above highlighted the fact that neither the

EuropeanCommission’sproposalforanePrivacyRegulation,northeEP’samendments

contained any references to children. 979 With children being increasingly targeted

directlybyservicestailoredtoayoungaudienceitwouldonlymakesensetoalignthe

proposedRegulationwiththeGDPR,byrecognisingthatchildrenneedspecificprotection

whenitcomestotheprocessingoftheircommunicationsdata.980Asmentionedabove,

researchhas shown that childrenhave littleornoknowledgeorunderstandingof the

tracking technologies used and the extent and sensitivity of the data collected for

personalisedadvertising.981These findings resonate in theviewpointof theArticle29

WorkingParty,whoarguedin2013thatinthebestinterestofthechildcompanies“should

notprocesschildren’spersonaldataforbehaviouraladvertisingpurposes,neitherdirectly

nor indirectly, as thiswill be outside the scope of a child’s understanding and therefore

exceed the boundaries of lawful processing”. 982 Moreover, it has been argued in this

976Recital23EPDraftLegislativeResolution.977F.J.ZuiderveenBorgesiusandothers,‘TrackingWalls,Take-It-Or-Leave-ItChoices,theGDPR,andtheEPrivacyRegulation’(2017)3EuropeanDataProtectionLawReview353.978Recital22EPDraftLegislativeResolution.979Mostnotably,article8GDPRisnotreflectedintheproposal.980VerdoodtandLievens(n3).981Thisincludesareferencetothespecificstandardofconsentasintroducedbyarticle8GDPR.982Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion02/2013onAppsonSmartDevices,WP202’(n730)26;Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2010onOnlineBehaviouralAdvertisingWP171’(n753).

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context, for instance by BEUC, that specific limitations on the collection and use of

children’scommunicationdataareneeded.983IntheOpinionoftheEPCommitteeonthe

InternalMarketandConsumerProtection,984theseideaswereintegratedinaproposal

foranewrecital16a:

“Regulation(EU)2016/679oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilexplicitly

recognisestheneedtoprovideadditionalprotectiontochildren,giventhattheymay

belessawareoftherisksandconsequencesassociatedwiththeprocessingoftheir

personaldata.ThisRegulationshouldalsograntspecialattentiontotheprotection

of children’s privacy. They are among the most active internet users and their

exposuretoprofilingandbehaviourally targetedadvertisingtechniquesshouldbe

prohibited.”

Parallel to theconsideration included inrecital38of theGDPR,anewrecital23awas

proposed confirming the need for specific protectionwith regard to children’s online

privacy,astheyarelessawareoftherisksandconsequencesassociatedtotheironline

activities,aswellaslessawareoftheirrights.Forthatreason,theIMCOOpinionstresses

thatspecificsafeguardsarenecessaryinrelationtotheuseofchildren’sdata,notablyfor

thepurposesofmarketingandthecreationofpersonalityoruserprofiles.Asaresultof

theseconsiderations,theOpinionproposedanewparagraph1tobeaddedtoarticle6

assertingthat

“Electroniccommunicationsdatathat isgenerated in thecontextofanelectronic

communications service designed particularly for children or directly targeted at

children shall not be used for profiling or behaviourally targeted advertising

purposes”.

983BEUC, ‘Data Collection, TargetingandProfiling of ConsumersOnline’ (2010)BEUCdiscussionpaper<http://www.beuc.eu/publications/2010-00101-01-e.pdf>accessed26October2017.984 EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT COMMITTEE ON THE INTERNALMARKET AND CONSUMER PROTECTION, Opinion on theproposalforaregulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilconcerningtherespectforprivatelifeandtheprotectionofpersonaldatainelectroniccommunicationsandrepealingDirective2002/58/EC(Regulation on Privacy and Electronic Communications), 23 October 2017,http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=REPORT&reference=A8-2017-0324&language=EN.

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In addition, a new paragraph 4a to article 8 was proposed stating that “[t]erminal

equipment that is intended particularly for children’s use shall implement specific

measurestopreventaccesstotheequipment’sstorageandprocessingcapabilitiesforthe

purpose of profiling of its users or tracking their behaviourwith commercial intent.”

However,intheend,theseamendments,whichwouldhavehadasignificantimpacton

currentadvertisingpracticesthattargetandpersonalisecommercialmessagestoandfor

children,werenotincludedintheEP’sDraftLegislativeResolution.

PROFILINGOFCHILDRENUNDERTHEGDPR.Inthepreviouschapter,therecitalsandprovisions

oftheGDPRthatregulatetheprofilingofchildrenwerealsoanalysed.Itwasfoundthat

theGDPRexplicitlyrecognisesthatprocessingpersonaldata“inordertocreateoruse

personalprofiles”maygiverisetoriskstotherightsandfreedomsofnaturalpersons.985

Furthermore, asprofiling is a complexand invisibleprocess,which isverydifficult to

understand for adults, let alone children, the GDPR did aim to introduce specific

protectionforchildren.986Thereisnofurtherguidance,though,astohowthisprotection

shouldbeputintopractice.Inanycase,datasubjectsmustbeinformedaboutthefactthat

profiling isbeingdeployedandthepotentialconsequencesthereof.987Especiallywhen

this occurs vis-à-vis children, the information provided will need to be clear and

understandableforthem.988Inrelationtoprofilingfordirectmarketingpurposes,data

subjects,includingchildren,alsohavetherighttoobjectatanytimetoprofilingtothe

extent that it isrelatedtodirectmarketing.989Thedatacontrollerneedstoclearlyand

explicitlyinformthedatasubjectofthisright.990Furthermore,accordingtorecital71,a

decisionwhichmay include ameasure evaluating personal aspects relating to a data

subject,whichisbasedsolelyonautomatedprocessingandproduceslegaleffectforor

985Recital75GDPR.986Recital38GDPRalsoexplicitlyrecognisesthatcircumstancesinwhichpersonaldataofchildrenareprocessedinordertocreatepersonaloruserprofilesrequireextraprotection.987Recital60GDPR.988Article12GDPR.LievensandVerdoodt(n969).989Recital70andArticle21,(2)GDPR.990Recital70GDPR.

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similarly significantly991 affects the data subject, should not concern children.992 The

Article 29Working Party has confirmed that there is no absolute prohibition on the

profiling of children in the GDPR. 993 Nevertheless, the Working Party stresses that

targetedadvertisingmay,dependingontheparticularcharacteristicsofthecase,havea

‘similarlysignificant’effectonindividuals.Especiallyinrelationtochildren,theWorking

Partyrecognisesthatthey

“canbeparticularlysusceptibleintheonlineenvironmentandmoreeasilyinfluenced

bybehaviouraladvertising”and,therefore,“organisationsshould,ingeneral,refrain

fromprofilingthemformarketingpurposes.”994

Interestingly,oneshouldkeepinmindthelackofdefinitionofa‘child’intheGDPR.The

questionthusariseswhetherthisstatementbytheWorkingPartyreferstoallthoseunder

18 years or alternatively the age thresholds adopted within the respective national

implementingmeasures.

1.2.2 PersonalisedadvertisingintheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective?

CONSUMER PROTECTION. In the previous chapter, it was outlined how the UCP Directive

forms an important safety net for children against harmful ormisleading commercial

communications. In the context of personalised advertising, the Directive may also

provideprotection forchildren.Morespecifically,wehaveseenthat theUCPDirective

protects consumers against so-called ‘aggressive’ commercial practices. Itwas argued

thatwhile actualharassmentor coercion (e.g. the useof physical force) is unlikely to

occur,undue influence couldperhapsarise inanadvertising context,995andespecially

991 In general, if advertising standards prohibit or limit the marketing of certain types of products tochildren, this should give you a good indication that influencing a child’s choices in this area couldpotentiallyhaveasimilarlysignificanteffectonthem.992Recital71,firstparagraph,finalsentenceGDPR.993Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty, ‘GuidelinesonAutomatedIndividualDecision-MakingandProfilingforthePurposesofRegulation2016/679’(n815).994Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty, ‘GuidelinesonAutomatedIndividualDecision-MakingandProfilingforthePurposesofRegulation2016/679’(n815)26.995Asareminder:article8UCPDirectivedeterminesthatmarketingtechniquesaredeemedaggressiveifthey“byharassment,coercionorundueinfluencesignificantlyimpairthefreedomofchoiceorconductoftheaverageconsumer”.

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when advertisers target childrenwith personalised advertisements. The first element

that needs to be present is the exploitation of “a position of power in relation to the

consumersoastoapplypressure”.996TheEuropeanConsumerOrganisation(BEUC)has

argued that advertisers hold a position of power as they collect a lot of personal

information of consumers (including children) without them being aware of what is

happening.997Therepetitiveaspectof targetedadvertising(e.g. throughretargetingon

socialmedia)mayqualifyasapplyingpressureonconsumers.Second,thepressuremust

beapplied“inawaywhichsignificantlylimitstheconsumer’sabilitytomakeaninformed

decision”.Inthisregard,itcanbearguedthattheselectionofadvertisementsbasedonthe

presumed consumer choicemay prevent the display of other advertisements thereby

restrictingthecomparisonwithotheradvertisementsand,hence,makingan informed

commercialdecision.998Thequalificationof‘undueinfluence’willalwaysdependonthe

specificitiesof the particular case, andwhen children are involved, their vulnerability

shouldbetakenintoaccount.

1.2.3 RelevantprotectionforchildrenintherevisedAVMSDirective

LIMITATION TO THE USE OF CHILDREN’S PERSONAL DATA FOR ADVERTISING PURPOSES. A final

legislativeprotectionforchildreninthecontextofpersonalisedadvertisingcanbefound

in the revised AVMS Directive. More specifically, we have seen that media service

providers and providers of video-sharing platforms are required to take appropriate

measures for theprotectionofchildren inrelationtoharmfulcontentandcommercial

communication, such as age verificationmechanisms, parental control tools, or other

technicalmeasures.Inthisregard,theDirectiveprohibitstheusechildren’spersonaldata

forcommercialpurposessuchasprofilinganbehaviouraltagertingwhicharegenerated

pursuanttotheimplementationofsuchmeasures.999

996Article2(j)oftheUCPDirective.997BEUC(n983).998BEUC(n983).999 Article 6a(2), juncto recital 9-b (for audiovisual media service providers) and article 28a(3), lastsubpara.)revisedAVMSDirective.

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1.2.4 Self-regulationandtargetingchildrenwithpersonalisedadvertising

ADVERTISINGSELF-REGULATION.Inadditiontothelegislativeinstrumentsalreadydiscussed,

advertisers have committed to observing a number of standards laid down in self-

regulatorycodes.1000Wehaveseeninthepreviouschapterthatthesecodesalsocontain

provisionsinrelationtoadvertisingaimedatchildren,directmarketingandbehavioural

advertising.

CHILDREN AND ONLINE BEHAVIOURAL ADVERTISING. Section D7.4 of the ICC Consolidated

Code,1001forinstance,statesthatchildrenof12yearsandyoungershouldnotbetargeted

byabehaviouraladvertisingcampaign.Alongthesamelines,intheFrameworkforOBA,

createdbytheInteractiveAdvertisingBureauEurope(IABEurope),companiesagreenot

to create segments forOBApurposes that are specificallydesigned to target children,

meaning people aged 12 and under. In this regard, KING and JESSEN argue that the

frameworkdoesnotsufficientlyprotectvulnerableconsumersabovetheageof12(such

as teenagers), even though such profiling practices may have significant privacy

implicationsforthiscategoryofinternetusers.1002

THEOBAICON.ThisFrameworkisalsoguidingtheactivitiesoftheEuropeanInteractive

Digital Advertising Alliance, which has been set up by a coalition of the European

advertising industry, including advertisers, the advertising agency sector, the direct

marketingsector,theadvertisingnetworksectorandthemediasector.Itsmainobjective

istolicencethe“OnlineBehaviouralAdvertisingIcon”tocompaniesthatareinvolvedin

theOBAbusinessacrossEurope.ThisiconnotifiesconsumersofdatacollectionforOBA

1000Ithasbeenarguedbeforethatdrawbacksofself-regulationarealackofeffectiveenforcementandoftenmild sanctions; however, the advertising sector is one of the sectors where – depending on the self-regulatory body in question – decisions on violations of thecodes of conductare oftencompliedwith.Lievens,‘IsSelf-RegulationFailingChildrenandYoungPeople?’(n362).1001InternationalChamberofCommerce(n137).1002The framework also contains obligation related to notice and choice, including the principles thatinternetusersmustbegivennoticeoftheOBAdatacollectionandusepracticesbytherelevantthirdpartiesaswellasthewebsiteoperator(i.e.ofitsOBAarrangementswiththirdparties),andthatthirdpartieshavetoprovideinternetuserswithamechanismtoexercisetheirchoiceregardingtheuseoftheirdataforOBApurposes.Ithasbeenargued,forinstance,byKINGandJENSENthatingeneraltheIABprinciplesdonotofferconsumerssufficienttransparencynordotheyensuremeaningfulaccesstotheinformationcontainedintheconsumerprofilesthatareusedforbehavioraladvertisingpurposes;KingandWegenerJessen(n859).

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purposesandthedeliveryofOBAadvertisingtothem,andrefersconsumerstoanonline

portal:‘www.youronlinechoices.eu’,whichintendstoofferinformationonthepracticeof

OBAandwhereconsumerscanturnoffOBAbysomeorallcompanies.1003Researchinto

the effectiveness of the OBA icon, however, has found that only one-quarter of the

respondents remembered OBA disclosure icons, and only 12% remembered seeing a

tagline(e.g.,“WhydidIgetthisad?”or“AdChoices”)andcorrectlyselectedthetagline

theyhadseenfromalist.Also,noneofthetaglineswereunderstoodtobelinkstopages

whereyoucanmakechoicesaboutOBA,nordidtheyincreaseknowledgeaboutOBA.1004

However, it has been argued that the standard icon could effectively increase OBA

awarenessandunderstandingwhenaccompaniedbyanexplanatorylabelstating,“This

adisbasedonyoursurfingbehavior”.1005Itremainstobeseenwhetherthisfindingisalso

validvis-à-vischildren.

(ONLINE)DIRECTMARKETING.Withregardtodirectmarketing,wehaveseenthatFEDMA-

theorganisationrepresentingtheDirectandInteractiveMarketingsectorattheEuropean

Level-adoptedtworelevantinstruments:(1)aCodeofPracticefortheUseofPersonal

DatainDirectMarketingincollaborationwiththeArticle29WorkingParty1006and(2)an

Electronic Communications Annex that contains provisions specifically applicable to

online direct marketing (or electronic mail marketing). 1007 The Code and its Annex

1003Whenaccessing theportal, theuserwillbeasked toselecthisorher location.Theusermust thennavigate to “YourAdChoices”,atwhichpoint thesitecollects theusers’ “status” fromtheparticipatingcompanies.Oncecomplete,theindividualscaneither“turnoff”individualcompaniesonebyoneorscrolldowntothesetting“turnoffallcompanies”.VanAlsenoyandothers(n916)39.However,accordingtotheArticle29DataProtectionWorkingParty,suchanopt-outapproach“isnotanadequatemechanismtoobtainaverageusersinformedconsent”forpurposesofonlinebehaviouraladvertising.Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion2/2010onOnlineBehaviouralAdvertisingWP171’(n753)15.1004Boerman,KruikemeierandZuiderveenBorgesius(n103).1005G. van Noort, E. G. Smit and H.A.M. Voorveld, ‘The Online Behavioural Advertising Icon: Two UserStudies’, Advances in Advertising Research (Vol. IV) (Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden 2013)<http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-02365-2_28>accessed31July2018.1006Article29DataProtectionWorkingParty,‘Opinion4/2010ontheEuropeanCodeofConductofFEDMAfortheUseofPersonalDatainDirectMarketing,WP174’(n861).1007 FEDMA, ‘European Code of Practice for the Use of Personal Data in Direct Marketing - ElectronicCommunicationsAnnex(theOn-LineAnnex)’(n864).FEDMA(2010).EuropeanCodeofPracticefortheUse of Personal Data in Direct Marketing - Electronic Communications Annex (the On-line Annex),http://ec.europa.eu/justice/data-protection/article-29/documentation/opinion-recommendation/files/2010/wp174_annex_en.pdf,accessedon17October2017.

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contain a number of protections1008for children (i.e. any individual under 14 years):

informationobligations(ineasilyunderstandablelanguage),therequirementforageand

parental consent verification, requirements for the collection of special categories of

data 1009 and the prohibition to incentivise children to share more personal data.

Moreover,marketersarerequiredtoeducateparentsonparentalcontroltoolsandhow

theycansuperviseandmonitortheirchildren’sonlinebehaviour.


Whilethecurrentdataprotectionandprivacylawsandpoliciescoverexistingtracking,

profilingandtargetedadvertisingpractices,certainimprovementsmaybeproposed.

THEGDPR.First,theGDPRforeseesinspecificprotectionforchildren,whichislaudable,

butitremainsproblematicthatthetextdoesnotcontainadefinitionofa‘child’.Thisleads

touncertaintyregardingtheagegroup(s)towhichcertainprotectionmeasuresshould

apply. This could be clarified by data protection authorities and the European Data

ProtectionBoard.Furthermore,defaultlimitationsonthecollectionofpersonaldataof

childrenforboththedevelopmentandapplicationofuserprofilescouldbeconsidered.

Inthisregard,theadvertisingindustryshouldtakeuptheirresponsibility,1010andcarry

outanin-depthdataprotectionimpactassessment,withattentionforthebestinterests

andrightsofchildren,whensettingupdigitalmarketingcampaigns.1011Theageandlevel

ofmaturityofthechildwillalsoplayanimportantroleinsuchanassessment.Inaddition,

information society service providers (such as social networking sites) couldmake a

distinctionbetweenusersbasedontheageinformationgivenuponregistration,thereby

1008TheFEDMAcodesgobeyondthelegalrequirementsdefinedbythedataprotectionframeworkatthetime (these initiativeswereadoptedunder theEUData ProtectionDirective), and already containedanumberofprotectionswhicharenowexplicitlyintheGDPR(i.e.verification,parentalconsent).1009Suchasdataoffamilymembersorsensitivedata.However,thesedatamaystillbeprocessedwiththeconsentofrespectivelythefamilymembersconcernedoroftheirlegalrepresentative.1010MontgomeryandChester(n483)291.1011Article35andrecital91GDPR.

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offeringanalternativechild-friendlyserviceincorporatingthesamefeaturesminusthe

trackingforpersonalisedcommercialisation.1012

THEPROPOSEDEPRIVACYREGULATION.Second,theePrivacyRegulationshouldbealignedwith

theGDPR, aswasproposed inthe IMCOOpinionofOctober2017,by recognising that

children require specific protection when it comes to the processing of their

communicationsdata.Addingspecificlimitationsonthecollectionanduseofchildren’s

communicationsdataandspecialprotectionforterminalequipmentorsoftwarethatis

developed for children would be a step forward. Finally, a prohibition for services

specifically targeted towards children to use profiling and behavioural marketing

techniqueswouldbebeneficial for theprotectionof children’s rights (e.g. the right to

privacy and to protection against economic exploitation).However, the same concern

regardingthefactofwhetherthisappliesorshouldapplytoallunder18-yearoldsarises.

THE UCP DIRECTIVE. Third, the UCP Directive may provide additional protection for

childrenagainstpersonalisedadvertising, as this advertisingpracticemayqualifyasa

form of undue influence. It could even be considered to add behavioural advertising

practices aimed towards children to the blacklist of practices, which are under all

circumstancesdeemedunfair.

SELF- AND CO-REGULATION. Fourth, the industry has been very active in self-regulating

personalised advertising practices (i.e. direct marketing and online behavioural

advertising). While it could be argued that the commitment not to create segments

targetingchildrenaged12andunderislaudable,itdoesnotprovideanyprotectionfor

childrenabovetheageof12,eventhoughthesetargetedadvertisingpracticesmayalso

havesignificantprivacyimplicationsfor12to18-yearolds.1013Moreover,differentages

can be found in different self-regulatory instruments (e.g. 12 and under, under 14s),

which could lead to confusion. Existing self-regulatory initiatives focus mostly on

informationprovisionandtransparency(e.g.noticerequirements,labelling),aswellas

ontherequirementof(verifiable)parentalconsentforpersonalisedadvertising,rather

1012ThisisahighlydebatedissueandoneshouldrefertoVanAlsenoyandothers(n916).1013KingandWegenerJessen(n859).

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thanonactuallimitationsontheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldataformarketingand

advertisingpractices.Whereassuchlimitationsmightgoagainstcommercialinterestsof

advertisers,thebestinterestsofchildrenmightrequirethis,alsotakingintoaccountthe

fact that for advertising to be innovative and fun for children, collecting and using

children’spersonaldataisnotaprecondition.

CONCLUDINGREMARK.Finally,ourevaluationshowsthatseverallegislativeandalternative

regulatoryinstrumentsareapplicabletopersonalisedadvertising.Asaresult,boththe

substantiveprovisionsandthecompetencesoftherespectiveregulatoryauthoritiesmay

overlap.

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SECTIONIII-DIGITALINFLUENCERSANDVLOGGINGADVERTISING

THECONCEPT.Nowadays,peoplecanparticipateonline,createandsharetheirowncontent

in all kinds of applications such as blogs, social media and video-sharing platforms.

Childrenandadolescentsareincreasinglyconsumingmediacontentonline,wheretheir

favouritedigitalinfluencersuploadvideosonaregularbasis(e.g.onYouTube).Content

creators like vloggers (i.e. video bloggers) have over time become extremely popular

amongsttheyoungeraudiencesandeveninsomeinstancesgainedcelebritystatusamong

their thousandsof followers.1014The influence thesepeoplemayexertover their loyal

followers is significant and brings with it certain responsibilities, especially when

commercial interests become involved. The popularity of these digital influencers is

alreadyshapingadvertisingandmarketingtechniquesandvloggingadvertisingmaytake

many forms: (1) online marketing by a brand with vlogger collaboration, (2) an

advertorial, (3) a commercial break within a vlog, (4) product placement, (5) the

promotion of the vlogger’s ownmerchandise, (6) sponsorship and (7) free items.1015

These integrated advertising techniques form an important source of revenue for

vloggers. Vloggersmay be rewarded inter alia on the basis of ‘pay per acquisition or

download’(i.e.earnrewardswheneveraviewerpurchasesaproductorserviceviathe

linkwithinthevlog);productcompensation;payperpostorasystemofflatratepricing;

payperclick.1016Professionalinternetcreatorhasbecomejustanotherjobandvloggers

maybetiedtoagentsandproductioncompanies,justlikeactors.1017However,itshould

1014Forinstance,Industryresearchhasshownthat59%of13year-oldsfollowsYouTubersonsocialmediaversusonly32%following televisionandmoviestars. ‘AcumenReport:YouthVideoDiet’ (DefyMedia)<http://defymedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Acumen_DL_booklet_16_12_04.pdf> accessed 29November2017.1015ThislistisnotexhaustiveandstemsfromtheCAPGuidelines,aUKself-regulatoryinitiative,seeinfra.J.Ward,‘CAPGuidanceonVloggingAdvertising’[2016]EntertainmentLaw49.However,itdoesnotincludevideopre-rolls thatareplacedarounduploadedcontentby thevideo-sharingplatform itself.Formoreinformationonsuchvideopre-rolls,seeinfra.1016Influencersoftenusetheirvlogsasspringboardstolaunchotherprojectsthatbringincome,suchasebooks,books,speakingassignments,clothinglines,otherproducts,etc.F.J.Cavaliere,‘PeopleCanMakeMoreMoneyonYouTubethanMostLawyersEarn-IsThatEvenLegal’<www.webwiselawyer.com>.1017IntheUS,YouTubersevenhaveunitedintheInternetCreatorsGuild,whichprovidesYouTuberswithsupporttohelpthemdeveloparigorousbusinesssenseandavoidexploitation.C.Stokel-Walker,‘VloggersUnite: Youtubers Are Getting Organized after a Decade of Exploitation’ Newsweek (8 October 2016)<http://www.newsweek.com/vloggers-youtube-organized-decade-exploitation-507592> accessed 11December2017.

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benotedthatnotallvlogscontaincommercialmessages.Indeed,lotsofvloggersmerely

presenttheirhonestopinionsaboutacertainproductorservice,withoutreceivingany

financial benefits (i.e.without being sponsored by the brand orwithout receiving the

productorserviceforfree).Conversely,ifabrandhasacertainamountofcontrolover

the content of the post and rewards the influencer in any way, the post should be

consideredaformofcommercialcommunication.1018

1. Integration:productplacement,sponsorships,editorialsandotherformsof

vloggingadvertising


PERSUASIVE TACTICS. Viewers or followers seek guidance from media personalities or

influencers,seethemas friendsor imaginethat theyarepartofaprogramme’ssocial

world.1019AccordingtoPERSEandRUBIN,viewers“feelthattheyknowandunderstandthe

influencerinthesameintimatewaytheyknowandunderstandfleshandbloodfriends”.1020

Followers will turn to influencers for advise and regard them as a trusted source of

information. As a result, digital influencers have become an important intermediary

betweenadvertisersandconsumer-followers.Thetwo-waycommunicationbetweenthe

mediapersonality(i.e.thevlogger)andthefans(i.e.thefollowers)isfacilitatedbysocial

media.LEEandWATKINSarguethatsocialmediaallowsconsumerstoquicklyandeasily

accessuser-generatedcontent(i.e.videoblogsorvlogs),whichoftencontainsproduct

reviewsandinformation.1021Researchhasshownthatuser-generatedcontentgenerally

hasasignificantinfluenceonconsumers’brandperspective,brandchoices1022andnew

1018Conversely,thepracticeofconsumersthatmerelyshareorproducecontentcontaininginteraliabrandreferencesortheadvertisedproductwithoutreceivingrewardsinanyway(nodiscounts,nofreeproducts,nofinancialrewards)isnotconsiderdaformofcommercialcommunicationand,therefore,fallsoutsidethescopeofthisstudy.1019J.EunLeeandBrandiWatkins,‘YouTubeVloggers’InfluenceonConsumerLuxuryBrandPerceptionsandIntentions’(2016)69JournalofBusinessResearch5753.1020 E. M. Perse and R. B. Rubin, ‘Attribution in Social and Parasocial Relationships’ (1989) 16CommunicationResearch59.1021LeeandWatkins(n1019).1022T.W.Gruen,T.O.andA.J.Czaplewski,‘EWOM:TheImpactofCustomer-to-CustomerOnlineKnow-HowExchangeonCustomerValueandLoyalty’(2006)59JournalofBusinessResearch449.

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consumer acquisition. 1023 Children in particular perceive digital influencers as more

relatable than traditional celebrities and they can identify themselvesmore with the

former. 1024 Similarly, LIM et al. found that user-generated content is considered

trustworthy.1025Vloggingadvertisingallows targetedexposure to the right consumers

andrepeatedexposuretoavloggercanelicitenhancedfeelingsofconnectednesswiththe

advertisedbrands.Ashumansaresocialcreatures,theytendtocopythebehavioursand

beliefsofpeopletheylike.1026Inthisregard,LEEandWATKINSrefertosocialcomparison

theory,1027whichentailsthatasconsumer-followersviewthemselvesassharingsimilar

opinionsandpreferencesasdigitalinfluencers,apositivereviewofabrandfromtheir

preferredvloggermayleadtoapositivereviewfromtheconsumer.1028

A CHILDREN’S RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE. Considering the often hidden nature of vlogging

advertisingandthehighlyentertainingvideos,digitalinfluencerscanhaveadirectimpact

on children’s consumption behaviour without them being aware of the commercial

natureofthecommunications.1029Inouranalysisofthechildren’srightsframework,we

haveseenthatsuchmechanismspotentiallyhaveanimpactonchildren’srightssuchas

therighttodevelopment,therighttofreedomofthoughtandtherighttoprotectionfrom

economicexploitation(similartothepreviouslydiscussedusecases).Thisofcoursemay

needtobeoffsetwiththefreedomofexpressionofthedigitalinfluencersthemselves.1030

1023 M. Trusov, R. E. Bucklin and K. Pauwels, ‘Effects ofWord-of-Mouth versus Traditional Marketing:FindingsfromanInternetSocialNetworkingSite’(2009)73Journalofmarketing90.1024‘AcumenReport:YouthVideoDiet’(n1014).1025Y.Lim,Y.ChungandP.A.Weaver, ‘TheImpactofSocialMediaonDestinationBranding:Consumer-GeneratedVideosversusDestinationMarketer-GeneratedVideos’(2012)18JournalofVacationMarketing197.1026 A. R. Bentley, M. Earls and M. O’brien, I’ll Have What She’s Having - Mapping Social Behavior<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/ill-have-what-shes-having>accessed29November2017.1027Thistheorywasdevelopedinthe1950sbypersonalitytheorists,includingN.E.MillerandJ.Dollard,SocialLearningandImitation(YaleUniversityPress1941);A.BanduraandR.H.Walters,SocialLearningandPersonalityDevelopment(Holt,RinehartandWinston1963).1028LeeandWatkins(n1019).1029Forinstance,ariskassessmentofnewadvertisingformatsconductedintheframeoftheAdLitProjectshowedthattheadvertisingliteracylevelforbrandintegration,advertiserfundedprograms,socialmediaadvertising and advergaming is rather low, posing a greater risk for children and teenagers. SeeVanwesenbeeckandothers(n6).1030ForexamplesofcaseswherecommercialspeechisbalancedagainstotherinterestsseeCasadoCocav.Spain(n432);BartholdvGermany[1985]ECtHRAppNo8734/79.

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Furthermore,asvloggingformsanimportantpartofpopularyouthculture,italsoenables

children to participate online and exercise their rights to freedom of expression and

culture.

1.2 Digitalinfluencersandthecurrentregulatoryframework

IDENTIFICATION IS THE KEY REQUIREMENT. Our mapping exercise showed that the current

framework regulating commercial communications contains important requirements

that are also applicable in the online environment, the key requirement being the

identification principle. In the context of vlogging advertising, it is again important to

analyse the scopeof the instrumentspreviouslydiscussed (theAVMSDirective, thee-

Commerce Directive and the UCP Directive). Furthermore, the responsibilities of the

differentpartiesinvolvedfortheimplementationoftheserequirementsinpracticeneed

tobeclarified.Finally,certainspecificguidelinesandbestpracticeshaveemergedfrom

theindustrythatshouldbekeptinmind.

1.2.1 Vloggingadvertising:audiovisualorcommercialcommunication?

A. SCOPING THE APPLICABLE LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND UNTANGLING THE VLOGGING ADVERTISING

CHAIN

SCOPINGANDUNTANGLING.Afirstquestionthatneedstobeanswerediswhethervloggingas

aservicewouldfallunderthedefinitionofanaudiovisualmediaservice(AVMSDirective)

or an information society service (e-Commerce Directive) and subsequently whether

vloggingadvertisingcouldfallunderthenotion‘audiovisualcommercialcommunication’

(AVMSDirective)orratherunderthemoregenerale-Commercenotionof ‘commercial

communication’(e-CommerceDirective).1031Thedistinctionissignificantconsideringthe

morestringentrequirementsforaudiovisualcommercialcommunication.Asthevlogging

advertisingchainmayconsistofseveralparties,itneedstobeclarifiedwhoisresponsible

fortheimplementationoftherequirementsinpractice.

1031Thisisasimilarevaluationliketheoneinthecontextofadvergames,supra.

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COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATIONUNDERTHEE-COMMERCEDIRECTIVE.Firstofall, itisarguedthat

vloggingmayqualifyasaninformationsocietyserviceunderthee-CommerceDirective.

