Chapter 33: Independence in Asia,

Africa, and the Middle East

Outcomes of Colonialism

European colonizers established arbitrary boundaries and often combined hostile ethnic/religious groups.

Under colonial rule, regional wars and famine had been much reduced due to European controlNow in newly-independent countries, regional wars and famine are not as well controlled.

These become the two major barriers to population growth in newly-independent regions.

Overall, however, populations increased after colonial rule because Europeans had aided with the eradication of diseases and had improved medical treatment, hygiene, and water purification.

Neocolonial EconomyLargest barrier to economic breakthrough: soaring populationsNewly independent nations often lacked complete resources and had challenges distributing those they did have.

Rivalries and civil wars consumed many resources that could have been devoted to economic development. Most post-colonial nations wanted to finish industrialization and began rapid economic development.

Gold, copper, diamonds exported from South African mines

Neocolonial Economy: global economy dominated by industrialized and mostly Western nations

Mostly yields limited returns for Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Most newly independent countries rely on the export of two or three cash crops or raw materials.

These products fluctuate in price strain economies (this revenue is used to plan government projects).

Many of these countries rely on international organizations for assistance (World Bank; International Monetary Fund)

Parasitic Cities and Endangered Ecosystems

As populations increased in rural areas, mass migrations to urban areas occurred.

Little available land; few jobs in cities with heavy competitionCrime in cities increasesSlum areas (makeshift shelters) often seen in close proximity to large, wealthy urban areas.

Rural overpopulation has led to soil depletion and alarming rates of deforestation for livestock grazing and farming.

Many animals are endangered or extinctMassive pollution of air and water

Gender IssuesIn many African and Asian countries, there has been resistance to birth control efforts to control population growth.

Result of deeply entrenched social patterns, religious beliefs, and skepticism of Western influenceAfrica: children are critical additions to the lineage. In developing countries, a high percentage of the population (40% in some places) is under the age of 15.

Women’s suffrage, but little else, was often written into post-colonial constitutions.

Religious revivalism sometimes erodes women’s rights.Male-centric customs and tradition often result in malnutrition in women and children. Women saw increased educational and employment opportunities.Early marriages expected; confine women.Shariah law imposed in many Muslim countries.

Female politicians were often connected to powerful male politicians (Indira Gandhi)

Quick Review Question

What is a neocolonial economy?

Why are birth control methods often resisted in modern Africa and Asia?

The Emergence

of New Nations in

Africa

Kwame Nkrumah (1957-1966)

• 1957: Ghana achieves independence.

• Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, was at first interested in social reform and economic uplift.

•Problems emerge (decreasing demand for cocoa, rival political groups).

• Nkrumah assumed dictatorial powers, brutally suppressed opposition, and created a form of African socialism.

•Drove away Western investors that would have likely aided Ghana more

• 1966: Nkrumah journeys to communist Vietnam on a peace mission and was deposed by a military coup.

• 1972: Dies in exile in Guinea

South Africa and ApartheidApartheid: ensured monopoly of political power and economic dominance for white South Africans.Homelands (designated areas for ethnic groups) were created.The African National Congress was declared illegal; its leaders (incl. Nelson Mandela) were jailed. President F.W. de Klerk pushed for reforms to begin dismantling apartheid.

Believed apartheid was hurting South Africa’s economy and global reputationKey black political prisoners were released in 1990

1994: All adult South Africans were given the right to vote Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa.

African Ethnic ConflictsCentral African conflicts were mainly ethnic conflicts.Many considered genocide: target whole populations with goal of decreasing their numbersRwanda: Hutus (majority) and Tutsis (minority; in political power)Congo (civil war)Sudan (government forces and rebel groups)Nigeria: Biafra secessionist movementViolence frequently involves heavily armed children and rape.

Quick Review Question

What were homelands?

How did the Apartheid begin to be dismantled?

New Nations in South Asia

PakistanIndia

Bangladesh

India’s DevelopmentIndia has preserved civilian rule since UK independence (world’s largest democracy)

First led by Jawarharlal NehruEarly Indian government pushed for modernization, secularization, and democratization; social/econ reforms

Technological improvementsGreen Revolution: improve agricultural production by increasing crops through high-yield, disease-resistant chemically created crops; fertilizers, irrigation

Criticized for use of chemicals that cause cancer; also expensive

Silicon valleys: high tech sectors, with computer and Internet experts

Population growth offsets economic gains.Tensions with Pakistan

Each began developing nuclear weapons2008: Pakistani terrorists attack MumbaiIncreased concern over tensions in region

The Middle East in the Cold War Era

Egypt and Nasser (1954-1970)After 1919 Egyptian Revolution, Britain withdraws by

1930s (exception: Suez Canal Zone).Arab-Israeli War of 1948

Egyptian defeat; Egyptian military revolts

1952: Khedive Farouk overthrown1954: Gamal Abdul Nasser took power after a military coup, with help from the Free Officers Movement.

Military coups often install military-run governments that suppress civil liberties and do not improve living standards. Nasser sponsored land reform and state-financed education.

Suez Canal Crisis of 1956: Nasser (with US and USSR aid) end control of British in Suez Canal zone.

Restricted foreign investment to ensure Egypt’s economic independence.

Nasser’s reforms failed because of population boom, lack of proper funding, and heavy costs of military excursions

1967: Six-Day War with Israel; Nasser defeated.

Post-Nasser Egypt1970: Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser after death

Yom Kippur War (or 1973 Arab-Israeli War): Egyptians and Syrians launched surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur (holiest day of the year for Jews)Sadat opened Egypt to aid and investment from the US and western Europe

Tries to end costly confrontations with Israel; expels Russians

Sadat assassinated by Muslim fundamentalist

Hosni Mubarak succeeded Sadat.2011: Mubarak overthrown in the Egyptian Revolution in the Arab Spring (wave of revolutions throughout Arab world)

Mohamad Morsi eventually succeeded MubarakJuly 2013: Morsi removed from power

Iran’s 1979 Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War (1980-

1988)Reza Shah Pahlavi, leader before the revolution who was backed by US, was dictatorial, repressive, and did not improve conditions in Iran. 1979 Revolution: overthrow of Pahlavi by Islamic fundamentalists

Ayatollahs (religious leaders) concerned by Pahlavi’s disinterest in strict Shi’a observanceMiddle class: dislike Pahlavi’s oppressive rule

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was new ruler who emphasized religious revivalism and the elimination of “satanic” Western influences.

Imposed strict Islamic law (veiling of women)

Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988): Iraq (Saddam Hussein) annexed oil-rich provinces in Iranian west.

1988: Iran called for an armistice; Iran in shambles and isolated from the Western powers, who supported Iraq.

Quick Review QuestionWhat is the Green Revolution?

What is the result of the Suez Canal Crisis?

Describe Ayatollah Khomeini’s mindset towards the West.