Chapter 5: Interaction, Groups, and Organizations: Connections that Work Soc 100 Dr. Santos

Chapter 5: Chapter 5: Interaction, Interaction, Groups, and Groups, and

Organizations: Organizations: Connections that WorkConnections that Work

Soc 100 Dr. Santos

Networks and Connections in Networks and Connections in Our Social WorldOur Social World

Social networksSocial networks -- micro-level contacts -- micro-level contacts and exchanges between individuals and and exchanges between individuals and other individuals, small groups, and large other individuals, small groups, and large (even global) organizations(even global) organizations

NetworkingNetworking -- -- using our social networks to using our social networks to get information, favors, or resourcesget information, favors, or resources

Family and Friends: Family and Friends: Micro-Level NetworksMicro-Level Networks

Network linksNetwork links casual and personal , orcasual and personal , or based on official positions and channelsbased on official positions and channels

Close NetworksClose Networks Personal ties are tightPersonal ties are tight Shared personal interest held very highShared personal interest held very high

Meso- and Macro-Level Meso- and Macro-Level NetworksNetworks

How are we linked:How are we linked: The internetThe internet Local civic, sports, and religious organizations Local civic, sports, and religious organizations Community or national institutions Community or national institutions Our nation(s)Our nation(s) Global entitiesGlobal entities

Networks can open opportunitiesNetworks can open opportunities But obligations can limit freedomBut obligations can limit freedom Meso- and macro-level interactions are more Meso- and macro-level interactions are more

formal than micro-level onesformal than micro-level ones

The Elements of Social InteractionThe Elements of Social Interaction

Social interactionSocial interaction is two or more individuals is two or more individuals purposefully relating to each otherpurposefully relating to each other

All interaction has three important All interaction has three important components:components:

An action An action A common goal A common goal A social context A social context

The action, goal, and context helps us The action, goal, and context helps us interpret the social meaning of our interactioninterpret the social meaning of our interaction


People assume that others will share their People assume that others will share their interpretation of a situation interpretation of a situation

Shared assumptions create cues for behaviorShared assumptions create cues for behavior Shared assumptions dictate what is appropriate in a Shared assumptions dictate what is appropriate in a

situationsituation• DressDress• MannerManner• SpeechSpeech• ActionsActions

Socialization helps us determine the Socialization helps us determine the expectations of social interaction & vice-versaexpectations of social interaction & vice-versa


People interact using People interact using verbalverbal and and non-verbalnon-verbal communicationcommunication

Non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication are interactions using are interactions using facial expressions, the head, eye contact, body facial expressions, the head, eye contact, body posture, gestures, touch, walk, status symbols and posture, gestures, touch, walk, status symbols and personal spacepersonal space

Non-verbal communication are:Non-verbal communication are: Culturally specificCulturally specific Learned through socializationLearned through socialization Used in all cultures Used in all cultures


Personal space is non-verbal languagePersonal space is non-verbal language

The amount of personal space needed varies by:The amount of personal space needed varies by: Cultural settingCultural setting GenderGender StatusStatus Social context Social context

Personal space communicates social positionsPersonal space communicates social positions Higher positions and status have greater control of physical Higher positions and status have greater control of physical

spacespace Gender differences are customary in most societiesGender differences are customary in most societies

Four categories of social distance Four categories of social distance in U.S. culture (Hall):in U.S. culture (Hall):

Intimate distanceIntimate distance Private and affectionate relationshipsPrivate and affectionate relationships 0 – 18 inches0 – 18 inches

Personal distancePersonal distance Friends and acquaintancesFriends and acquaintances 18 inches – 4 feet18 inches – 4 feet

Social distanceSocial distance Impersonal business relationsImpersonal business relations 4 – 12 feet4 – 12 feet

Public distancePublic distance Used in formal settings Used in formal settings

• Especially with high-status speakersEspecially with high-status speakers 12 feet and beyond12 feet and beyond

Theoretical Perspectives on the Theoretical Perspectives on the Interaction ProcessInteraction Process