Asmentioned,theseservicescanbe“anyservicenormallyprovidedforremuneration,ata

distance,byelectronicmeansandat theindividualrequestofarecipientofservices.”1032

Theserviceprovidedhereentailstheprovisionofvideosandmakingthemavailableto

thepubliconvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTube.Inreturn,theinfluencerreceivesa

reward,beitintheformofafinancialremuneration,freeproductsorservices,promotion

for their own products, etc. As the videos are uploaded on digital platforms, the

requirementof ‘byelectronicmeans’ is also fulfilled.Lastly, thevideo is shownat the

individualrequestoftheviewer,thereforefulfillingallrequirements.Accordingly,thee-

Commerce Directive requires digital influencers engaging in vlogging advertising to

comply with several information requirements as well as with the identification

principle.1033

AUDIOVISUALMEDIASERVICEANDAUDIOVISUALCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Themoredifficult

question, however, iswhether vlogging and vlogging advertising could fallwithin the

scopeoftheAVMSDirective.ThecentraldefinitiondeterminingthescopeoftheAVMS

Directive is the notion of audiovisual media service.1034 From this definition, certain

elementscanbeextractedthatneedtobepresentforvloggingadvertisingtofallwithin

thescopeoftheDirective.

PURSUING AN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY AND IMAGES DESIGNED TO PROMOTE. First, the Directive

comprises economic activities, an element that can only be found with the more

professionaldigitalinfluencers,astherewardstheyreceiveforvloggingadvertisingmay

beregardedasremuneration.1035Forinstance,ifdigitalinfluencerspromoteproductsor

1032Recital17e-CommerceDirective.1033Article6ofthee-CommerceDirectiverequiresdigitalinfluencerstodisclosetheiridentityandincasetheylaunchanypromotionalcompetitionorgametheconditionsforparticipationshallbeeasilyaccessibleandbepresentedclearlyandunambiguously.1034Article1(1)(h)AVMSDirective.1035ForinstancetheYouTubestarPewDiePie,whostartedwithuploadingsilly(andoftencrude)snippetsofhimselfplayingvideogames,nowhas50millionsubscribersandearnsapproximately$15millionayearofcommercialcollaborations.M.Berg,‘TheHighest-PaidYouTubeStars2016:PewDiePieRemainsNo.1With $15 Million’ (Forbes) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/maddieberg/2016/12/05/the-highest-paid-youtube-stars-2016-pewdiepie-remains-no-1-with-15-million/>accessed15December2017.

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servicesinthestyleofareviewfortheirfollowers,aclearindicatorofacommercialintent

canbefoundifthevideoismadeinreturnforfinancialcompensationorifthereareother

financialtiesbetweenthevloggerandtheadvertiser(productowner).1036Asmentioned,

vloggers may also be tied to agents who receive a part of the advertising revenue

generatedbythevlogger.Conversely,theDirectivedoesnotapplytoactivitiesthatare

primarilynon-economic,includinginteraliatheprovisionofuser-generatedcontentfor

thesolepurposeofsharingandexchangingwithincommunitiesofinterestortoprivate

websites or blogs.1037Thus, this first elementwill depend on the intent of the digital

influencerand/ortheplatformproviderandthecommercialinfluenceonorinterference

withthecontentofthevlogs.

ACCOMPANY OR BE INCLUDED IN A PROGRAMME. As a second requirement, the commercial

communicationneedstoaccompanyorbeincludedinaprogramme1038(i.e.atelevision

broadcastoranon-demandservice1039),establishedbyamediaserviceprovider.VALCKE

andLIEVENSclarifythatthenotionofaprogrammeneedstobeinterpretedinadynamic

way,takingintoaccountthedevelopmentsintelevisionbroadcasting.1040Translatedto

the contextofdigital influencersandvloggingadvertising, itmeans that the formand

content of the vlogs needs to be sufficiently comparable to the form and content of

televisionbroadcasting.Furthermore,thenatureandmeansofaccessingthevlogs(e.g.

via the influencer’s YouTube channel) could lead the user to reasonably expect a

regulatoryprotectionwithinthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.Inthisregard,oneshould

take into account that the viewing habits of children and adolescents have changed

significantlyovertime,astheyincreasinglyconsumeaudiovisualcontentviatabletsand

smartphones.1041Childrenandadolescentsarguablymayfindcertainvlogsorseriesof

1036Verdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n9).1037ChavannesandCastendyk(n36).1038Article1(b)AVMSDirective.1039Excludedarethoseserviceswhichareaudio-onlyandnotsufficientlytelevision-likeservicessuchasradio,electronicversionsofnewspapersandmagazines,blogs.1040ValckeandLievens(n615).1041For instance, research by Ofcom, the UKmedia regulator, showed that children arewatching lessbroadcast televisionas they turn toonlineactivitiesandservicessuchasYouTube. J. Jackson, ‘ChildrenSpending LessTime in Front of the TV asTheyTurn to OnlineMedia’TheGuardian (6 August 2015)

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vlogs similar to traditional television broadcasting, depending on the format1042 and

contentofthevideos(e.g.episodesinthelifeofadigitalinfluencer).Theprofessionalism

ofsomeofthesedigitalinfluencersandtheir‘channels’,theregularuploadofeditedvlogs

(e.g.daily,weekly)andthe fact that thechannelsareaccessibleonthesamescreenas

traditionalbroadcastsmaycontributetosuchafinding.TheDirectivealsorequiresthat

theprogrammeshouldbeaimedtoinform,entertainoreducatethegeneralpublicand

theserviceshouldbeprovidedbyelectroniccommunicationsnetworks.Withregardto

vlogging,theseelementsmaybepresent,asthevideosofdigitalinfluencersmayhavean

entertaining, informativeoreducativepurpose1043andviewersor followerscanaccess

thecontentonlineviathevideo-sharingplatform.

EDITORIALRESPONSIBILITYINAVLOGGINGCONTEXT.Therequirementof‘accompanyingorbeing

includedinaprogramme’alsolinkstoanotherelement,namelyeditorialresponsibility,

which requires the exercise of effective control over both the selection and the

organisation of the programmes. 1044 This entails that a professional media service

providerisresponsiblefortheeditorialdesignandfinalcompilationofaprogrammefor

broadcastinginaccordancewithafixedprogrammescheduleorforviewingon-demand

foracatalogue.1045Inotherwords,theAVMSDirectiveprovidesregulatorystandardsfor

professionally created mass media content. 1046 Applying this criterion in a vlogging

context is not straightforward consideringmany new players have entered the value

<http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/aug/06/children-spending-less-time-in-front-of-tv-ofcom>accessed7December2017.1042Inthisregard,theBelgianmediaregulatoroftheFrench-speakingcommunityunderlinesthatmoreandmorehighquality short formsofcontentareappearingonaudiovisualplatformswhichcanhaveahighimpactonthepublicopinionandtheyarecompetingwiththesameaudienceasTVbroadcasts. JeromeDheur, ‘Belgian CSA Conference - The Platform Is the Message’ (2016)<http://www.csa.be/system/documents_files/2591/original/CI_20160310_The%20Platform%20is%20the%20Message_report.pdf?1458160565>accessed11December2017.1043Accordingly,thecaseofdigitalinfluencersdiffersfromthePeugeotDeutschlandcase,inwhichtheCJEUdecided thataYouTubechannelofPeugeotcontainingshortpromotionalvideosfornewpassengercarmodelsdidnothaveasitsprincipalpurposetheprovisionofprogrammesinordertoinform,entertainoreducatethegeneralpublicandthusexcludingitfromthescopeoftheAVMSDirective.PeugeotDeutschlandGmbHv.DeutscheUmwelthilfeeV(n611)para28.1044Article1(1)(c)AVMSDirective.1045Verdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n9).1046W.Closs, S.NikoltchevandEuropeanAudiovisualObservatory (eds),TheRegulation of On-DemandAudiovisualServices:ChaosorCoherence?(EuropeanAudiovisualObservatory :CouncilofEurope2011).

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chain.First,SCHOEFSunderlinesthatvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeplayacrucial

roleinprovidingaccesstouserstobothuser-generatedcontentandeditedprofessional

content.YouTubehostsamassiveamountofcontent,which itorganises intodifferent

categories depending on the topic of the uploaded video. 1047 While it seemed well

establishedthattheAVMSDirective(priortoitsreview)didnotapplytoamateuruser-

generatedcontent,1048thesamecannotbesaidforprofessionalcontentwhichhasbeen

providedand/oreditedbytheplatformprovideroraprofessionalthirdpartyprovider

before the upload. 1049 Indeed, several Member States accept that such professional

contentandchannelsdofallwithinthescopeoftheAVMSDirectiveand,assuch,assign

the responsibility wherever the editorial power rests.1050 Second, the segregation of

contentproducedbyprofessionalandamateurvloggersformsamajorborderlinecase.

On the one hand, the content that some of these professional vloggers create could

arguably be considered ‘television-like’ (e.g. reality showswith episodes airing every

week),especiallyforchildrenandadolescentswhowatchlesstraditionalbroadcasts.1051

Furthermore, vloggers’ capacity to influence social trends, the ubiquity of integrated

commercialmessagesand the significant financial rewards theygain in returncall for

more stringent requirements or even restrictions. On the other hand, making such a

distinction is extremely complicatedandwould requirea case-by-caseanalysis taking

1047R.Schoefs,‘ConnectedTV:EditorialResponsibilityinaConvergedMediaEnvironment’(2014)5Droitdesmédias-Mediarecht346.1048ChavannesandCastendyk(n36).1049Schoefs(n1047);CliffordandVerdoodt(n922).1050Schoefs (n 1047). Austria, Belgium, Finland, Italy, The Netherlands and Slovenia. For example, theauthor mentions BBC’s Top Gear YouTube channel. Video sharing platform providerswill be directlyresponsible for their own placement of commercial communications on the platform (e.g. banners,personalised advertising).Hence, the platform itselfwill be responsible for satisfying the identificationrequirementsinthesesituations.However,itisimportanttonotethattheplatformproviderwillonlybeeditoriallyresponsibleforitsowncontent.ThismeansthattheproviderofthethirdpartycontentonthatplatformshouldcomplywiththeAVMSDirectiveifheinhisturncanbeheldeditoriallyresponsibleforhiscontent.1051ForinstanceresearchbyOfcomshowedthataresupplementingtheirTVviewingbyturningtositessuch as YouTube, Vimeo andVine, aswell aswatching clips posted on Facebook orTwitter andnewswebsites. Ofcom, ‘Children’s Content Review : Update Assessing the Current Provision of Children’sProgrammes on TV and Online’ (2018) 9<https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0023/116519/childrens-content-review-update.pdf>accessed2August2018.

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intoaccountallrelevantcharacteristicsandevidence.1052Important tonote is that the

revisedAVMSDirectiveprovidessomeclarityonthematter,withrecital3ofthefinaltext

statingthat:

“channels or any other audiovisual services under the editorial responsibility of a

providermayconstituteaudiovisualmediaservicesinthemselves,eveniftheyareoffered

intheframeworkofavideo-sharingplatformwhichischaracterisedbytheabsenceof

editorial responsibility. In such cases, it will be up to the providers with editorial

responsibilitytoabidebytheprovisionsofthisDirective.”1053

UNTANGLING THE VLOGGER-PLATFORM RELATIONSHIP. Attributing responsibility to platform

providers in the context of digital influencers would alter the generally accepted

interpretation of ‘selection’ as a way to exercise control.1054Several Europeanmedia

regulatorsfoundthatinthecaseofvideo-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeorDailyMotion,

thereisneitheranyselectionofvideosaseveryonecanuploadthem,noranyorganisation

ofthevideosinfunctionoftheircontentbytheplatformprovider.1055Thisissupported

by the fact that theseprovidersoften remainoutside the specificvloggingadvertising

revenue chain as they merely facilitate the delivery of the videos to the influencer’s

audienceandusuallygenerateanincomethroughotherformsofdigitaladvertising(e.g.

banners,personalisedpre-rolls)1056accompanyingtheinfluencer’svideos.1057However,

if the platform provider is the one who engages the services of such professional

influencers,theinterpretationofeditorialresponsibility,selectionandeffectivecontrol

1052Criteriatotakeintoaccountcouldincludeinteraliathetypeofvlogsprovided,theamountofvideosuploadedandtheconsistencyofuploads,theeditorialworkperformed,thefinancialrewardsgainedbytheinfluencer.1053Recital3oftheFinalCompromiseText,seeCounciloftheEuropeanUnion,‘ProposalforaDirectiveofthe European Parliament and of the Council Amending Directive 2010/13/EU on the Coordination ofCertainProvisionsLaiddownbyLaw,RegulationorAdministrativeActioninMemberStatesConcerningtheProvisionofAudiovisualMediaServices(AudiovisualMediaServicesDirective) inViewofChangingMarketRealities-AnalysisoftheFinalCompromiseTextwithaViewtoAgreement’(n592).1054CliffordandVerdoodt(n922).1055Schoefs(n1047).1056Hellemans,LievensandValcke(n75).1057CliffordandVerdoodt(n922);Schoefs(n1047).

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becomesevenmorecomplex.1058Furthermore,theincreaseduseofautomatedmeansof

selection and organisation (e.g. algorithmic recommender systems 1059 ) potentially

decreasestheroleofthedigitalinfluencersuploadingvideosandstrengthensthatofthe

platformprovider,therebyhavingadefacto influenceonviewers’choice.1060Forthese

reasons,theBelgian1061andGermanmediaregulatorscalledforaspecialcategoryunder

EU law for largeaudiovisualplatforms that is subject to the (or someof the core1062)

provisions of the AVMS Directive.1063 In this regard, it is important to point out the

broadened scope of the revised AVMS Directive, which also includes video-sharing

platformsand(undercertaincircumstances)evensocialmediaplatforms.

B. BROADENINGTHEAUDIOVISUALPLAYGROUND

VIDEO-SHARING PLATFORMS OFFICIALLY ENTER THE AUDIOVISUAL PLAYGROUND. In the previous

chapter,itwasexplainedhowtheEuropeanCommissionrecognisedthelackofalevel-

playing field for traditional and new audiovisual media providers, and the lack of

consumerprotectioninrelationtothelatterinits2016REFITevaluationoftheAVMS

Directive. 1064 Furthermore, considering that these new digital providers increasingly

offeraudiovisualcontentonlineandresearchhasshownthatvideoviewingisoneofthe

earliestinternetactivitiespreferredbyyoungchildren,itmadesensetoincludethemin

thescopeoftheAVMSDirective,especiallyinrelationtotheprotectionofminors.The

revisedAVMSDirective, therefore,explicitlyrefers toanewcategoryof ‘video-sharing

1058YouTuberecentlylaunchedapremiumsubscription-onlyversion.1059YouTube’srecommendationssystemhelpsusersdiscoverpersonalisedcontentfromanever-growingcorpusofvideos.Ittakesasinputinteraliauser’swatchhistory,implicitfeedbackofvideowatchesbyusersandexplicit feedbacksuchasathumbsuporathumbsdownandthroughfilteringselectsvideosintherange of hundreds. P. Covington, J. Adams and E. Sargin, ‘Deep Neural Networks for YouTubeRecommendations’(ACMPress2016)<http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=2959100.2959190>accessed7December2017.1060Schoefs(n1047);CliffordandVerdoodt(n922).1061 More specifically, the media regulator of the French-speaking Community, Conseil Superieur del’Audiovisuel(http://www.csa.be/).1062 SCHOEFS for instance refers to the obligations in relation to commercial communication and theprotectionofminorsundertheAVMSDirective.Schoefs(n1047).1063Dheur(n1042).1064 DG CONNECT, ‘REFIT Evaluation and Impact Assessment of the EU Audiovisual Media ServicesDirective 2010/13/EU (AVMSD)’ <http://ec.europa.eu/smart-regulation/roadmaps/docs/2015_cnect_006_cwp_review_avmsd_iia_en.pdf>accessed6December2017.

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platformservices’(“VSPs”),whichwillbesubjecttospecificrules.Tofallwithinthescope

ofthedefinition,severalcumulativeconditionsneedtobefulfilled:1065

ü First,itneedstobeaservicenormallyprovidedforremuneration,whichentails

an economic activity, and its principal purpose needs to be of interest to the

general public. As mentioned, this may also include services financed by

advertisinglikeavlogger’sYouTubechannel.1066

ü Second,theplatformservicemustconsistoftheprovisionofprogrammesoruser-

generatedvideosto thegeneralpublic, forwhichtheserviceproviderdoesnot

have editorial responsibility. However, it is up to the national legislator to

determinetheexactmeaningoftheconceptofeditorialresponsibility.1067

ü Third,theserviceprovidermustdeterminetheorganisationofthestoredcontent.

Thisincludestheorganisationbyautomaticmeans,suchasdisplaying,taggingand

sequencing.Video-sharingplatformslikeYouTubeandDailymotion(oratthevery

least specific parts or sections of these platforms) will most likely fulfil the

conditions.

ü Fourth,theprincipalpurposeoftheserviceoradissociablesectionthereoforan

essentialfunctionalityoftheservicemustbedevotedtoprovidingprogrammesand

user-generated videos to the general public, in order to inform, entertain or

educate.

ü Finally,theserviceneedstobemadeavailablethroughelectroniccommunications

networks.

1065Art.1(aa)CompromiseTextAVMSDirective.1066Conversely,more privatewebsiteswhere video-sharing takes placewithin certain communities orgroups(e.g.awebsiteofthedancingschoolforchildrenwherevideosareuploadedexclusivelyforparents).1067Thesamemarginofappreciationhasledinthepasttodifferentinterpretations.Forinstance,HERMANNSandMATZNELLERareoftheopinionthattheextensivecataloguingandcomposingofprogrammeswouldfallundereditorialresponsibilityandthemediaregulatoroftheFrench-speakingCommunityofBelgiumruledthat the sole possibility of exercising control over the content of programmeswould be sufficient. O.Hermanns,P.MatznellerandS.Nikoltchev,‘TheRegulationofOn-DemandAudiovisualServices :ChaosorCoherence?’[2011]IRISSpecial :Theregulationofon-demandaudiovisualservices :chaosorcoherence ?

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As is clear for these cumulative criteria, the revised Directive aims to overcome the

difficulties described above associated with the interpretation of editorial

responsibility.1068

THELEGALQUALIFICATIONOFSOCIALMEDIAPLATFORMS.An interestingquestionthatarises is

whether or not social media platforms such as Facebook are included in the VSP

definition.TherevisedDirectivestronglyemphasisestheroleofsocialmediaservicesin

youngpeople’slives,recognisingthattheyarean“haveaconsiderableimpactinthatthey

facilitate the possibility for users to shape and influence the opinions of other users”. 1069

Furthermore, such services also compete for the same audiences and the revenues as

audiovisualmedia services and, therefore, are included in the scope of the Directive.

However,socialmediaservicesareonlycoveredbytheDirectiveinsofarastheyfallunder

thedefinitionofaVSP.TheDirectiveclarifiesthatsocialmediaservicesareincludedwhen

theprovisionofprogrammesoruser-generatedvideoscouldbeconsideredanessential

functionalityofthatservice,meaning‘notmerelyancillaryoraminorpartofitsactivities’.

Therefore,itneedstobeassessedtowhatextentsocialmediaservicesrevolvearound

providing user-generated audiovisual content. 1070 This assessment will need to be

decided on a case-by-case basis, and may change over time when these services

evolve.1071It isup to theEuropeanCommission toprovideguidelineson thepractical

applicationofthiscriterionofessentialfunctionality.

RESPONSIBILITIES FOR VSP PROVIDERS CONCERNING COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATIONS. The actual

impact of the introduction of VSPs into theAVMSDirective on digital influencers and

vlogging advertising depends on whether or not the provisions on commercial

1068Thesecondandthirdrequirementaimtospecificallycaterfortheseproblemsandtheincreasedusageofautomatedmeansofselectionandorganisationbyplatforms.CliffordandVerdoodt(n922).1069Recital3aoftheFinalCompromiseText.1070I.Lambrecht,V.VerdoodtandJ.Bellon,‘PlatformsandCommercialCommunicationsAimedatChildren:APlaygroundunderLegislativeReform?’[2018]InternationalReviewofLaw,ComputersandTechnology.1071K.Ehle,‘DigitalSingleMarketUpdate:TheEuropeanCommission’sProposaltoRevisetheAudiovisualMedia Services Directive’ (Lexology) <https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=dc9d66d9-f916-4f0b-b0cc-f3b6e2f45de4> accessed 15 December 2017. Facebook, for instance, has been increasinglyinvestinginaudiovisualcontent(e.g.FacebookWatchapplication).J.Costine,‘FacebookLaunchesWatchTab of Original Video Shows’ (Techcrunch, 9 August 2017)<https://techcrunch.com/2017/08/09/facebook-watch/>accessed15December2017.

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communicationareapplicabletosuchplatforms.Inthisregard,article28aoftherevised

DirectiverequiresVSPproviderstotakeappropriatemeasurestoprotect:

(a) minors from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisual commercial

communications which may impair their physical, mental or moral development in

accordancewithArticle6a(1);

(b) the general public from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisual

commercial communications containing incitement to violence or hatred directed

againstagroupofpersonsoramemberofagroupbasedonanyofthegroundsreferred

toinArticle21oftheCharteroftheFundamentalRightsoftheEuropeanUnion;

(ba) the general public from programmes, user-generated videos and audiovisual

commercialcommunicationscontainingcontentthedisseminationofwhichconstitutes

anactivitywhich isacriminaloffenceunderUnionlaw,namelypublicprovocationto

commitaterroristoffencewithinthemeaningofArticle5ofDirective(EU)2017/541,

offencesconcerningchildpornographywithinthemeaningofArticle5(4)ofDirective

2011/93/EU and offences concerning racism and xenophobiawithin themeaning of

Article1ofCouncilFrameworkDecision2008/913/JHAoncombatingcertainformsand

expressionsofracismandxenophobiabymeansofcriminallaw.(Emphasisadded)

Thus, VSP providers are required to take measures to protect minors from harmful

audiovisual commercial communications and the general public from audiovisual

commercialcommunicationscontaininghatespeechorillegalcontent.Inaddition,VSP

providers also have to ensure compliance with article 9(1) of the Directive, which

requiresinteraliathataudiovisualcommercialcommunicationsshouldberecognisable

assuch(i.e.theidentificationprinciple)andshouldnotdirectlyexhortminorstobuyor

hireaproductorservicebyexploitingtheirinexperience.1072However,thisrequirement

onlyappliestothoseaudiovisualcommercialcommunicationsthataremarketed,soldor

arrangedbytheVSPprovider.Incontrast,forthosethatarenot(forinstancevlogging

advertisingarrangedbyadigitalinfluencer),thecompromisetextrecognisesthelimited

control exercised by VSP providers over such commercials and requires that VSP

1072Article28(1a)oftheFinalCompromiseText.

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providers take appropriate measures. In order to determine what measures are

appropriate,VSPprovidershavetotakeintoaccountthe

“nature of the content in question, the harm itmay cause, the characteristics of the

categoryofpersonstobeprotectedaswellastherightsandlegitimateinterestsatstake,

including those of the video-sharing platformproviders and theusers having created

and/oruploadedthecontentaswellasthepublicinterest.”1073

Additionally,themeasureshavetobepracticableandproportionate,inlightoftheactualsize

of the VSP service and the nature thereof. Important to note is that the compromise text

explicitlystatesthatsuchmeasuresmaynotleadtoanytypeofex-antecontrolorafiltering

ofuploadedcontent,asthiswouldnotcomplywitharticle15ofthee-CommerceDirective.1074

TherevisedDirectivealsoprovidesalistofpotentialmeasures,includinginteraliaadding

theidentificationrequirementintheVSPstermsandconditions;installingflagging,age

verification,parentalcontrolandratingmechanisms;andmedia literacymeasures.1075

Fortheimplementationofthesemeasures,MemberStatesarerequiredtoencouragethe

useofco-regulation.

1.2.2 VloggingadvertisingintheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective

SCOPE.Inthepreviouschapter–butalsointheevaluationoftheprevioususecases-we

haveseenthattheUCPDirectiveisahorizontalDirectivecontainingrulesforcommercial

communicationsregardlessoftheformordeliveryused.Itappliestounfairbusiness-to-

consumerpractices,includingcommercialcommunicationsdirectlyconnectedwiththe

promotion,saleorsupplyofaproducttoconsumers.Becauseofitsgeneralscope,itwill

beapplicabletomanycommercialpracticesthatarealsoregulatedbyothergeneralor

1073Article28(2)oftheFinalCompromiseText.1074Article15ofthee-CommerceDirectivestatesthat“MemberStatesshallnotimposeageneralobligationonproviders,whenprovidingtheservicescoveredbyArticles12,13and14,tomonitortheinformationwhichthey transmit or store, nor a general obligation actively to seek facts or circumstances indicating illegalactivity.”1075Article28(2)of theFinalCompromiseText. In relation to theageverificationandparentalcontrolmechanisms,theDirectiveprohibitsthatanypersonaldataofminorscollectedinthiscontextisusedorresoldforcommercialpurposes(e.g.behaviouraladvertising,directmarketing).

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sector-specificEUlegislation.1076Inthisregard,themorespecificrequirementslaiddown

underotherEUlegislationusuallyaddtothegeneralrequirementsoftheUCPDirective,

thusofferingcomplementaryprotection(unlesstheaspectisspecificallyregulatedbythe

sector-specificrules).1077

A. UNFAIRCOMMERCIALPRACTICESBYDIGITALINFLUENCERSANDTHIRD-PARTYTRADERS

RESPONSIBILITIESOFDIGITALINFLUENCERSANDTHIRD-PARTYTRADERS.Video-sharingplatforms

like YouTube have become platforms for commercial communication, in the form of

advertising,productplacementreviews,etc.Inthisregard,digitalinfluencerspromoting

brands,productsorservicesofacompany(ortheirown)couldqualifyastradersunder

theUCPDirective.Asnotedabovea trader is “anyone (including legalpersons)who is

actingforthepurposesrelatingtohistrade,business,craftorprofession,andanyoneacting

onbehalfofanothertrader”.1078Thismeansthatboththebrandorcompanythatwantsto

promotetheirgoodsorservicesandthedigitalinfluencerthatishiredtoengageinthe

promotioncouldqualifyastradersundertheUCPDirective.

HIDDENTRADERSANDADVERTISING. In the contextof socialmediaandVSPs, theEuropean

Commission(2016)haswarnedforincreasedriskstohiddenandmisleadingadvertising,

as commercial elements are often mixed with social and cultural user-generated

content. 1079 Moreover, consumers experience these platforms just as services for

exchanginginformationorcommunicatingwithotherconsumers.Assuch,theyareoften

unawareoftradersemployingtheseplatformsforadvertisingandmarketingpurposes.

Regulatory authorities of several Members found the practice of companies paying

bloggerstopromoteandadvertisetheirproductsonablogaimedatteenagerswithout

1076 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).1077Inthisregard,article3(4)oftheUCPDirectiveclarifiesthat“incaseofconflictbetweentheprovisionsofthisDirectiveandotherCommunityrulesregulatingspecificaspectsofunfaircommercialpractices,thelattershallprevailandapplytothosespecificaspects."1078Article2(b)UCPDirective.1079 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices, SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).

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disclosingthecommercialnatureoftheblogstobeahiddencommercialpractice.1080By

analogy,thesamereasoningcouldbeappliedinthecontextofvlogging.Otherexamples

of commercialpracticesby thirdparty traders (e.g.brands)and/ordigital influencers

include:

ü Athirdpartytraderencouragesuserstosharemarketingmaterialwithotherusers

byofferingpricereductionsonitsmarketedproductsasareward.

ü A blogger is given a free vacation by a tour operator in exchange for posting

positivereviewsonthevacationandthetouroperator.

ü Acelebrity(music,sports)isgivenanendorsementdealinexchangeforposting

picturesofboughtproductssuchassneakers.1081

TheUCPDirectivehas specifically tackled theproblemofhidden traders,byexplicitly

forbiddinginallcircumstancesthepracticesof

“falselyclaimingorcreatingtheimpressionthatthetraderisnotactingforpurposes

relatingtohistrade,business,craftorprofession,orfalselyrepresentingoneselfasa

consumer”.(Emphasisadded)

Forexample,tradersarenotallowedtopostfakereviewsinthenameofconsumersorby

usinge-reputationagencies.Furthermore,digitalinfluencersandtradersshouldrefrain

from“usingeditorialcontentinthemediatopromoteaproductwhereatraderhaspaidforthe promotionwithoutmaking that clear in the content or by images or sounds clearly

identifiablebytheconsumer(advertorial)”.Thus,theUCPDirectiveclearlyrequiresthatdigital influencers disclose the commercial nature of their vlogs to their consumer-

followers.ImportanttonoteisthattheDirectivedoesnotprovidefurtherdetailsonwhat

suchadisclosureshouldlook like.Withregardtoadvertorials, thiscouldbeeither ‘by

imagesorsounds’,andithastobe‘clearlyidentifiable’.

1080 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document: Guidance on theImplementation/Application of Directive 2005/29/Ec on Unfair Commercial Practices’ (2009)<http://ec.europa.eu/justice/consumer-marketing/files/ucp_guidance_2009_en.pdf>accessed16January2018.1081 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).

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FAKE LIKES COULD QUALIFY AS MISLEADING COMMERCIAL PRACTICES. Also relevant for digital

influencersisArticle6oftheUCPDirectivewhichprotectsconsumersagainstmisleading

commercialpracticesinvolvingtheuseofsystemssuchas‘likes’.TheECclarifiesthatby

presentingfake‘likes’toconsumers,adigitalinfluencerorthirdpartytradermaymislead

consumersaboutitsownreputationorthereputationofitsproductsorservices.Inturn,

thiscouldpotentiallyinfluenceconsumers’purchasingbehaviour,causingthemtotake

transactionaldecisions theywouldnothave takenotherwise.1082Significant tonote in

thisregardisthepracticeofso-called‘pods’,whichentail(mostlyhidden)collaborations

onsocialmediabetweenagroupofdigitalinfluencers.Membersofapodagreetolikeand

commentoneachother’svideosinaspecificmanner(e.g.usingaminimumamountof

words,usingenoughhashtags),withtheaimofbeingprioritisedbythealgorithmofthe

platform and appear more often in consumers’ search results or newsfeeds. 1083

Consideringthatthesecollaborationsarelargelyunknowntothepublic,itmayconstitute

amisleadingcommercialpractice.Therefore,itcouldbearguedthatdigitalinfluencers

participatinginpodsshoulddisclosethistotheirconsumer-followers.

ADDITIONAL PROTECTIONS FOR CHILDREN. Finally, as mentioned, digital influencers are

particularlypopularamongstchildrenandadolescents.Accordingly,article5(3)of the

UCPDirective could provide a legal basis of protecting “a clearly identifiable group of

consumerswhoareparticularlyvulnerable”.TheECexplainsthatthislegalbasisreinforces

thegeneralidentificationrequirements(i.e.clearlyindicatingthemarketingpurpose).1084

Furthermore,digitalinfluencersneedtokeepinmindthattheirvlogscannotcontaina

directexhortationtochildrentobuyacertainproductorpersuadetheirparentsorother

1082 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).1083Forinstance,regardingpicturesorvlogsonInstagram,themorelikesandcommentsapostreceivesshortly after posting, the better it will perform in the algorithm. High initial engagement signals toInstagramthatquality,engagingcontentispostedandasaresult,thepostcanmovehigherupinpeople’sfeeds(andpotentiallygoviralthroughtheInstagramExplorepage).G.Barkho,‘InsideInstagramPods:TheSecret Trick to Increase Your Engagement’ (Later Blog, 23 February 2017)<https://later.com/blog/instagram-pods/>accessed18January2018.1084 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).

