Chapter Twenty-Eight: The Affluent Society. Chapter Twenty-Eight: The Affluent Society A “Golden Age”? A “Golden Age”? National Prosperity: Most Americans

Chapter Twenty-Eight:Chapter Twenty-Eight:

The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society

Chapter Twenty-Eight: Chapter Twenty-Eight:

The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society A “Golden Age”?A “Golden Age”?

National Prosperity: Most Americans experienced an National Prosperity: Most Americans experienced an unprecedented level of prosperity in the postwar decades. unprecedented level of prosperity in the postwar decades.

Cold War Sense of Purpose: Many in American society Cold War Sense of Purpose: Many in American society felt the nation was brought together in a common purpose felt the nation was brought together in a common purpose through its “struggle” with communism; others saw an through its “struggle” with communism; others saw an alarming homogeneity and intolerance of difference.alarming homogeneity and intolerance of difference.

Blindness to Social Problems: Some argued that Blindness to Social Problems: Some argued that prosperity, self-satisfaction, an ever-expanding consumer prosperity, self-satisfaction, an ever-expanding consumer culture, and anti-communist fervor brought about a culture, and anti-communist fervor brought about a blindness to social problems faced by large groups within blindness to social problems faced by large groups within the U.S. population. the U.S. population.

2


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Economic “Miracle”The Economic “Miracle”

Booming Economic Growth: The 1950s and early 1960s, the U.S. Booming Economic Growth: The 1950s and early 1960s, the U.S. experienced a period of economic growth that surpassed that of the experienced a period of economic growth that surpassed that of the 1920s, and which was much more widely distributed. But it was not as 1920s, and which was much more widely distributed. But it was not as universal as some believed. universal as some believed.

– Economic GrowthEconomic Growth Economic Expansion: Beginning in 1949, the U.S. economy grew at an Economic Expansion: Beginning in 1949, the U.S. economy grew at an

astounding rate over the next two decades. Between 1945 and 1960, the astounding rate over the next two decades. Between 1945 and 1960, the GNP grew from $200 billion to $500 billion, and increase of 250 percent. GNP grew from $200 billion to $500 billion, and increase of 250 percent. Unemployment remained at about 5 percent. Unemployment remained at about 5 percent.

Government Spending: This had lifted the U.S. economy out of the Great Government Spending: This had lifted the U.S. economy out of the Great Depression with World War II preparation; it continued to stimulate the Depression with World War II preparation; it continued to stimulate the economy in the late 1940s and early 1950s with funding for the building economy in the late 1940s and early 1950s with funding for the building of schools and housing, veterans’ benefits, welfare programs, interstate of schools and housing, veterans’ benefits, welfare programs, interstate highway construction, and military spending, which remained high highway construction, and military spending, which remained high during the 1950s due to the Korean War. during the 1950s due to the Korean War.

3



– Economic GrowthEconomic Growth Birth Rate: The “baby boom” of the postwar era reversed a long Birth Rate: The “baby boom” of the postwar era reversed a long

trend of decline, peaking in 1957. The population rose from 150 trend of decline, peaking in 1957. The population rose from 150 million in 1950 to 179 million in 1960, driving consumer demand. million in 1950 to 179 million in 1960, driving consumer demand.

Suburban Expansion: People living in the suburbs rose by 47 Suburban Expansion: People living in the suburbs rose by 47 percent and stimulated many sectors of the economy, but percent and stimulated many sectors of the economy, but especially home and road construction, and the car industry. especially home and road construction, and the car industry. Private car ownership more than doubled in the 1950s.Private car ownership more than doubled in the 1950s.

Individual Prosperity: While wealth was not evenly distributed, Individual Prosperity: While wealth was not evenly distributed, the average American in 1960 had 20 percent more purchasing the average American in 1960 had 20 percent more purchasing power than in 1945 and twice as much than in the 1920s. power than in 1945 and twice as much than in the 1920s. Americans had achieved the highest living standard in the world. Americans had achieved the highest living standard in the world.

4



The American Birth Rate, 1940-1960

5

A Detroit suburb in the early 1950s



– The Rise of the Modern WestThe Rise of the Modern West Growth of Western Cities: Cities in the U.S. West experienced huge Growth of Western Cities: Cities in the U.S. West experienced huge

growth. The population of L.A. grew by 50 percent between 1940 and growth. The population of L.A. grew by 50 percent between 1940 and 1960. 1960.

Government-Induced Growth: Government spending on projects like dams, Government-Induced Growth: Government spending on projects like dams, power stations, roads, and other infrastructure set the groundwork for this power stations, roads, and other infrastructure set the groundwork for this expansion in the West. Military contracts disproportionately went to expansion in the West. Military contracts disproportionately went to companies in California and Texas.companies in California and Texas.

Oil Fields: The oil industry in places like Texas and Colorado fed growth.Oil Fields: The oil industry in places like Texas and Colorado fed growth. University Systems: Texas and California invested heavily in their state University Systems: Texas and California invested heavily in their state

university systems, making them leaders in research and engines of growth. university systems, making them leaders in research and engines of growth. Climate: The warm and dry climate of places like Arizona, Nevada, and Climate: The warm and dry climate of places like Arizona, Nevada, and

Southern California made them population magnets (particularly after the Southern California made them population magnets (particularly after the introduction of affordable residential air conditioning in the early 1950s).introduction of affordable residential air conditioning in the early 1950s).

6

Freeway Interchange in Downtown L.A. in the 1950s



– Capital and LaborCapital and Labor Too Big to Intimidate: Since companies were making big profits and wanted Too Big to Intimidate: Since companies were making big profits and wanted

to avoid strikes, and since the most important unions were too entrenched and to avoid strikes, and since the most important unions were too entrenched and powerful to intimidate, companies started making concessions to unions. By powerful to intimidate, companies started making concessions to unions. By the mid-1950s, factory wages had risen to an average of $80 a week.the mid-1950s, factory wages had risen to an average of $80 a week.

AFL-CIO: In Dec. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress AFL-CIO: In Dec. 1955, the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations ended a twenty-year rivalry and merged under the of Industrial Organizations ended a twenty-year rivalry and merged under the leadership of George Meany (1894-1980), who had been president of the AFL leadership of George Meany (1894-1980), who had been president of the AFL from 1952 to1955, and who sought the merger. It created an organization of from 1952 to1955, and who sought the merger. It created an organization of 15 million members.15 million members.

Jimmy Hoffa (1913-1975):The powerful Teamsters Union had been led by Jimmy Hoffa (1913-1975):The powerful Teamsters Union had been led by David Beck (1894-1993), but Beck was forced to step down in the wake of a David Beck (1894-1993), but Beck was forced to step down in the wake of a Congressional investigation showing he had misappropriated union funds. In Congressional investigation showing he had misappropriated union funds. In 1957, Jimmy Hoffa became president, and the Teamsters were kicked out of 1957, Jimmy Hoffa became president, and the Teamsters were kicked out of the AFL-CIO. Hoffa was ultimately convicted of bribery charges in 1964. the AFL-CIO. Hoffa was ultimately convicted of bribery charges in 1964. Prosperity did create some corruption and stagnation in union leadership.Prosperity did create some corruption and stagnation in union leadership.