Exchange/Rational Choice TheoryExchange/Rational Choice Theory Assumes that relationships are formed (and persist) based on Assumes that relationships are formed (and persist) based on

the rewards and costs of the interaction to the individualthe rewards and costs of the interaction to the individual• When benefits of the interaction are high and costs are low, When benefits of the interaction are high and costs are low,

interaction will be valued and sustainedinteraction will be valued and sustained• If the benefits of interaction are low and if the costs are high, the If the benefits of interaction are low and if the costs are high, the

interaction will not be valued nor sustainedinteraction will not be valued nor sustained

For exchange theorists, every interaction involves: For exchange theorists, every interaction involves: Calculations of self-interestCalculations of self-interest Expectation of Expectation of reciprocityreciprocity Actions that have current or eventual pay-off for actorsActions that have current or eventual pay-off for actors


Symbolic interaction theorySymbolic interaction theory EthnomethodologyEthnomethodology – the use of empirical – the use of empirical

methods to study how people develop methods to study how people develop shared meanings and consider how shared meanings and consider how common rules originate bycommon rules originate by

• Breaking norms to discover rules of interactionBreaking norms to discover rules of interaction• Being interested in people’s responses to norm Being interested in people’s responses to norm

violationsviolations• Not taking interaction norms for grantedNot taking interaction norms for granted


Symbolic interaction theory (continued)Symbolic interaction theory (continued) DramaturgyDramaturgy – the study of social life from the – the study of social life from the

framework that life is similar to a play or drama on framework that life is similar to a play or drama on stage, with scripts, props, and scenes to be playedstage, with scripts, props, and scenes to be played

Dramaturgical analysts believe interaction occurs Dramaturgical analysts believe interaction occurs on two stageson two stages

Front stage behavior Front stage behavior Backstage behavior Backstage behavior Working to create a Working to create a definition of selfdefinition of self through social interaction through social interaction


Assumptions of Assumptions of DramaturgicalDramaturgical analysts: analysts: We create an impression for our audience as in We create an impression for our audience as in acting in a playacting in a play Individuals learn Individuals learn new linesnew lines to add to their to add to their scriptsscripts through through

socializationsocialization Individuals perform Individuals perform scriptsscripts for social audiences in order to for social audiences in order to

maintain certain imagesmaintain certain images, much like the actors in a play, much like the actors in a play Individuals use Individuals use propsprops as visible symbols to create or reinforce our as visible symbols to create or reinforce our

rolesroles Individuals perform according to Individuals perform according to society’s scriptsociety’s script for the situation for the situation Individuals work to create a positive, advantageous impression Individuals work to create a positive, advantageous impression

through through impression managementimpression management Individuals use Individuals use tacttact, , humorhumor, and other strategies to try to create , and other strategies to try to create

positive impressions positive impressions Dramaturgical analysts believe interaction occurs on two stages: Dramaturgical analysts believe interaction occurs on two stages:

front stage & backstagefront stage & backstage

Social Status: The Link to GroupsSocial Status: The Link to Groups

Social StatusesSocial Statuses are positions that individuals hold in the social are positions that individuals hold in the social worldworld

Define interaction with othersDefine interaction with others A A status setstatus set is the combination of statuses held by an individual is the combination of statuses held by an individual

Ascribed statusesAscribed statuses are statuses that are assigned at birth and do are statuses that are assigned at birth and do not change during an individual’s lifetimenot change during an individual’s lifetime

Achieved statusesAchieved statuses are statuses that are chosen or earned by are statuses that are chosen or earned by decisions one makes or by personal abilitydecisions one makes or by personal ability

Master statusesMaster statuses are statuses that are most important and take are statuses that are most important and take precedence over othersprecedence over others

Social Status: The Link to GroupsSocial Status: The Link to Groups

The Relationship between The Relationship between Status and RolesStatus and Roles

RolesRoles are the expected behaviors, rights and are the expected behaviors, rights and obligations associated with a statusobligations associated with a status

Statuses (positions) Statuses (positions) Roles (behavioral obligations of the status)Roles (behavioral obligations of the status)

Individuals hold Individuals hold formalformal and and informalinformal statusesstatuses