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adultstobuysuchaproductforthem.Forinstance,statementsofvloggerssuchas“Go

buythebooknow”or“Tellyourmomtogetitfromthelocalstore”wouldbeprohibited

undertheUCPDirective.Thisdoesnotimplyanoutrightbanonadvertising,butmerely

aimsatprovidingprotectiontochildrenagainstdirectexhortationstopurchase.1085

B. UNFAIRCOMMERCIALPRACTICESBYTHEVIDEO-SHARINGPLATFORM

PLATFORMS AS TRADERS. The VSP provider can also qualify as a trader under the UCP

Directive incertain instances. In its2016guidancedocumentontheapplicationof the

UCPDirective,theEuropeanCommissionexplainsthatitmustbeassessedonacase-by-

casebasiswhetheraplatformserviceproviderisactingasatrader,whetheritisengaging

inacommercialpracticeandwhetherthispracticeisaimedtowardsconsumers.1086In

particular, the Commission stresses that platform service providersmay be acting as

traders when they draw revenues from targeted advertising.1087In addition, the VSP

providermayputinplacecommercialpracticessuchasfacilitatingandsellingpaid‘likes’

andsponsoredreviews,blogsandaccountstothird-partytraders.Conversely,forthird-

party advertising, the VSP provider will not have direct obligations under the UCP

Directive.1088TheVSPprovideralsoneedstoinformusersaboutanyprocessingoftheir

personaldataforcommercialpurposes,otherwisethiscouldbeconsideredanomission

ofmaterialinformationnecessaryforinformedcommercialdecision-making.Article7of

1085M.Capello, ‘Article13TWFD’inOlivierCastendyk,EgbertDommeringandAlexanderScheuer(eds),EuropeanMediaLaw(KluwerLawInternational2008).1086 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545).1087 European Commission, ‘Commission Staff Working Document - Guidance on theImplementation/ApplicationofDirective2005/29/EConUnfairCommercialPractices,SWD(2016)163Final.’(n545)122.AlsosupportedbytheCJEUinthePapasavvascase:SotirisPapasavvasvOFileleftherosDimosiaEtaireiaLtdandOthers[2014]CJEUC-291/13.1088Forinstancewithregardtoadvertorials,theCJEUheldthattheprohibitionwasapplicabletothetraderwhoseproductsorserviceswereadvertised,ratherthanforinstancetheproviderofanewspaperviawhichtheadvertisementispublished.Inotherwords,theCourtfoundthattherewasnodirectobligationonthenewspaperinEUlaw.CJEURLvSVerlagsgesellschaftvStuttgarterWochesblatt.RLvSVerlagsgesellschaftmbHvStuttgarterWochenblattGmbH[2013]CJEUC-391/12;GeraintHowells,ChristianTwigg-FlesnerandThomasWilhelmsson,RethinkingEUConsumerLaw(Routledge2017).

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theUCPDirectiveprohibitssuchanomissionifitisshownthatitislikelytocausethe

averageconsumertotakeatransactionaldecisionhewouldnothavetakenotherwise.1089

1.2.3 Further guidance for vloggers in self- and co-regulation – National best

practices

LACK OF QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS IN LEGISLATION. Although the general

identification requirement is applicable to digital influencers, we have seen that the

means of practically implementing this requirement is not specified in the current

legislative framework. The same requirement can also be found in self-regulation, for

instanceintheInternationalChambersofCommerceCodeofAdvertisingandMarketing

Communication Practice. 1090 Recently, however, several national self-regulatory

authorities,aswellasgroupsofdigitalinfluencersthemselves,haveissuedorpledgedto

followguidelinesonhowtodisclosecommercialrelationships.

UNITEDKINGDOM:ASA“OREORULING”.AfirstexamplecanbefoundintheUnitedKingdom,

wheretheself-regulatorybodyfortheadvertisingindustry–theAdvertisingStandards

Authority(“ASA”)1091-hadreceivedacomplaintin2014fromaBBCjournalistregarding

vlogging advertising ofMondelez’s Oreo cookie. The journalist claimed that the Oreo

advertisementswerenotobviouslyidentifiableasmarketingcommunications.Thecase

involvedso-called‘LickRacevideos’ondifferentYouTubeChannels,ownedbypopular

vloggers,whichportrayedthevloggerseatinganOreoinaparticularway.1092Thevideos

werepartofamarketingprojectbyMondelezUKLtd,incooperationwiththevloggers

concerned.TheASAruledthatthereferencesusedbythevloggersattheendofthevideos

-“ThankstoOreoformakingthisvideopossible”–didnotsufficientlymakecleartothe

audiencethatthevloggerswerecollaboratingwithMondelez.Morespecifically,theASA

1089Again,article5(3)UCPDirectivecouldpresentalegalbasisfortheprotectionofchildreninthisregard,andassuch,reinforcestheinformationrequirementandlowersthethresholdwhenitcomestodefiningwhetherornottheomissionhasinfluencestheconsumer’stransactionaldecision-making(i.e.theaverageconsumerwillbeachild).1090InternationalChamberofCommerce(n137).1091FormoreinformationontheASA,seepartIIIchapterIIofthePhDresearch.1092P.Matzneller,‘GB-UnitedKingdom:ASAUpholdsComplaintaboutOreoBiscuitAdinYouTubeVideos’[2015]IRIS-LegalObservationsoftheEuropeanAudiovisualObservatory.

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highlightsthattheidentificationrequirementisapplicabletothegeneralaudienceofthe

advertisement. Since the video advertisements were uploaded on a video-sharing

platformthatisusuallyeditorial-based,viewersmightperceivethevideoadvertisements

asaformofsponsorship,wherethevloggerretainstheeditorialresponsibilityoverits

content despite receiving financial support. 1093 The video advertisements were very

similartotheeditorialcontentontherespectivechannels,andassuch,theASAruledthat

thecommercial intentwouldnothavebeen immediatelyclear fromthestylealone. In

addition,thereferencesinsomeofthevideoswereonlymadeattheendofthevideo,or

merely in the video description. According to the ASA, this entails that viewers have

already interactedwiththevideo,underminingtheprotectiveaimof the identification

requirement.

CAPGUIDELINESFORVLOGGERS.Followingtheruling,theASA’ssisterbody-Committeeof

Advertising Practice (“CAP”)1094- launched guidelines for vlogging advertising, which

clarify theresponsibilities for thedifferentparties involved.Theprincipleremainsthe

same: advertising by vloggers needs to be recognisable as such to the audience. If

influencersreceiveanybenefitsfrombrands,theywillhavetodisclosethiscommercial

relationship.AccordingtotheCAPGuidelines,therearetwowaysinwhichavloggermay

clarifythecommercialintentofavlog:(1)bymakingitclearwithintheoverallcontextof

thecommunicationor(2)bylabellingavlogasanadvertisement.1095TheCAPprovides

specificguidelinesforseveralformsofvloggingadvertisingandclarifiesforeachofthese

who is responsible for complying with the identification requirement. For instance,

advertorials(i.e.thevideoisintheusualstyleofthevloggerbutthecontentiscontrolled

by the brand and the vlogger has been reimbursed in someway) need to be labelled

upfrontsothatviewersareawareofthenatureofthevideobeforeengagingwithit.In

thiscontext,boththevlogger(i.e.publisher)andthebrand(i.e.marketer)areconsidered

responsibleforthislabellingrequirement.1096Foreachtypeofvloggingadvertising,the

1093Matzneller(n1092).1094FormoreinformationontheCAP,seepartIIIchapterIIofthePhDresearch.1095 Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Video Blogs: Scenarios’ <http://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/video-blogs-scenarios.html>accessed13February2018.1096Rule2.4CAPGuidance.

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CAPprovidesguidanceonhowtofulfiltheidentificationrequirement.Theseguidelines

are meant to provide “a non-exhaustive overview of vlogging scenarios with practical

advice on how and when the rules kick in”.1097 Although the scenarios and means of

labellingarenon-exhaustive,digitalinfluencersthatdonotfollowtheCAPguidelinesare

atriskofbeingsubjectofarulingbytheASA.

TYPEOFVLOGGINGADVERTISING LABEL WHOISRESPONSIBLE

FORTHELABELLING?

Onlinemarketingbyabrand Nolabelneeded:commercialintentislikelytobe

clearfromthecontext

/

Advertorialvlogs

(thewholevlogispaidfor

andcontrolledbyabrand)

Use:“advertisementfeature”,“ad”,“adfeature”,

“advertorial”orsimilar

Where:inthetitleorthumbnail

Donotuse:“sponsored”,“Supportedby”,“Funded

by”and“ThankstoXformakingthispossible”

Thevloggeras

‘publisher’andthe

brandas

‘marketer’

Commercialbreakswithin

vlogs

(adedicatedsectionofthe

editorialcontentispaidfor

andcontrolledbyabrand)

Makeclearwhentheadstarts:Onscreentext

stating“ad”,“adfeature”,holdingupasign,

incorporatingthebrand’slogo,orbythevlogger

simplyexplainingthatthey’vebeenpaidtotalk

abouttheproduct.

Inaddition(sonotnecessary)vloggersmayaddin

thedescriptionbox:“thisvideoincludes

advertisingforspecificproductswhichis

indicatedby[…]”

Vlogger

Productplacement Nolabelneededfortheentirevlog;onscreentext

stating“ad”,“productplacement”,holdingupa

Vlogger

1097 Advertising Standards Authority, Committees of Advertising, ‘New Vlogging Advertising Guidance’<http://www.asa.org.uk/news/new-vlogging-advertising-guidance.html>accessed15February2018.

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sign,orthevloggerexplainingthatthey’vebeen

paidtotalkabouttheproduct.

Avlogger’svideoabouttheir

ownproduct

Thevideotitleshouldmakeclearthatthevideois

promotingthevlogger’sproducts:“I’mexcited

aboutmypromotional/book/albumtour”,“new

productnews”or“Letmeshowyouhowtouse

mynewmake-upline”wouldbesufficient.

Vlogger

Editorialvideoreferringtoa

vlogger’sownproducts

Nolabelneededifthemarketingcommunication

isclearwithinthecontext:e.g.agamingvlogger

maysay“I’mcurrentlyusingthenewheadphones

I’vejustreleased;youcanpurchasethemthrough

thelinkbelow”.

Inaddition(sonotnecessary)vloggersmayaddin

thedescriptionbox:“thisvideoincludes

advertisingformynew[…]”,especiallywhere

theyhaven’tadvertisedtotheirfollowersbefore.

Vlogger

Sponsorships

(Abrandsponsorsavlogger

tocreateavideobuthasno

controlofthecontent)

NolabelneededundertheCAPGuidance

However:anodtothesponsorshipisrequired

underconsumerprotectionlaw.

Vlogger

Freeitems

(Abrandsendsavlogger

itemsforfreewithoutany

controlofthecontent(orany

conditionsattached))

NolabelneededundertheCAPGuidance

However:vloggersarerequiredunderconsumer

protectionlawtotellconsumersifanitemwas

givenontheconditionthatitistalkedabout.

Vlogger

Table1:Vloggingscenariosandhowtodealwiththem.(Source:https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/video-blogs-scenarios.html#.Vq9PWGdF2Uk).

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NORWAY. Similarly, theNorwegianMediaAuthority (“NMA”)has issued a very specific

guide for Video Bloggers and YouTubers in 2017, on the labelling of advertisements.

Interestingly, the Norwegian Broadcasting Act contains rules for hidden advertising,

product placement and sponsorships, which also apply to digital influencers posting

videosonvideo-sharingplatforms.Influencersthatdonotfollowtheserulesriskfinancial

penalties,coercivefinesortime-limitedprohibitionsonsendingadvertisementsintheir

videos.1098TheNMA’sguideaimsathelpingdigitalinfluencerstocomplywiththeserules.

Similar to the CAP Guidelines, the NMA Guide contains certain scenarios or forms of

vloggingadvertisingandprovidesforeachofthesedifferentqualitativerequirementsfor

thelabelling.

TYPEOFVLOGGING

ADVERTISING

LABEL WHOISRESPONSIBLE

FORTHELABELLING?

Advertisement

(youarepaidto

presentaproductina

video,theproductis

themainfocusofthe

video)

Labelledinwritingon-screen,eitherbeforeyou

presenttheproductoratthebeginningofthevideo.

Inaddition(sonotnecessary):mentionthe

collaborationverbally

Do’s:

ü Usetheterm“reklame”or“annonse”

(“advertisement”)

ü Thelabelmustbeclearenough,largeenough

andmustappearlongenoughon-screenforthe

viewerstoacknowledgeit

ü Thelabelmustbeclearlyvisibleagainstthe

background

ü Thetitleofthevideoorthevideo’sinformation

fieldshouldalsostatethatthevideocontains

advertising

Vlogger

1098 Medietilsynet, ‘Advertisement, Sponsorship and Product Placement’ (Medietilsynet)<http://www.medietilsynet.no/en/for-media-businesses/advertisement-sponsorhip-and-product-placement/>accessed15February2018.

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Dont’s:

û Itisnotenoughtomerelyrefertothefactthat

thevideowasproducedin“cooperationwith...”

û Youcannotusetheexpression“sponsoredby...”.

Readmoreaboutsponsorshipsbelow

Productplacement

(youarepaidtopresent

aproductinavideo,the

productisnotthemain

focusofthevideo)

Labelthevideoinwriting“P-Inneholder

produktplassering”(“P-Containsproduct

placement”)bothatthestartandendofthevideo

ü Thelabelmustbevisibleforatleastfour

continuousseconds

ü Thelabelmustbesufficientlylargeandentirely

clearagainstthebackgroundsothatitcanbe

easilyread

Vlogger

Includinglinkstosales

outlets=advertising

Usetheterm“reklame”or“annonse”

(“advertisement”)inconnectionwiththelinks

Ifyoureceiveashareoftheprofitseverytimeanyone

buystheproductviatherelevantlink,youcouldalso

makethiscleartoyourviewers

Vlogger

Sponsorship

(the sponsor does not

have any influence on the

content of the video, and

you do not discuss or

demonstrate the spon-

sor’s products or servi-

ces)

Thesponsormustbeidentifiedinaclearmannerat

thestartand/orendoftheprogramme.

ü E.g.:“SponsetavX”(“SponsoredbyX”),or“Takk

tilXforbidraget”(“ThankstoXforthe

contribution”).

ü Verballyorinwriting.

Vlogger

Tabel2:GuideforYoutubersandVideoBloggersaboutLabellingofAdvertisements.(Source:https://www.medietilsynet.no/globalassets/engelsk/engelsk-youtube-veileder.pdf).

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THENETHERLANDS.A third interesting exampleof self-regulationwas set up by several

DutchYouTubersin2017called‘SocialCode:Guidelinesforadvertisinginonlinevideo’

(“SocialCode:YouTube”).1099TheCodewasdevelopedincollaborationwithinteraliathe

DutchMediaAuthorityandtheself-regulatorybodyforadvertising–StichtingReclame

Code(“SRC”).ThelatterenforcestheDutchself-regulatorycode foradvertising,which

alsocontainsrules forsocialmediaadvertising(including identificationofcommercial

messages).ThenewSocialCode:YouTubecontainslabellingrequirementsspecificallyfor

vlogging advertising on YouTube. 1100 Compliance with the Code will also entail

compliancewiththerulesforsocialmediaadvertisingoftheself-regulatorycodeofthe

SCR. Digital influencers pledging compliance to the Code can only collaborate with

advertisersthataccepttheCode’slabellingrequirements.

TYPEOFVLOGGING

ADVERTISING

LABEL WHOISRESPONSIBLE

FORTHELABELLING?

Advertisingpaidbya

brand

Thelabelcaneitherbe:

ü Animagebeforethevideostarts,screen-filling,

minimumof3seconds

ü Thevloggermentionsthatthevideoincludesan

advertisement

Addinthedescriptionbox:“Thisvideoincludesapaid

collaborationwith…“

Vlogger

Advertisingpaidby

charity

Idem Vlogger

1099 YouTube Vloggers, ‘Social Code: Richtlijnen Voor Reclame in Online Videos’ (2017)<https://www.cvdm.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Social_Code_YouTube.pdf> accessed 15 February2018.1100AccordingtoMEINDERSMA,therulesareplatform-dependentanddonotapplytoothervideo-sharingplatforms.C.Meindersma,‘NieuweRegelsVoorYouTubers,deSocialCode’(Marketingfacts,21November2017) <https://www.marketingfacts.nl/berichten/nieuwe-regels-voor-youtubers-de-social-code>accessed15February2018.

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Freegoodsorservices

ordiscounts

Statementatthebottomofthedescriptionbox. Vlogger

Productspaidbythe

vlogger(sono

advertising)

Addinthedescriptionbox:Thisvideodoesnot

containanypaidcollaborationsorfreeproducts…

Vlogger

Tabel3:SocialCode:Youtube.(Source:https://www.cvdm.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Social_Code_YouTube.pdf).

BELGIUM.Asafinalexample,guidelinesforinfluencer-marketinghavealsobeenreleased

in Belgium. First, the Belgian Federal Public Service Economy (FPS Economy) – a

governmental body - provided a set of guidelines for influencer advertising on social

mediaonMay15th,2018.Theguidelinescontainaspecificsubsectionthatisdedicatedto

YouTube.Morespecifically,vloggersarerequiredtoaddadisclosuretotheirvideos(i.e.

theword ‘reclame’ inwriting)whencommercial statementsaremade.Thedisclosure

shouldbeshownatregularintervalsofatleasteveryfifteenseconds;shouldbevisible

foratleastthreesecondseachtime;maynotbehiddenbetweenhashtagsorattheendof

the video. The company or brand that is behind the advertisement should also be

identified.However, theFPSEconomyalreadyhadtowithdrawtheguidelines,as they

hadbeenpublishedbeforebeingvalidated.Interestingtonoteisthattheguidelineswould

belegallyenforceableandthatnon-compliancecouldleadtofines.

Secondly,theJuryforEthicalPracticesinAdvertising(“JEP”)hadtohandleacomplaint

concerningquestionablestatementsmadebyadigitalinfluencer,inandaccompanying

oneofhisvlogs.1101In itsdecision, the JEPrequested the influencer involved toeither

changeorremovethecontestedvlog,basedonthenationalimplementationoftheUCP

Directiveandtheself-regulatoryICCCode.Followingthisdecision,theBelgianCouncilfor

1101Inthecontestedvideo,thevloggeraddresseshisyoungaudiencewhileelaboratlypraisingasweaterthatisforsaleonhiswebsite.Anumberofquestionablestatementsareusedinandaroundthevideo.Forexample,thetitleofthevlogreads:'GRATISECHTEBROERTRUIEN'(freelytranslated:‘freesweatersforrealfans’).Whilewatchingthevideo,however,itbecomesclearthatthesweatersinfactcost€30.Besidesthis,thevloggercallsuponhis(mostlyunderage)publictostealtheirparents'creditcardincasetheyarenotallowedtobuyhismerchandising.Inaddition,thevloggeralsoregularlyemphasisesthatonlywhenviewersbuyoneofhissweaters,theyareconsideredtobe 'realfans'. JEP, ‘AcidApparel’,12September2018, <https://www.jep.be/nl/nieuws/acid-apparel-12-09-2018-beslissing-tot-wijzigingstopzetting>accessed29October2018.

273

Advertising(infra)togetherwiththeJEPpublishedtheirownguidelinesoncommercial

practices by digital influencers.1102 These guidelines aim to assist digital influencers,

advertising companies, agencies, media and platforms with regard to consumer

protectionandlegalcertainty.Thedocumentisbuiltupontheprinciplesofidentification,

fairnessandtransparency,whichhavebeenformedintofourconcreteguidelines.First,

onlineinfluencershavetodiscloseanycommercialrelationshipwithabrandinavisual

or audible way. This can be done by stating one of the following words: “reclame,

advertentie, sponsoring, promotie, gesponsord door, in samenwerking met, ...” or

hashtags:“#spon,#adv,#prom,#reclame,#recl,#sample,#...”.Furthermore,thewords

or hashtags disclosing the commercial intent of the vlog will need to be adjusted in

functionofthelanguageofthemessageortargetaudience,associalmediadoesnothave

(linguistic)boundaries(publicité,advertising,promoted,ad,paid,...).Third,thedisclosing

words should be mentioned in such a way and place that the recipient immediately

understandsthecorrectnatureofthemessage.Finally,thewordsshouldnotbehidden:

the average consumerwill have to be able to take notice of the disclosure in normal

circumstances. Important to note is that the scope of application of the guidelines is

limitedasitonlyappliesiftwoconditionsarefulfilled:(1)aremunerationwasreceived,

(2)theadvertisingcompanyexercisescontroloverthecommercialcommunication.The

latterenvisagesthesituationwheretheadvertiserandonline influencershaveagreed

uponguidelinesconcerningthecommercialmessage.Thissecondconditionimliesthat

caseswhereavloggerwouldreceiveaproduct for freeundertheconditiontomakea

videoaboutthatproduct,willnotbecoveredbytheguidelinesunlesstheadvertiserhas

explicitlyorderedhowthepromotionoftheproductwillhavetotakeplace.

1102 Aanbevelingen van de Raad voor de Reclame inzake online influencers, October 2018,<https://www.jep.be/sites/default/files/rule_reccommendation/aanbevelingen_van_de_raad_voor_de_reclame_online_influencers_nl.pdf> accessed 29 October 2018. For a complete overview of events see VVerdoodtandNFeci, ‘DigitalInfluencersandVloggingAdvertising:CallingforAwareness,GuidanceandEnforcement’(2018)1AuteursenMedia.

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TOWARDSACOORDINATED,EVIDENCE-BASEDAPPROACHFORLABELLING.Itisclearfromtheanalysis

thatdigitalinfluencersneedtoidentifycommercialcommunicationsthatareintegrated

in their videos. Although the regulatory framework currently requires that certain

information needs to be made visible to the consumer, it leaves a wide berth for

interpretationandimplementation.Atthenationallevel,thishasledtoavarietyofself-

regulatoryinitiatives,providingguidelinesforthelabellingofvloggingadvertising.These

self-regulatory instruments contain very clear and specific instructions for the

implementationofthelegalidentificationrequirementinthecontextofvlogging,making

iteasyfordigitalinfluencerstocomply.However,thelackofacoordinatedapproachat

theEU levelandtheresultingdistributednatureof labellingrequirementscouldraise

practicalquestionsregardingenforcement.Furthermore,asdigitalinfluencersarehighly

popularamongstchildren, itcouldbequestionedwhetherthe labellingguidelinesand

current industry practices were developed with a children’s audience in mind. For

instance,researchbyZAROUALIetal. indicatesthatadolescentsdonotcomprehendthat

theword ‘sponsored’refers to thepersuasive intentofamessage. Inotherwords, the

currentpracticeof several socialmediaplatforms– i.e. the signpostingof commercial

communicationwiththeword“sponsored”or“sponsoredposts”–isnoteffectivewhen

itcomestoadolescentsand,assuch,failstofulfiltheaimoftheidentificationprinciple.

Accordingly, it isarguedthatacoordinated,evidence-basedapproachtolabelling,also

taking into account the specific needs of children, could be useful for the proper

implementation of the identification principle. The European Advertising Standards

Alliancecouldtakeupacoordinatingroleinthisregard.

VIDEO-SHARINGPLATFORMSNEEDTOTAKEUPTHEIRSHAREOFRESPONSIBILITY.Asidefromdigital

influencers, VSP providers also have important responsibilities for commercial

communications distributed via their platforms. The legal framework distinguishes

betweenthoseadvertisementsthataremarketed,soldorarrangedbytheplatformand

third-partyadvertisements.Withregardtothefirstcategory,boththeAVMSandtheUCP

Directive require VSP providers to identify them as commercial communications.

Furthermore, theVSP provider has a numberof other responsibilities concerning the

protectionofminorsspecifically(e.g.protectthemagainstharmfuladvertisingcontent)

andthepublicingeneral(i.e.protectthemagainsthatespeech,illegalcontent).TheVSP

275

provider must also refrain from unfair commercial practices such as facilitating and

sellingpaid‘likes’andsponsoredreviews,blogsandaccountstothird-partytraders.With

regard to the second category, both theAVMS andUCPDirectives recognise that VSP

providershavelimitedcontrolovercontentandcommercialcommunicationsuploaded

bythirdparties.Accordingly,ratherthanhavingageneralobligationtomonitororfilter

uploadedcontentforharmfulcommercialcommunications,therevisedAVMSDirective

requiresplatformproviderstoforeseeappropriatemeasurestoensuretheprotectionof

minorsand thegeneralpublic (e.g. flaggingmechanisms, ageverificationmechanisms,

parentalcontrolsystems).IthasalsobeendescribedhowtheEuropeanCommissionhas

encouragedthedevelopmentofco-regulatorymechanismsforappropriatemeasuresin

therevisedAVMSDirective.Inthisregard,itisarguedthattheECshouldensurethatthey

take into account social science studies and that these co-regulatorymechanisms are

evaluatedandupdatedonaregularbasis.

THE SAFETY NET OF CONSUMER PROTECTION LAW. Finally, the analysis showed that certain

provisionsoftheUCPDirectivecouldformanimportantlayerofprotectionforconsumer-

followersagainstcertaintypesof‘unfair’vloggingadvertisingpractices.Duetoitsbroad

scopeofapplication,theDirectivecanalsocovernewcommercialpracticessuchasfake

likes, hidden traders, instagram pods or any other persuasive tactic emerging in the

future.

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CONCLUSION - GAPS AND OVERLAPS IN THE CURRENT REGULATORY

FRAMEWORK FOR COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION AIMED AT

CHILDREN

ASSESSMENT OF THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION IN LIGHT OF

CHILDREN’SRIGHTS.Fromourassessment,itcanbeconcludedthatattheEUlevelthereare

several legislative and self-regulatory initiatives imposing a myriad of obligations on

advertisers first and foremost with regard to the identification of commercial

communications,butalsowithregardtothecontentofthecommercialmessageorthe

use personal data for advertising purposes. However, the multitude of rules and

obligationsdoesnotmeanthat,automatically,thelevelofprotectionandempowerment

ofchildrenishigh.Indeed,inthefirstpartofthisstudy,itwasarguedthattheemerging

trendsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationcreatedifficultiesforchildrentomake

carefully considered and critical commercial decisions or decisions concerning their

privacyandpersonaldata.Thisfindingwasconfirmedinthesecondpartofthestudy,and

morespecificallyintheassessmentofthepersuasivetacticsusedineachofthethreeuse

casesandtheimpactthereofonchildren’sadvertisingliteracy.Furthermore,itwasfound

thattheadvertisingformatsdiscussedaffectseveralchildren’srights,suchastheirrights

to development, privacy, protection against economic exploitation and freedom of

thought.Inthisregard,thecurrentregulatoryframeworkprovidesspecificprotections

for children across different regulatory instruments related to their autonomy and

commercialdecision-making,suchasinteraliatheprincipleofidentification,information

requirements and the reliance on (parental) consent as one of the main grounds

legitimising the processing of children’s personal data. However, the effectiveness of

these advertising formats calls the existing protections and their enforcement into

question.Fromtheabovemappingandevaluationitcanbeconcludedthattherearea

number of gaps in the current regulatory framework for commercial communication

aimedchildren.

1. Problemscausedbythefragmentationoftheregulatoryframework.

From the evaluation, a first general finding is that the fragmented regulatory

framework leadstoconfusionamongthedifferentstakeholders involved.Boththe

legislativeandself-regulatoryprinciplesareoftenformulatedinageneralorabstract

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manner(“commercialcommunicationsmustberecognisableassuch”or“marketing

communications should not be intended to primarily appeal to minors”), and

guidelinesfortheimplementationinpracticethereofareoftenlacking.Furthermore,

the application and enforcement of the existing legislative and self-regulatory

provisionswillalwaysbeassessedonacase-by-casebasis:first,itwillbedetermined

whetheraspecificprovisionisapplicabletoacertainmessage,andsecond,itwillbe

determined whether the commercial message – the content, the identification or

otherelements– infringestheprovision inquestion.However,asdescribedabove

certaindefinitions in legislativeorself-regulatory instrumentsare formulated ina

manner that leads to uncertainty as to their scope of application for new, digital

advertising formats.Moreover, nouniformdefinitiononwhat constitutes a ‘child’

exists.Indeed,childrenareregardedinteraliaas‘anyoneunder18’,‘anyoneunder

the legalpurchaseageasregardsalcoholadvertisements’or ‘12yearsorunder in

relationtoonlinebehaviouraladvertising’.Whereasofcoursedifferentcommercial

messagesmaybeinappropriateforchildrenofdifferentages,thevarietyofagesthat

arerelevantfortheapplicationofdifferentprovisionsmayleadtoconfusion,notonly

for advertisers, but also for parents and children. In light of these findings, it is

contendedthatemergingtrendsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationrequirea

comprehensiveapproachanddynamicinterpretationofallapplicableframeworksin

an intertwined manner. In other words, rather than looking at instruments in

isolation, a holistic interpretation of the existing regulatory framework on

commercialcommunicationisneeded.

2. Theempowerment-protectionscalesoftheregulatoryframeworkareoutofbalance.

A second gap we discovered refers back to the analysis of the children’s rights

framework.Here,itwasconcludedthatinthecontextofcommercialcommunication

abalanceisneedbetween(1)empoweringchildrenasyoungconsumersandallowing

them to practice their commercial decision-making skills and (2) protecting them

against harmful or misleading commercial practices, especially considering the

sophisticationandpersuasivenessofcertaintrendsincommercialcommunication.It

isuptotheStatetoensurethattheregulatoryframeworkisstructuredtoachievesuch

abalance.Atthemoment,however,theexistingprotectionsforchildreninthecontext

ofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationoftenrevolvearoundidentificationand

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transparency requirements, essentially allocating much of the responsibility with

childrenandtheirparents(e.g.advertisershavetolabelcommercialmessagebutitis

uptochildrenandparentstorecogniseandunderstandthemeaningoftheselabels).

Inlightofthis,itisconcludedthattheempowerment-protectionscalesaretippedout

ofbalance.Consideringtheimpactandeffectivenessofemergingtrendsintheareaof

commercialcommunicationonchildren,itisarguedthataderesponsabilisationofthe

child(andparent)isrequiredintheregulatoryframework.

3. Thelimitationsoftheidentificationprinciple.

Third, the identificationprinciplewashighlightedasacommonthreadthroughout

the regulatory framework. In this regard, itwasdiscovered that there is a lackof

structureandcoherencewithregardtoitsimplementation.Morespecifically,itwas

foundthatavarietyoflabels to indicatethecommercialnatureofadvertisements,

whichmayleadtoconfusionamongconsumers.Therefore,itisarguedthatamore

structuredandcoherentapproachisneededinordertoprotectchildren’sconsumer

interests. In addition, even though existing industry disclosures might be legally

compliant, in some situations it could be argued that they are not in line with

children’s rights (e.g. for some advertising formats disclosures do not activate

children’s advertising literacy). In this regard, it is important to recognise the

limitations of children’s advertising literacy and empowerment and, as such, the

effectivenessoftheidentificationprincipleintodaysonlinemarketreality.

4. Thedataprotectionframeworkisundergoingsignificantchangesandguidanceonits

implementationisurgentlyneeded.

Another finding relates to the EU data protection framework, which has been

undergoing significant changes (i.e. theadoptionof theGDPR, theproposal foran

ePrivacyRegulation). Itwas found that theGDPRprovides specific protection for

children, especially in the context of advertising, but it remains unclearwhat the

specificprotectionforchildrenwillentailinpractice.Furthermore,theframework

does not contain a definition of a ‘child’, leading to uncertainty regarding the age

group(s) towhich certain protectionmeasures should apply. Aside from this, the

advertisingindustryhasbeenveryactiveindevelopingself-regulation,however,the

focusliestoooftenontransparencyandinformation,ratherthanonlimitationstothe

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collectionanduseof children’spersonaldata. In this regard, itwasargued thata

children’srightsinspiredinterpretationofthedataprotectionframeworkisneeded.

5. Needforbetterdistributionofresponsibilitiesintheadvertisingchain.

Theevolvingroleofplatformproviderssuchasvideo-sharingplatformsinrelationto

commercialcommunicationswasalsoassessed.Inthisregard,itwasconcludedthat

increasedresponsibilitiesforplatformproviderscouldbeamorepracticalmeansof

ensuringcompliance(e.g.regardingtheidentificationrequirements).Thediscussion

isalsoreflectedinthebroadenedscopeandtheincreasedresponsibilitiesforvideo-

sharingplatformprovidersintherevisedAVMSDirective.

6. Lackofcoordinationbetweenregulatoryauthorities.

Finally, considering the myriad of instruments regulating commercial

communication, it was concluded that different regulatory bodies (i.e. both

governmentregulatorybodies,suchasmediaregulators,dataprotectionauthorities,

consumer protection authorities, and self-regulatory bodies) are competent to

enforce the existing provisions. As illustrated, in practice the application of these

frameworks to emerging trends of commercial communication – and, hence, the

competencesoftheregulators–mayoverlap,whichmayleadtouncertaintynotonly

for the regulators themselves but also for consumers who want to file digital

advertising-related complaints. In this regard, it was concluded that increased

coordinationandcollaborationbetweenthedifferentregulatoryauthoritiesinvolved

isneeded.