7

George Meany



8

Workers Represented by Unions, 1920-2001

On Aug. 22, 1957, Jimmy Hoffa—right before assuming the presidency of the Teamsters Union—was called in to testify at a U.S. Senate racketeering probe. Here he gives the “something’s in my eye” salute to his inquisitor, Robert F. Kennedy, chief counsel of the 1957–59 Senate Labor Rackets Committee. Hoffa was cleared of all charges.



The Explosion of Science and The Explosion of Science and TechnologyTechnology– Popular Fascination with SciencePopular Fascination with Science

Men of the Year: In 1960, Men of the Year: In 1960, TimeTime magazine magazinemade “U.S. Scientists” its “Men of the Year.” made “U.S. Scientists” its “Men of the Year.”

– Medical BreakthroughsMedical Breakthroughs Development of Antibacterial Drugs: Louis Pasteur and Joseph Development of Antibacterial Drugs: Louis Pasteur and Joseph

Lister made the initial breakthroughs about bacterial infections Lister made the initial breakthroughs about bacterial infections the in the nineteenth century, but it was not until the 1930s that the in the nineteenth century, but it was not until the 1930s that European scientists made advances with “sulfa drugs” that European scientists made advances with “sulfa drugs” that were used to combat streptococcal blood infections. were used to combat streptococcal blood infections.

9


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Explosion of Science and TechnologyThe Explosion of Science and Technology

– Medical BreakthroughsMedical Breakthroughs Penicillin: This drug was first discovered in 1928 but English Penicillin: This drug was first discovered in 1928 but English

medical researcher Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), but human medical researcher Alexander Fleming (1881-1955), but human trials and mass production were delayed by World War II. Since trials and mass production were delayed by World War II. Since 1948, American mass production techniques have made this 1948, American mass production techniques have made this effective anti-bacterial agent available across the world.effective anti-bacterial agent available across the world.

Immunization: A smallpox vaccine had existed since the 1700s, a Immunization: A smallpox vaccine had existed since the 1700s, a typhoid vaccine had been put into widespread use by World War typhoid vaccine had been put into widespread use by World War I, and a tetanus vaccine was used widely in World War II. A I, and a tetanus vaccine was used widely in World War II. A vaccine against tuberculosis was developed in the 1920s, but vaccine against tuberculosis was developed in the 1920s, but controversy about its safety delayed its widespread use until after controversy about its safety delayed its widespread use until after World War II. But immunizations against viral diseases proved World War II. But immunizations against viral diseases proved much harder to develop (with the exception of smallpox).much harder to develop (with the exception of smallpox).

10


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Explosion of Science and The Explosion of Science and

TechnologyTechnology– Medical BreakthroughsMedical Breakthroughs

Jonas Salk (1914-1995): This Jewish American Jonas Salk (1914-1995): This Jewish American scientist invented a vaccine against polio in scientist invented a vaccine against polio in 1954, and it was made publically available for 1954, and it was made publically available for free by the federal government in 1955. This free by the federal government in 1955. This disease had caused a crippling paralysis in its disease had caused a crippling paralysis in its victims, the most famous of whom was victims, the most famous of whom was Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and had caused a Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and had caused a great deal of fear in American society.great deal of fear in American society.

Life Expectancy Increased: The death rare Life Expectancy Increased: The death rare among children dropped significantly after the among children dropped significantly after the first 25 years after the war, and average life first 25 years after the war, and average life expectancy rose from 66 to 71 during that expectancy rose from 66 to 71 during that time. time. 11



The Explosion of Science and The Explosion of Science and TechnologyTechnology– PesticidesPesticides

Agricultural Use: Many chemicals like parathion—developed in the Agricultural Use: Many chemicals like parathion—developed in the 1940s—were sprayed to kill crop-destroying insects; it was later 1940s—were sprayed to kill crop-destroying insects; it was later discovered most of these chemicals were toxic to humans. discovered most of these chemicals were toxic to humans.

DDT: Swiss chemist Paul Muller (1899-1965) discovered the insecticidal DDT: Swiss chemist Paul Muller (1899-1965) discovered the insecticidal properties of this chemical in 1939, and it was used effectively during properties of this chemical in 1939, and it was used effectively during World War II by the U.S. to combat insect-borne diseases like malaria, World War II by the U.S. to combat insect-borne diseases like malaria, typhus, and yellow fever in tropical areas where troops were fighting. It typhus, and yellow fever in tropical areas where troops were fighting. It was initially thought to be only harmful to insects, but it was later was initially thought to be only harmful to insects, but it was later discovered to have long-term toxic effects on humans and animals discovered to have long-term toxic effects on humans and animals (especially birds), leading to its ban in the U.S. in 1972. (especially birds), leading to its ban in the U.S. in 1972.

12

DDT spraying on Jones Beach on Long Island during the summer of 1953



– Postwar Electronic ResearchPostwar Electronic Research Television: Researchers developed the first commercial television sets Television: Researchers developed the first commercial television sets

and antennae making broadcasting of television signals over long and antennae making broadcasting of television signals over long distances viable; color television became widely available by the early distances viable; color television became widely available by the early 1960s.1960s.

The Transistor: Bell Laboratories, AT&T’s research branch, developed The Transistor: Bell Laboratories, AT&T’s research branch, developed the first transistor, a solid-state device that could amplify electrical the first transistor, a solid-state device that could amplify electrical signals more efficiently than the bulky and delicate vacuum tubes that signals more efficiently than the bulky and delicate vacuum tubes that had been used in the past. Radios, hearing aids, and other electronic had been used in the past. Radios, hearing aids, and other electronic devices could become much smaller as a result.devices could become much smaller as a result.

Integrated Circuits Invented: Transistors made possible the creation of Integrated Circuits Invented: Transistors made possible the creation of tiny circuits that combined many different electronic functions, including tiny circuits that combined many different electronic functions, including transistors and diodes, all in one small piece of semiconductor material. It transistors and diodes, all in one small piece of semiconductor material. It was created by Jack Kilby (1923-2005) at Texas Instruments in 1958, was created by Jack Kilby (1923-2005) at Texas Instruments in 1958, making future advances in computer technology possible. making future advances in computer technology possible.

13



TechnologyTechnology– Postwar Computer TechnologyPostwar Computer Technology

Computers: In the 1940s, crude computers had been used for military Computers: In the 1940s, crude computers had been used for military uses, like breaking secret codes. In the 1950s, they began to be used uses, like breaking secret codes. In the 1950s, they began to be used for commercial applications.for commercial applications.

UNIVAC: The Remington Rand Corp.’s Universal Automatic UNIVAC: The Remington Rand Corp.’s Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was used by CBS News to predict the outcome Computer (UNIVAC) was used by CBS News to predict the outcome of the 1952 presidential election using early voting returns, and of the 1952 presidential election using early voting returns, and accurately predicted a landslide for Eisenhower over Stevenson. accurately predicted a landslide for Eisenhower over Stevenson.