Role strainRole strain is tension between roles is tension between roles withinwithin one status one status Role conflictRole conflict is conflict is conflict betweenbetween the roles of two or more the roles of two or more

statuses statuses

Groups in Our Social World: Groups in Our Social World: The Micro-Meso Connection The Micro-Meso Connection

GroupsGroups are two or more people who interact with each are two or more people who interact with each other because of shared common interests, goals, other because of shared common interests, goals, experiences, and needsexperiences, and needs

Create a sense of belonging among membersCreate a sense of belonging among members Share a common goalShare a common goal Members are in contact with one anotherMembers are in contact with one another Defined membership norms Defined membership norms Rules for members’ behaviorsRules for members’ behaviors

Groups form through a series of steps:Groups form through a series of steps: Initial interaction between potential membersInitial interaction between potential members A collective goal emergesA collective goal emerges Attempt to expand collective goals by building Attempt to expand collective goals by building

membership and pursuing new goalsmembership and pursuing new goals

The Importance of Groups The Importance of Groups for the Individualfor the Individual

Groups establish our place in the social Groups establish our place in the social world and deeply influence of state of world and deeply influence of state of mind:mind:

AnomieAnomie or a state of normlessnessor a state of normlessness SuicideSuicide (Durkheim) (Durkheim)

• Egoistic suicideEgoistic suicide • Anomic suicideAnomic suicide • Altruistic suicideAltruistic suicide

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups Primary groupsPrimary groups are are

groups with close contacts groups with close contacts between members with between members with whom members have whom members have lasting personal lasting personal relationshipsrelationships

Characteristics of Characteristics of primary groups:primary groups:

• Strong sense of Strong sense of belonging belonging

• Strong group loyaltyStrong group loyalty• Strong influence on Strong influence on

behaviorbehavior• Main purpose is Main purpose is

belongingbelonging• Primary groups have Primary groups have

intrinsic valueintrinsic value

Secondary groupsSecondary groups are are groups with formal, groups with formal, impersonal, businesslike impersonal, businesslike relationships between relationships between membersmembers

Characteristics of Characteristics of secondary groups:secondary groups:

• Large membership baseLarge membership base• Task-oriented Task-oriented • Relationships based on Relationships based on

accomplishing accomplishing • A clear division of labor A clear division of labor • Specialized Specialized

communicationcommunication• Membership can be short-Membership can be short-

term or long lastingterm or long lasting

Types of GroupsTypes of Groups Reference groupsReference groups are groups composed of members are groups composed of members

who act as role models to one another and establish who act as role models to one another and establish standards against which members measure their standards against which members measure their conductconduct

Peer groupsPeer groups are people who share similar age or are people who share similar age or social status; they can also serve as reference groupssocial status; they can also serve as reference groups

Ingroups Ingroups are groups to which individuals feel a sense are groups to which individuals feel a sense of loyalty and belongingof loyalty and belonging

OutgroupsOutgroups are groups to which individuals do not are groups to which individuals do not belong, but that exists in competition or opposition to belong, but that exists in competition or opposition to an ingroupan ingroup

Organizations and Bureaucracies:The Organizations and Bureaucracies:The Meso-Macro ConnectionMeso-Macro Connection

The Evolution of Modern OrganizationsThe Evolution of Modern Organizations

Organizational structure depends on the type of societyOrganizational structure depends on the type of society Modern organizations and bureaucraciesModern organizations and bureaucracies began with began with

industrialization industrialization • RationalityRationality or the attempt to reach maximum efficiency, is the or the attempt to reach maximum efficiency, is the

governing principle of most modern organizationsgoverning principle of most modern organizations

Formal organizationsFormal organizations are complex secondary groups are complex secondary groups formed to pursue and achieve certain goalsformed to pursue and achieve certain goals

Organizational societiesOrganizational societies are societies where a majority are societies where a majority of the members work in organizationsof the members work in organizations

BureaucraciesBureaucracies are specific types of very large formal are specific types of very large formal organizations with the primary goal of maximizing organizations with the primary goal of maximizing efficiencyefficiency

Characteristics of Modern OrganizationsCharacteristics of Modern Organizations

Organizations are categorized by their ability to get Organizations are categorized by their ability to get members to comply with the rules:members to comply with the rules:

Utilitarian organizationsUtilitarian organizations gain compliance by providing gain compliance by providing income that individuals need to live in exchange for their laborincome that individuals need to live in exchange for their labor

Coercive organizationsCoercive organizations are involuntary organizations are involuntary organizations where compliance is achieved by forcewhere compliance is achieved by force

Normative organizationsNormative organizations are groups where compliance is are groups where compliance is based on moral or political beliefs; individuals tend to join based on moral or political beliefs; individuals tend to join normative organizations for personal satisfactionnormative organizations for personal satisfaction

• Voluntary organizationsVoluntary organizations are groups individuals join on their are groups individuals join on their own accord, typically because they believe in a cause, or own accord, typically because they believe in a cause, or because they enjoy the social contact or activitybecause they enjoy the social contact or activity

Characteristics of BureaucraciesCharacteristics of Bureaucracies

Max Weber was the pioneer thinker on themMax Weber was the pioneer thinker on them Weber found 6 characteristics of Weber found 6 characteristics of ideal type ideal type

bureaucraciesbureaucracies Division of labor based on technical competenceDivision of labor based on technical competence Administrative hierarchyAdministrative hierarchy Formal rules and regulationsFormal rules and regulations Impersonal relationshipsImpersonal relationships Emphasis on rationality and efficiencyEmphasis on rationality and efficiency Provision of life-long careersProvision of life-long careers

Bureaucracies also have an Bureaucracies also have an informal structure informal structure (fiefdoms, informal networks, gossip, etc.)(fiefdoms, informal networks, gossip, etc.)

Characteristics of McDonaldizationCharacteristics of McDonaldization

McDonaldizationMcDonaldization – George Ritzer’s term for the – George Ritzer’s term for the process through which the principles of the process through which the principles of the McDonald’s corporation have been integrated into the McDonald’s corporation have been integrated into the operation of all organizations operation of all organizations

The principles of McDonaldization:The principles of McDonaldization:• EfficiencyEfficiency• PredictabilityPredictability• CalculabilityCalculability• Increased controlIncreased control

The dysfunctions of McDonaldizationThe dysfunctions of McDonaldization• DehumanizationDehumanization• IrrationalityIrrationality• The desire for efficiency taking over creativity and human The desire for efficiency taking over creativity and human

interactioninteraction• Loss of uniqueness and local flavorLoss of uniqueness and local flavor

Individuals in BureaucraciesIndividuals in Bureaucracies

ProfessionalsProfessionals • AlienationAlienation• AutonomyAutonomy

Minority-status groupsMinority-status groups Glass ceilingsGlass ceilings -- to barriers which keep -- to barriers which keep

females and other minority group members females and other minority group members from reaching high levels of management in from reaching high levels of management in organizationsorganizations

Disproportional representation in middle or Disproportional representation in middle or low occupational levels low occupational levels

Problems in BureaucraciesProblems in Bureaucracies

Dysfunctions of BureaucracyDysfunctions of Bureaucracy AlienationAlienation Worker dissatisfaction Worker dissatisfaction OligarchyOligarchy

• The iron law of oligarchyThe iron law of oligarchy Goal Displacement Goal Displacement Parkinson’s Law Parkinson’s Law

Alternatives to BureaucracyAlternatives to Bureaucracy Alternative organization structureAlternative organization structure

• Democratic-collective organizationDemocratic-collective organization

National and Global Networks: The National and Global Networks: The Macro-Level Macro-Level

Multinational corporations Multinational corporations National systems and international National systems and international

organizations organizations The InternetThe Internet

Policy Issues: Women and Policy Issues: Women and Globalization Globalization

Around the world, women are the most Around the world, women are the most economically, politically, and socially economically, politically, and socially marginalized group of people marginalized group of people

The United Nations has created may The United Nations has created may policies to help raise the status of policies to help raise the status of women worldwidewomen worldwide

Education initiativesEducation initiatives Micro-lending agenciesMicro-lending agencies

Documents

Chapter 5: Interaction, Groups, and Organizations: Connections that Work Soc 100 Dr. Santos