REMAINDEROFTHESTUDY.Thispartof thePhDresearch focusedonthesubstantive legal

elementsoftheregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunication.Inthenextpartof

the PhD research, the focus shifts to procedural and organisational elements of

advertisingregulation.Asillustratedinthemappingexercise, theadvertisingindustry

has been very active in developing ARIs that play an important role in regulating

commercial communication.The remainderof this studyaimsat findingbestpractice

recommendationsforthestructuringandorganisationofsuchARIs.

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PARTIII-ASSESSMENTOF

NATIONALARISINTHEAREAOF

COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION

281

CHAPTER I - THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN ALTERNATIVE REGULATORY

INSTRUMENTS AND THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR COMMERCIAL

COMMUNICATION

RECAP.Themappingofthecurrentregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunication

aimedatchildrenshowedthatamyriadofprovisionscontainedinbothlegislativeand

self-regulatoryinstrumentsmayapply.Theseprovisionsareenforcedatthenationallevel

by different regulatory authorities (i.e. media regulators, self-regulatory bodies, data

protectionauthoritiesandconsumerprotectionautorities).However,theevaluationof

thisfragmentedframeworkrevealedthatthehighnumberofapplicableprovisionsand

theexistenceofseveralregulatoryauthoritiesdoesnotautomaticallymeanthatchildren

areprotectedandempowered(cfr.theremaininggaps).

PROCEDURALANDORGANISATIONALELEMENTS.Asthepreviouspartoftheresearchprovideda

detailedevaluationof the substantiveelementsof the regulatory framework, thispart

focuses on procedural (i.e. monitoring, enforcement and remedial measures) and

organisational (i.e. the attribution of regulatory power, organisational structures)

elementsand,morespecifically,withinexistingalternativeregulatoryinstruments.The

mappingshowedthattheadvertisingindustryhasbeenveryactiveinthedevelopment

ofself-regulatoryinitiatives.Moreover,self-regulationandprivaterule-makinghasbeen

promotedbytheEuropeanCommissionasanimportantpartoftheregulatoryprocessof

protectingchildrenonlinesincetheverybeginning.1103Forthesereasonsthispartofthe

research will be limited to a selection of existing ARIs in the area of commercial

communicationat thenational levelandexploretheirstrenghtsandshortcomings.1104

1103Macenaite(n709)2.1104 Academic research has already focused on enforcement (or aspects thereof) of the separate legalinstrumentssuchasfordataprotectionlawseeforinstanceF.Bieker,‘EnforcingDataProtectionLaw–TheRoleoftheSupervisoryAuthoritiesinTheoryandPractice’,PrivacyandIdentityManagement.FacinguptoNext Steps (Springer, Cham 2016) <http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-55783-0_10>accessed5July2018.;formedialawseeforinstance‘INDIREG-IndicatorsforIndependenceandEfficientFunctioningofAudiovisualMediaServicesRegulatoryBodiesforthePurposeofEnforcingtheRulesintheAVMS Directive’ (Hans Bredow Institute for Media Research 2011)<http://ec.europa.eu/archives/information_society/avpolicy/docs/library/studies/regulators/final_report.pdf>accessed5 July2018.;and forconsumerprotection lawsee for instanceF.Weber,TheLawand

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Theaimofthecomparativeanalysisistodistinguishthoseproceduralororganisational

elementsthatcouldimprovethequalityandeffectivenessofARIstoprotectchildrenin

thecontextofcommercialcommunication.Theanalysisalsotakesintoaccountcildren’s

proceduralrights.

INTRODUCTION. As an introduction to the comparative assessment, this chapter aims to

situate ARIs within the broader legal framework for commercial communication. In

relationtotheinterplaybetweenlegislationandARIs,itisarguedbyLIEVENSthat

“the use of ARIs does not occur in a legal vacuum. On the contrary, there are

fundamental rights and other legal requirements – stemming from conventions,

constitutions, laws, jurisprudence and soft law instruments – that need to be

respectedwhencreating,implementingandenforcingARIs.”1105

Acomprehensiveanalysisofthoselegalprovisionsthatneedtobetakenintoaccountfor

theconstructionandstructuringofARIshasalreadybeenaddressedbyLIEVENS.1106Her

researchshowedthattherearenolegalobstacleswhichleadtoanaprioriexclusionof

theuseofARIstoprotectchildren–afindingthatcouldbeextendedtotheprotectionof

childrenagainstharmfulandmisleadingadvertising.Therefore,thischapterfocusesona

number of aspects that are of particular relevance to the context of commercial

communication and/or for the comparative assessment of the procedural and

organisationalelementsinthenextchapter.First,itdiscussestheroleandresponsiblities

of theadvertising industryunder the children’s rights frameworkandanalyseswhere

ARIscomein.Second,itbrieflytouchesuponhowtheEUlegislatorhaspromotedARIs

throughoutthelegalframeworkforcommercialcommunication.Third,specificattention

is given to children’s procedural rights and safeguards, which form the basis for the

comparative assessment. Finally, this section briefly describes a number of relevant

EconomicsofEnforcingEuropeanConsumerLaw:AComparativeAnalysisofPackageTravelandMisleadingAdvertising(Routledge2016).1105E.Lievens,‘TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstrumentstoProtectMinorsintheDigitalEra:ApplyingFreedomofExpressionSafeguards’(2011)29NetherlandsQuarterlyofHumanRights164,49.1106InterestedreadersmaytakenoticeofthePhdresearchofEvaLievens,whichprovidesanextensiveoverviewofbothsubstantiveandproceduralrequirementsfortheuseofARIsfortheprotectionofchildrenagainstharmfulcontent.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)379–498.

283

proceduraland/ororganisationalprinciplesforARIsstemmingfromEUpolicyandthe

industryitself,whicharealsorelevantforthecomparativeassessment.

SECTIONI-THEUSEOFARISANDTHELEGALFRAMEWORK

1. Children’srights

STATERESPONSIBILITYFORREGULATINGBUSINESSACTIVITIES.TheUNCRCCommitteeunderlines

that Stateshave important obligations regarding the impactof business activities and

operationsonchildren’srights,arising fromtheConvention.1107First, theobligationto

respect entails that States “should not directly or indirectly facilitate, aid and abet any

infringement of children’s rights”. 1108 Second, States have a duty to ensure that the

activitiesandoperationsofbusinessesdonothaveanadverseimpactonchildren’srights

(i.e.protect).TheCouncilofEuropehasalsoexplicitlyrecognisedthisdutyinits2016

Recommendationonhumanrightsandbusiness.1109Consideringtheimportantimpactof

new forms of commercial communication on children’s lives, Statesmust ensure that

effectiveregulationandmonitoringofbusinesses’advertisingandmarketingpractices

aimedatchildrenareinplace.Moreover,children’sbestinterestsshouldbecentraltothe

developmentofsuchlegislationandpolicies.Third,Statesshouldtakepositiveactionsto

facilitatetherealisationofandpromotetheenjoymentofchildren’srights(i.e.fulfil).1110

In this regard, supportive, stable and predictable legal and regulatory environments

should be created for businesses to support children’s rights. States should also

strengthen regulatory agencies responsible for the oversight of standards that are

relevant in the context of children’s rights, such as with respect to advertising and

1107 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).1108 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)8.1109AccordingtotheCouncilofEurope,“MemberStatesshouldrequirethatbusinessenterprisesrespecttherightsofchildrenwhenoperatingwithintheirterritorialjurisdictionand,asappropriate,throughouttheiroperations abroad when domiciled in their jurisdiction”. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers,‘Recommendation CM/Rec(2016)3 on Human Rights and Business’ 25<http://edoc.coe.int/en/fundamental-freedoms/7302-human-rights-and-business-recommendation-cmrec20163-of-the-committee-of-ministers-to-member-states.html>accessed28June2018.1110 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)9.

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marketing.Morespecifically,theUNCRCCommitteestressesthattheseagenciesrequire

sufficientresourcesforthemonitoringandinvestigationofcomplaints,butalsotoenforce

remedies for abuses of children’s rights.1111Finally, States must ensure that children

whose rights have been infringed by businesses have access to effective remedy (i.e.

remedy).1112Inthisregard,theCouncilofEuropeunderlinesthat“accessible,affordable

andchild-friendlyavenuestosubmitcomplaintsandseekremedies,bothjudicialandnon-

judicial,shouldbeensuredforchildrenandtheirrepresentatives”.1113

BUSINESS RESPONSIBILITIES REGARDING CHILDREN’S RIGHTS. Although the UNCRC does not

specifically refer to the responsibilities of the business sector for realising children’s

rights, the UNCRC Committee recognises the sector’s increasing impact on children’s

rights. This is especially true in the digital era, where children’s access and use of

technologiesbecomesevermorereliantoninternetcompaniesthatoperateonaglobal

scale.1114Theimpactofthesectorcanbepositive,assuchbusinessesmaystrengthenthe

realisation of children’s rights (particularly their participation rights) through for

instancetechnologicaladvancementsand investments,however, this isnotalwaysthe

case.1115Accordingly,theUNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChildrecognisesthat:

“dutiesandresponsibilitiestorespecttherightsofchildrenextendinpracticebeyond

theStateandState-controlledservicesandinstitutionsandapplytoprivateactors

1111 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)15.1112 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)15.1113Council of Europe, Committee ofMinisters, ‘RecommendationCM/Rec(2018)7 of the Committee ofMinisterstoMemberStatesonGuidelinestoRespect,ProtectandFulfiltheRightsoftheChildintheDigitalEnvironment’(n170).1114Lievensandothers(n16).1115TheCommitteementionstheexampleofmarketingharmfulproductssuchascigarettes,alcoholandfattyfoods,whichcanhavea long-termimpactonchildren’shealth.UNCommitteeontheRightsoftheChild,‘GeneralCommentNo.16(2013)onStateObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)3.

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andbusinessenterprises.Therefore,allbusinessesmustmeet theirresponsibilities

regardingchildren’srightsandStatesmustensuretheydoso.”1116

Forinstance,businessesarerecommendedtotakevoluntaryinitiativesintheframework

ofabusiness’corporatesocialresponsibilitystrategy,includingthedevelopmentofself-

and/orco-regulatoryinstruments.1117

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR RESPECTING CHILDREN’S RIGHTS. Promoting corporate

social responsibility for human rights has been on the policy agenda for quite some

time. 1118 An important milestone in the business and human rights debate is the

unanimous endorsement by theUnitedNationsHumanRights Council of the ‘Guiding

PrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights’.1119Thisinstrumentcontainsasetofguidelines

forStatesandcompaniestoprevent,addressandremedyhumanrightsabusescommitted

in business operations. 1120 However, certain academics 1121 and children’s rights

organisationsfelttheneedforstrongervisibilityofchildren’srights.AccordingtoCOLLINS,

the challengewas to articulate values and develop policies and practices that respect

children’srightsinbusinessinameaningful,convincingandeffectiveway.1122Inresponse

to this need, several children’s rights organisations joined forces to develop a similar

1116 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)2.(Emphasisaddedbyauthor).1117 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)2.1118T.M.Collins,‘TheRelationshipbetweenChildren’sRightsandBusiness’(2014)18TheInternationalJournalofHumanRights582,583.1119The development process of this instrumentmarksa shift towardsa new“rights-basedapproach”,supportingthehumanrightsprincipleofparticipation.Morespecifically,accordingtoCOLLINS,theguidingprinciples “were developed following long consultations and tested extensively before release to ensureeffectiveness.Therewere47internationalconsultationsonallcontinentsandsitevisitstobusinessesandlocalstakeholdersinover20countriesbyJanuary2011aswellaspracticaltestingofthenon-judicialgrievancemechanismsinfivedifferentsectorsinfivecountries,andtheduediligenceprovisionsby10companiesandinvolvementofcorporatelawexpertsfromover20countries.”ThisparticipatorydevelopmentprocesswasthentakenupbytheUNCommitteeinitsGeneralComment16(2013)OnStateobligationsregardingtheimpactofbusinessonchildren’srights.SeeCollins(n1118)588.1120Formoreinformationseehttps://business-humanrights.org/en/un-guiding-principles.1121A.CraneandB.A.Kazmi,‘BusinessandChildren:MappingImpacts,ManagingResponsibilities’(2010)91JournalofBusinessEthics567,567.1122Collins(n1118)583.

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instrument fromachildren’srightsperspective.1123 In2012, the ‘Children’srightsand

businessprinciples’(“CRBP”)werereleased,whichformthebasisofactionscompanies

cantakeintermsoftheircorporatesocialresponsibilitytorespectchildren’srights.1124

The CRBPwere an important precursor to theUNCRCCommittee’sGeneral Comment

16.1125

CHILDREN’SRIGHTSANDBUSINESSPRINCIPLES.TheCRBPweredesignedtoguidecompanies“on

the full rangeofactions theycan take in theworkplace,marketplaceand community to

respect and support children’s rights”. 1126 They were developed in light of existing

standards and best practices in relation to business and human rights, but from a

children’srightsperspective.1127ThePrinciples,however,donotcreatenewinternational

legal obligations, but are derived from the internationally recognised human rights of

children.1128WhileinstrumentssuchastheGuidingPrinciplesandtheCRBPhavebeen

described as the authoritative UN normative documents on business and

human/children’s rights, scholars have clarified that their normative contribution

predominantlyliesinelaboratingtheimplicationsofexistingstandardsandpracticesfor

States and businesses.1129 Against this background, certain authors have commented

upontheCRBPandtheirpotentiallackofeffectiveness.Forinstance,COLLINSstressesthat

while recognising thevalueof articulating the commitments forbusiness, there is the

dangerthattheCRBPwillnotbefullyappreciatedorrespectedconsideringthatitdoes

notcreatenewinternationallegalobligations.1130AccordingtoGERBERetal.theCRBPare

1123TheprinciplesweredevelopedthroughconsultationsledbyUNICEF,SavetheChildrenandtheUnitedNationsGlobalCompact.1124UNICEF,UNGlobalCompactandSavetheChildren(n412).1125FormoreinformationseeVerdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n9).1126UNICEF,UNGlobalCompactandSavetheChildren(n412).1127P.Gerber,J.KyriakakisandK.O’Byrne,‘GeneralComment16onStateObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSectoronChildren’sRights:WhatIsItsStanding,MeaningandEffect?’[2013]MelbourneJournal of International Law123<https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2319537> accessed14November2017.1128W.Vandenholeandothers,RoutledgeInternationalHandbookofChildren’sRightsStudies(Routledge2015)397<https://www.book2look.com/book/rUPT8r8gaE>accessed14November2017.1129Gerber,KyriakakisandO’Byrne(n1127)125.1130Collins(n1118)583.

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ultimately a private initiative, without the authoritative status enjoyed by General

Comments.

NOADVERSEEFFECTONCHILDREN’SRIGHTS.TheCRBPcontains10principles,whicheachhave

their own set of criteria for reviewing critical areas of potential or actual impacts on

children’srights.Ofparticularimportanceinthecontextofcommercialcommunicationis

Principle6,whichstatesthefollowing:

“All businesses should use marketing and advertising that respect and support

children’srights”.

This principle entails that businesses have to ensure that the marketing and

communication of their products or services does not have an adverse impact on

children’s rights. This entails that commercial communication may not reinforce

discriminationandmustofferchildrenandparentsclearandaccurateinformationsothat

theycanmakeinformeddecisions.Toassesswhethercommercialcommunicationhasan

adverseimpactonchildren’srights,certainfactorsmaybeconsidered,suchaschildren’s

greatersusceptibilitytomanipulation,andtheeffectsofusingunrealisticorsexualised

body imagesandstereotypes.1131Furthermore, the corporate responsibility to respect

this principle requires compliance with the standards of business conduct in World

HealthAssemblyinstrumentsrelatedtomarketingandhealth.Finally,companiesarealso

encouraged to raise awareness of and promote children’s rights, positive self-esteem,

healthy lifestyles and non-violent values through their own communication and

marketingchannels.

IMPLEMENTATIONOFTHEPRINCIPLES.Akeyelementfortheimplementationofthecorporate

responsibility to respect children’s rights is conducting a children’s rights impact

assessment. In this regard, UNICEF has developed a guide for companies, for the

implementationoftheprincipleinpracticeandfortheintegrationofchildren’srightsinto

1131UNICEF,UNGlobalCompactandSavetheChildren(n412).

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impactassessments.1132This tool contains theprimaryandsupplementary criteria for

assessmentaswellasrecommendedactionsforcompanies.Thecriteriaaresubdivided

into three categories: (1) policy, (2) due diligence and (3) remediation criteria. An

important aspect of the assessment tool relates to the impact of marketing and

advertising on children’s rights. In this context, the tool defines several primary and

supplementarycriteriathatcompaniesneedtokeepinmindwhentheydecidetomarket

oradvertisetheirservicestochildren.

POLICYCRITERIA.First, theassessmenttooldefinesachecklistofprimaryandsecondary

criteria for marketing and advertising policies. In addition, the tool offers practical

guidancetocompaniesbyprovidingconcreteactionpoints.Theseactionpointsarereal

structural decisions ormeasures that companies can make or implement. The policy

criteria require companies to have inter alia a global responsible marketing and

advertising policy inplace that prohibits harmful andunethical advertising related to

children. This would entail considering the appropriateness of their advertising

campaignsfordifferentagegroups,addressingtheadverseimpactofdigitalmedia,taking

adequate securitymeasures to protect children in all internet-marketing venues (e.g.

socialmedia),etc.1133

DUE DILIGENCE CRITERIA. A second category of criteria for companies that market and

advertise their products or services to children are due diligence criteria. 1134 These

criteria require a certain standard of care from the company when defining their

advertisingormarketingstrategies.Theconceptofduediligencealsoplaysanimportant

roleintheFrameworkoftheSpecialRepresentative,whereitisdefinedas“thestepsa

company must take to become aware of, prevent and address adverse human rights

1132 UNICEF, ‘Children’s Rights in Impact Assessments’ (2013)<https://www.unicef.org/csr/css/Children_s_Rights_in_Impact_Assessments_Web_161213.pdf> accessed14November2017.1133UNICEF(n1132).1134Examplesincludeconductingaregularlyassessmentoftheimpactofthecompany’smarketingcontenton children, taking into account different age groups; conducting assessments on discrimination inadvertising and marketing; disseminating messages to children and parents that promote healthybehavioursandproducts.UNICEF(n1132).

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impacts”.1135In this regard, PARKER and HOWE have argued that there is a need for a

sufficiently coercive legal environment for due diligence policies to be effective.

Otherwise there may be a risk that due diligence policies will merely be a sort of

“greenwashing”ofcorporateactiononhumanrights.1136

REMEDIATIONCRITERIA.Finally,theChildren’sRightsandBusinessPrinciplesrequirethata

formalcomplaintmechanismisinplace,whichshouldbeaccessibletochildrenortheir

representatives. In this regard,UNICEF’s children’s rights impact assessment contains

certainremediationcriteriathatcompaniesshouldconsider.1137Forinstance,companies

shouldinformconsumers,employeesandotherstakeholdersaboutthemechanismand

available channels to report concerns. The mechanism should also be accessible to

children(e.g.ahotlineoronlinechannelforreporting).

CONCLUDINGREMARK.Tosumup,theadvertisingindustrydoeshavecertainresponsibilities

for the realisation of children’s rights, such as developing advertising campaigns that

respectorpromotechildren’srights,ordevelopadvertisingself-regulation.Regardingthe

latter, it is important to note that any self- or co-regulatorymechanism has to be in

compliancewiththechildren’srightsframework,includingchildren’sproceduralrights.

2. EUlegislativeinstrumentsoncommercialcommunicationandARIs

TheEuropeanlegislatorhasrecognisedthepotentialofARIstoregulatedifferentforms

andaspectsofcommercialcommunicationaimedatminors,byspecificallyencouraging

1135 United Nations General Assembly, ‘Protect, Respect, and Remedy: A Framework for Business andHuman Rights Doc A/HRC/8/5’ 56 <https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G08/128/61/PDF/G0812861.pdf?OpenElement>accessed6August2018.1136C.ParkerandJ.Howe,‘Ruggie’sDiplomaticProjectandItsMissingRegulatoryInfrastructure’inRaduMares(ed),TheUNGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights(MartinusNijhoff2012)279.1137UNICEFandTheDanishInstituteforHumanRights,‘Children’sRightsinImpactAssessments:AGuidefor Integrating Children’s Rights into Impact Assessments and Taking Action for Children’ (2013)<https://www.unicef.org/csr/css/Children_s_Rights_in_Impact_Assessments_Web_161213.pdf> accessed6August2018.

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theMember States to consider or adopt suchmechanisms in a number of legislative

instrumentsorreviewproceduresthereof.1138

AVMSDIRECTIVE.First,ARIs are explicitlymentioned in the revisedAudiovisualMedia

ServicesDirectiveasameanstoregulatethe fieldscoordinatedbytheDirective.More

specifically, article 4 (a) of the final compromise text of the AVMS Directive obliges

Member States to encourage the development of co-regulatory and/or self-regulatory

mechanismstotheextentpermittedbytheirlegalsystems.Suchmechanismshavetofulfil

fourmajor requirements: (1) representativeness,meaning that themain stakeholders

should broadly accept them, (2) they must clearly and unambiguously set out their

objectives,(3)provideforregular,transparentandindependentmonitoringandevaluation

of the achievement of the objectives aimed at; and (4) effectiveness, meaning that the

Member States should provide for effective enforcement. 1139 The rationale for this

supportforARIsinrelationtoaudivisualmediaservicesisexplainedinrecital7ofthe

compromisetext:

“experience has shown that both co-regulatory and self-regulatory instruments,

implementedinaccordancewiththedifferentlegaltraditionsoftheMemberStates,can

playanimportantroleindeliveringahighlevelofconsumerprotection”.

Theideaisthatmeasuresaimedatachievingpublicinterestobjectivesintheaudiovisual

media services sector would be more effective if they are supported by the service

providersthemselves.However,itshouldbenotedthattheEUlegislatorsdonotseeself-

regulation as a substitute for the obligations of the national legislator. It is rather a

complementarymechanismtothelegislative,judicialand/oradministrativemechanisms

inplace.1140Assuch,anyARIregulatingaudiovisualcommercialcommunicationshould

beinlinewiththenationallegalframeworkimplementingtheAVMSDirective.Asidefrom

1138E. Lievens andDirectorate-General for Internal Policies of theUnion,Research for CULTCommitteeSolutionsandPolicyDilemmasRegardingMinors’ProtectionOnline:In-DepthAnalysis.(2018)10.1139Article4(1)(a-d)oftheFinalCompromiseText.1140 Recital 7a of the Final Compromise Text defines that “However, while self-regulation might be acomplementary method of implementing certain provisions of this Directive, it should not constitute asubstitutefortheobligationsofthenationallegislator.Co-regulationprovides,initsminimalform,alegallinkbetween self-regulationand thenational legislator inaccordancewiththe legal traditionsof theMemberStates.”

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thegeneralencouragementforARIsintherevisedAVMSDirective,article9(4)obliges

Member States to encourage media service providers to develop codes of conduct

regardinginappropriateadvertisingofunhealthyfoods.

E-COMMERCEDIRECTIVE. Second, the E-Commerce Directive explicitlymentions codes of

conductatCommunitylevelasthebestmeanstoregulateprofessionalethicsinrelation

to commercial communication in an online environment. As such,Member States, the

European Commission and professional associations and bodies are encouraged to

develop codes of conduct for instance regarding the practical implementation of the

information requirements for advertisers. 1141 Immediately after the adoption of the

Directive,severalassociationsdevelopedsector-specificcodesandtrustmarkschemesat

both the European (e.g. Fedma Code for Direct Marketing, supra) and national level.

However,afterthisinitialboomtheactivityinthisareaappearedtosloweddown.1142The

E-CommerceDirectivealsodefinescertainobligationsforMemberStatesinrelationto

theimplementationofenforcementmechanisms.MemberStatesarerequiredtoensure

thattheirnationallegislationdoesnothampertheuseofout-of-courtschemesfordispute

settlement, includingappropriateelectronicmeans.1143Furthermore, the court actions

availableundernationallawinrelationtoinformationsocietyservicesneedtoallowfor

the rapid adoption ofmeasures (e.g. interimmeasures), in order to cease the alleged

infringementallowthepreventionoffurtherimpairmentofinterests.1144Finally,Member

Statesneedtodefineeffective,proportionateanddissuasivesanctionsforinfringements

ofthenationalmeasuresimplementingtheE-CommerceDirective.1145

UNFAIR COMMERCIAL PRACTICES DIRECTIVE. Third, the EU legislators have recognised that

codesofconductareameanstopromotefairbusinesspractices.Article10oftheDirective

1141Article8§2E-CommerceDirective.1142‘FirstReportontheApplicationofDirective2000/31/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof8June2000onCertainLegalAspectsofInformationSocietyServices,inParticularElectronicCommerce,in the Internal Market (Directive on Electronic Commerce)’ 16–17<http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/docs_autres_institutions/commission_europeenne/com/2003/0702/COM_COM(2003)0702_EN.pdf>accessed6August2018.1143Article17E-CommerceDirective.1144Article18E-CommerceDirective.1145Article20E-CommerceDirective.

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statesthatMemberStatesmayencouragetheuseofcodeofconducts,andallowsrecourse

to code owners (i.e. self-regulatory organisations) by consumers against unfair

commercialpracticessuchasmisleadingoraggressiveadvertisements.Importanttonote,

however, is thatsuchacomplaintmechanismshouldnotbedeemedtheequivalentof

foregoingameansofjudicialoradministrativerecourse.1146

GENERALDATAPROTECTIONREGULATION.Finally,inthecontextoftheprocessingofpersonal

data,theEUlegislatorhasexplicitlyrecognisedintheGDPRthatcodesofconductcanbe

ameans to contribute to the proper application of the data protection principles.1147

Consideringthebroadvarietyofprocessingsectorsandthespecificneedsofmicro,small

andmedium-sizedenterprises,codesofconductcouldprovidemorespecificandconcrete

guidance on the application of the Regulation. In the context of commercial

communication, this could for instance lead to the development of a specific code of

conduct on the collection of children’s personal data for behavioural advertising

purposes, guidelines for the implementation of parental consent and verification

mechanisms.

CONCLUDING REMARK. Thus, the legislative instruments at EU level encourage the

development of advertising ARIs. However, this does not necessarily mean that the

complaintmechanisms provided by such instruments are an equivalent of judicial or

administrativerecourse

1146Article10,secondparagraphUCPDirective.1147Article40GDPR.Forinstance,article40(g)oftheGDPRstatesthatcodesofconductcanbedeveloped“for the purpose of specifying the application of this Regulation, such as with regard to the informationprovidedto,andtheprotectionof,children,andthemannerinwhichtheconsentoftheholdersofparentalresponsibilityoverchildrenistobeobtained”.

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SECTIONII-PROCEDURALANDORGANISATIONALELEMENTSFORARIS

1. Children’sproceduralrightsandtheuseofARIs

ThefirstpartofthisPhdresearchshowedthatabroadvarietyofchildren’srightsareat

stake in thecontextofnewformsofcommercialcommunications.Whendecisionsare

made that might interfere with these fundamental rights (e.g. a self-regulatory body

decidingonacomplaintagainstahiddenormisleadingadvertisement),itcanbeexpected

from the decision-making body that a number of procedural safeguards are adhered

to.1148Thesesafeguardscanbefoundintherighttoafairtrialandtherighttoaneffective

remedy.1149

1.1 Righttoafairtrial

RIGHTTOAFAIRTRIAL. In theanalysisof thechildren’srights framework,article6of the

ECHR,whichdefinesthateveryone(includingchildren)isentitledtoarighttoafairand

publichearingbeforeanindependentandimpartialtribunalestablishedbylawwhena

disputeconcerningtheircivilrightsarises,wasdiscussed.1150Thismightforinstancebe

the case when children’s rights to development, privacy or the protection against

economic exploitation are interfered with by an ARI in the area of commercial

communicationaimedatchildren.1151LIEVENSclarifies that if theARIconcernedallows

children to raise the issuewith an alternative regulatory body, it should be assessed

whetherthebodyqualifiesasa‘tribunalestablishedbylaw’.1152Ifthisisthecase,thenall

therequirementsputforwardbyarticle6ECHRmustbecompliedwith.Ifthisisnotthe

case,judicialreviewneedstobeavailable.

1148Lievens,‘TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstrumentstoProtectMinorsintheDigitalEra’(n1105)49.1149SeealsosuprapartI,chapterII,sectionIIofthePhDresearch.1150Similarly,article47oftheEUCharterofFundamentalRightsdeterminesthat“Everyoneisentitledtoafair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal previouslyestablishedbylaw.”1151By analogy see E. Lievens,Protecting Children in the Digital Era: TheUse of Alternative RegulatoryInstruments,vol105(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2010)417.1152E.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments,vol105(MartinusNijhoffPublishers2010)417–418.

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TRIBUNALESTABLISHEDBYLAW.Thefirstrequiremententailsthatcasesneedtobedealtwith

byanindependentandimpartialtribunalestablishedbylaw.Thisdoesnotnecessarily

havetobeatraditionalcourtoflaw.1153Theessentialcriterionisthefunctionofthebody

concerned,whichshouldbe“todeterminematterswithinitscompetenceonthebasisof

rules of law, following proceedings conducted in a prescribed manner”. 1154 LIEVENS

examined whether recourse to an alternative regulatory body that would exercise

functionswhicharedeterminativeofcivilrightscould fulfil therequirementof ‘a trial

beforeatribunalestablishedbylaw’.AstheECtHR’srequirementsarerelativelystrict,

LIEVENS argues that it can be assumed that self-regulatory bodies will not meet the

standardsoftheCourtandthatitisalsodoubtfulthatco-regulatorybodieswouldqualify

astribunals.1155Therefore,ifadisputeconcerningacivilrightoccurs,andthealternative

regulatorybodydoesnotmeetthisfirstrequirement,thenthedisputemustbe“subjectto

subsequent control by a judicial body that has full jurisdisction” and which does fully

complywiththerequirementsofarticle6ECHR.1156Nevertheless,article6ECHRcontains

anumberofproceduralsafeguardswhichshouldbeadheredtobyalternativeregulatory

bodies,regardlessofwhetherthefirstrequirementisfulfilled.

INDEPENDENCEANDIMPARTIALITY.Therighttoafairhearingunderarticle6§1requiresthat

a case be heard by an “independent and impartial tribunal”.1157Bodieswhich are not

courts may also exercise functions determinative of civil rights, but MOLE and HARBY

clarify that this is acceptable only if these bodies comply with the requirements of

independence and impartiality. 1158 First, the independence requirement refers to

1153DirectorateoftheJurisconsultoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(n532)28.1154CampbellandFellvTheUnitedKingdom[1984]ECtHR7819/77;7878/77para76.1155Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)414.1156Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)414–415.Thisisrequiredbythedoctrineoffullreview1157Asthereisacloseinterrelationshipbetweenthetworequirements,theECtHRusuallyconsidersthemtogether.KleynandothersvTheNetherlands[2003]ECtHR39343/98,39651/98,43147/98and46664/99.1158N.MoleandC.Harby,TheRighttoaFairTrial,AGuidetotheImplementationofArticle6oftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights(CouncilofEurope2006)30;Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n6)415.