IBM: International Business Machines Company had more success IBM: International Business Machines Company had more success than Remington Rand in marketing its business computers in the than Remington Rand in marketing its business computers in the 1950s; these early data-processing machines managed payroll, sales 1950s; these early data-processing machines managed payroll, sales invoices, and inventory; they also had many military uses. IBM invoices, and inventory; they also had many military uses. IBM remained the worldwide leader in computers for decades. remained the worldwide leader in computers for decades. 14

The UNIVAC machine used to predict the 1952 election



– Bombs, Rockets, and MissilesBombs, Rockets, and Missiles Nuclear Fusion: The U.S. tested its first hydrogen bomb—codenamed “Ivy Nuclear Fusion: The U.S. tested its first hydrogen bomb—codenamed “Ivy

Mike”—on November 1, 1952, in the Marshall Islands in the northern Pacific Mike”—on November 1, 1952, in the Marshall Islands in the northern Pacific Ocean, about 2,400 miles east of the Hawaiian Islands. The Soviet Union Ocean, about 2,400 miles east of the Hawaiian Islands. The Soviet Union exploded one a year later. Deriving their power from nuclear fusion—rather exploded one a year later. Deriving their power from nuclear fusion—rather than the fission of earlier atomic devices—they yielded exponentially greater than the fission of earlier atomic devices—they yielded exponentially greater explosive power. explosive power.

ICBMs: Since H-bombs were too unwieldy to be delivered by aircraft, both ICBMs: Since H-bombs were too unwieldy to be delivered by aircraft, both sides began develop rockets and missiles that could capable of carrying these sides began develop rockets and missiles that could capable of carrying these weapons. The U.S. benefited from many German rocket scientists who were weapons. The U.S. benefited from many German rocket scientists who were brought from Germany after the war. Both sides had success with rockets brought from Germany after the war. Both sides had success with rockets that traveled a few hundred miles, but both had difficultly developing that traveled a few hundred miles, but both had difficultly developing intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that traveled sub-orbital routes intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that traveled sub-orbital routes over oceans and continents. Solid fuel replaced earlier liquid fuel in 1958, over oceans and continents. Solid fuel replaced earlier liquid fuel in 1958, leading to more successful ICBMs. The U.S. Polaris could even be launched leading to more successful ICBMs. The U.S. Polaris could even be launched from a submarine by 1960. from a submarine by 1960.

15



16

The Castle Bravo test of a hydrogen bomb at Bikini Atoll in the South Pacific, May 1, 1952. The power of the bomb was twice as great as expected: 15 megatons. This compares to just 22 kilotons of the Hiroshima bomb. Castle Bravo caused a massive fallout plume that later caused birth defects other populated Marshall Islands nearby.

Launch of a Polaris ballistic missile from a U.S. Navy submarine in the early 1960s.



– The Space ProgramThe Space Program By-Product of Rivalry: The space program was at first largely a by-By-Product of Rivalry: The space program was at first largely a by-

product of the Cold War weapons race with the Soviet Union.product of the Cold War weapons race with the Soviet Union. Sputnik: Sputnik: On Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched a satellite into a On Oct. 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched a satellite into a

low-earth orbit, the first artificial satellite ever put into orbit, which low-earth orbit, the first artificial satellite ever put into orbit, which emitted a radio signal pulse. This event set of a frenzy of paranoia that emitted a radio signal pulse. This event set of a frenzy of paranoia that the U.S. was falling behind in science and technology, leading to a drive the U.S. was falling behind in science and technology, leading to a drive to improve science education and federal funding for research. The U.S. to improve science education and federal funding for research. The U.S. launched its first satellite, launched its first satellite, Explorer I, Explorer I, on Jan. 31, 1958. on Jan. 31, 1958.

NASA and Manned Exploration: The National Aeronautics and Space NASA and Manned Exploration: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in July 1958 to further space and aeronautics Administration was founded in July 1958 to further space and aeronautics research. Its centerpiece became a program of manned space exploration, research. Its centerpiece became a program of manned space exploration, which intensified after the Soviet program beat NASA putting the first which intensified after the Soviet program beat NASA putting the first man in space, “cosmonaut” Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968), who reached orbit man in space, “cosmonaut” Yuri Gagarin (1934-1968), who reached orbit on April 12, 1961.on April 12, 1961.

17

The Sputnik probe



TechnologyTechnology– The Space ProgramThe Space Program

Mercury and Gemini Programs: Alan Shepard became the first American Mercury and Gemini Programs: Alan Shepard became the first American to reach suborbital space during the first flight of the Mercury program to reach suborbital space during the first flight of the Mercury program on May 5, 1961. It had initially been scheduled for October 1960, but on May 5, 1961. It had initially been scheduled for October 1960, but several delays allowed the Soviets to win the race. On Feb. 2, 1962, a several delays allowed the Soviets to win the race. On Feb. 2, 1962, a Mercury capsule piloted by John Glenn finally reached orbit. In 1965 and Mercury capsule piloted by John Glenn finally reached orbit. In 1965 and 1966, NASA launched ten Gemini flights that had two astronauts in the 1966, NASA launched ten Gemini flights that had two astronauts in the capsule, and paved the way for travel to the moon.capsule, and paved the way for travel to the moon.

Apollo Program: This program, which began started manned flights in Apollo Program: This program, which began started manned flights in 1968 and then actual moon flights from 1969 and 1972, with six missions 1968 and then actual moon flights from 1969 and 1972, with six missions successfully landing men on the moon. One training session in 1967 successfully landing men on the moon. One training session in 1967 killed three astronauts when a fire broke out in the capsule. And one of killed three astronauts when a fire broke out in the capsule. And one of the missions—Apollo 13—needed to turn back before landing because of the missions—Apollo 13—needed to turn back before landing because of a small explosion. a small explosion.

18

John Glenn getting into his Mercury capsule



– The Space ProgramThe Space Program

19

Sputnik probe

The Mercury Seven, including the future senator John Glenn of Ohio, who were selected in 1959.

The first moon landing, the Apollo 11 mission, in July 1969



People of PlentyPeople of Plenty– The Consumer CultureThe Consumer Culture

Middle-Class Expansion: The middle-class lifestyle and Middle-Class Expansion: The middle-class lifestyle and outlook came to be shared by a much greater proportion of the outlook came to be shared by a much greater proportion of the population in the postwar period.population in the postwar period.

Growing Focus on Consumer Goods: Consumer credit Growing Focus on Consumer Goods: Consumer credit increased by 800 percent between 1945 and 1957 through increased by 800 percent between 1945 and 1957 through charge cards and easy-payment plans. Cars became even charge cards and easy-payment plans. Cars became even flashier and accessorized. Dishwashers, garbage disposals, flashier and accessorized. Dishwashers, garbage disposals, televisions, and stereo systems were new items Americans televisions, and stereo systems were new items Americans embraced. National consumer crazes like the hula hoop and embraced. National consumer crazes like the hula hoop and Mickey Mouse watches spread like wildfire. Mickey Mouse watches spread like wildfire.

20



21

Tail fins on a 1957 Chevrolet Bel Air

Disneyland’s Sleeping Beauty Castle under construction before the park’s opening in 1955.

A 1950s kitchen


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society People of PlentyPeople of Plenty

– The Suburban NationThe Suburban Nation Rapid Expansion: A third of the U.S. population lived in the suburbs by Rapid Expansion: A third of the U.S. population lived in the suburbs by

1960. Innovations in homebuilding made houses affordable for millions 1960. Innovations in homebuilding made houses affordable for millions who could not have afforded one before.who could not have afforded one before.

William Levitt (1907-1994): This architect and entrepreneur applied William Levitt (1907-1994): This architect and entrepreneur applied mass production techniques to real estate development, creating large mass production techniques to real estate development, creating large tracts of homes that sold for under $10,000. He created Levittown on tracts of homes that sold for under $10,000. He created Levittown on Long Island in 1947, followed by another Levittown in Pennsylvania in Long Island in 1947, followed by another Levittown in Pennsylvania in 1952. 1952.

Appeal of Suburbia: People wanted more space so that they could have Appeal of Suburbia: People wanted more space so that they could have larger families, have more privacy, find refuge from urban crime and larger families, have more privacy, find refuge from urban crime and noise, and have more room for consumer goods.noise, and have more room for consumer goods.

Segregated Suburbs: Most homes for sale in suburbs were restricted to Segregated Suburbs: Most homes for sale in suburbs were restricted to white buyers, not only because most blacks could not afford them, but white buyers, not only because most blacks could not afford them, but because their were formal and informal arrangements to keep them that because their were formal and informal arrangements to keep them that way. Many whites had fled to the suburb to escape school integration. way. Many whites had fled to the suburb to escape school integration.

22

A Levittown family in 1947



– The Suburban FamilyThe Suburban Family Traditional Gender Norms Reinforced: Men commuting from Traditional Gender Norms Reinforced: Men commuting from

the suburbs to the cities found their work and home lives the suburbs to the cities found their work and home lives strictly divided, while women often felt isolated and alone in strictly divided, while women often felt isolated and alone in the new suburban developments.the new suburban developments.

Women and Work: Many men felt embarrassed by their wives Women and Work: Many men felt embarrassed by their wives needing to work—especially as parenting advice books needing to work—especially as parenting advice books advocated women staying at home to rear children—but the advocated women staying at home to rear children—but the number of married women working increased. By 1960, a third number of married women working increased. By 1960, a third of all married women were part of the paid workforce. of all married women were part of the paid workforce.

23

Chapter Twenty-eight: Chapter Twenty-eight:


– The Birth of TelevisionThe Birth of Television Growing Popularity of Television: Commercial television began to take Growing Popularity of Television: Commercial television began to take

hold after World War II and expanded rapidly: in 1946, there were hold after World War II and expanded rapidly: in 1946, there were 17,000 sets in homes; the number reached 40 million by 1957.17,000 sets in homes; the number reached 40 million by 1957.

Networks and Programs: NBC, CBS, and ABC started as radio networks, Networks and Programs: NBC, CBS, and ABC started as radio networks, but developed into television. Television, like radio, was driven by but developed into television. Television, like radio, was driven by advertising, and many shows even used the name of their corporate advertising, and many shows even used the name of their corporate sponsors, like “General Electric Theater.” “Soap operas” were sponsored sponsors, like “General Electric Theater.” “Soap operas” were sponsored by companies selling detergent and other household goods aimed at by companies selling detergent and other household goods aimed at women. Television news by the late 1950s had become the dominant women. Television news by the late 1950s had become the dominant form by which most Americans go their news. form by which most Americans go their news.

Social Conflict Accentuated: Most programming depicted a homogenous, Social Conflict Accentuated: Most programming depicted a homogenous, white, middle-class lifestyle. Yet its depictions of the white middle class white, middle-class lifestyle. Yet its depictions of the white middle class fed feelings alienation and powerless in other groups, helping to push the fed feelings alienation and powerless in other groups, helping to push the country toward greater social unrest.country toward greater social unrest.

24

Chapter Twenty-eight: Chapter Twenty-eight:


The cast of Leave it to Beaver, 1957-1963

25

Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball in I Love Lucy, 1951-1957

The cast of Father Knows Best, 1954-1960



– Travel, Outdoor Recreation, and EnvironmentalismTravel, Outdoor Recreation, and Environmentalism Vacation Travel: The idea of vacation travel did not catch on with Vacation Travel: The idea of vacation travel did not catch on with

middle-income Americans until after WWII, and was partly aided by middle-income Americans until after WWII, and was partly aided by the construction of the interstate highway system in those decades. the construction of the interstate highway system in those decades. The national parks became a significant destination, which also raised The national parks became a significant destination, which also raised people’s awareness about environmental issues.people’s awareness about environmental issues.

Sierra Club Reborn: In the early 1950s, the national campaign against Sierra Club Reborn: In the early 1950s, the national campaign against a hydroelectric dam on the Green River at Echo Park in Dinosaur a hydroelectric dam on the Green River at Echo Park in Dinosaur National Monument on the Utah/Colorado border revivified the National Monument on the Utah/Colorado border revivified the national conservation movement. The Sierra Club, an obscure national conservation movement. The Sierra Club, an obscure organization, led the fight under the guidance of its leader, David organization, led the fight under the guidance of its leader, David Brower (1912-2000), and became a major force in the conservation Brower (1912-2000), and became a major force in the conservation movement. movement.

26



People of PlentyPeople of Plenty– Organized Society and Its DetractorsOrganized Society and Its Detractors

White-Collar Society: Large-scale businesses and organizations White-Collar Society: Large-scale businesses and organizations began to take over many sectors of of the U.S. economy, and white-began to take over many sectors of of the U.S. economy, and white-collar workers for the first time outnumbered blue-collar ones. collar workers for the first time outnumbered blue-collar ones.

The Lonely Crowd The Lonely Crowd (1950): This book by influential sociologist David (1950): This book by influential sociologist David Riesman argued that people were becoming less “inner-directed” in Riesman argued that people were becoming less “inner-directed” in their actions, and instead were seeking approval of people within their actions, and instead were seeking approval of people within large organizations or communities.large organizations or communities.

The Organization Man The Organization Man (1956): This best-selling book by William H. (1956): This best-selling book by William H. Whyte Jr., a journalist and urban thinker, noted that in new mass Whyte Jr., a journalist and urban thinker, noted that in new mass enterprises, the ability to conform and get along was increasingly enterprises, the ability to conform and get along was increasingly more important than self-reliance and individual creativity.more important than self-reliance and individual creativity.

27



– The Beats and the Restless Culture of YouthThe Beats and the Restless Culture of Youth The Beats: Group of bohemian young writers, poets, artists, and The Beats: Group of bohemian young writers, poets, artists, and

musicians who rejected the dominant middle-class culture gravitated musicians who rejected the dominant middle-class culture gravitated urban areas, like Manhattan’s West Village. urban areas, like Manhattan’s West Village.

HowlHowl (1955): This famous poem by Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997) decried (1955): This famous poem by Allen Ginsberg (1926-1997) decried the sterile conformity and focus on consumption of American life. the sterile conformity and focus on consumption of American life.

““Juvenile Delinquency”: Social anxieties about a supposed greater Juvenile Delinquency”: Social anxieties about a supposed greater tendency of teenagers toward anti-social and criminal behavior abounded, tendency of teenagers toward anti-social and criminal behavior abounded, but crime did not increase significantly in the 1950s. Some teenagers but crime did not increase significantly in the 1950s. Some teenagers took up the look of urban street gangs—black leather motorcycle jackets took up the look of urban street gangs—black leather motorcycle jackets and slicked back hair—popularized in such movies as and slicked back hair—popularized in such movies as The Wild One The Wild One (1953) starring Marlon Brando (1924-2004) as a motorcycle gang leader. (1953) starring Marlon Brando (1924-2004) as a motorcycle gang leader. James Dean (1931-1955) in films like James Dean (1931-1955) in films like Rebel Without a Cause Rebel Without a Cause (1955) (1955) popularized the image of moody, self-destructive teenage male.popularized the image of moody, self-destructive teenage male.