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independencevis-à-vistheotherpowers(i.e.theexecutive1159andtheparties1160).Inthe

assessment of independence, several criteria are taken into account, such as (1) the

mannerofappointmentofthemembers,(2)thedurationoftheirappointment,1161(3)the

existenceofsufficientsafeguardsagainsttheriskofoutsidepressureand(4)whetherthe

bodypresentsanappearanceofindependence.1162Second,impartialityrequiresthatthe

courtordecision-makingbodyisnotbiasedregardingthedecisiontobetaken,doesnot

allowitselftobeinfluencedbyinformationfromoutsideorpopularsentimentorbyany

pressure.Instead,decisionsmustbemadeonthebasisofobjectiveargumentsgrounded

on what was put forward during the trial.1163 The existence of impartiality must be

determined on the basis of two tests: (1) a subjective test, focusing on the personal

behaviourandconvictionsofthejudgesand(2)anobjectivetest,focusingonthetribunal

ordecision-makingbody itself to seewhether interalia its compositionoffersenough

guaranteesfortheexclusionofanylegitimatedoubtofpartiality.1164

RIGHTTOAFAIRANDPUBLICHEARING.Inaddition,article6ECHRrequires that the trialor

hearingconductedbythetribunal(ordecision-makingbody)isfairandpublic.First,the

fairness requirement refers to the “duty to conduct a proper examination of the

submissions, arguments, and evidence adduced by the parties, without prejudice to its

assessment of whether they are relevant to its decision”. 1165 LIEVENS clarifies that the

requirement also linkswith a number of other rights, such as the right to participate

1159BeaumartinvFrance[1994]ECtHR15287/89.1160SramekvAustria[1984]ECtHR8790/79.1161ThecaselawoftheECtHRdoesnotspecifyaparticulartermofoffice,butirremovabilityofmembersduringtheirtermofofficeshouldgenerallybeconsideredasaresultoftheirindependence.DirectorateoftheJurisconsultoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(n532)34.1162CampbellandFellvTheUnitedKingdom[1984]ECtHR7819/77;7878/77,para78.1163P.vanDijkandothers(eds),TheoryandPracticeoftheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights:FourthEdition(4theditionedition,IntersentiaPublishers2006)614;Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)416.1164DirectorateoftheJurisconsultoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(n532)39.1165TernovskisvLatvia[2014]ECtHR33637/02,para66.

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effectively at the hearing 1166 and the right to a reasoned judgment. 1167 Second, the

requirementofapublichearing“protectslitigantsagainsttheadministrationofjusticein

secretwithnopublicscrutiny”andis“oneofthemeanswherebyconfidenceinthecourts,

superiorandinferior,canbemaintained”.1168

1.2 Righttoaneffectiveremedy

RIGHTTOAREMEDY.Wehavealsoseenthatchildrenhavetherighttoaneffectiveremedy

beforeanationalauthorityiftheirrightsorfreedomsundertheECHRhavebeenviolated,

asenshrinedbyarticle13ECHR.1169The remedyshould lead to thepreventionof the

suspected violation or if appropriate to the obtainment of adequate redress (e.g.

compensation)andshouldbeeffectiveinpracticeandinlaw.1170Theeffectivenessofa

remedyisassessedonthebasisoftheconcretecircumstancesofthecase.Withregardto

children, article 13 ECHR is complied with if a legal representative of a child that is

involvedinaviolationofConventionrightshasrecoursetoaremedy.1171Inthisregard,

Statesshouldremovesocial,economicand juridicalbarriers,sothatchildrencanhave

accesstoeffectivejudicialmechanismswithoutdiscriminationofanykind.1172

1166Inthecontextofchildren,thiscouldalsobelinkedwiththechild’srighttobeheardunderarticle12oftheUNCRC.1167Therighttoareasonedjudgmententailsthat“ajudicialdecisionshouldstateclearandcompletereasonsand the arguments of the decision-making body should be legally valid and convincing”. M. Kuijer, TheBlindfoldofLadyJustice:JudicialIndependenceandImpartialityinLightoftheRequirementsofArticle6ECHR(MKuijer2004)167ascitedbyE.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(Brill2010)417.1168AxenvGermany[1983]ECtHR8273/78,para25.Ifanalternativeregulatorybodydoesnotcomplywiththislastrequirement,itmayberemediedifthedecisionofthatbodyissubjecttoreviewbyajudicialbodythathasfulljurisdiction–onthelawandthefacts–andthatprovidesapublichearing.Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)417.1169Similarly,article47oftheEUCharterofFundamentalRightsdeterminesthat“EveryonewhoserightsandfreedomsguaranteedbythelawoftheUnionareviolatedhastherighttoaneffectiveremedybeforeatribunalincompliancewiththeconditionslaiddowninthisArticle.”1170Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)418.1171Indeed,theECtHRhasstatedthat“ItwascommongroundthatArticle13(art.13)didnotrequirethata12year-oldchildbeabletoinstituteandconductsuchproceedingsonhisown;itwassufficientforthepurposesofthisprovisionthata legalrepresentativewasabletodosoonthechild'sbehalf”.MargaretaandRogerAnderssonvSweden(ECtHR),para101.1172 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148)16.

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ALTERNATIVE REGULATORY INSTRUMENTS. In the context of this PhD research, it could be

questionedwhetheraremedyprovidedbyanalternativeregulatorybodyqualifiesasa

remedybeforeanationalauthorityunderarticle13ECHR.TheECtHRhasconfirmedin

itscaselawthatremediesdonotnecessarilyhavetobejudicial:

“The“effectiveness”ofa“remedy”withinthemeaningofArticle13doesnotdepend

onthecertaintyofafavourableoutcomefortheapplicant.Nordoesthe“authority”

referredtointhatprovisionnecessarilyhavetobeajudicialauthority;butifitisnot,

itspowersandtheguaranteeswhichitaffordsarerelevantindeterminingwhether

theremedybeforeitiseffective.Also,evenifasingleremedydoesnotbyitselfentirely

satisfytherequirementsofArticle13,theaggregateofremediesprovidedforunder

domesticlawmaydoso.”1173

OVEYandWHITEexplainthatnon-judicialremediescouldalsobeconsideredadequate(e.g.

anombudsmanprocedure).1174Insuchacase,theECtHRwillassessthe“powersandthe

proceduralguaranteesanauthoritypossesses”,whendeterminingwhetheraremedycan

be considered accessible, adequate and effective.1175More specifically, it will analyse

whetherthebodyisindependent,impartialandprovidesanumberofminimalprocedural

guarantees. Furthermore, the body should be competent to receive complaints,

investigatethemeritsofthecomplaintandtakebindingdecisionsconcerningredress.1176

Therefore,LIEVENSstressesthat

1173KudlavPoland[2000]ECtHR30210/96,para156.1174C.OveyandR.White, JacobsandWhite, theEuropeanConventiononHumanRights (4thed.,Oxforduniversity press 2006) 463 as cited by Eva Lievens, Protecting Children in the Digital Era: The Use ofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(Brill2010)419.1175Inthisregard,oneshouldnotetheECtHRrulinginPeckvtheUnitedKingdom28January2003,No.44647/98,acaseinwhichtheapplicanthadbeenabletoassertandvindicatehisclaimsbeforeself-orco-regulatorybodies.However,theECtHRfoundthatthesebodiescouldnotprovideaneffectiveremedyfortheapplicanttohavehisrightofprivacyprotected,resultinginthefindingofaviolationofArticle13inconjunctionwithArticle8.Reasonsforthisfindingwerethelackoflegalpowertoawarddamagesofthebodiesinvolvedandthelackofpowertopreventapublicationorbroadcast.P.Valcke,D.VoorhoofandE.Lievens,‘IndependentMediaRegulators:ConditionSinequaNonforFreedomofExpression?’inW.Schulz,P.ValckeandK.Irion(eds),TheIndependenceoftheMediaandItsRegulatoryAgencies(INTELLECTLTD;Bristol,UK;Chicago,USA2013)66.1176Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)419.

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“when alternative regulatory bodies are involved in the protection of Convention

rights, suchas the freedomofexpression, in the frameworkofasystemtoprotect

minors from harmful content, the availability of remedies should be carefully

considered”.1177

Itisarguedthatthesamereasoningisvalidforalternativeregulatorybodiesthatdecide

on compliance with advertising rules, as such decisions may also affect children’s

fundamentalrights(suprapartI,chapterIIandpartIIchapterII).

NON-JUDICIAL MECHANISMS AT COMPANY-LEVEL. Finally, non-judicial mechanisms such as

mediation, conciliation and arbitration can also be useful alternatives for resolving

disputesconcerningchildrenandbusinesses.AccordingtotheUNCRCCommittee,such

mechanisms can play an important role alongside judicial mechanisms if they are in

conformitywiththeUNCRCConventionandshouldbeavailablewithoutprejudicetothe

righttojudicialremedy.Suchgrievancemechanismsshouldalsocomplywithanumber

of standards, such as effectiveness, promptness and due process and fairness.

Furthermore, the UNCRC Committee requires these mechanisms to comply with a

numberofcriteria, includingaccessibility, legitimacy,predictability,equitability,rights

compatibility, transparency, continuous learning and dialogue. 1178 Nonetheless,

children’s access to courts or judicial review of administrative remedies and other

proceduresshouldstillbeavailable.

2. Generalprinciplesforself-andco-regulationatEUlevel

2.1 TheEUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-regulation

ESTABLISHMENTOFACOMMUNITYPRACTICEFORSELF-ANDCO-REGULATION.AspartofitsStrategy

forCorporateSocialResponsibility, theEuropeanCommissiondevelopedabenchmark

forself-andco-regulationincollaborationwithenterprisesandotherstakeholders.More

specifically,theaimoftheEUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-regulationistohelpactors

1177Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)421.1178J.Ruggie,‘ReportoftheSpecialRepresentativeoftheSecretary-GeneralontheIssueofHumanRightsandTransnationalCorporationsandOtherBusinessEnterprises,A/HRC/8/5’.

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involvedinself-andco-regulationtoimproverecognition,respectandcredibilityfortheir

efforts.Anyinitiativemustalwaysbeinlinewithapplicablelawandfundamentalrights

asenshrinedinEUandnationallaw.1179ThePrinciplescontainanumberofprocedural

safeguardswhicharerelevantforouranalysisofnationalARIs.

MONITORING. First, the monitoring of the ARI should be conducted in a way that is

sufficiently open and autonomous. Each participant to the ARI must monitor its

performance against agreed targets and indicators, share the results with the other

participants, and make them public (in an aggregated manner where possible in an

objectiveandtransparentway).1180

EVALUATION.Second,theARIshouldbesujecttoregularevaluation,notonlyregardingoutput

commitmentsbutalsoregardingtheactualimpact.Thisleavesscopeforimprovementincase

anyshortcomingsareidentified.1181

RESOLVINGDISAGREEMENTS.Furthermore,regardmustbehadforresolvingdisagreementsboth

among participants and non-participants. On the one hand, this entails having in place

(confidential) procedures, which address any disputes involving participants in a timely

fashion. On the other hand, it means having a complaint-mechanism in place, whereby

complaints of non-participants are submitted to a panel of independent assessors which

consistof amajority of non-participants. The outcomeof thesedecisions should bemade

public.Incaseofnon-compliance,theARIshouldforeseein“agraduatedscaleofsanctions,

withexclusionincludedandwithoutprejudicetoanyconsequencesofnon-complianceunderthe

termsoftheUnfairCommercialPracticesDirective”.1182

FINANCING.Finally,theparticipantstotheARIshouldforeseeinthemeansthatarenecessary

for the realisation of the commitments. Civil society organisations that do not have fully

1179EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’<https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/principles-better-self-and-co-regulation-and-establishment-community-practice>accessed24May2018.1180EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’(n1179)2.1181EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’(n1179)2.1182EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’(n1179)2.

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adequatemeansthemselvesmaybeaidedbypublic fundersorothers.Anysupport inthis

regardmustbemadepublic.1183

2.2 EASACharterprinciplesforself-regulation

EASACHARTERPRINCIPLESFORSELF-REGULATION.Finally,theEuropeanadvertisingindustry

hasalsoagreedtoadheretoanumberofprinciplesforself-regulation,someofwhichare

proceduralinnature.Morespecifically,themembersofEASA(suprapartII,chapterI)are

all signatories to the Advertising Self-Regulatory Charter, which contains certain

principlesandstandardsofbestpractice forself-regulatorymechanisms intheareaof

commercial communication. By signing the Charter, the members confirm their

commitmentto implementtheseprinciplesandstandardsin thepracticaloperationof

self-regulatorymechanisms.Inthatsense,itisnotacodeofconductformarketers,but

rather a guiding document for industry players that want to set up self-regulatory

initiatives.TheaimofEASAistocreatealevelplayingfieldforadvertisersacrosstheEU

whilesafeguardingahighlevelofconsumerprotection.

CHARTER PRINCIPLES. The Charter contains the following 10 principles (the principles

relatingtoproceduralelementshavebeenunderlined):

1. Comprehensivecoveragebyself-regulatorysystemsofallformsofadvertisingandallpractitioners;

2. Adequateandsustainedfundingbytheadvertisingindustryproportionatetoadvertisingexpenditureineachcountry;

3. Comprehensive and effective codes of advertising practice-based on theglobally accepted codes of marketing and advertising practice of theInternational Chamber of Commerce (ICC) applicable to all forms ofadvertising;

4. Broadconsultationwithinterestedpartiesduringcodedevelopment;

5. Dueconsiderationoftheinvolvementofindependent,non-governmentallaypersonsinthecomplaintadjudicationprocess;

6. Efficientandresourcedadministrationofcodesandhandlingofcomplaintsthereoninanindependentandimpartialmannerbyaself-regulatorybodysetupforthepurpose;

1183EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’(n1179)2.

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7. Promptandefficientcomplainthandlingatnocosttotheconsumer;

8. Provisionofadviceand training to industrypractitioners inorder to raisestandards;

9. Effectivesanctionsandenforcement, includingthepublicationofdecisions,combinedwithefficientcomplianceworkandmonitoringofcodes;

10. Effectiveawarenessoftheself-regulatorysystembyindustryandconsumers.

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SECTIONIII-INTERIMCONCLUSION

The aim of this introductory chapter to this final part of the thesis was to situate

advertising ARIs in the context of the broader legal framework for commercial

communication and examine the responsibilities of the advertising industry for the

developmentofsuchARIs.

First, it was discussed that under the UNCRC framework, States have important

obligationsregardingtheimpactofbusinessactivitiesandoperationsonchildren’srights.

More specifically in the context of commercial communication, theUNCRCCommittee

recommends States to encourage the advertising industry to develop ARIs for the

protectionofchildrenagainstcertaintypesofadvertising.Inlinewiththis,theEuropean

legislatorshaverecognisedARIsasanimportantmeanstoprotectchildrenonline,alsoin

thecontextofadvertising,asthedevelopmentofARIsisencouragedthroughouttheEU

legislative framework for commercial communication (i.e. the AVMS Directive, the e-

CommerceDirective,theUCPDirectiveandtheGDPR).

Second,ithasbeenestablishedinacademicliteraturethatARIsdonotoperateinalegal

vacuum, but have to be in compliance with the broader legal framework, including

children’srights,theEUsecondarylegalframeworkoncommercialcommunication,other

internalmarketlegislationetc.Thischapteranalysedchildren’sproceduralrights(i.e.the

right toa fair trial and the right toaneffective remedy),whichneed to be taken into

accountwhendevelopingARIstoprotectchildrenagainstcertainformsofcommercial

communication. It was found that decision-making bodies must adhere to certain

proceduralsafeguards (i.e. fairness, impartiality, independence, competence to receive

complaints,competencetoinvestigatethemeritsandtakebindingdecisions)whenever

decisionsaremadeconcerningchildren’sfundamentalrights.

Finally, this chapter examined a number of general principles or benchmarks for the

procedural and organisational aspectsof ARIs at the EU level. Itwas found thatARIs

should:be subject to regularevaluation;haveanopenandautonomousoversightand

monitoringmechanisminplace;allowconsumerstofilecomplaintsatnocost,whichwill

behandledpromptlyandeffectively,andconsumersshouldbemadesufficientlyaware

of this possibility; have a number of procedural safeguards in place such as the

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independenceof assessorsandpublicdecisions;haveeffective sanctions inplace; and

finallyreceivesufficientfundingtoensureaproperandindependentfunctioning.

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CHAPTER II – FUNCTIONAL COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF NATIONAL

ARIS

INTRODUCTION.Afteridentifyinganumberofproceduralsafeguardsandgeneralprinciples

orbenchmarksforARIsinthepreviouschapter,thischapterstudiestheproceduraland

organisationalelementsofthreenationalARIs,inordertoextractbestpracticesforARIs

aimedtoprotectandempowerchildreninthecontextofnewadvertisingformats.The

selectionofnationalARIs is explained ina first subsectionand the secondsubsection

containstheactualcomparativeassessment.

SECTIONI–SELECTIONOFNATIONALARISANDQUESTIONSFORTHECOMPARATIVE

ANALYSIS

SELECTION OF NATIONAL SYSTEMS. There are two principal factors that are decisive in

determiningthestructureorformthatARIsmaytakeinanycountry.Firstofall,itisthe

countries’tradition(i.e.thecombinationofcultural,commercialandlegaltraditions)that

influencestheself-regulatorysystem.AccordingtoDUROVICandMICKLITZ,consumers in

different countries and regions will respond differently to the same advertising

practices.1184Consequently,theregulationofadvertisingissupposedtotakeintoaccount

the culturaldimension.Second, itdependsontheopportunityofARIs toexistnext to

legislation. ARIs are (usually) complementary to legislation. Accordingly, in countries

wheredetailedandextensivelegislationoncommercialcommunicationexists,theroleof

ARIswillbesmallerthaninthosecountriesinwhichthelegalframeworkexistsonlyof

broadprinciples.1185Consideringthesetwodecisivefactors,itcanbesaidthatadvertising

ARIsacrosstheEUhavetakendifferentforms,whichdiffersignificantly.Indeed,while

certain countrieshaveopted for theuseandpromotionof self-regulation,othersonly

foresee a limited role for self-regulatory organisations, or the co-regulatory structure

dominatesthesystem.Inlightofthis,Belgium,theNetherlandsandtheUnitedKingdom

1184DurovicandMicklitz(n142)26.1185EASA,BlueBook:AdvertisingSelf-RegulationinEuropeandBeyond(2010).EASA(2010).BlueBook:Advertisingself-regulationinEuropeandbeyond.

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havebeen selected afterapreliminary study, as their systemsarewell-developedbut

significantly different. More specifically, in Belgium and the Netherlands, rules are

integrated inself-regulatory instruments,whereas in theUnitedKingdomtheruleson

commercialcommunicationareintegratedinacomplexco-regulatoryframeworkwhich

includeselementsofstatutorylegislationandself-regulation.

QUESTIONS GUIDING THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS. The assessment can be divided into three

subquestions,forwhichanumberofelementsofassessmenthavebeendefined,basedon

theanalysisconductedinthepreviouschapter(i.e.theanalysisofchildren’sprocedural

rightsandthegeneralprinciplesorbenchmarks for theproceduralandorganisational

aspectsofARIsattheEUlevel).

Questionsguidingthe

assessment

Elementstotakeintoconsideration

1. HowistheARI

organised,inwhat

formandhowbroadly

isitsupported?

a. Attributionofregulatorypowers

b. Coverage

c. Complaintprocedure

d. Proceduralsafeguards

2. Howeffectiveiseach

oftheARIsdiscussed?

e. Amountofcomplaints/casesdealingwithnewadvertising

formats

f. Arrangementofmonitoringandoversight

g. Availabilityofremediesandenforcementpowers

3. On the basis of the answers provided to the two questions above and taking into

considerationthecharacteristicsthatsetapartadvertisingARIsfromARIsinothersectors,

whatbestpracticescanbeextracted?

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SECTIONII-COMPARATIVESTUDY

1. Countryreports

1.1 Belgium

JURYFORETHICALPRACTICESINADVERTISING.TheBelgianself-regulatoryorganisationofthe

advertisingindustryistheJuryforEthicalPracticesinAdvertising(hereafter“JEP”,Jury

voor Ethische Praktijken inzake Reclame). The decisions of the JEP are based on (1)

legislationand(2)theself-regulatorycodesthatcomplementthelegislation(inparticular

the ICC Code, but also a number of thematic covenants, etc). 1186 The JEP examines

whetheradvertisingmessagesareinconformitywiththeseframeworks.

1.1.1 Attributionofregulatorypower

SELF-REGULATORY MECHANISM. The JEP was established in 1974 by the Council for

Advertising (Raad voor de Reclame), the organisation representing the Belgian

advertising industry, which aims at improving, valorising and defending commercial

communication and the commercial freedom of expression. 1187 The mechanism is

dependentonthevoluntarycommitmentoftheadvertisers,communicationbureausand

advertisingmedia.1188Indeed, decisions of the JEP are in nature non-binding, but the

industry commits voluntarily to bring their advertisements in compliance with these

decisionswithoutthegovernmenthavingasupervisoryorsanctionaryrole.Insituations

where a case concerning an advertisement has been brought before a judicial or

administrativeinstance,theJEPmaydecidetotemporarilyorpermanentlyabstainfrom

adecisioninthiscase.1189

1186Foranoverviewofthesubstantiveprovisionsoftheseself-regulatorycodes,seeVerdoodt,LievensandHellemans(n9).1187 The Council for advertising consists of and is financed by different partners in the commercialcommunication industry, (1) advertisers, (2) communication bureaus and (3) advertising media. ThemembersoftheCouncilareresponsibleforthecreationanddisseminationofmorethan80%ofBelgiancommercialcommunication.1188P.ValckeandD.Voorhoof,‘Hoofdstuk20-DeReclamecodeEndeJuryVoorEthischePraktijkenInzakeReclame’,Handboekmediarecht(EditionsLarcier2014)725.1189Article 2 ‘Rules of the JEP [Reglement van de JEP]’ <https://www.jep.be/sites/default/files/inline-media/reglement_jep_nl_-_februari_2017.pdf> accessed 8 June 2018. In this regard, Article 2 also

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COMPETENCES. The JEP is responsible for watching over the correct and fair nature of

commercialmessagesaimedatthepublic.ThetaskoftheJEPislimitedtoresearching

contentofadvertisingmessagesthatarespreadviamassmedia-suchasdailyorweekly

magazines,radio, television,movietheatresbutalsothe internetandsocialmedia -as

well as via emailing or direct mail. Furthermore, the JEP is competent to examine

personalisedadvertising,regardlessofthemediumused.1190TheJEPdoesnot,however,

havecompetencefor(1)buyer-sellerdisputes,(2)otherformsofmedialikebrochuresin

a shoporpackagingand (3) commercialpractices suchas salespromotions, contests,

productplacement,etc.1191

PRIORCONSULTATION.Advertisers,advertisingagenciesandmediahavethepossibility to

request a preliminary examination by the JEP, prior to the publication of the

advertisement.1192However,thisisnotanobligation,advertisersremainresponsiblefor

theadstheyuse.TheJEPistheretohelpinterpretandrespecttheapplicablelegaland

self-regulatoryrules.

EXAMINATIONOFADVERTISEMENTSATITSOWNINITIATIVE.ThePresidentoftheJuryinthefirst

instancemaysubmitanadvertisementathis/herowninitiativeorattherequestofone

ormoremembersoftheJurytotheexaminationoftheJury,withtheaimofdefending

consumerinterestsortheimageofcommercialcommunication.1193

determinesthatiftheJuryonappealdecidestoabstainfromadecision,thatthedecisiontakenbytheJuryinfirstinstancewillnotbeexecuted.1190Article2‘RulesoftheJEP[ReglementvandeJEP]’(n1189).However,excludedareallelementsthatdonotrelatetothecontentoftheadvertisement,suchasprivacyaspects,techniquesofbehaviouraltargetingetc.1191Article2‘RulesoftheJEP[ReglementvandeJEP]’(n1189).1192In2016,theJEPconductedapreliminaryexaminationof15advertisements.JEP,‘Yearlyreport2016’<https://www.jep.be/sites/default/files/year_report/jaarverslag_2016_nl_-_hyperlinks.pdf> accessed 6June2018.1193However,in2016,thePresidentofJuryinFirstInstancesubmittedonlyoneadvertisementtotheJury.JEP(n1192).

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TRANSBOUNDARYADVERTISEMENTS.TheJEPisamemberofEASAandevenamemberofthe

BoardofDirectorsandtheExecutiveCommittee.1194Accordingly,theJEPcanintervene

incaseswherecommercialcommunicationsarespreadinatransboundarymanner.In

thisregard,thefollowingdistinctionneedstobekeptinmind:

Ø For traditional media: as a basic principle of the procedure, the competent

institutionwillbetheoneofthecountryoforiginofthemediaoutletthatdisseminates

theadvertising.Thiscouldalsobethecountrywheretheadvertiserislocated.Assuch,

aBelgianconsumercouldfileacomplaintaboutacommercialcommunicationthatis

spread in Belgium by for instance a foreign newspaper. This complaint will then

immediately be transferred to the self-disciplinary body of the country involved,

whichwillhandlethecomplaintaccordingtoitsownproceduresandonthebasisof

theapplicablenationalrules.

Ø Fornon-traditionalmedia(directmail,websites):otherrulesorproceduresmay

beapplicable(suchasthoseofthecountryoforiginoftheadvertiser).

EVALUATION. There is no formal procedure for the evaluation of the self-regulatory

mechanisminplace.

1.1.2 Complaintprocedureandconsumerawareness

COMPLAINTS.Thefollowingnaturalorlegalpersonsmayfileadvertisingcomplaintswith

theJury,insofarastheyaimatdefendingtheinterestsofconsumersand/ortheimageof

advertising: consumers, consumer organisations, sociocultural organisations,

professional associations and representatives of an official body or public authority.

Complaintscanbe filed freeofcharge.The formalrequirementsentail thatcomplaints

mustbesubmitted inwritingandaccompaniedbyamotivation.Complaintscannotbe

anonymous,buttheidentityofthecomplainantisnotmadepublicbytheJEP.1195

1194RaadvoordeReclame,‘DeRaadVoordeReclameWildeEuropeseVerankeringvandeJEPVersterken’(2016) <http://www.raadvoordereclame.be/nl/dossiers/115-de-raad-voor-de-reclame-wil-de-europese-verankering-van-de-jep-versterken>accessed7August2018.1195JEP(n1192).

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REVIEWOFDECISIONS.Both the advertisers and the complainants can appeal against the

decisionstakenbytheJuryinfirstinstance.ItistheJuryonAppealthatwillreviewthe

decision.

AWARENESS. The JEP received 186 complaints in 2016, of which 167 originated from

consumers,3fromconsumerorganisations,1fromaprofessionalorganisation,1from

thePresidentoftheJuryinFirstInstanceand14fromapublicauthority.1196

TIMING.TheJEPtreatsacomplaintwithinaperiodof(approximately)tendays.1197The

JuryconvenesonaweeklybasisandtheJuryonappealwhenevernecessary(inprinciple

monthly).

1.1.3 Enforcementandproceduralsafeguards

ENFORCEMENT.Incaseofnon-conformity,theJEPreachesouttotheadvertiserorifneeded

theinvolvedprofessionalassociations,andsharesitsrecommendationonwhetherornot

theadvertiserneedstomakeadjustmentsorhastostopusingtheadvertisement.Ifthe

personorcompanyresponsiblefortheadvertisementrefusestofollowtheJEP’sdecision,

thelattercanalsodirectlycontactthemediaortheprofessionalassociationsconcerned

torecommendtostopspreadingthecontestedadvertisement.Aside fromdecisionsto

stop or adjust advertisements, the JEP may also confine itself to communicating a

reservationtotheadvertiser.1198However,theJEPdoesnothavesanctionarypowers.

INCENTIVES FOR COMPLIANCE. After closing a complaint, a summary of the complaint and

decisionispublishedonthewebsiteoftheJEP.1199

1196JEP(n1192).1197Theyearlyreportof2016showedthat3/5ofthecomplaintfiledwastreatedwithintwoweeks.JEP(n1192)19.1198However,theJEPdoesnothavetheintentiontocensorortopromoteaparticularideologyortaste.IftheJEPisoftheopinionthatanadvertisementonlyrequiresareservation,thenitwillnotissueadecisiontochangeorstoptheadvertisingcampaignbutconfineitselftoanopinionofreservationwhichissharedwith the advertiser, or the concernedmedia or professional organisations if needed. ‘Rules of the JEP[ReglementvandeJEP]’(n1189)2.1199Article12‘RulesoftheJEP[ReglementvandeJEP]’(n1189).

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JEPLABEL.Furthermore,theorganisationsandmediathatfinanciallysupporttheJEPand

committoabidebytheJEP’sdecisionsmayreproducetheJEPLabel.However,thislabel

doesnotimplythattheJEPhasmonitoredallcommercialmessagesthatarebeingspread

viathatmedium.Nevertheless,itisusefulforthepublic,asitallowsthemtoeasilyfind

thecontactdetailsoftheJEPanditconfirmsatthesametimethattheorganisationor

mediumhascommittedtocomplywiththedecisionsoftheJEP.

INDEPENDENCE AND IMPARTIALITY. The advertising sector and civil society are equally

representedintheJEP,bothinfirstinstanceandonappeal.ThePresidentsoftheJuryin

firstinstanceandonappealareelectedamonghonorarymagistratesorpublicfiguresof

theBar,academiaortheadvertisingindustry.Thisequalrepresentationaimstoensure

the independence of the JEP vis-à-vis the government, the advertising sector, political

organisations,etc.Furthermoreallmembersareappointed inapersonalcapacity.The

Jurydeliberates in secret anddecisionsaremadebymajorityvote.Members that are

unabletomakeadecisionfreelywillrefrainfromparticipatinginthedeliberations.1200

FUNDING.The JEPwasestablishedand is financedbytheCouncil forAdvertising(Raad

voordeReclame)1201asaprivatebody.1202

TRANSPARENCY.Asmentioned,thedecisionsoftheJEParepublishedontheirwebsite.The

JEPalsopublishesayearlyreportofitsactivities.

ANALYSISOFEXISTINGCASELAW.Alreadyin2010,CANNIEandVOORHOOFarguedthattheJEP

hasdevelopedarichandstrongadvisorypracticeconcerningtheprotectionofchildren

andminorsagainstradioandtelevisionadvertising,setbenchmarks,deliveredimportant

1200Article8‘RulesoftheJEP[ReglementvandeJEP]’(n1189).1201TheorganisationrepresentingtheBelgianadvertisingindustry,whichaimsat improving,valorisinganddefendingcommercialcommunicationandthecommercialfreedomofexpression.Itconsistsofandisfinanced by different partners in the commercial communication industry, (1) advertisers, (2)communicationbureausand(3)advertisingmedia.ThemembersoftheCouncilareresponsibleforthecreationanddisseminationofmorethan80%ofBelgiancommercialcommunication.In1974,theCouncilestablishedtheJuryforEthicalPracticesinAdvertising,theself-disciplinarybodyoftheadvertisingsectorinBelgium.1202RaadvoordeReclame,‘ReglementeringvanEnControleOpdeReclame–RepertoriumOp1Januari2013.8thEdition.’11.

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decisionsandinterpretednumerousadvertisingrulesintendedtoprotectminors.1203An

analysisofaselectionofthemorerecentdecisionsoftheJEP1204hasshownthatalthough

there are several cases involving new advertising formats (e.g. internet banners, 1205

Facebookpagesandevents),theidentificationofthecommercialmessageisnotthepoint

ofdiscussion.1206Morespecifically,themajorityofthecasesconcernedbreachesofthe

rulesonalcoholadvertising(e.g.noagewarning,1207noeducationalslogans1208).Hence,

from these decisions, it is difficult to deduct further guidelines on how to implement

certaingeneralprinciples(e.g. the identificationrequirement)ormechanisms(e.g.age

verification)withregardtonew,digitaladvertisingformats.

1.2 TheUnitedKingdom

COMPLEXREGULATORYLANDSCAPE.Theregulatorylandscapeforcommercialcommunication

intheUKconsistsofapatchworkofgovernmentalactsandself-regulatorycodesdrafted

bymostlyindependentbodies.Someofthesebodiesareattributedwithstatutorypowers,

while others form part of a purely self-regulatory mechanism. 1209 Furthermore, a

distinctionismadebetweenbroadcastadvertising,forwhichaco-regulatorymechanism

was developed and non-broadcast advertising (such as digital advertising), which is

regulatedbyself-regulation.