28

Brando and Dean



– Rock ‘n’ RollRock ‘n’ Roll Elvis Presley (1935-1977): Recording executive Sam Phillips (1923-2003) of Elvis Presley (1935-1977): Recording executive Sam Phillips (1923-2003) of

Memphis-based Sun Records who had had some success with black singers, Memphis-based Sun Records who had had some success with black singers, supposedly said, “If I could find a white man with a negro sound, I could supposedly said, “If I could find a white man with a negro sound, I could make a billion dollars.” Elvis Presley filled that niche, breaking out with his make a billion dollars.” Elvis Presley filled that niche, breaking out with his huge hit, “Heartbreak Hotel,” in 1956. Elvis took on the look of an urban huge hit, “Heartbreak Hotel,” in 1956. Elvis took on the look of an urban hoodlum despite being from the rural South. His mildly suggestive singing hoodlum despite being from the rural South. His mildly suggestive singing and dancing challenged the social norms of middle-class white America. and dancing challenged the social norms of middle-class white America.

Rock ‘n’ Roll’s Black Origins: The style of “rock’n’roll” largely derived Rock ‘n’ Roll’s Black Origins: The style of “rock’n’roll” largely derived from black rhythm and blues musicians, but also mixed elements of country from black rhythm and blues musicians, but also mixed elements of country and western, gospel, and even jazz. Early black stars who had some white and western, gospel, and even jazz. Early black stars who had some white crossover included Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Chubby Checker.crossover included Chuck Berry, Little Richard, and Chubby Checker.

Radio and Rapidly Growing Record Sales: With the rise of television, radio Radio and Rapidly Growing Record Sales: With the rise of television, radio stations no longer felt the need to have live programming all of the time, stations no longer felt the need to have live programming all of the time, leading to the playing of more recorded music, feeding record sales, which leading to the playing of more recorded music, feeding record sales, which increased from $182 million to $521 million between 1954 and 1960. increased from $182 million to $521 million between 1954 and 1960.

29



– Rock ‘n’ RollRock ‘n’ Roll

30

A 1958 jukebox in a diner Dick Clark hosting American Bandstand in 1957; the program ran from 1952 to 1959, with Clark as host starting in 1956

Little Richard’s debut album from 1957


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Other AmericaThe Other America

– On the Margins of the Affluent SocietyOn the Margins of the Affluent Society Limits of Middle Class Affluence: Large groups in American society did Limits of Middle Class Affluence: Large groups in American society did

not share in the prosperity enjoyed in the middle class in the 1950s, but not share in the prosperity enjoyed in the middle class in the 1950s, but often remained hidden from view for many in the middle class.often remained hidden from view for many in the middle class.

Michael Harrington (1928-1989): In 1962, this journalist published a Michael Harrington (1928-1989): In 1962, this journalist published a bestselling book, bestselling book, The Other America, The Other America, which documented the continuing which documented the continuing persistence of poverty in the U.S. (He later became a professor of persistence of poverty in the U.S. (He later became a professor of political science at Queen College). political science at Queen College).

Persistent Poverty: The economic boom reduced but did not eliminate Persistent Poverty: The economic boom reduced but did not eliminate poverty. In 1960, one-fifth of the population (30 million) lived below poverty. In 1960, one-fifth of the population (30 million) lived below what he government defined as below poverty line (compared to one-what he government defined as below poverty line (compared to one-third in 1945). For about 80 percent of this group, poverty was third in 1945). For about 80 percent of this group, poverty was temporary, but for 20 percent, it was an inescapable situation. Blacks and temporary, but for 20 percent, it was an inescapable situation. Blacks and Latinos formed the largest part of this group, but the poorest of all groups Latinos formed the largest part of this group, but the poorest of all groups was that constituted by Native Americans. was that constituted by Native Americans.

31

“The entire invisible land of the other Americans became a ghetto, a modern poor farm for the rejects of society and the economy.”

-- Michael Harrington

“The entire invisible land of the other Americans became a ghetto, a modern poor farm for the rejects of society and the economy.”

-- Michael Harrington



– Rural PovertyRural Poverty Farm Income Declines: In 1948, farmers received 8.9 percent of the Farm Income Declines: In 1948, farmers received 8.9 percent of the

national income, but this dropped to 4.1 percent by 1956. While this national income, but this dropped to 4.1 percent by 1956. While this reflected many rural people moving into cities, it also reflected falling reflected many rural people moving into cities, it also reflected falling prices for basic staples like wheat. prices for basic staples like wheat.

Tenant Farmers and Sharecroppers: The mechanization of cotton Tenant Farmers and Sharecroppers: The mechanization of cotton harvesting in 1944 and the development of synthetic fibers to replace harvesting in 1944 and the development of synthetic fibers to replace cotton pushed this group—mostly African Americans in the rural Southcotton pushed this group—mostly African Americans in the rural South—below subsistence level during this period.—below subsistence level during this period.

Migrant Farmworkers: This group, concentrated in the West and Migrant Farmworkers: This group, concentrated in the West and Southwest and largely comprised of Mexican Americans and Asian Southwest and largely comprised of Mexican Americans and Asian Americans, continued living under difficult economic circumstances.Americans, continued living under difficult economic circumstances.

Appalachia: The decline of the coal economy contributed to unceasing Appalachia: The decline of the coal economy contributed to unceasing poverty in rural areas like West Virginia and eastern Kentucky.poverty in rural areas like West Virginia and eastern Kentucky.

32



– The Inner CitiesThe Inner Cities ““Ghettoes”: More than 3 million African Americans moved from the Ghettoes”: More than 3 million African Americans moved from the

South to northern cities between 1940 and 1960. As the middle class fled South to northern cities between 1940 and 1960. As the middle class fled to the suburbs, many inner-city neighborhoods became increasingly poor. to the suburbs, many inner-city neighborhoods became increasingly poor. The black migration from rural to urban areas contributed to this process, The black migration from rural to urban areas contributed to this process, as persistent discrimination cut this population off from many economic as persistent discrimination cut this population off from many economic opportunities.opportunities.

Latino Migration: Between 1940 and 1960, almost one million Puerto Latino Migration: Between 1940 and 1960, almost one million Puerto Ricans moved to U.S. cities. Mexicans crossed the border and headed Ricans moved to U.S. cities. Mexicans crossed the border and headed mostly to cities in the Southwest. L.A. had 500,000 Mexican Americans mostly to cities in the Southwest. L.A. had 500,000 Mexican Americans living there by 1960, the biggest population in the U.S. living there by 1960, the biggest population in the U.S.

Declining Opportunities for Unskilled Workers: These migrations Declining Opportunities for Unskilled Workers: These migrations coincided with an era when manufacturing companies that needed coincided with an era when manufacturing companies that needed unskilled labor were relocating out of northern industrial cities to the unskilled labor were relocating out of northern industrial cities to the rural South or even overseas where cheaper labor could be found.rural South or even overseas where cheaper labor could be found.

33



34

Harlem, 1962, by photographer Bruce Davidson


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Rise of the Civil Rights MovementThe Rise of the Civil Rights Movement

– The The Brown Brown Decision and “Massive Resistance”Decision and “Massive Resistance” Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson Overturned: On March 17, 1954, the Supreme Court Overturned: On March 17, 1954, the Supreme Court

announced its decision in the announced its decision in the Brown v. Board of Education of TopekaBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka case, which overturned the “separate but equal” formulation of the 1896 case, which overturned the “separate but equal” formulation of the 1896 Plessy Plessy decision. In the majority opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren decision. In the majority opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren concluded that separate facilities were inherently unequal, especially concluded that separate facilities were inherently unequal, especially when it came to public education. The court issues a second decision a when it came to public education. The court issues a second decision a year later—known as year later—known as Brown IIBrown II—that provided rules for implementation; —that provided rules for implementation; it offered no specific timeline, but noted that communities needed to it offered no specific timeline, but noted that communities needed to desegregate their schools with “all deliberate speed.”desegregate their schools with “all deliberate speed.”

Southern Resistance: More than 100 southern communities signed a Southern Resistance: More than 100 southern communities signed a manifesto in 1956 denouncing Brown and encouraging defiance to the manifesto in 1956 denouncing Brown and encouraging defiance to the order to desegregate. As of the fall of 1957, only 684 of the 3,000 order to desegregate. As of the fall of 1957, only 684 of the 3,000 affected southern schools had begun to desegregate.affected southern schools had begun to desegregate.

35


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Rise of the Civil Rights The Rise of the Civil Rights

MovementMovement– The The Brown Brown Decision and Decision and

““Massive Resistance”Massive Resistance”

36

Little Rock’s Central High School: The federal Little Rock’s Central High School: The federal courts had ordered that the schools in Little Rock, courts had ordered that the schools in Little Rock, Arkansas, desegregate, but an angry white mob Arkansas, desegregate, but an angry white mob sought to prevent blacks from coming into sought to prevent blacks from coming into Central High School. The Eisenhower Central High School. The Eisenhower administration—not eager to intervene in the administration—not eager to intervene in the issue—was nonetheless forced to act because of issue—was nonetheless forced to act because of the Governor Orval Faubus’s direct defiance of the Governor Orval Faubus’s direct defiance of federal order by doing nothing to stop the federal order by doing nothing to stop the obstruction. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to obstruction. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to enforce the order and allow the “Little Rock enforce the order and allow the “Little Rock Nine” to attend school. Nine” to attend school.



The Rise of the Civil Rights The Rise of the Civil Rights MovementMovement– The Expanding MovementThe Expanding Movement

Rosa Parks (1913-2005): On Dec. 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was Rosa Parks (1913-2005): On Dec. 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give her seat up to a white passenger in arrested for refusing to give her seat up to a white passenger in Montgomery, Alabama (as required by Jim Crow laws through Montgomery, Alabama (as required by Jim Crow laws through most of the South). The arrest of this respected community most of the South). The arrest of this respected community member outraged blacks in Montgomery and led to a boycott member outraged blacks in Montgomery and led to a boycott of the local bys system. The boycott partly motivated the 1956 of the local bys system. The boycott partly motivated the 1956 Supreme Court decision, Browder vs. Gale, that declared Supreme Court decision, Browder vs. Gale, that declared degregation on public transportation to be illegal.degregation on public transportation to be illegal.

37



The Rise of the Civil Rights MovementThe Rise of the Civil Rights Movement– The Expanding MovementThe Expanding Movement

Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968): This young pastor of the Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-1968): This young pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery was chosen to Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery was chosen to lead of the bus boycott movement. This powerful orator and lead of the bus boycott movement. This powerful orator and charismatic leader embraced a strategy of nonviolent resistance charismatic leader embraced a strategy of nonviolent resistance to injustice, in part formulated through the study of Mohandas to injustice, in part formulated through the study of Mohandas K. Gandhi’s writings. After the boycott, he founded the K. Gandhi’s writings. After the boycott, he founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), an Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), an interracial group addressing civil rights issues. He soon became interracial group addressing civil rights issues. He soon became the most influential black leader in the country. He encouraged the most influential black leader in the country. He encouraged his followers to take the moral high ground in their struggles. his followers to take the moral high ground in their struggles.

38



39


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society The Rise of the Civil Rights MovementThe Rise of the Civil Rights Movement

– Causes of the Civil Rights MovementCauses of the Civil Rights Movement World War II: Millions of black men and women had served in the armed World War II: Millions of black men and women had served in the armed

services or working in war plants, making them less socially isolated and services or working in war plants, making them less socially isolated and allowing them to obtain a broader view of the world.allowing them to obtain a broader view of the world.

Growing Urban Black Middle Class: A growing urban black middle class Growing Urban Black Middle Class: A growing urban black middle class was developing during this period. The leadership of the civil rights was developing during this period. The leadership of the civil rights movement often came from this group: ministers, educators, professionals, as movement often came from this group: ministers, educators, professionals, as well as students from the increasing network of black colleges and well as students from the increasing network of black colleges and universities.universities.

Television: Postwar blacks had a vivid daily reminder of how the white Television: Postwar blacks had a vivid daily reminder of how the white middle class lived through television programs.middle class lived through television programs.

Cold War Propaganda: The Soviets used racial injustice in the U.S. as an Cold War Propaganda: The Soviets used racial injustice in the U.S. as an effective part of their propaganda, showing U.S. hypocrisy. effective part of their propaganda, showing U.S. hypocrisy.

Political Mobilization of Northern Blacks: Black union voters in the Political Mobilization of Northern Blacks: Black union voters in the industrial north were becoming an increasingly important bloc within the industrial north were becoming an increasingly important bloc within the Democratic Party.Democratic Party.40


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society Eisenhower RepublicanismEisenhower Republicanism

– ““What Was Good for Our CountryWhat Was Good for Our CountryWas Good for General Motors, and Vice Versa”Was Good for General Motors, and Vice Versa”

- Charles E. Wilson, President of G.M., - Charles E. Wilson, President of G.M., on his nomination as Secretary of Defense in 1953 on his nomination as Secretary of Defense in 1953

Reliance on the Business Community: The first Republican administration Reliance on the Business Community: The first Republican administration in twenty years staffed itself with people from the same source as those in in twenty years staffed itself with people from the same source as those in the 1920s had: the business community. Ike appointed wealthy corporate the 1920s had: the business community. Ike appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and executives who were unapologetic about their background.lawyers and executives who were unapologetic about their background.

Keynesian Welfare State Accepted: But unlike the business leaders of the Keynesian Welfare State Accepted: But unlike the business leaders of the 1920s, these men accepted the continued existence of the welfare programs 1920s, these men accepted the continued existence of the welfare programs that the New Deal had launched since they maintained social order, that the New Deal had launched since they maintained social order, expanded purchasing power, and stabilized labor relations. expanded purchasing power, and stabilized labor relations.

41



– ““What Was Good for … General Motor”What Was Good for … General Motor” Eisenhower’s Fiscal Conservatism: Ike sought to cut back on federal Eisenhower’s Fiscal Conservatism: Ike sought to cut back on federal

expenditures. He favored private rather public development of natural expenditures. He favored private rather public development of natural resources, removed the last price and wage controls left over from the Truman resources, removed the last price and wage controls left over from the Truman administration, and opposed new social programs like national health insurance. administration, and opposed new social programs like national health insurance. In his last full year in office (1960), he left a $1 billion budget surplus.In his last full year in office (1960), he left a $1 billion budget surplus.