1203H.CannieandD.Voorhoof, ‘Audiovisuelemedia,reclameenminderjarigen:Veelregels,maarweinigtoezicht,EtmaalvandeCommunicatiewetenschap’(2010)8.1204Theinventorywasdevelopedasfollows:firstofall,asearchthroughtheJEP’sdatabaseusingfilters‘Internet’astypeofmediaand‘child’askeywordresultedin37cases,ofwhich7actuallydealtwithchildrenandnewadvertisingformats(i.e.thecommercialcommunicationwasaimedatchildren).Second,asearchusing ‘Internet’ as typeofmediaand ‘minor’askeywordresulted in26hits,ofwhich5werenewandrelevantforthecaselawinventory.1205ABINBEV,5/08/2009(JEP).1206Onecasedealtwiththeuseofdrawingsorcharacterspopularwithminors:DELHAIZE,19/08/13(JEP).Nevertheless,the2016yearlyreportshowsthatmisleadingadvertisingdoesremainanimportantcriterionfortheJury.1207BOCKORBROUWERIJ,05/08/2010(JEP).1208SALITOBEACH–HAVANADISTRIBUTION,7/07/16(JEP).1209FormoreinformationontheregulatorylandscapeintheUK,see:L.Sendenandothers,‘MappingSelf-andCo-RegulationApproachesintheEUContext’(UtrechtCentreforSharedRegulationandEnforcementin Europe 2015) 21–24 <https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/content/mapping-self-and-co-regulation-approaches-eu-context>accessed7August2018.

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THEADVERTISINGSTANDARDSAUTHORITYASTHESINGLEREGULATORFORADVERTISINGACROSSALL

MEDIA.BroadcastadvertisingintheUKwastraditionallycoveredbylegislationandsubject

tostatutorycontrol.1210Inthesixties,theadvertisingindustryrecognisedtheimportance

ofconsumertrustinadvertisements,includinginnon-broadcastmedia.Accordingly,the

industry formed the Committee of Advertising Practice (“CAP”) and drafted the first

editionofwhatisnowtheCodeofNon-broadcastAdvertising,SalesPromotionandDirect

Marketing(“CAPCode”).Inaddition,CAPestablishedtheAdvertisingStandardsAuthority

(“ASA”),astheindependentadvertisingregulatorsupervisingtheworkingofthenewself-

regulatorysysteminthepublicinterest.Overtime,theASAhasbecometheone-stop-shop

for advertising complaints and its competences were extended to include broadcast

advertising.More specifically, in 2004 the UK Communications Regulator (“Ofcom”) -

supportedbytheParliament -decidedtocontract-out theresponsibility forbroadcast

advertising to the ASA system in a co-regulatory partnership. 1211 A new industry

committeewasestablished,theBroadcastCommitteeofAdvertisingPractice(“BCAP”),to

draft and maintain the Code of Broadcast Advertising (“BCAP Code”), and an ASA

(Broadcast)waslaunchedtoadministertheCodes.Thus,theASAisahybridbody,with

statutorypowersinrelationtobroadcastedadvertisingmaterials1212andnon-statutory

powersregardingnon-broadcastadvertising.Consideringthatthatourstudyisfocused

ondigitaladvertising,thefollowingsectionswillonlycovertheCAPandtheCAPCode.

COMPETENCES.TheASAiscompetenttoproactivelymonitorcomplianceofadvertisements

acrossallmediaandtakeactionagainstmisleading,harmfuloroffensiveadvertisements,

salespromotionsanddirectmarketingwherenecessary.1213TheASAmayalsoinitiatean

1210Advertising Standards Authority, ‘About the ASA andCAP’ <http://www.asa.org.uk/about-asa-and-cap/about-regulation/about-the-asa-and-cap.html>accessed7June2018.1211AdvertisingStandardsAuthority,‘AbouttheASAandCAP’(n1210).1212TheASAstillfunctionsinclosecooperationwithOfcomwithregardtobroadcastedadvertising.Ofcomhas delegated some powers to the ASA, including limited statutory powers of pre-clearance andenforcement. However, Ofcom has retained the most imposing enforcing powers, such as fines andretentionsoflicense.1213 More specifically, a CAP compliance team regularly monitors advertisements in the national andregionalpress,consumermagazines,posters,directmailingsandInternetadvertisements.CommitteeonConsumerPolicy,‘IndustrySelf-Regulation:RoleandUseinSupportingConsumerInterest’(OECD2015)

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investigationintopotentialcodebreaches,onthebackofcomplaints theyreceive.The

advertising codes and the ASA rulings have universal coverage across the entire

advertisingindustry,meaningthatadvertiserscannotoptoutofthem.1214

PRIORCONSULTATION.Advertiserscanalsoturntothecopyadviceteamwhendeveloping

digital advertising campaigns. The team provides an informed view of the likely

acceptabilityofnon-broadcastmarketingcommunicationsundertheCAPCode.However,

suchanadviceisultimatelynotbindingontheASA.

PROACTIVEMONITORING.Anotherpartofthesystemisthecomplianceteam,whichregularly

monitorsadvertisementsinthenationalandregionalpress,consumermagazines,posters,

directmailingsand internetadvertisements. If theteamdiscoversabreachof theCAP

Code, it will contact the responsible business and seek assurance that themarketing

messagewill be changed. Furthermore, the compliance team alsomonitors particular

media or industry sectors to check the compliance ratewithin and uncover potential

sectoralproblems.1215

LEGAL BACKSTOP. When non-broadcast materials incessantly breach ASA rules and

decisions, the ASA can refer them to Trading Standards for misleading or unfair

advertising. 1216 Broadcasting advertisers that breach the Broadcasting Code can be

referred to the Ofcom, which has statutory powers to impose fines or withdraw

broadcasting licenses. 1217 For sector-specific scenario’s, the ASA works in close

cooperationwithstatutorysectorregulators,suchastheFinancialConductAuthority,the

46<http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=DSTI/CP(2014)4/FINAL&docLanguage=En>.1214AdvertisingStandardsAuthority,‘AbouttheASAandCAP’(n1210).1215 Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Our Proactive Work’ <http://www.asa.org.uk/about-asa-and-cap/the-work-we-do/our-proactive-work.html>accessed8August2018.1216TradingStandardsarethelocalauthoritydepartmentsthatenforceconsumerprotectionlegislation.TradingStandardsofficialswillinvestigatethecomplaintsreferredbytheASAandhavethepowertotakelegalactionagainstthosetraderswhobreakthelaw.1217Asidefromaregulatoryframework,theASAalsoprovidesparentswithaspecificpagewithnotonlyinformationregardingChildrenandAdvertising,includingcaselawandhowtofileacomplaint,butalsoincluding links toothersocialorganisationshelpingparentsandchildrenalike inavarietyofways,eg.Lobbying connections, practical help, children’s society and so on. Visit the parents’ page at:https://www.asa.org.uk/Consumers/Parents-Page.aspx(accessedon:18/10/2016).

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Food StandardsAgency, theGambling Commission and theMedicines andHealthcare

productsRegulatoryAgency.1218

DECISION-MAKINGPROCESS:INTERACTIONBCAP–CAP.BoththeBroadcastingAdvertisingCode

andthenon-BroadcastAdvertisingCodeareverysimilarinitscontentasidefromthose

few provisions specifically related to the technical characteristics of the regulated

medium. 1219 Accordingly, the different investigative cells (BCAP and CAP) have the

explicitpermissiontotakeintoaccountdecisionsmadeinrelationtoothermediabefore

deliveringtheirfindingstotheASACouncilforthefinaldecision.1220

TRANSBOUNDARYADVERTISEMENTS.TheASAisafoundingmemberofandplaysanimportant

role in two networks: (1) EASA (cf. supra) and (2) the International Council for

AdvertisingSelf-Regulation(ICAS)whichpromoteseffectiveadvertisingself-regulation

globally. As a result, the ASA will handle cross-border complaints under the same

conditionsasnationalcomplaints.1221

EVALUATION.Therearedifferent formsofevaluations.First, theASAconductsquarterly

customer satisfaction surveys from complainants about non-broadcast and broadcast

advertisements. 1222 Second, Ofcom evaluates the co-regulatory arrangements for

broadcastwiththeASAfortheirrenewalin2014.1223Third,forupdatestothecodes,open

consultationsareheld.

1218 Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Working with Others’ <http://www.asa.org.uk/about-asa-and-cap/the-work-we-do/working-with-others.html>accessed7August2018.1219For amore detailed overview of the relevant provisions on commercial communications aimed atchildrenintheseinstruments,seeV.Verdoodt,I.LambrechtandE.Lievens,‘MappingandAnalysisoftheCurrentSelf-andCo-RegulatoryFrameworkonCommercialCommunicationAimedatMinors.AReportintheFrameworkoftheAdLitSBOProject.’<www.adlit.be>accessed20November2017.1220Forexamplewhenassessinganadvertisementcontainedinanonlinevideostream,takingintoaccountaprevious,relatedassessmentforabroadcastadvertisement.1221 L. Conway, ‘The Role of the Advertising Standards Authority’ 11<https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN06130> accessed 8 August2018.1222CommitteeonConsumerPolicy(n1213)47.1223 Ofcom, ‘Renewal of the Co-Regulatory Arrangements for Broadcast Advertising’ (2014)<https://www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0028/58942/statement.pdf>accessed7August2018.

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ASACOMPLAINTMECHANISM.Asmentioned,theASAistheone-stop-shopforconsumersthat

wanttofileadvertisingcomplaints.ConsumerscanfilecomplaintswiththeASAinmost

scenario’s.TheASAwilldirectthecomplainanttoeithertheCAPorBCAPinvestigative

cells,dependingontheadvertisingformat(i.e.broadcastedornon-broadcasted).1224The

designated investigative cellwill thenassess the complaint in lightof their respective

codes,whilst taking intoaccountother relevant self-regulatoryprovisions.These cells

willcallupontheASAfortheenactmentofthefinaldecisionandtheenforcementthereoff.

If the point at issue is subject of simultaneous legal action, theASAwill normally not

pursuethecomplaint.

REVIEWOFDECISIONS.IfapartydoesnotagreewiththedecisionoftheASA,heorshecan

addresstheIndependentRevieweroftheRulingsoftheASACouncil.1225

LIMITATIONS.There are certain limitations that consumers need to keep inmind. First,

there is a limitation in time, as complaintsmust bemadewithin threemonths of the

advertisement’sappearance.1226Second,thereisalimitationinpointsofcomplaintsthat

thecomplainantmaybringtothediscussion.Morespecifically,complaintsshouldfocus

onnomorethanthreeissues.1227

AWARENESS.Althoughitiscomposedofanumberofessentialparts,thesystemoperates

asasingleregulatorforadvertisingacrossallmedia.TheyearlyreportoftheASAshows

thatin2017theinternetovertookTVasthemostcomplainedaboutmedium.TheASA

received16365non-broadcastcomplaints,ofwhich4313werefurtherinvestigated.Of

thesenon-broadcastcomplaints,3,709wereinvestigatedand353wereupheldorupheld

1224The complaint-handlingmechanisms operatemostly the same,with themain difference being theabsenceofcompetenceforOfcomincomplaintsagainstnon-broadcastedmaterials.1225Formoreinformationonhowtofileacomplaint,visit:https://www.asa.org.uk/Consumers/How-to-complain.aspx(accessed07.08.2018).1226However,theASAnotesthatinexceptionalcircumstancesolderadvertisementswillstillbeconsidered.1227If a complaint containsmore than three issues, the investigationwill only focus on the threemostimportantones(althoughagain,theASAnotesthatinexceptionalcircumstancestheymayinvestigatemorethanthreepoints).

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inpart,howeveritisunclearfromtheannualreporthowmanyofthesecasesdealtwith

childrenandnewadvertisingformats.

TIMING.TheASAiscommittedtoacknowledgingcomplaintswithinfivedaysofreceiving

them. 1228 Furthermore, complaints are resolved ‘as quickly as possible’ and

straightforwardissuescanberesolved‘indays’.However,formorecomplexcasesitmay

takelonger,themostcomplexonescaneventakeuptosixmonthsormore(forinstance

if independentexpertsare appointed).1229In itsyearly report, theASAprovides some

insightsintothedurationoftheprocedure:

Figure 3: Duration of the ASA procedure for complaints concerning non-broadcast advertisements (sourcehttps://www.asa.org.uk/uploads/assets/uploaded/34872c48-106e-4f5f-a92983c95e92c84b.pdf)


ENFORCEMENT.Incasethereisaminororclear-cutbreachoftheAdvertisingCodes,the

ASAmayresolvetheissueinformallyintheformofanadviceonhowtobecompliantor

seek assurance that the advertiser will adapt or withdraw the advertisement

1228 Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Non-Broadcast Complaint Handling Procedures’ 2<https://www.asa.org.uk/asset/171EB506-B4EF-4FEC-BDCEC62DC49E0BE2.1759E419-AD92-452B-865FC913C62CE312/>accessed8August2018.1229 Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Making a Complaint’ <https://www.asa.org.uk/asset/8C4ECE0C-1EFA-43B9-885C0D18480E3F94/>accessed8August2018.

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immediately.1230However,ifthereisamoreseriousbreachoftheAdvertisingCodesor

ASARulings,theASACouncil(i.e.thejurydecidingonpotentialbreaches)mayrequire

advertisers towithdraworadapt their advertisement.Advertisers thatdonot comply

with the codes in their non-broadcast advertising practices can become subject to a

numberofsanctions,includingbadpublicity,1231disqualificationfromindustryawards,

advertising alerts, 1232 withdrawal of trading privileges 1233 and requiring serious

offenders tohave theirmarketingmaterial vettedbeforepublication.1234In relation to

onlineadvertising,theASAcanalsorequestsearchenginestoremoveamarketer’spaid-

forsearchadvertisementswhenthoseadvertisementslinktoapageonthemarketer’s

websitecontainingmaterialthatisnotcompliantwithadvertisingregulation.TheASA,

however, does not have powers to impose fines or bring advertisers to court. In the

situationofpersistentbreachesoftheadvertisingrules,theASAmayreferadvertisersto

(1) Trading Standards for non-broadcast advertisements and (2)Ofcom for broadcast

advertising1235.

INCENTIVESFORCOMPLIANCE.Allpartiesinvolvedinacomplaint-procedurearemadeaware

ofthecollectivedecisionoftheASACouncil,andthesedecisionsneedtocontainadetailed

reasoning.ThisinformationisalsosharedpubliclyonthewebsiteoftheASA.

1230AdvertisingStandardsAuthorityandCommitteesofAdvertisingPractice,‘AnnualReport2017’(2017)18 <https://www.asa.org.uk/uploads/assets/uploaded/34872c48-106e-4f5f-a92983c95e92c84b.pdf>accessed19June2018.1231Forinstance,marketersnameanddetailsoftheproblemmaybefeaturedona‘blacklist’(i.e.adedicatedsectionoftheASAwebsite),whichisdesignedtoappearinsearchengineresultswhenaconsumersearchesforacompany’swebsite.1232CAPcanissuealertstoitsmembers,includingthemedia,advisingthemtowithholdservicessuchasaccesstoadvertisingspace.1233CAPmemberscanrevoke,withdrawortemporarilywithholdrecognitionandtradingprivileges.Forexample,theRoyalMailcanwithdrawitsbulkmaildiscount,whichcanmakerunningdirectmarketingcampaignsprohibitivelyexpensive.1234When dealingwith complaints concerning broadcast advertising, the ASA can take certain actionsagainstorwiththebroadcaster.Forexample,theASAcanrequirethebroadcastertowithdraw,amendorsuspendanadvertisementevenbeforetheresultofaformalinvestigationispublished.ThesedecisionsbytheASACouncilarebasedontheirowninterpretationoftheBCAPandarepublishedonaweeklybasisontheASAwebsite.1235Ofcomcan(1)presenttheadvertiserwithaformalwarning,(2)suspend,shortenorrevokelicensestoabroadcastand(3)imposefineswhenandtotheextentdeemednecessary.

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INDEPENDENCEANDIMPARTIALITY.TheASACouncilconsistsof13members,ofwhichtwo-

thirdsareindependentofindustryandtheremainingmembershavearecentorcurrent

knowledgeoftheadvertisingormediasectors.Ifapositionopensup,itisadvertisedand

memberswillhavetofollowanopenrecruitmentprocess.

FUNDING.TheASAisfundedbyadvertisersthrougharm’slengthlevyarrangementsthat

guaranteeitsindepence.Morespecifically,in1974,theindustrysetuptheAdvertising

StandardsBoardofFinance(Asbof)toprovidesecurefundingforthesystemthrougha

levyof0,1%onadvertisingspacecost.1236Inaddition,theyreceiveasmallincomefrom

the organisation of seminars, from premium industry advice service and from the

European Interactive Digital Advertising Alliance for regulating online behavioural

advertising.1237

TRANSPARENCY.TherulingsoftheASAarepublishedontheirwebsite.1238Asmentioned,

theASAalsopublishesayearlyreportofitsactivities.1239

ANALYSISOFEXISTINGCASELAW.FromasearchthroughthedatabaseoftheASARulings,a

small number of cases dealing specifically with children and digital advertising were

found. While most of these cases concerned the content of the advertisements (e.g.

containing offensive language on social media, 1240 the promotion of alcohol 1241 or

unhealthyfoods,1242misleadinginformationorfalseclaims1243),fewcasesanalysedthe

delivery of the commercial communication. Nevertheless, from these cases some

guidelinesforadvertisersinrelationtotheimplementationoftheidentificationprinciple

1236TheBroadcastAdvertisingStandardsBoardofFinance(Basbof)wasestablishedtocollectthe0.1%levyon broadcast advertising space costs. Advertising Standards Authority, ‘Our History’<http://www.asa.org.uk/about-asa-and-cap/our-history.html>accessed8August2018.1237AdvertisingStandardsAuthorityandCommitteesofAdvertisingPractice(n1230).1238Therulingscanbeaccessedvia<https://www.asa.org.uk/codes-and-rulings/rulings.html>(accessed8August2018).1239 The yearly reports can be accessed via <https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-and-resources/resource-library/annual-reports.html>(accessed8August2018).1240StompRacingLtdt/aRockerBMX(AdvertisingStandardsAuthority).1241FlavaBarLtd(AdvertisingStandardsAuthority).1242FerreroUKLtd(AdvertisingStandardsAuthority).1243WestlandHorticultureLtdt/awestlandgardenhealth(AdvertisingStandardsAuthority).

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and the requirement of age verification could be derived. First, as described in the

previouspartoftheresearch,theASAdeliveredalandmarkrulinginthecaseconcerning

theOreoLickRace.Fromthisruling,itcanbeconcludedthatvloggersareforcedtobe

upfront with their followers regarding paid promotions of products in their videos.

Second,someguidanceontheimplementationofageverificationinrelationtoalcohol

advertisingonYouTube(morespecificallyregardingprerolls)canbedistilled.1244Thus,

itcanbeconcludedthattheASARulingsdocontainlimitedguidelinesforadvertiserson

howtocomplywithexistingrules,inthecontextofchildrenandnewadvertisingformats.

1.3 TheNetherlands

THE ADVERTISING CODE AUTHORITY. In the Netherlands, the institution dealing with the

advertisingself-regulatingsystemistheAdvertisingCodeAuthority(“ACAuthority”,in

Dutch:'StichtingReclameCode'.1245Theinstitutionisbasedonthevoluntaryagreement

of the advertising industry. The rules for advertisers are contained in the Dutch

AdvertisingCode,whichincludesaspecificCodeforAdvertisingdirectedatChildrenand

YoungPeople.TherulesoftheCodeareformulatedbytheadvertisingindustryitself(i.e.

the advertisers, advertising agencies and media). This code applies to all forms of

commercial communication, regardless of the medium used, unless explicitly stated

otherwise.1246


THEADVERTISINGCODEAUTHORITYANDTHEADVERTISINGCODECOMMITTEE.TheACAuthority

wassetupin1963asanindependentprivateorganisationfinancedbytheadvertising

industry,inresponsetoatleasttwoevents.First,theICCCodeofAdvertisingPracticethat

1244ILLVASARONNOSPA(AdvertisingStandardsAuthority).Regardingtheageverification:“However,wenotedthattheadinquestionwouldonlyhavebeenseenbyYouTubeuserswhowereregisteredasaged18oroverandwereloggedintotheiraccounts.Wethereforeconsideredthattheadvertisershadtakenreasonablestepstopreventthosewhowereunder18fromviewingtheadandweconcludedthatitdidnotbreachtheCode.”1245 Dutch Advertising Code Authority, ‘The Dutch Advertising Code - Information about theWorkingProcedures of the Advertising Code Committee and the Board of Appeal’ 4<https://www.reclamecode.nl/bijlagen/20120701_NRC_Engels.pdf>accessed29June2018.1246DutchAdvertisingCodeAuthority(n1245)3.

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gota foothold inEuropeancountries in thesixtiesandsecond, the increasingpolitical

pressuretoregulatecommercialcommunicationintheNetherlands.1247Themainplayers

in the field of advertising and marketing have subscribed to the self-regulatory

mechanism.Within theACAuthority, the advertising industry is represented in three

columns, being the Advertisers, Channel (or media) and Creation. Additionally,

consumers are represented in the column Consumer and Society.1248The Dutch self-

regulatorymechanismismonitoredbytheAdvertisingCodeCommittee(hereafter“AC

Committee”),anindependentbodyhandlingcomplaintsagainstadvertisementsthatdo

notcomplywiththeDutchAdvertisingCode.

COMPETENCES.TheACCommittee and theBoard of Appeal are competent to dealwith

advertising-related complaints.All themajorplayers in theadvertisingandmarketing

industryhavesubscribedtothemechanism.1249Furthermore,inaccordancewithDutch

Media law, all organisations that provide radio or audiovisual commercial

communicationshavetoberegisteredatandsubscribedwiththeACAuthority.1250This

entailsthattheACCommitteehasthecompetencetomakerecommendationstoadaptor

tostopspecificbroadcastsordistributions.

PRIORCONSULTATION.TheACAuthorityalsoguidesadvertisersinthedevelopmentoftheir

advertisingcampaigns.First,theACAuthorityhasdevelopedadigitaltoolforadvertisers

to check whether a certain commercial communication complies with the Dutch

AdvertisingCode.1251ThetoolcontainsalltherulesoftheCodeandthecaselawoftheAC

1247W.H.VanBoomandothers,‘Handelspraktijken,ReclameEnZelfregulering:PilotstudyMaatschappelijkeReguleringsinstrumenten’ (Tenverzoekevan:WetenschappelijkOnderzoek -enDocumentatiecentrumMinisterie van Justitie 2009) 53<http://www.professorvanboom.eu/pdf_files/2009_eindrapportage_Pilotstudy_zelfregulering.pdf>accessed3July2018.1248 Advertising Code Authority [Stichting Reclame Code], ‘Yearly Report [Jaarverslag]’ (2017) 3<https://www.reclamecode.nl/bijlagen/SRC_JV2017_internet.pdf>accessed3July2018.1249VanBoomandothers(n1247)54.Forinstance,oneoftheparticipatingorganisationsistheBVA,anorganisationrepresenting1250 But see for the whole list of relevant media organisations involved:https://www.reclamecode.nl/adverteerder/default.asp?paginaID=21&hID=1.1251Thedigitalchecklistcanbeaccessedviawww.checksrc.nl.

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Committee and the Board of Appeal since 2007.1252Second, under certain conditions

advertisersmayalsohaveaccesstocopyadviceonadraftcommercialcommunication.

Finally,branchorganisationsthatwanttoknowwhethertheirmemberscomplywiththe

rulescanasktheASAuthoritytoconductamonitoringexercise.Suchanexerciseentails

thatduringacertainperiodoftime,commercialcommunicationsindifferentmediaare

assessedinlightoftheadvertisingrules.1253

COOPERATIONAGREEMENTSWITHOTHERREGULATORYAUTHORITIES.Importanttonoteisthatthe

ACAuthorityhascooperationagreementswithanumberofgovernmentalbodiesforthe

actual enforcement of the advertising codes. For monitoring and enforcement of the

general codes, theACAuthority has cooperation agreementswith both the Consumer

Authority and theMedia Commissariat, and for specific sectors there are cooperation

agreementswiththeDutchFoodAuthority,1254theAuthorityFinancialMarkets1255and

theGamingAuthority.1256

TRANSBOUNDARY ADVERTISEMENTS. Similar to the JEP and the ASA, the AC Authority is

affiliatedwithEASA(supra).1257

EVALUATION. The advertising codes developed by the AC Authority are subject to

evaluationafteracertaintimeperioddeterminedinthespecificcodeorwhenthereisa

sufficientcausetodoso.1258

1252 Stichting Reclame Code, ‘Stichting Reclame Code: Wie Zijn Wij?’<https://www.reclamecode.nl/adverteerder/default.asp?paginaID=1&hID=1>accessed3July2018.1253AdvertisingCodeAuthority[StichtingReclameCode],‘TheDutchAdvertisingCodeandtheAdvertisingCode Committee [De Nederlandse Reclame Code En de Reclame Code Commissie]’ 6<https://www.reclamecode.nl/bijlagen/SRC_brochure_totaal_sep17.pdf>accessed5July2018.1254Formoreinformationseehttp://www.vwa.nl.1255Formoreinformationseehttps://www.afm.nl.1256 For more information see https://www.kansspelautoriteit.nl/algemene-onderdelen/secundaire-navigatie/english/.1257 For more information on their activities on a supranational and international level, see<https://www.reclamecode.nl/consument/default.asp?paginaID=167&hID=102>accessed8August2018.1258DutchAdvertisingCodeAuthority(n1245)41.

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ACCOMMITTEECOMPLAINTPROCEDURE.ComplaintsmaybefiledwiththeACCommitteeby

anyone who feels that specific advertisements are non-compliant. 1259 The complaint

mechanismisthesameforviolationsofthegeneralAdvertisingCodeasfortheformat-

orsector-specificcodes,oranycombinationthereof,includingtheCoderelatedtominors.

A complaint filed by a consumer is essentially free, 1260 whereas the complaint by a

professionalpartycouldbesubject tocertaincosts.1261Complaintscanbemadeviaan

onlineformorbymail.Afteracomplaintisfiled,thereisareversedburdenofproof,which

entailsthattheadvertisermustshowthattheadvertisementusedisnotinbreachwith

theadvertisingcodes.1262Aftertheadvertiser’swrittendefence,adateissetforhandling

the complaint. If desired, the complainant and advertiser can explain their arguments

duringahearingbytheACCommitteeorBoardofAppeal.Expertsorwitnessescanalso

becalledduringthishearing.Thehearingwillbepublicandinsofarasoneorbothparties

giveanoralexplanation.1263Theprocedurethenendswithawrittenrecommendationto

discontinuesuchawayofadvertising.

REVIEW.FilinganappealispossiblewiththeBoardofAppeal,whichiscomposedofthe

samemembersastheACCommittee.

AWARENESS.Accordingtothe2017reportoftheACAuthority,therewere3619complaints

andnotificationsfiled.TheACCommitteeandtheBoardofAppealtogetherdecidedon

1270cases418ofthesedealtwithdigitalmarketingcommunications(i.e.30%),ofwhich

34appearedonsocialmedia,3onsearchengines,325onwebsites,3weretraditional

onlineadvertisementssuchasbannersandpop-ups,and54weredistributedviaE-mail,

1259However,thereisnopossibilitytofilemassclaims.Weber(n1104)174.1260Andthereisnoneedtoinvolvealawyeroranyotherlegalassistance.1261Submittingacomplaintwillusuallycostacompany1000€.DutchAdvertisingCodeAuthority(n1245)8.WEBERexplainsthatthisfeeforbusinessesavoidsthestrategicuseoftheself-regulatorymechanism.Weber(n1104)180.1262StichtingReclameCode(n1252).1263However,partiescanobjecttoapublichearing.Ahearingbehindcloseddoorsisonlygrantedwhenthereisagoodreasonforit.ItisthechairmanoftheACCommitteeorBoardofAppealwhodecidesonsuchrequests.DutchAdvertisingCodeAuthority(n1245)7.

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SMS and MMS. Interestingly, only 2% of all cases dealt with the identification of the

commercialmessage.1264

TIMING.Advertisershavefourteendaystorespondtoacomplaint.TheACCommitteewill

thenissueitsdecisionwithina‘shortframeoftime’.The2017reportshowsthatin69%

ofthecases,adecisionismadewithin4weeksandin23%within6to8weeks.1265Itthen

takesapproximately25daysbeforethedecisionisreadytobesendtotheparties.Thus,

ittakesalittlemorethan8weeksafteracomplainthasbeenfiledtodecidewhetheran

advertisementisinbreachwiththeadvertisingrulesornot.


MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT. In case the AC Committee finds that an advertisement

violatestheAdvertisingCode(oroneofthespecificCodes),itcanonlyimposealegally

non-enforcableindividualorpublicrecommendation.1266Theadvertiserhastheoption

toeitheradapttheadvertisementorstopitsdistribution.Thecompliancedepartmentof

the AC Committee will then monitor whether the advertiser has complied with the

recommendation.1267Ifneeded,theACCommitteecanrelyonitscooperationagreements

withotherregulatoryauthorities toenforce itsdecisions.First, ifcollectivedamageto

consumersoccursduetomisleadingorcomparativeadvertising,theCommitteecanrely

on the Consumer Authory. 1268 Second, in case of radio or audiovisual commercial

communicationsbreach theadvertising codes, theCommitteemay refer to theMedia

Commissariat, which has strong enforcement powers. More specifically, the

Commissiariatmayrevoke licencesand impose finesontraditionalmediaplayers(e.g.

1264AdvertisingCodeAuthority[StichtingReclameCode](n1248)24–26.1265AdvertisingCodeAuthority[StichtingReclameCode](n1248)29.1266Theserecommendationsaregenerallyfollowedbytheindustry.DutchCourtsalsotendtofollowsuchrecommendationswhencourtproceedingsareinitiated.1267TheACAuthorityhasfoundthatsome96%ofadvertiserscomplywiththeserecommendations.1268ThiscooperationconstitutesamutuallybeneficialrelationshipwheretheConsumerAuthoritycanrelyontheexpertiseandswiftproceduresoftheCommitteeandtheCommitteecanrelyontheAuthoritytousetheirlegalcompetenceswhenenforcementisrequired.Formoreinformationaboutthiscooperationseetheir agreement (inDutch) <https://www.reclamecode.nl/bijlagen/11-7-2011_13_46_12.PDF> accessed5/07/2018.

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televisionbroadcasters,radiostations).1269Third,iftheACCommitteedeemsitnecessary

due to the sensitive nature of the advertisement to increase awareness of the

advertisement’sunsuitability,theCommissioncanalsosendoutan“ALERT”.Thismeans

that theACAuthoritywillmake sure that therecommendationwillbebrought to the

public’s attention byway of an official press release.1270Finally, theACAuthority has

madeagreementswithcertainsectorsaboutfinancialsanctions,forinstanceinrelation

toalcoholadvertising.1271

OTHERINCENTIVESFORCOMPLIANCE.Advertiserswhorefusetocomply,arementionedonan

online non-compliance list, 1272 open for consultation by the supervisory authorities.

Furthermore, the decisions of both the AC Committee and the Board of Appeal are

publishedontheACAuthority’swebsite.

LEVELOFCOMPLIANCE.TheDutchself-regulatorymechanismhasaveryhigh compliance

rate. More specifically, the 2017 report of the AC Authority showed that 96% of the

advertisers whowere found to be in breach of the advertising rules had adapted or

stoppeddistributingthecommercialcommunicationconcerned.1273

INDEPENDENCEANDIMPARTIALITY.BoththeCommissionanditsBoardofAppealconsistof5

members, which are appointed by each of the following stakeholders: (1) the

organisationsofadvertisersthatareaffiliatedwiththeACAuthority;(2)theAssocation

of Communication consultancies, (3) the participating media organisations, (4) the

Consumers’Associationandfinally(5)achairmanwithlegalqualificationsappointedby

the AC Authority. Important to note is that the evaluation by the members of the

Committee is independent of the organisation that appointed them (i.e. decisions are

1269 For more information on the tasks and competences of the Media Commissariat, see<http://www.cvdm.nl/over-het-commissariaat-voor-de-media/bevoegdheden/#>accessed5/07/2018.1270 See for an example of an alert published on the 20th of June, 2016<https://www.reclamecode.nl/consument/default.asp?nieuwsID=537&terugURL=%2Farchiefnieuwsberichten%2Easp%3FhID%3D7>accessed5/07/2018.1271Suchafinecanamountupto50000€.Weber(n1104)174.1272Thenon-compliancelistcanbeaccessedat<https://www.reclamecode.nl/adverteerder/default.asp?paginaID=92&hID=3>accessed8August2018.1273AdvertisingCodeAuthority[StichtingReclameCode](n1248).