– The Survival of the Welfare StateThe Survival of the Welfare State No Dismantling: Ike resisted conservative pressures to dismantle the New Deal No Dismantling: Ike resisted conservative pressures to dismantle the New Deal

programs that survived the postwar attacks on them, and even expanded Social programs that survived the postwar attacks on them, and even expanded Social Security and unemployment coverage and raised the federal minimum wage Security and unemployment coverage and raised the federal minimum wage from $0.75 to $1.00 an hour.from $0.75 to $1.00 an hour.

Federal Highway Act of 1956: A major accomplishment of the Eisenhower Federal Highway Act of 1956: A major accomplishment of the Eisenhower administration, which authorized $25 billion for a ten-year construction administration, which authorized $25 billion for a ten-year construction program to build 40,000 miles of interstate highways, built through taxes on the program to build 40,000 miles of interstate highways, built through taxes on the sale of gas, cars, trucks, and tires. sale of gas, cars, trucks, and tires.

42



– Ike ReelectedIke Reelected 1956 Election: Ike again faced Democrat Adlai Stevenson, and won by an 1956 Election: Ike again faced Democrat Adlai Stevenson, and won by an

even greater landslide: 57.6 percent of the popular vote and 457 electoral even greater landslide: 57.6 percent of the popular vote and 457 electoral votes to Stevenson 73. He did so despite a major heart attack in 1955. votes to Stevenson 73. He did so despite a major heart attack in 1955.

– The Decline of McCarthyismThe Decline of McCarthyism Army-McCarthy Hearings: During the first year of the Eisenhower Army-McCarthy Hearings: During the first year of the Eisenhower

administration, McCarthy operated with impunity. But in Jan. 1954, he administration, McCarthy operated with impunity. But in Jan. 1954, he attacked Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens on the first nationally attacked Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens on the first nationally televised hearing. Seeing McCarthy’s methods—groundless accusations and televised hearing. Seeing McCarthy’s methods—groundless accusations and bullying—changed the public perception of him from crusader to villain or bullying—changed the public perception of him from crusader to villain or even buffoon. In December 1964, the Senate censured McCarthy by a vote even buffoon. In December 1964, the Senate censured McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22 for “conduct unbecoming a senator.” He remained in the senate of 67 to 22 for “conduct unbecoming a senator.” He remained in the senate but was largely ignored by his colleagues; he died from complications from but was largely ignored by his colleagues; he died from complications from alcoholism in 1957 while still in office.alcoholism in 1957 while still in office.

43


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold WarEisenhower, Dulles, and the Cold War

– Dulles and “Massive Retaliation”Dulles and “Massive Retaliation” John Foster Dulles (1888-1959): This aristocratic corporate lawyer with a John Foster Dulles (1888-1959): This aristocratic corporate lawyer with a

strong moral revulsion toward communism served as Ike’s secretary of strong moral revulsion toward communism served as Ike’s secretary of state for most of the latter’s two terms. Dulles had denounced the idea of state for most of the latter’s two terms. Dulles had denounced the idea of “containment” of the Truman years as too passive and demanded that the “containment” of the Truman years as too passive and demanded that the U.S. pursue a policy of “liberation” and “roll back”; however, he had to U.S. pursue a policy of “liberation” and “roll back”; however, he had to defer to Ike’s more moderate position upon taking office. defer to Ike’s more moderate position upon taking office.

““Massive Retaliation”: Dulles announced a policy of “massive Massive Retaliation”: Dulles announced a policy of “massive retaliation” in 1954, by which he meant that the U.S. would respond to retaliation” in 1954, by which he meant that the U.S. would respond to attacks on any of its allies by communist powers not with just attacks on any of its allies by communist powers not with just conventional forces, but with nuclear ones as well. conventional forces, but with nuclear ones as well.

““Brinkmanship”: Dulles seemed to like the idea of pushing the Soviets to Brinkmanship”: Dulles seemed to like the idea of pushing the Soviets to the brink of war to extract concessions. The idea of using nuclear the brink of war to extract concessions. The idea of using nuclear weapons was also not as expensive as committing large bodies of troops, weapons was also not as expensive as committing large bodies of troops, providing “more bang for the buck.” providing “more bang for the buck.”

44



– France, America, and VietnamFrance, America, and Vietnam

45

Ceasefire in Korea: On July 27, 1953, negotiators completed an Ceasefire in Korea: On July 27, 1953, negotiators completed an agreement to cease hostilities in Korea, created a “demilitarized zone” agreement to cease hostilities in Korea, created a “demilitarized zone” (DMZ) roughly along the 38(DMZ) roughly along the 38thth parallel, but to this day the country remains parallel, but to this day the country remains split in two.split in two.

Vietnam: Almost immediately after the end of fighting in Korea, the U.S. Vietnam: Almost immediately after the end of fighting in Korea, the U.S. was being dragged into a conflict in Southeast Asia. The French, who was being dragged into a conflict in Southeast Asia. The French, who abandoned their colony to the Japanese during WWII, were trying to abandoned their colony to the Japanese during WWII, were trying to reassert their authority again since 1945, but met stiff military resistance reassert their authority again since 1945, but met stiff military resistance by nationalist fighters.by nationalist fighters.

Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969): The anti-imperialist nationalist fighters were Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969): The anti-imperialist nationalist fighters were led by the communist Ho Chi-Minh. Ho initially thought that he could led by the communist Ho Chi-Minh. Ho initially thought that he could ask the U.S. for help against the French, believing the anticolonial ask the U.S. for help against the French, believing the anticolonial rhetoric of the Atlantic Charter, but the Truman administration supported rhetoric of the Atlantic Charter, but the Truman administration supported the French, important Cold War allies.the French, important Cold War allies.

Ho Chi-Minh on the cover of Time in 1954



– France, America, and VietnamFrance, America, and Vietnam Dien Bien Phu: By 1954, Ho’s forces were receiving support from Dien Bien Phu: By 1954, Ho’s forces were receiving support from

the Soviets, and the U.S. had been funding the French ineffective the Soviets, and the U.S. had been funding the French ineffective military campaign since 1950. In 1954, 12,000 French soldiers were military campaign since 1950. In 1954, 12,000 French soldiers were surrounded by Vietnamese forces at the village Dien Bien Phu. surrounded by Vietnamese forces at the village Dien Bien Phu. Dulles and Nixon urged Eisenhower to allow for direct U.S. military Dulles and Nixon urged Eisenhower to allow for direct U.S. military intervention to save these troops, but he did not, and the French intervention to save these troops, but he did not, and the French surrendered on May 7.surrendered on May 7.

Geneva Accords: In negotiations in the summer of 1954, a division of Geneva Accords: In negotiations in the summer of 1954, a division of Vietnam was established along the 17Vietnam was established along the 17thth parallel: the communist north parallel: the communist north led by Ho Chi-Minh and a southern pro-Western government led by led by Ho Chi-Minh and a southern pro-Western government led by Ngo Dinh Diem, a member of the Roman Catholic minority. The Ngo Dinh Diem, a member of the Roman Catholic minority. The country was supposed to be united by a democratic election in 1956, country was supposed to be united by a democratic election in 1956, but Diem refused to let this happen since he knew he would lose.but Diem refused to let this happen since he knew he would lose.