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madewithout(prior)consultationofpeopleoutsidetheCommitteeorBoard.TheBoard

ofAppealconsistsofthesamemembers.1274

FUNDING.Themechanismis financedbytheadvertising industry itself, thegovernment

doesnotprovideanyfunding.Alladvertiserswithatotalannualgrossmediaspendingof

€1millionormorewillreceivearequestforpayment.1275

TRANSPARENCY. Asmentioned, the complaint-procedure entails a publichearing and all

decisionsarepublishedonthewebsiteoftheACAuthorityandalertdecisionsappearin

pressreleases.

ANALYSISOFEXISTINGCASELAW.FromtheACAuthority’syearlyreportitcanbeconcluded

thattherearenumerouscomplaintsandcases,ofwhich30%dealtwithdigitalmarketing

communications.However,thereportalsoshowedthatonlyin2%ofallcases(notjust

thosedealingwithdigitalmarketing)theACCommitteehadtomakeadecisiononthe

identification of the commercial message. From a search of the database of the AC

Committee’s rulings, it was found that only a handful of cases specifically concerned

childrenandnewadvertising formats.For instance, a case concerningvloggers,which

providessomeguidelinesontheimplementationoftheidentificationprinciplewhenit

comes to vlogs aimed at children was found. 1276 Additionally, cases dealing with

promotional statements made by a child, 1277 harmful content 1278 and misleading

1274AdvertisingCodeAuthority[StichtingReclameCode](n1253).1275ThecontributionisbasedonthegrossmediaspendingdrawnupannuallybyNielsen.TheACAuthoritydeveloped a website that specifically focuses on the financial contributions (in Dutch) which can beaccessedviahttp://www.srcbijdrage.nl/home.asp?paginaID=9&hID=7.1276Forinstance,inrelationtoavlogpublishedonaYouTubeChannelnamed‘Littleones’[Kleintjes],thedisclosure“ThisvideocontainsPP”wasincludedinthedescriptionofthevideo.TheACCommitteedecidedthatthedisclosuredidnotuncoverinasufficientlyclearwaytochildrenthatthevideocontainsadvertisingand, as such, is in breach of the rules for advertising aimed at children and youngsters. Decision No2017/00494(AdvertisingCodeCommittee[ReclameCodeCommissie)).1277Thiscaseconcernedavideoofafiveyearoldwho-inthepresenceofhismother-triesdifferenttypesofsweetsandcommentswhetherornothelikesthem.TheACCommitteeheldthatitdidnotconstituteaformofadvertising.DecisionNo2018/00214(AdvertisingCodeCommittee[ReclameCodeCommissie]).1278Thevideocontainedanimatedpeoplewhoareshotbyvariousweaponsandexplode.TheACCommitteeheldthatthiscontentwascontrarytogoodtasteanddecency.DecisionNo2015/00972(AdvertisingCodeCommittee[ReclameCodeCommissie]).

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informationwerealsodiscovered.1279Therefore,itcanbeconcludedthat-atthetimeof

writing - the existing case lawonly provides limited guidance for advertiserson new

advertisingtechniques.

1.4 Tableofcomparison

PROCEDURALAND

ORGANISATIONAL

ELEMENTS

NATIONALALTERNATIVEREGULATORYMECHANISMS

JEP(BE) ASA(UK) Stichting

Reclamecode(NL)

ATTRIBUTION

OF

REGULATORY

POWER

TypeofARI

Self-regulation Hybridmechanism:

self-regulationfor

non-broadcastadsand

co-regulationfor

broadcastads

Self-regulation

Government

involvement

None Formalcooperation

agreementwith

governmentalbodyfor

non-broadcastads

Delegationofstatutory

powersby

governmentalbodyfor

broadcastads

Formalcooperation

agreementwith

governmentalbodies

Actoncomplaint Actonacomplaint Actoncomplaint

1279 The case concerned a vlog, whichwas in fact an advertorial but the vlogger did not disclose thecommercialrelationship(i.e.thevloggerreceivedadiscountwhenpurchasingtheadvertisedproduct)withthebrand.TheACAuthorityheldthatthiswasinbreachwiththeAdvertisingCodeonSocialMedia.DecisionNo2016/00079(AdvertisingCodeCommittee[ReclameCodeCommissie)).

327

CompetencesSubmitanadfor

examination(only

bytheJuryofFirst

Instance)

Proactivemonitoring,

launchan

investigation

Monitoringof

compliancewith

decisionsmade,

proactivemonitoring

onlyattherequestofa

sectororganisation

Coverage

Supportedbythe

Councilfor

Advertising,which

represents

(almost)theentire

advertising

industry(80%of

Belgianads)

TheAdvertisingCodes

andtheASArulings

haveuniversal

coverageacrossthe

entireadvertising

industry,advertisers

cannotoptout

Themainplayersin

thefieldofadvertising

andmarketinghave

subscribedtotheself-

regulatorymechanism

COMPLAINT

PROCEDURE

AND

CONSUMER

AWARENESS

Complaint

procedureat

nocost,easy

andaccessible

Freeofchargefor

consumers,online

complaintformor

inwritingviamail

Freeofchargefor

consumers,nline

complaintform,in

writingorvia

telephone

Freeofchargefor

consumers,online

formorviamail

Professionalshaveto

payafee

Reviewof

decisions

TheJuryonAppeal IndependentReview

Procedure

BoardofAppeal

Awarenessof

consumers

N°ofconsumer

complaints(in

2016):167

N°ofcasesdealing

withdigital

commercial

N°ofconsumer

complaints(in2017):

16365

N°ofcasesdealing

withdigital

commercial

N°ofconsumer

complaints(in2017):

3619

N°ofcasesdealing

withdigital

commercial

328

communications

(in2016):46

communications(in

2017):3709

communications(in

2017):418

Timing Aimistodealwith

caseswithin10

days.(Yearly

reportshowsthat

3/5complaintsis

dealtwithwithin2

weeks).

Aimisto

‘acknowledge’

complaintswithin5

days,butnofurther

commitments

regardingtiming

Advertiserhasto

submithisdefence

within14daysupon

thecomplaint,AC

Committeesetsa

meetingassoonas

possible.

Independence

and

impartiality

Advertisingsector

andcivilsociety

areequally

represented

Duringdecision-

makingprocedure:

Expertsmaybe

consulted

Two-thirdsofthe

membersare

independentof

industry

Representativesfrom

4stakeholdergroups,

evaluationshappenon

anindependentbasis

withoutprior

consultationofthe

Board,presidentisnot

arepresentativeofany

ofthe4stakeholder

groups

Duringthedecision-

makingprocedure:

Expertsorwitnesses

maybecalled

Effective

proportionate

anddissuasive

sanctions

Norealsanctions

byJEP(i.e.theJEP

canissuedecisions

tostoporadjust

advertisements,

butithasnostrong

Varioussanctions(for

non-broadcast):bad

publicity,mandatory

prevetting,withdrawal

oftradingprivileges,

adalerts,askinternet

searchwebsitesto

Norealsanctionsby

ACCommittee,but

collaboration

agreementswithother

regulators/sectors

329

ENFORCEMENT

AND

PROCEDURAL

SAFEGUARDS

enforcement

powers)

Publicdecisions,

takingawaytheJEP

label

removeremovea

marketer’spaid-for

search

advertisements.In

additionlegal

backstopintheform

ofaformal

cooperation

agreementwith

TradingStandards

Funding Financedbythe

Councilfor

Advertisingasa

privatebody.

Financedthrougha

systemoflevy

arrangements,

collectedbythe

AdvertisingStandards

BoardofFinance

Financedby

advertisingindustry

itself(apercentage).

Publichearing

anddecision

Procedurein

writing,extended

summariesofeach

decisionare

publishedonthe

JEP’swebsite.

RulingsoftheASAare

published.

Publichearingif

partieswantto

presenttheir

argumentsorally,

decisionsare

published.

2. Discussion

2.1 Characteristics of commercial communications that influence the

structuringofARIs

Before going into the comparison of the national ARIs, it is questioned what

characteristicssetapartadvertisingARIsfromARIsinothersectors.Theseaspectsshould

betakenintoaccountwhenextractingbestpracticesforthestructuringoftheinstrument

and the selection of procedural guarantees. As described above, ARIs in the area of

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commercial communication are developed to achieve the objectives of protecting

consumers, including children, from harmful ormisleading advertising (in the digital

environment) or protecting their privacy and data protection, in accordancewith EU

legislation.Inrelationtotheseobjectives,thefollowingcharacteristicsshouldbekeptin

mindthroughoutourdiscussion:(1)characteristicsofcommercialcommunicationsand

(2)characteristicsrelatedtochildren’sadvertisingliteracyinthedigitalarea.

1. Characteristicsofcommercialcommunications.

First,asoutlinedinthefirstpartofthePhDthattheharmcausedbyadvertisements

isnotalwaysmeasurable.Asaresult,itisequallydifficulttodefinewhataneffective

remedyis:doesthismeanawardingdamagesordoestheremovaloftheinfringing

advertisement suffice? Second, from the mapping and analysis of the regulatory

framework,itwasfoundthattherearedifferentregulatoryauthoritieswhichhave

(sometimes overlapping) competences for enforcingprovisionsof the fragmented

legal framework. Therefore, coordination and cooperation between different

regulatorybodiesiscrucialandshouldbebuiltintheARI.

2. Characteristicsrelatedtochildren’sadvertisingliteracyinthedigitalera.

Furthermore, throughout this research, it hasbeen highlighted that children (and

their parents) have difficulties activating their advertising literacy skills in the

contextofnewadvertisingformats.Thisshouldbekeptinmindinthedevelopment

ofcomplaintmechanismsofARIs.Morespecifically,anumberofissuesmayneedto

beresolved:childrenandtheirparentsmaynotbeabletorecogniseinfringementsor

it might be difficult to provide evidence of infringements as advertisements may

appearanddisappearintheblinkofaneye.

2.2 Structure,organisationandcoverageoftheARIs

ATTRIBUTIONOFREGULATORYPOWER.Afirstelementfordiscussionisthestructuringofthe

ARIandtheform.Oneofthedrawbacksofapurelyself-regulatorymechanismthathas

receivedmost criticism in academic literature is the lack of effective enforcement.1280

1280Lievens,ProtectingChildrenintheDigitalEra:TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstruments(n12)205;Macenaite(n709).

331

Sanctionsmaybemildandreluctantlyimposed.Furthermore,LIEVENSwarnsthatcertain

protectionsofthelegalframework(i.e.provisionsthatareintheoryaddressedatstates

or governments) are more likely to apply if there is some form of government

involvement.1281Especiallyintheareaofchildprotection,theuseofasystemwherethe

government and other actorswork togetherwould provide greater guarantees to the

actualrealisationofthepolicyobjective.Thiscooperationcantakedifferentforms.For

instance,therecouldbeanactualdelegationofpowerfromagovernmentalbodywith

legalpowerstoaself-regulatorybody(asintheUKsystemwithOfcomandtheASA),or

therelationshipcouldbeestablishedthroughformalcooperationagreements(e.g.theUK

systemwiththeASAandTradingStandards,theDutchsystemwiththeACAuthorityand

theMediaCommissariat).Otherformsofinvolvementofthegovernmentalbodycouldbe

throughauditsofthefunctioningoftheARIorfunding.Itisarguedthatespeciallyinthe

areaofadvertisingwheredifferentregulatoryauthoritiesmaybeinvolved,cooperation

andconsultationarecrucial.Thisistoavoidconfusionandcertainpracticesremaining

undertheradarbecauseofunclearcompetences.

COVERAGE.Asecondelementofdiscussionrelatestothequestion,howbroadlyistheARI

supported?Inthisregard,theOECDunderlinesthatthehigherthelevelofparticipation

inanARI,thegreaterthelikelyimpact.1282Fromtheresearchontheadvertisingindustry

andARIs,itwasfoundthattheadvertisingindustryhastraditionallybeenveryactiveand

involvedwhenitcomestothedevelopmentofARIs.Thisisinlinewiththeresultsofthe

comparativestudy.WithregardtotheASA(UK),itwasshownthatthesystemisbinding

fortheentireadvertisingindustryandthatadvertiserscannotoptout.Fortheothertwo

instruments, it was found that the majority of the advertising industry supports the

system.

ACCESS TO COMPLAINT-MECHANISMS. Another important aspect from a children’s rights

perspective is theaccesstocomplaintprocedures.Toreiterate, theUNCRCCommittee

1281Lievens,‘TheUseofAlternativeRegulatoryInstrumentstoProtectMinorsintheDigitalEra’(n1105)49.1282OECD,‘IndustrySelfRegulation:RoleandUseinSupportingConsumerInterests’(2015)OECDDigitalEconomy Papers 247 22 <https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/industry-self-regulation_5js4k1fjqkwh-en>accessed8August2018.

332

requiresthat“accessible,affordableandchild-friendlyavenuestosubmitcomplaintsand

seek remedies, both judicial and non-judicial” are ensured for children and their

parents.1283Fromtheanalysis,itcanbeconcludedthatallthreeARIshaveacomplaint

mechanisminplacewhichisaccessibleatnocosttoconsumers.Furthermore,complaints

may be filed online as well as offline and the procedures do not require a lot of

information.Asidefromconsumers,civilsocietyorganisationsmayalsofilecomplaints,

whichallowsthemtoexplorethelimitsoftheARIanddemandaccountabilityfromthe

advertisingindustry.1284Aninterestingfeatureof theACAuthoritysystem(NL)isthat

traderscanfilecomplaintsbuthavetopayforusingthesystem,inordertolimitstrategic

use and anti-competitive behaviour. Another consideration links to the attribution of

regulatorypowersandthecooperationbetweenregulatorybodies.Fromtheanalysisin

thesecondpartofthePhDresearch,itwasconcludedthatinsomesituations,different

regulatoryauthoritiesmaybecompetenttoreceiveconsumercomplaintsregardingthe

same advertising formats – for instance, a complaint against behavioural advertising

targetedtochildrencouldbebroughtbeforethedataprotectionauthority,theconsumer

protectionauthority(forinstanceasanaggressiveunfaircommercialpractice)oraself-

regulatoryauthority (for instance forabreachof theFEDMACodea complaint to the

nationalDirectMarketingAssociation). In relation to this, there shouldbe continuous

efforts in raising awareness among citizens regarding the existing complaint

mechanisms.1285

PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS. From the analysis of children’s procedural rights, it was

concludedthatwheneverdecisionsaremadethatmayaffectchildren’srights,theleast

thatcanbeexpectedfromthedecision-makingbodyisadheretoanumberofprocedural

safeguards.Afirstsafeguardthatwasextractedfromchildren’sproceduralrightswasthe

independenceofthedecision-makingbody.ThethreeARIsallhaveanindependentbody

1283 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 16 (2013) on State ObligationsRegardingtheImpactoftheBusinessSector’(n148).1284VanBoomandothers(n1247).1285AninterestinginitiativeinrelationtothisistheDigitalClearingHouse,setupbytheEuropeanDataProtection Supervisor, which aims at increased collaboration and coordination between differentregulatory bodies. For more information see <https://edps.europa.eu/data-protection/our-work/subjects/big-data-digital-clearinghouse_en>,accessed31August2018.

333

forthemonitoringorenforcingoftheadvertisingrules.Themembersofthesebodiesare

representatives fromdifferentstakeholdergroups: theadvertisingsector,civilsociety,

academia,honorarymagistrates.Thisensuresindependencevis-à-visthegovernment,the

advertising sector, political organisations, etc. A second procedural safeguard is the

impartialityofthedecision-makingbody.Inthisregard,itcanbearguedthat,again,the

composition of the decision-making bodies offers guarantees for excluding partiality.

Furthermore,we have seen that certainARIs allow for consultationwith experts and

witnessesduringthedecision-makingprocedure.Finally,regardingtransparency,itwas

found thatalldecision-makingbodiespublishtheir rulingson theirwebsitesandalso

maketheirargumentationspublic.Inturn,thisprovidesotheradvertiserswithguidance

ontheimplementationoftherules.

2.3 EffectivenessoftheARIs

AMOUNTOFCOMPLAINTS,CASESDEALINGWITHNEWADVERTISINGFORMATS.Fromthecountry-level

analysis, it can be concluded that theASA (UK) and theACAuthority (NL) dealtwith

significantlymorecasesconcerningdigitalcommercialcommunications,comparedtothe

JEP(BE).However,ofthesecasesonlyafewrelatedtotheprotectionofchildrenagainst

new advertising techniques (e.g. identification of the commercial message, age

verification) and thus provided only limited guidance for advertisers. There are

potentially a number of reasons for this, including the inherent qualities of such

advertisingtechniques(i.e.theyaredesignedinanimmersiveandinteractivemanner),

the lack of awareness of consumers regarding complaint procedures and confusion

concerningcompetencesofregulatorybodies.Furthermore,whiletheASAiscompetent

toproactivelymonitor the internet foradvertisingbreachesand launch investigations

(andtheACAuthorityundercertainconditions),theJEPisnot,apartfromtheabilityof

theJuryofFirstInstancetosubmitanadvertisementtotheJury.Nevertheless,itshould

benotedthatthenumberofcomplaintscanalsobelinkedtothesizeofthecountry,as

wellasitsmediaandadvertisinglandscape.

MONITORINGANDOVERSIGHT.ThemannerinwhicheachoftheARIsorganisedmonitoring

and oversight of the rules was also analysed. The ASA proactively monitors

advertisements across all media, in order to check the level of compliance of the

advertising industry, and takes action against misleading, harmful or offensive

334

advertisements, sales promotions and direct marketing where necessary. The AC

Authority may, at the request of a certain sector organisation, proactively monitor

advertisements across different media within that specific sector. In contrast, as

illustratedabovetheJEPalmostexclusivelyactsoncomplaints,potentiallyresultingina

significantlyloweramountofcases.1286AccordingtotheOECD,regularmonitoringofthe

operationandeffectivenessofschemescanhelptodemonstratewhetherobjectivesare

beingachievedandmembersof theschemearecomplying.1287Suchmonitoringwould

alsoneed to capture instancesofnon-compliance tohelpbuild credibility, and should

evaluatetheeffectsonconsumers.Furthermore,consideringthatconsumersoftendonot

recognise new forms of commercial communication as advertisements, it can be

concludedthatproactivemonitoringisparticularlyusefulforARIsinthisarea.

REMEDIESANDENFORCEMENTPOWERS.AnotherquestionthatcanbeaskediswhethertheARI

provideseffectiveremediesincaseofbreachesoftheadvertisingrules.Inthisregard,the

OECDhasstressedthat“well-established,transparentenforcementmechanismsarekey

to establishing the credibility of self-regulatorymechanisms, as are sanctionswhich are

substantialenoughtodiscouragenon-adherence”.1288Furthermore,wehaveseenthatthe

EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulationrequirethatincaseofnon-compliance,

the ARI has a graduated scale of sanctions in place. 1289 FAIRE et al. clarify that such

sanctionscouldbemultifaceted,ranging frommildreprimandstotheactualexpulsion

fromthesystem.1290Inlightofthesefindings,itcanbeconcludedthatboththeASA(UK)

andACAuthority(NL)systemforeseeagraduatedscaleofsanctions.Forinstance,the

ASAmaychoosebetweenvarioussanctionsranging frombadpublicity, tomandatory

1286Inrelationtothis,aquestionwasaskedintheFlemishParliamentaboutwhetherornottheJEPshouldactmoreonaproactivebases,bysubmittingadvertisementstotheJuryand,hence,initiatemorecases.TheFlemishMinisterforMediarespondedthattheJEPalreadyworksproactively,byofferingadvertiserscopyadvice.‘SchriftelijkeVraagNr.306DoorKatiaSegersAanSvenGatz,VlaamsMinistervanCultuur,Media,Jeugd En Brussel: Jury Voor Ethische Praktijken - Klachtenbehandeling’<http://docs.vlaamsparlement.be/pfile?id=1287066>accessed9August2018.However,in2016,only15advertisementswerefiledwiththeJEPforapreliminaryexamination.1287OECD(n1282).1288OECD(n1282)24.1289EuropeanCommission,‘EUPrinciplesforBetterSelf-andCo-Regulation’(n1179)2.1290M.Faure,A.OgusandN.Philipsen,‘CurbingConsumerFinancialLosses:TheEconomicsofRegulatoryEnforcement’(2009)31Law&Policy161.

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prevetting,withdrawaloftradingprivilegesandadvertisingalerts.Additionally,boththe

ASA and the AC Authority (NL) have formal cooperation agreements in place for the

referral of violations to governmental agencies with legal powers. Of the three ARIs

discussed,theBelgiansystemhasthesoftestenforcementpowers,astheJEPcanonlyfall

backonbadpublicityandthewithdrawalofacompliancelabel.

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CONCLUSION-BESTPRACTICESFORTHESTRUCTURINGOFARIS INTHE

AREAOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION

ARISANDTHEBROADERLEGALFRAMEWORK.Thefirstchapterofthisfinalpartoftheresearch

exploredtheinterplaybetweenARIsandthebroaderlegalframework.Itwasconcluded

that the advertising industry has important responsibilities to respect and promote

children’srightsthroughouttheiradvertisingandmarketingpractices.Relatedly,theEU

legislativeframeworkindirectlyencouragesthemtodevelopadvertisingself-regulation,

inlightofchildren’srights.Inthisregard,severalrequirementsforthestructuringand

developmentof advertisingARIsweredistilled.First, itwas concluded that children’s

proceduralrightsrequirethatanARIadherestoanumberofproceduralsafeguards,such

as impartiality, independence and transparency. Second, a number of general

benchmarksat theEU level,whichprovide input for thebestpracticeswereanalysed.

Finally, the analysis explored how the advertising industry has developed its own

benchmarksforadvertisingself-regulation.

COMPARATIVEASSESSMENT.Thesecondchapterofthispartoftheresearchexaminedthree

nationalARIsintheareaofcommercialcommunication.Onthebasisofthiscomparison

and the requirements and benchmarks found in the first chapter, a number of best

practicesforARIsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationcanbeextracted:

1. Proactivemonitoringofadvertisementsonline

A first best practice relates to the specific characteristics of commercial

communication.Morespecifically,asillustrated,consumers(andespeciallychildren)

havedifficultiesrecognisingthesophisticatedandimmersiveadvertisingtechniques

that are being used in the digital environment. Itwas argued that this could be a

reason for the low amount of consumer complaints concerning new advertising

techniques and children. Accordingly, from our analysis of the monitoring and

oversightmechanismsofthethreeARIs,itwasconcludedthatsomeformofproactive

monitoringofadvertisementsonlinebythealternativeregulatorybody,whichhas

thecompetencetolaunchinvestigations,istobepreferredoverapurelycomplaint-

basedsystem.

337

2. Formalcooperationbetweenalternativeregulatorybodiesandgovernmentalagencies

A second best practice relates to the most frequent criticisms of a purely self-

regulatory approach in academic scholarship, namely the lack of effective

enforcement.Fromthecomparativestudy,itwasconcludedthathavingsomeform

ofgovernment involvement isrecommendedtoobtainstrongerenforcement.This

involvemententailshavingalegalbackstopinplaceincaseofincessantbreacheswith

theadvertisingrules,suchasanactualdelegationofpowers fromagovernmental

bodyorhavingformalcooperationagreementswithgovernmentalauthoritiesthat

havestrongerenforcementpowers(e.g.awardingfines).Inaddition,fromthesecond

partoftheresearchitwasconcludedthatthereareseveralregulatorybodies(both

governmental agencies and alternative regulatory bodies) that have (to a certain

extent overlapping) competences for enforcing the provisions of the regulatory

framework for commercial communication. In relation to this, the need for

coordination and collaboration between the regulatory bodies involved was

underlined.Tofacilitatethis,moreresearchintothecollaborationandcoordination

of self-regulatory organisations and governmental agencies in the context of

commercialcommunicationisneeded.

3. Aone-stop-shopforconsumercomplaints

Third,linkedtothepreviousfinding,thecomplaint-mechanismsoftheARIsinlightof

the right to an effective remedy and the other benchmarks discussed in the first

chapter were analysed. It was found that in some situations, different regulatory

bodies may be competent to receive consumer complaints regarding the same

advertising formats.Thismay lead to confusionamongst consumers (andeven the

regulatory bodies themselves), resulting in a lack of complaints and cases. In this

regard, a one-stop-shop for advertising-related complaints could solve consumer

confusionandsimplifiesawareness-raisingefforts.Suchaone-stop-shopmechanism

should have a low threshold, meaning that the procedure is free for consumers,

complaintscanbebroughtonlineandnolawyerneedstobeinvolved.Incontrast,a

fee may be required from professional complainants, in order to avoid structural

misuse of the complaint mechanism. Aside from this and as already mentioned,

children (and their parents)might not even recognise certain advertising formats

338

used in the digital environment. Consequently, allowing civil society actors to file

complaintsforconsumersingeneralcanalsobeconsideredabestpractice.Asafinal

considerationinrelationtothecomplaint-mechanismofARIs,itwasarguedthatin

practiceitcanbedifficulttoprovideevidenceofanonlineadvertisementinbreachof

the regulatory framework.Toovercome thesedifficulties,only limited information

shouldberequiredwhenfilingcomplaints.

4. Bestpracticesforproceduralsafeguards

Fromtheanalysisofthechildren’srightsframeworkitwasconcludedthatitcanbe

expected from alternative regulatory bodies to adhere to a number of procedural

safeguards. First, in relation to the decision-making body’s independence and

impartiality,itisrecommendedthatthemembersarerepresentativesfromdifferent

stakeholder groups (i.e. the advertising industry, civil society, academia). The

consultationofexpertsorwitnessesduringthedecision-makingprocedurecouldalso

be considered. Second, with regard to the requirement of transparency, it was

concluded that alternative regulatory bodies should make their decisions and

argumentationspublic.Asillustratedthisprovidesusefulguideanceforadvertisers

ontheimplementationoftheadvertisingrulesinpractice.Inaddition,itwasfound

thatitisgenerallyacceptedthattheeffectivenessandworkingofARIs(andregulation

ingeneral) is tobeevaluatedonaregularbasis.Theseevaluationsshouldalsobe

madepublic.

5. Agraduatedscaleofsanctions

A fifth best practice relates to the actual enforcement powers of the alternative

regulatory body. From the analysis, a graduated scale of sanctions, which are

substantial enough todiscouragenon-adherence canbe recommended.This could

startfrombadpublicity,takingawaycompliancelabelsandmandatorypre-vetting,

toreferringincessantviolationstogovernmentalagencies.

6. Exantecompliancemechanism:copyadvice

Another best practice relates to the prevention of advertising breaches. It is

recommended thatARIs consider a copy advice feature as an ex ante compliance

mechanism.Suchafeaturemayreducetheneedforcomplaint-handlingand,hence,

thecostsrelatedtodecision-makingprocedures(itcanevengenerateresources).

7. Raisingawareness

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Finally, all stakeholders should continue their efforts in raising awareness with

consumersofcomplaintmechanismsandtheregulatoryframework.

CONCLUDINGREMARKSAND

RECOMMENDATIONSFORTHEFUTURE

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1. RETROSPECTIVEOFTHERESEARCHUNDERTAKEN

RETROSPECTIVE.Beforepresentingtherecommendationsfortheregulatoryframeworkfor

commercialcommunicationaimedatchildrenthissectionfirstlooksbackonourresearch

findings.

PART I. The first chapter of the first part of the research aimed to gain a clearer

understanding of the research issues. More specifically, an in-depth analysis was

conducted of the constitutive elements of the study (i.e. children and new forms of

commercial communication) and the need for a strong and empowering regulatory

framework for commercial communication. It also introduced the children’s rights

perspective.Anumberoffindingscanberecalled:

1. Asanintroductiontothelegalresearch,theadvertisingtechniquesandformatsthat

advertisersemploytotargetchildrenwereanalysed.Nowadays,childrengrowupas

digital natives in a media landscape that is constantly evolving as a result of

technologicaladvancementsandconvergence.Traditionalandnewmediaarebeing

consumedinterchangeablyandchildrensplittheirattentionbetweenvariousscreens

andsourcesofmedia.Thechangesinthemedialandscapehavedrivenadvertisersto

transformtheirapproachtocommercialcommunication.Inthedigitalenvironment,

commercial messages are being distributed through a variety of platforms and on

numerous devices, such as tablets, game consoles, smartphones and connected

televisions.Thespecificfeaturesofnewformsofcommercialcommunication–i.e.their

integrated,interactive,personalisedandemotions-evokingnature–makeitdifficult

forchildrentoapplytheiradvertisingliteracyskills.Theseskillsentailbothidentifying

thecommercialnatureof thesemessagesandbeingable toprocessthecommercial

message in a criticalmanner, as to allow them tomakewell-balanced commercial

decisionsanddecisionsrelatedtotheirprivacy.Inthisregard,itwasconcludedthatit

remainscrucialforchildrentobeeducatedandenabledtounderstandthepersuasive

tacticsofemergingtrendsintheareaofcommercialcommunication.

2. Theprotectionofchildrenagainstcertainformsofcommercialcommunicationcanbe

tracedasanimportantobjectivethroughoutthepolicyhistoryatinternationalandEU

levelfrom2008onwards.Threerecurringthemeswereidentified.First,theprotection

of children against the pressure of advertising and marketing in the digital

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environment.Second,policymakershaveclearlyrecognisedtheissuesrelatedtothe

collectionofpersonaldataforadvertisingpurposesandtheneedfortheprotectionof

children in this context. Third, aside from protecting children, policy makers have

emphasisedtheimportanceofeducationandnurturingchildren’sadvertisingliteracy

fortheirdevelopmentandempowerment.

3. After analysing the policy objectives, the regulatory contextwas examined and the

instrumentsthatweredevelopedtoachievetheseobjectiveswereintroduced.Itwas

foundthattheregulatoryframeworkiscomplexandfragmentedintolegislationand

self- and co-regulation at the international, EU and national levels. Indeed, the

advertising industry has been very active in developing alternative regulatory

instruments, for various reasons: the sector is known for its high degree of

organisation, its strong desire to avoid government regulation and its reliance on

consumer trust in advertising andmarketing. Considering the effectiveness of new

advertising techniqueson children, it isquestionedwhether theexistingregulatory

frameworkachievestheabovementionedpolicygoals.

4. There isnoagreement in social science literatureon theexact impactof children’s

increasedexposuretocommercialcommunicationonline(andoffline).Moreovernew

trendsareconstantlyemergingandresearchontheimpactofadvertisingtechniques

on children’s development is not moving at the same pace. In this regard, the

precautionaryprinciplemightbeconsideredasajustificationforadditionalregulatory

protectionsforchildren.

Thesecondchapterexaminedtheroleofchildren’srightsinregulatingnewadvertising

techniques. More specifically, it provided an interpretation of the fundamental rights

framework in the specific context of commercial communication. The main research

questionthispartofthestudyaimedtoanswerwas:whichchildren’srightsandprinciples

areatstakeandwhatistheirroleinregulatingnewadvertisingformatsaimedatchildren?

Fromtheanalysis,anumberoffindingscanberecalled:

1. ChildrenareawardedanumberofrightsundertheUnitedNationsConventiononthe

RightsoftheChild,whichisthemosthighlyratifiedinstrumentininternationallaw.

Moreover, it can be considered the most powerful children’s rights instrument in

Europeanlaw,consideringthatthefundamentalrightsinstrumentsofboththeCouncil

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of Europe and theEuropeanUnionmust be interpreted in light of theUNCRC. The

underlying objective of the UNCRC is to contribute to children’s personal or

psychologicaldevelopment,achildbeingdefinedaseveryhumanundertheageof18

(unlessunderthelawapplicabletothechild,majorityisattainedearlier).TheUNCRC

recognisesthatchildren,dependingontheenvironmentsandculture inwhichthey

growup,willdevelopandacquirecompetenciesatdifferentages.Therefore, itwas

concluded that children require varying degrees of protection, participation and

opportunities for autonomy and decision-making in accordancewith their evolving

capacities.Moreover,children’srightsneedtobeprotectedandpromotedinrelation

toall aspectsof children’s lives, also in the (digital)mediaenvironment. Indeed, as

describedinformationandcommunicationtechnologiesaffectnotonlytheprotection,

but also the enjoyment of their rights. In other words, children’s rights are

reconfigurednotonlybytheinternet,butalsobytheincreasedcommercialisationof

the digital environments in which children play, communicate and search for

information. To address this reconfiguration and understand the role of children’s

rightsinregulatingnewformsofcommercialcommunication,itwasdecidedthatan

interpretationofchildrenrightsinthiscontextwasneeded.