46



– Cold War CrisesCold War Crises Israel Recognized: On May 14, 1948, the state of Israel proclaimed Israel Recognized: On May 14, 1948, the state of Israel proclaimed

its independence. President Truman recognized the state the next day, its independence. President Truman recognized the state the next day, but Palestinian Arabs and saw themselves as being displaced, and but Palestinian Arabs and saw themselves as being displaced, and launched the first of a series of Arab-Israeli wars against the state. launched the first of a series of Arab-Israeli wars against the state. The U.S. supported Israel, but wanted goo relations with oil-rich The U.S. supported Israel, but wanted goo relations with oil-rich Arab states, in which U.S. oil companies were investing after the war.Arab states, in which U.S. oil companies were investing after the war.

Iran: The nationalist and democratically elected prime minister, Iran: The nationalist and democratically elected prime minister, Mohammed Mossadegh, began to resist the presence of western Mohammed Mossadegh, began to resist the presence of western corporations in the early1950s, so in 1953 the CIA and the British corporations in the early1950s, so in 1953 the CIA and the British MI6 engineered a coup against him, elevating the figurehead Shah of MI6 engineered a coup against him, elevating the figurehead Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, to absolute power. He ruled for the Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi, to absolute power. He ruled for the next twenty-five years.next twenty-five years.

47



– Cold War CrisesCold War Crises Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970): This nationalist president of Egypt came to Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970): This nationalist president of Egypt came to

power in 1956, and had been involved with fostering trade relations with the power in 1956, and had been involved with fostering trade relations with the Soviet Union earlier. Dulles, to punish Nasser for this, withdrew funding for Soviet Union earlier. Dulles, to punish Nasser for this, withdrew funding for the giant Aswan Dam project.the giant Aswan Dam project.

Suez Crisis: In retaliation, Nasser’s forces seized the Suez Canal from the Suez Crisis: In retaliation, Nasser’s forces seized the Suez Canal from the British, saying that he would use the funds to complete the dam. On Oct. 29, British, saying that he would use the funds to complete the dam. On Oct. 29, Israeli forces invaded Egypt, and on the next day, French and British forces Israeli forces invaded Egypt, and on the next day, French and British forces landed in the Sinai to take the canal back. Dulles was afraid the crisis would landed in the Sinai to take the canal back. Dulles was afraid the crisis would push the Arabs into the hands of Soviets, so he joined in on the U.N. push the Arabs into the hands of Soviets, so he joined in on the U.N. denunciation of it, and pressured the French and British to withdraw and he denunciation of it, and pressured the French and British to withdraw and he Israelis to sign a truce.Israelis to sign a truce.

Jacobo Arbenz GuzmJacobo Arbenz Guzmán Overthrown: In 1954, the Eisenhower administration án Overthrown: In 1954, the Eisenhower administration ordered the new leftist government in Guatemala to be overthrown since it ordered the new leftist government in Guatemala to be overthrown since it conflicted with the interests of the United Fruit Company.conflicted with the interests of the United Fruit Company.

48


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society Eisenhower, Dulles, and Eisenhower, Dulles, and

the Cold Warthe Cold War– Cold War CrisesCold War Crises

Growing Conflict with Cuba: The military leader of Cuba, Fulgencio Growing Conflict with Cuba: The military leader of Cuba, Fulgencio Batista (1901-1973), who had seized power in 1952 with American Batista (1901-1973), who had seized power in 1952 with American help. American corporations had cornered over half of the island’s help. American corporations had cornered over half of the island’s sugar crop, while American organized crime syndicates controlled sugar crop, while American organized crime syndicates controlled much of Havana’s lucrative hotel and casino business. In 1959, a much of Havana’s lucrative hotel and casino business. In 1959, a resistance movement against Batista led by Fidel Castro (1926-) resistance movement against Batista led by Fidel Castro (1926-) managed to overthrow the dictator, and began expropriating foreign managed to overthrow the dictator, and began expropriating foreign companies’ holding and instituted land redistribution. One of the last companies’ holding and instituted land redistribution. One of the last acts of the Eisenhower administration was to cut off diplomatic ties acts of the Eisenhower administration was to cut off diplomatic ties with Cuba.with Cuba.

49


The Affluent SocietyThe Affluent Society Eisenhower, Dulles, and Eisenhower, Dulles, and

the Cold Warthe Cold War– Europe and the Soviet UnionEurope and the Soviet Union

Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Europe remained the area of primary Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Europe remained the area of primary concern for U.S. Cold War policy. When Hungarian dissidents launched a concern for U.S. Cold War policy. When Hungarian dissidents launched a popular movement demanding democratic reforms, the Soviets responded popular movement demanding democratic reforms, the Soviets responded by rolling tanks into Budapest, making relations with the U.S. even worse.by rolling tanks into Budapest, making relations with the U.S. even worse.

– The U-2 CrisisThe U-2 Crisis Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971): The Soviet premier who took power in Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971): The Soviet premier who took power in

1958 demanded that the Allies give up West Berlin, and proposed visits to 1958 demanded that the Allies give up West Berlin, and proposed visits to each other’s countries and a summit in Paris in 1960 to speak directly. each other’s countries and a summit in Paris in 1960 to speak directly. Khrushchev did visit the U.S. in Sept. 1959, and Nixon visited the U.S.S.R. Khrushchev did visit the U.S. in Sept. 1959, and Nixon visited the U.S.S.R. to pave the way for Eisenhower to come in 1960.to pave the way for Eisenhower to come in 1960.

Spy Plan Shot Down: Only days before the Paris meeting in May 1960, the Spy Plan Shot Down: Only days before the Paris meeting in May 1960, the Soviets announced they had shot down an American high-altitude U-2 spy Soviets announced they had shot down an American high-altitude U-2 spy plane and taken its pilot, Francis Gary Powers, into captivity.plane and taken its pilot, Francis Gary Powers, into captivity.50

Pilot Francis Gary Powers posing infront of a U-2 spy plane



– The U-2 CrisisThe U-2 Crisis Paris Summit Canceled: Khrushchev angrily withdrew from the Paris Summit Canceled: Khrushchev angrily withdrew from the

Paris Summit and withdrew his invitation to Eisenhower, furious Paris Summit and withdrew his invitation to Eisenhower, furious over the violation of Soviet airspace.over the violation of Soviet airspace.

““Military-Industrial Complex”: Eisenhower had failed to Military-Industrial Complex”: Eisenhower had failed to decrease tensions with the Soviet Union, but he did stop military decrease tensions with the Soviet Union, but he did stop military intervention in Vietnam and impose limits on those that wanted intervention in Vietnam and impose limits on those that wanted to create an enormous American military establishment. In his to create an enormous American military establishment. In his farewell address in 1961, Eisenhower warned against the farewell address in 1961, Eisenhower warned against the “unwarranted influence” of the “military-industrial complex” “unwarranted influence” of the “military-industrial complex” over American affairs.over American affairs.

51

Documents

Chapter Twenty-Eight: The Affluent Society. Chapter Twenty-Eight: The Affluent Society A “Golden Age”? A “Golden Age”? National Prosperity: Most Americans