2. It was concluded that several rights and principles are at stake in an advertising

context.Furthermore,theissueofnewformsofcommercialcommunicationaimedat

childrenshowcasesthemulti-dimensionalityofchildren’srights(i.e.theobjectivesof

protection,participationandprovision).Itwasfoundthatabalanceisneededbetween

ontheonehandempoweringchildrentocopewiththecommercialpressureonline

andontheotherhandprotectingthemagainstthoseadvertisingpracticesforwhich

empowermentandadvertisingliteracyaloneisinsufficient.Inrelationtotheformer,

itiscrucialtoensurethatthenextgenerationofinternetusersisbettereducatedand

prepared to deal with digital advertising and marketing. Children’s rights to

developmentandeducationentailthatfromanearlyagetheyshouldbetaughthowto

copewith(digital)advertising,inaccordancewiththechild’sevolvingcapacitiesasa

‘consumer’. However, considering the effectiveness and sophistication of new

advertising techniques, children also need to be protected from harmful and

misleadingadvertisementstobeinlinewithinteraliachildren’srightstodevelopment,

toprotectionagainsteconomicexploitationandtofreedomofthought.Toattainsuch

abalance,itisarguedthatallstakeholders,suchasthegovernment,theadvertising

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industry(i.e.allpartiesinvolvedintheadvertisingchain),schoolsandparentsshould

take up their share of responsibility to enable children to grow up to be critical,

informed consumers who make their own conscious choices in today’s media

environment.

3. Children’s digitised lifeworlds are permeated with immersive, entertaining and

personalisedadvertising.Thecommercialisationofnearlyallaspectsof theironline

lifes (e.g. communication, play, information seeking) shapes children’s thinking

patterns and preferences as consumers and may negatively affect their rights to

development and autonomy, to freedom of thought and to play. Furthermore,

advertisers increasinglycollectandusechildren’spersonaldata for thepurposesof

profiling and targeted advertising. Children’s rights to privacy and development,

however, protect their self-determination and their ability to make autonomous

commercialdecisionsordecisionsrelatedtotheirprivacy.

4. In light of the need for a balance between protection and empowerment, it was

illustratedthatchildrenareentitledtodeveloptheirabilitiestothinkcritically,make

well-balanceddecisionsandtodevelopahealthylifestyle,whichareallessentialwhen

dealingwithnew formsof commercial communication.More specifically, children’s

rightstoeducationandaccesstoinformationrequiresthenecessaryopportunitiesfor

children tomature and practice their advertising-related knowledge, attitudes, and

skills, such as their ability to recognise the commercial nature of communications

onlineandofflineandtocriticallyreflectonthem.

5. Asidefromeducationandadvertisingliteracy,itwasarguedthatchildrenalsorequire

protection against harmful ormisleading forms of commercial communication. The

emerging trends in advertising have specific features that are particularly effective

whenusedonchildren(e.g.targetedadvertising,playingonchildren’semotions).In

relation to those practices, it was stressed that the limitations to education and

advertising literacy and expressed the need for additional protections for children.

Morespecifically,theadaptionofthechildren’srighttoprotectionagainsteconomic

exploitationtotheonlinemarketrealitywasadvocated.Itwasarguedthatthenotion

of economic exploitation can be broadened to include exploitative advertising (e.g.

targetedormisleadingadvertising).

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6. Finally, children’sprocedural rights inpreparationof the thirdpartof theresearch

were explored. Children’s rights to a fair trial and an effective remedy provide a

number of procedural safeguards that are relevant for the structuring and

development of self- and co-regulatory instruments in the area of commercial

communication,suchasindependence,impartialityandtransparency.

Thus,thefirstpartofthePhDresearchprovidedinsightsintotheroleofchildren’srights

in regulating advertising and provided a number of procedural safeguards to consider

when developing alternative regulatory instruments. It was concluded that the

interpretationoftherightsandprinciplesshouldfunctionasthecomprehensiveanalytical

framework in light ofwhich the regulatory framework for commercial communication

aimedatchildrenshouldbeevaluated.

PART II. In the second part of the study, the regulatory framework was mapped and

evaluated, to examinewhether the balance between empowerment and protection is

attained.Inchapteroneofparttwoofthisstudy,thecurrentlegislativeandself-andco-

regulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunicationaimedatchildrenwasmappedand

analysed. This chapter aimed to provide a better understanding of the existing

substantive protections for children against commercial communication in both

legislative and alternative regulatory instruments, by presenting and analysing four

relevantcontexts.Fromthisanalysis,itwasfoundthatamyriadofprovisionsregulating

commercialcommunicationaimedatchildrenatbothnationalandEUlevel.

1. Theconsumerprotectioncontext

As a first context, the consumer protection framework was explored. The Unfair

Commercial Practices Directive was first analysed and through this a number of

provisionsthatarerelevantinthecontextoftheresearchwereoutlined.TheDirective

isapplicabletocommercialcommunications,regardlessoftheirformordeliveryand

prohibits any unfair commercial practice, which includesmisleading or aggressive

commercial communication. Similarly, it was found that the ICC Code contains a

numberof generalprinciplesand specificprotections for children in the contextof

advertising.TheCodeappliestobothtraditionalandnewadvertisingformatsandis

builtonthegeneralprinciplesofhonesty,legalcompliance,truthfulnessanddecency

ofadvertisements.

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2. ThecontextoftheAVMSDirective

Second, the Audiovisual Media Services Directive, which determines the rules for

audiovisualcommercialcommunications,suchastelevisionadvertisingoradvertising

inon-demandserviceswasanalysed.Thislegislativeinstrumentcontainsprotections

for childrenagainstseveral advertisingpractices.These includeprotectionsagainst

misleading advertising (i.e. the identification principle), direct exhortations to buy,

harmfulmessages,thepromotionofharmfulproductsandtherearespecificrulesfor

sponsoringandproductplacement.Furthermore,theAVMSDirectivehasundergone

animportantreview.FromtheanalysisofthecompromisetextoftherevisedDirective,

itwasconcludedthattheEUlegislatorsrecognisedtheincreasedconvergenceofmedia

servicesandaddressedtheevolutions in themarket foraudiovisualmediaservices.

More specifically, the revised Directive aims at levelling the playing-field between

traditionalandnewmediaserviceproviders.Furthermore,thescopeoftheDirective

isbroadenedtoincludevideo-sharingplatforms(andtoacertainextentsocialmedia

platformsiftheirserviceorpartoftheirservicequalifiesasavideo-sharingplatform).

3. Thecontextofthee-CommerceDirective

The third context analysed was that of the e-Commerce Directive. The Directive

provides the rules for commercial communications that form part of or constitute

informationsocietyservices(e.g.advertisementsonsocialmedia,advergames,online

banners).Most important toour research, theDirective contains identification and

informationrequirements.Furthermore,aself-regulatoryinitiativeinthecontextofe-

Commerce,namelytheFEDMACodeonE-Commercewasdiscussed.Thisinstrument

provides similar protections for consumers – in the form of identification and

information requirements – but also contains more specific protections against

misleadingcommercialcommunications.

4. ThecontextoftheGeneralDataProtectionRegulationandePrivacyDirective

Thefinalcontextconsistedofthedataprotectionframework,whichcontainstherules

fortheprocessingofchildren’spersonaldataandcommunicationsdataforadvertising

purposes.Inthisparticularcontext,thereareapplicablelegislativeandself-regulatory

instruments, which run in parallel. First, the manner in which the General Data

ProtectionRegulationexplicitlyrecognisesthatchildrenrequirespecificprotectionin

relation to the processing of their personal data, especially if this processing takes

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place in an advertising context. The GDPR requires a legitimate ground for such

processing – which will most likely be (parental) consent – and that the data is

processedinaccordancewithinteraliatheprinciplesoffairness,dataminimisation,

purposespecificationandlimitedretention.Second,theePrivacyDirective–whichis

currently under review – contains the provisions for the processing of children’s

communicationsdata.Finally,severalself-regulatoryinstrumentsattheinternational

and EU level that contain provisions regulating privacy and data protection were

explored.AninterestingfindingwasthattheICC,IABEuropeandEASAallunderlined

thatbehaviouraladvertisingshouldnotbeaimedatchildrenaged12oryounger.

The second chapter of the second part of the research proceeded with an in-depth

evaluationof themapped regulatory framework.More specifically, it examinedhowa

selectionofadvertisingtechniquesfitswithinthescopeofthisframework,whiletaking

into account the children’s rights and principles as discussed in the first part of the

research.Basedontheconclusionsofthisevaluation,anumberofgapswerecompiled:

1. Problemscausedbythefragmentationoftheregulatoryframework.

First,itwasnotedthatthenumberoflegislativeandalternativeregulatoryrulesisnot

necessarily indicativeofahigh levelofprotectionandempowermentofchildren, in

particular regarding new advertising formats (i.e. advergames, personalised

advertisingandvloggingadvertising).Variouspointsofconfusion,whicharecaused

bythefragmentednatureoftheregulatoryframeworkforcommercialcommunication,

wereexposed.Indeed,asillustratedtheprovisionscontainedinbothlegislativeand

self-regulatoryinstrumentsareoftenformulatedinanabstractmannerandguidance

ontheirimplementationisnotalwaysavailable.Furthermore,anumberofdefinitions

that were formulated in a manner leading to uncertainty regarding their scope of

applicationfornewformsofcommercialcommunicationwereoutlined.Anotherpoint

ofconfusionisthelackofauniformdefinitionofachildintheregulatoryframework.

Although itwas recognised that different commercialmessagesmay be considered

inappropriateforchildrenofdifferentages,itwasalsofoundthatthediversityofages

definingtheapplicationofthevariousprovisionsisconfusing,notonlyforadvertisers

tryingtocomplywiththeadvertisingrules,butalsoforparentsandchildren.

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2. Theempowerment-protectionscalesoftheregulatoryframeworkareoutofbalance.

A second gap thatwas found relates to the need for a balance betweenprotecting

children against harmful ormisleading advertisements and educating and allowing

themtodeveloptheircommercialdecision-makingcapacities.TheStateisresponsible

for ensuring that the regulatory framework is organised to attain this balance.

However, from the evaluation, it was concluded that the empowerment-protection

scalesoftheregulatoryframeworkaretippedoutofbalance.Theexistingprotections

forchildrenoftenrevolvearoundidentificationandtransparencyrequirementsorthe

relianceonthelegitimategroundfor(parental)consentfortheprocessingofchildren’s

data.Theseprotections,inpractice,allocatemuchoftheresponsibilitywithchildren

andtheirparents(e.g.advertisersusedifferentdisclosurestoclarifythecommercial

nature of communications, but it is up to children and parents to recognise and

understandthemeaningofthelabelsused).Accordingly,consideringthedifficulties

children - and their parents for thatmatter - havewith applying their advertising

literacyskillstotheemergingtrendsofcommercialcommunication,itwasconcluded

that a deresponsibilisation of the child and the parent is needed in the regulatory

framework.

3. Thelimitationsoftheidentificationprinciple.

A third gap relates to the common red thread of the regulatory framework for

commercial communication: the identificationprinciple.More specifically, from the

evaluation,alackofstructureandcoherenceintheimplementationoftheprinciple

was discovered. As mentioned, advertisers use a variety of labels to indicate the

commercialnatureofadvertisements,whichmayleadtoconfusionamongconsumers.

Moreover, itwas noted that for certain advertising formats, disclosures do not aid

childrentorecogniseorcriticallyreflectonthecommercialnatureoftheformats.Thus,

inlightofchildren’srightsandtheempowerment-protectionbalance,theimportance

of recognising the limits of children’s advertising literacy and, as a result, the

effectivenessoftheidentificationprincipleinthedigitalenvironmentwasunderlined.

4. Thedataprotection framework isundergoingsignificantchangesandguidanceon its

implementationisurgentlyneeded.

Asafourthgap,issuesrelatedtotheimplementationofthedataprotectionframework

whichhasbeenundergoingsignificantchangesweredescribed.First,itisunclearwhat

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thespecificprotectionforchildrenundertheGDPRwillentailinpractice.AstheGDPR

doesnotdefinechildren,itisalsouncleartowhichagegroupscertainmeasuresshould

apply. Second, the proposed e-Privacy Regulation is not alignedwith the GDPR on

recognisingthatchildrenneedspecificprotection for theircommunicationsdata. In

fact,childrenarenotevenmentionedinthetextthatiscurrentlybeingdebated.Third,

although several self-regulatory organisations at international and EU level have

developed instruments regulating the processing of children’s personal data for

advertisingpurposes,thefocusliestoooftenontransparencyandinformationinstead

of actual limitations to the collection of children’s personal data. Accordingly, we

argued that a children’s rights inspired interpretation of the data protection

frameworkisneeded.

5. Needforbetterdistributionofresponsibilitiesintheadvertisingchain.

Fifth,theroleofplatformproviderssuchasvideo-sharingplatformsinthecontextof

commercial communication was examined. In this regard, it was argued that by

increasing the responsibilities of platform providers it could be easier to achieve

compliance with the advertising rules, for instance regarding the identification

requirement. It was found that the revised AVMS Directive already addressed this

need,bybroadeningitsscopetoincludevideo-sharingplatformsandbygivingthem

certainresponsibilitiesregardingthecommercialcommunicationsthataredistributed

viatheirplatforms.

6. Lackofcoordinationbetweenregulatoryauthorities.

Asafinalgap,itwasfoundthatalthoughdifferentregulatorybodies-bothgovernment

agencies, like media regulators, data protection authorities, consumer protection

authorities, and self-regulatory bodies - are competent to enforce the mapped

provisions,fewdecisionsrelatedtochildrenandnewadvertisingformatshavebeen

issuedupuntilthetimeofwriting.Asaresult,thereislittleguidanceforadvertisers

on how to interpret these provisions in practice, when they use or develop new

advertisingtechniques.Inthisrespect,itwasarguedthatthereisaneedforfurther

coordinationandcollaborationbetweentheregulatorybodiesconcernedandtoraise

awarenessamongstconsumer-citizensregardingcomplaint-mechanisms.

PARTIII.Followingthedetailedmappingandevaluationofthesubstantiveelementsofthe

regulatory framework, the final part of the study proceeded with an analysis of the

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organisational andprocedural elements.Firstof all this entailedanexplorationof the

advertisingindustry’sresponsibilitiesunderthechildren’srightsframework,theroleof

ARIsinthisregardandexistingrequirementsandbenchmarksforthestructuringofsuch

ARIs.Second,acomparativeanalysisofthreenationalARIswasconducted.Theaimof

thispartoftheresearchwastodistinguishthoseproceduralororganisationalelements

thatcouldimprovethequalityandeffectivenessofARIstoprotectchildreninthecontext

ofcommercialcommunication.Fromthisanalysis,anumberoffindingscanberecalled:

1. First, itwas argued that the advertising industry has important responsibilities for

respectingandpromotingchildren’srightsthroughouttheiradvertisingpractices,and

are encouraged to develop ARIs. In this regard, a number of requirements and

benchmarksforthestructuringofadvertisingARIsinchildren’sproceduralrights,in

instrumentsat theEU level, andbenchmarksdevelopedby the industry itselfwere

extracted. These requirements and benchmarks were taken into account in the

developmentofthebestpracticerecommendations.

2. Second, from the comparative assessment of three national ARIs in the area of

commercial communication, several best practices were identified for (1) the

monitoring and oversight of ARIs, (2) the attributionof regulatorypowers and the

involvementofgovernmentalagencies,(3)thecomplaint-mechanismandprocedures,

(4)theproceduralsafeguardsthatthedecision-makingbodymustadhereto,(5)the

enforcementandremedialmeasuresincaseofbreachesoftheindustrycommitments,

(6) ex ante compliance mechanisms and finally (7) consumer awareness of the

existence of ARIs. These best practices are discussed in more detail in our

recommendations.

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2. CONCLUSIONS

Fromtheabovelistedresearchresults,anumberoffinalconclusionscanbedrawn.

THEROLEOFCHILDREN’SRIGHTS INREGULATING COMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION. First of all,with

regardtotheresearchquestionattheheartofthisPhDresearch,itcanbeconcludedthat

children’s rights and principles – as interpreted in the specific context of commercial

communicationinthedigitalenvironment–constitutetheanalyticalframeworkinlight

ofwhich legislation and alternative regulatory instruments in the area of commercial

communication need to be evaluated. This analytical framework requires a balance

between empowering children to cope with advertising (i.e. by educating them and

providingthemwiththenecessaryopportunitiestopracticetheircommercialdecision-

making skills) and protecting them against harmful ormisleading advertising (i.e. by

recognisingthelimitationstoadvertisingliteracyandprovidingadditionalprotections).

Statesareresponsibleforstructuringtheregulatoryframeworkinsuchawaythatthe

balanceisattained.

SUBSTANTIVE GAPS IN THE EXISTING REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATION

AIMED AT CHILDREN. From themapping and evaluation, it can be concluded that such a

balanceisnotachievedintheexistingregulatoryframework.Severalgapswereidentified

thatneedtobeaddressedinordertostabilisetheempowerment-protectionscales.First,

anumberofissueswhichneedtoberesolved,resultingfromthefragmentednatureof

theregulatoryframework,includinguncertaintiesregardingdefinitionsandthescopeof

applicationofprovisionstonewadvertisingformatswerementioned.Inrelationtothis,

theneedforaholisticapproachtotheregulatoryframeworkwasdiscussed.Second,as

describedtheprovisionscontainingprotectionsforchildreninthecontextofcommercial

communication allocate toomuch responsibility to children and their parents. In this

regard, the need for a deresponsibilisation was underlined. The deresponsibilisation

consistsofanumberofaspects:recognisingthelimitationsoftheidentificationprinciple

and improving its implementation in practice, implementing the data protection

framework in light of children’s rights and emphasising platform responsibilities. To

overcome these significant gaps, several recommendations have been included in the

followingsection.

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STRUCTURINGOFARISINTHEAREAOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.Finally,withregardtothe

proceduralandorganisationalelementsofARIs, itwasconcludedthat theyneedtobe

structured in accordance with the broader legal framework, including children’s

proceduralrights,butalsothebenchmarksdevelopedbytheadvertisingindustryitself.

The comparative analysis of three national ARIs provided valuable insights into the

workingandeffectivenessofARIs.ToimprovethequalityofexistingARIsintheareaof

commercialcommunication,thebestpracticesextractedareincludedinthenextsection.

3. RECOMMENDATIONS

A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND ADVERTISING LITERACY IN THE DIGITAL ERA. In

relationtothefragmentationofandconfusionsurroundingtheregulatoryframeworkfor

commercial communication, it was concluded that a holistic interpretation is needed.

First, this entails that the multi-dimensionality of children’s rights is considered and

respected. As described the reconfiguration of children’s rights in the context of

commercial communication in the digital era necessitated an interpretation into this

specific context. Such an exercise consists of a careful balancing of the objectives of

protection,participationandprovision.Morespecifically, itwasconcludedthat froma

children’s rights perspective, a balance is needed in the context of commercial

communication between children’s right to protection against harmful or misleading

advertisingandtheirrighttobeempowered,educatedandprovidedwiththenecessary

opportunitiestodeveloptheircommercialdecision-makingskills.Moreover,throughout

the research it has become apparent thatmany rights in the digital environment are

actuallymulti-dimensionalandshouldbeconsideredandacknowledgedinsuchamanner

atdifferentlevels.

Second,itwashavefoundthattheprotectionsforchildreninthecontextofnewformsof

commercialcommunicationarespreadacrossdifferentinstruments(bothlegislativeand

self-regulatory).Inthisregard,itisrecommendedthatemergingadvertisingtrendsare

evaluatedinlightofallapplicableframeworksinordertoattainmeaningfulprotection

forchildren.Furthermore,thedifferentregulatorybodieswithcompetencestoenforce

advertising-relatedprovisions (bothgovernmental agenciesandalternative regulatory

bodies) should coordinate their efforts andwork collaboratively on guidance for the

implementationoftherulesinrelationtonewadvertisingformats.Additionally,raising

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awareness amongst consumers and advertisers of their rights and obligations in this

context is also crucial, as it could lead tomore consumer complaints,more casesand,

hence,moreguidelinesforadvertisersonhowtocomplywiththerulesforadvertising.

Third, instead of focusing on finding the perfect legal elements for the protection of

childreninrelationtoemergingadvertisingformats,itissuggestedthatcombiningallthe

elementsoftheregulatorytoolboxistheonlywaytobringtheempowerment-protection

scales in balance. This toolbox includes inter alia the enhanced enforcement of the

regulatory framework, stimulating the collaboration between regulatory bodies and

improvingtheeffectivenessofadvertisingARIs.Furthermore,advertisersshouldcarry

outchildren’srightsimpactassessmentsthatrespectthemulti-dimensionalityofrights,

when developing advertising andmarketing campaigns. In addition, further research

shouldbeconductedonemergingtrendsintheareaofadvertisingandtheirimpacton

children’s advertising literacy. Advertising literacy should form part of the school

curriculum and the development of new technology solutions for the protection of

children (e.g. privacy-friendly verificiation mechanisms, new means of information

provision)shouldalsobestimulated.

DERESPONSIBILISATIONOFTHECHILDANDPARENTTHROUGHOUTTHEREGULATORYFRAMEWORK.The

researchhasfocusedonexaminingwhetherthecurrentregulatoryframeworkisableto

attainthebalancebetweenprotectionandempowermentofchildren inthecontextof

commercial communication. Currently, the framework puts too much emphasis on

empowermentwithmuchoftheresponsibilityrestingontheshouldersofchildrenand

theirparents,therebytippingtheempowerment-protectionscalesoutofbalance.Inlight

ofthisandconsideringtheimpactandeffectivenessoftheemergingtrendsincommercial

communication, the deresponsabilisation of the child and parent in the regulatory

frameworkisrecommended.First,theimportanceofrecognisingthelimitsofchildren’s

advertising literacy in relation to new advertising techniques and, hence, to the

effectivenessoftheidentificationprincipleinthedigitalenvironmentwasstressed.Aside

from this, a more structured and coherent approach to the implementation of the

principleisneededfortheprotectionofchildren’sconsumerinterests.Thiscouldinclude

harmonised,evidence-based,qualitativerequirements fordisclosurecues, for instance

throughalternativeregulatorymechanisms.

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Second,thederesponsibilisationofthechildandparentinthedataprotectionframework

was recommended. Data processing and targeted advertising are sophisticated and

obscure practices, very difficult to understand for both children and parents. As

described,theGeneralDataProtectionRegulationpaysparticularattentiontochildren

and acknowledges that they merit ‘specific protection’ regarding their personal data.

However,astheactualimplementationoftheGDPRinpracticeisnotentirelyclear,the

practical meaning of this specific protection remains to be seen. As part of the

deresponsibilisation of the child and parent in the context of digital advertising, it is

recommended that the focus should shift to actual limitations to the processing of

children’spersonaldata formarketingandadvertisingpurposes, rather thansolelyor

primarily focusing on information provision, transparency and the requirement of

(verifiable)parentalconsent.Inthisregard,theadvertisingindustryshouldtakeuptheir

responsibility,andcarryoutin-depthdataprotectionimpactassessments,withattention

forthebestinterestsandrightsofchildren,whensettingupdigitalmarketingcampaigns.

The age and level ofmaturity of the childwill also play an important role in such an

assessment. More specifically, as described children’s advertising literacy gradually

developswhentheygrowolder.Therefore,itisimportantthattheprotectionofchildren’s

personaldataisadaptedtotheirlevelofmaturity.Relatedly,serviceprovidersthattarget

theirservicestochildren(e.g.socialnetworkingsites,mobileapps)shouldacknowledge

the evolving capacities of children by adapting their privacy policies and providing

alternative child-friendly services incorporating the same features but without the

collection and use of children’s personal data for advertising purposes. Finally, it is

recommendedthataprohibitionforservicesspecificallytargetedtowardschildrentouse

profiling and behavioural marketing techniques, as this would be beneficial for the

protectionofchildren’srights(e.g.therighttoprivacyandtoprotectionagainsteconomic

exploitation).

Third,ithasbeenarguedthatincreasedresponsibilitiesforplatformprovidersinrelation

totheadvertisementsthataredistributedontheirplatformscouldbeamorepractical

meansofensuringmoreeffectivecompliance.TheAudiovisualMediaServicesDirective

alsoembracesthisapproach,byexpandingitsscopetocovervideo-sharingplatformsand

byrequiringthemtoforeseeappropriatemeasurestoensuretheprotectionofminors

andthegeneralpublic(e.g.flaggingmechanisms,ageverificationmechanisms,parental

controlsystems).Itisarguedthatsimilarresponsibilitiescouldbeincludedthroughout

354

the regulatory framework, in a way that all commercial communications would be

covered.

RECOMMENDATIONSFORTHESTRUCTURINGOFARIS INTHEAREAOFCOMMERCIALCOMMUNICATION.

TheadvertisingindustryhastraditionallybeenveryactiveinthedevelopmentofARIsfor

avarietyofreasons.Asoutlinedabove,theindustryisgreatlyreliantonconsumertrust

inadvertisingandmarketing,itisknownforbeinghighlyorganisedandcharacterisedby

itsstrongdesiretoavoidgovernmentregulation.ConsideringthebroadvarietyofARIsin

the area of commercial communication, procedural and organisational elements that

would enhance their quality and effectiveness were explored. From the analysis of a

selectionofnationalARIs,anumberofbestpracticerecommendationsforthestructuring

ofARIsintheareaofcommercialcommunicationwereextracted:

Proactivemonitoringofadvertisementsonline.Consumers(andespeciallychildren)have

difficultiesrecognisingandcriticallyreflectingonnewadvertisingformatsinthedigital

environment. This could be a reason for the low amount of consumer complaints

concerning such formats and children. Accordingly, proactive monitoring of

advertisements online and competences to launch investigations by the alternative

regulatorybodyasabestpracticewerehighlighted.

Formal cooperation between alternative regulatory bodies and governmental agencies.

Second, itwasarguedthathavingsomeformofgovernment involvement isneededto

obtain effective enforcement. This could be achieved through an actual delegation of

powers from a governmental body or by having formal cooperation agreementswith

governmentalagencies.

Aone-stop-shopforconsumercomplaints.Third,itwasconcludedthataone-stop-shopfor

advertising-related complaintswould solve issues related to consumer confusion and

simplifyraisingawarenessamongstconsumers.Thecomplaintprocedureshouldbefree

for consumers, allow complaints to be filed both online and in writing, only require

limitedinformationuponfilingcomplaints,andshouldnotrequiretheinvolvementofa

lawyer.

Best practices for procedural safeguards. Fourth, it was concluded that alternative

regulatory bodies should adhere to a number of procedural safeguardswhenmaking

decisions that impact children’s rights (such as advertising-related issues), including

independence, impartiality and transparency. In relation to independence and

355

impartiality,itisrecommendedthatthemembersofthedecision-makingbodyrepresent

different stakeholdergroups (i.e. theadvertising industry, civil society, academia)and

that at least more than half of the members are independent from the advertising

industry.Furthermore,theconsultationofindependentexpertsorwitnessesduringthe

decision-making procedure could also be considered. Second, with regard to the

requirementoftransparency,itwasconcludedthatdecisionsandargumentationsofthe

alternativeregulatorybodyshouldbemadepublic,aswellasregularevaluationreports

ontheworkingoftheARI.

Agraduatedscaleofsanctions.Fifth,agraduatedscaleofsanctions,whicharesubstantial

enoughtodiscouragenon-adherenceisrecommended.Itcouldrangefrombadpublicity,

taking away compliance labels and mandatory pre-vetting, to referring incessant

violationstogovernmentalagencies.

Exantecompliancemechanisms.Sixth,itisrecommendedthatARIsinvestinacopyadvice

featureas anexante compliancemechanism.Sucha featuremay reduce theneed for

complaint-handling and the costs related to decision-making procedures (it can even

generateresources).

Raising awareness. Finally, all stakeholders should continue their efforts in raising

awarenesswithconsumersofcomplaintmechanismsandtheregulatoryframework.

356

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SabamvNetlog[2012]CJEUC-360/10.

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C. PHDTHESES

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4. MISCELLANEOUS

A. INTERNETANDWORKINGPAPERS

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ChiarellaML,‘TheRegulationofChildConsumptioninEuropeanLaw:Rights,MarketandNewPerspectives’(SocialScienceResearchNetwork2009)SSRNScholarlyPaperID 1440251 <https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1440251> accessed 28November2017

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CliffordD, ‘Citizen-Consumers in a PersonalisedGalaxy: Emotion InfluencedDecision-Making,aTruePathtotheDarkSide?’(2017)

CliffordDandVerdoodtV,‘Ad-Blocking-theDarkSideofConsumerEmpowerment:ANewHopeorWilltheEmpireStrikeBack?’(2016)

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van der Sloot B, ‘Where Is the Harm in a Privacy Violation? Calculating the DamagesAfforded in Privacy Cases by the European Court of Human Rights’ (2017) 4<https://bartvandersloot.com/onewebmedia/Bart%20van%20der%20Sloot%20-%20PLSC.pdf>accessed29August2018.

B. RESEARCHREPORTS

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Children’sRightsAlliance,‘BriefingNoteontheOptionalProtocoltotheUNConventionon the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure’<http://www.childrensrights.ie/sites/default/files/information_sheets/files/BriefingNoteUNCRC3rdOptProtocol170914.pdf>accessed12July2018

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European Audiovisual Observatory, ‘Co-Regulation of the Media in Europe’ (2003)<https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/IRIS-Special-Co-regulation-of-the-Media-in-Europe.pdf>accessed31July2018

——,TheProtectionofMinorsintheCaseofNew(Non-Linear)Media-EuropeanLegalRulesandTheirNationalTranspositionandApplication(SusanneNikoltcheved,CouncilofEurope2012)

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——, ‘From Social Media Service to Advertising Network - A Critical Analysis ofFacebook’s Revised Policies and Terms’<https://www.law.kuleuven.be/citip/en/news/item/facebooks-revised-policies-and-terms-v1-2.pdf>

Van Alsenoy B and Verdoodt V, ‘Liability and Accountability of Actors in SocialNetworkingSites,SpionProject’(2014)

Van BoomWH and others, ‘Handelspraktijken, Reclame En Zelfregulering: PilotstudyMaatschappelijke Reguleringsinstrumenten’ (Ten verzoeke van:WetenschappelijkOnderzoek-enDocumentatiecentrumMinisterievanJustitie2009)<http://www.professorvanboom.eu/pdf_files/2009_eindrapportage_Pilotstudy_zelfregulering.pdf>accessed3July2018

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Van Wezenbeeck I and others, ‘Minors’ Advertising Literacy in Relation to NewAdvertising Formats - Identification and Assessment of the Risks’ (2016)<www.adlit.be>accessed16November2017

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Verdoodt V, Lievens E and Hellemans L, ‘Mapping and Analysis of the Current LegalFrameworkofAdvertisingAimedatMinors.’(2015)<www.adlit.be/output>

Verdoodt V, Lievens E and Hellemans L, ‘Mapping and Analysis of the Current LegalFramework on Commercial Communication Aimed at Minors. A Report in theFrameworkof theAdLit Research Project.’ (2015)<www.adlit.be> accessed 20November2017

ZaroualiBandothers, ‘MediabezitEn–GebruikBijMinderjarigen.EenRapport inHetKadervanHetAdLitOnderzoeksproject’(2015)<www.adlit.be/output>accessed11July2018

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C. POLICYBRIEFSANDSTATEMENTS

BEUC, ‘Position Paper: Proposal for a Regulation on Privacy and ElectronicCommunications (e-Privacy)’ <http://www.beuc.eu/publications/beuc-x-2017-059_proposal_for_a_regulation_on_privacy_and_electronic_communications_e-privacy.pdf>accessed3April2018.

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