Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence

Chapter 34

Africa, the Middle East, and Asia

I. The Challenges of IndependenceII. Post-Colonial Options for Achieving

Economic Growth and Social JusticeIII. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism

and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies

The Colonial Divisions of Africa and the Emergence of New Nations

The Partition of South Asia: The Formation of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka

The Challenges of Independence• Nationalist movements in Africa, Middle East,

and Asia involved mass mobilization– Nationalist leaders had to promise jobs, civil rights,

equality to gain their support (visions of utopia)– Once Europeans driven away, there would be enough

resources for everyone– Post Europeans: Not enough resources to go around– Long standing tensions between groups resurface

• Boundaries (Pakistan and Bangladesh)• Human conflicts in Africa cause famine and starvation• Civil wars consume resources that could bolster economy• Politicians ignore problems

The Population Bomb• “New World “ foods (Pop. Growth in China, India, Java, Niger delta)• War and famine reduced• Death rates fall, births increase, improved hygiene and medical

treatment, improved sewage systems, purified water– South Asia: moderate growth rates have led to huge populations– Africa: Fast growing population, but AIDS and economy may slow or reduce

growth• Hurt by lack of industry, can’t provide for own populations• Population control difficult

– cultural factors• Resistance to birth control, procreation seen as sign of male virility• Some African and Asian leader oppose state attempts at birth control• Importance of lineage in Africa• Sons important for continuing family line• Women important in Africa, but not Asia

– Prior to 20th century high mortality rates mean losing 10-12 of 15-16 children• Necessary to have many children to take care of parents

Parasitic Cities and Endangered Ecosystems

• Mass migrations to urban areas– Search for jobs, “good life”

• Towns don’t have industrial sectors– Few jobs, competition for those that existed, ensures low wages– Unemployed turn to street vending, scavenging, begging, petty crime

• Urban Poor= volatile factor in politics– Cheer on one or jeer the other, riot and loot in times of crisis, shock troops, urban mobs

• Towns – Slums with makeshift shelters

• Originally no electricity, running water, sewage• become permanent

– towns parasitic: heavily dependant for survival on food and resources drawn from their own country side or from abroad• Take from countryside, give little in return

• Problems caused by rural overpopulation:– Soil depletion– Deforestation– Overgrazing– Desertification– Industrial pollution (even though industry is small, pollution is greater because they cant afford antipollution technology)

The Subordination of Women and the Nature of Feminist Struggles in the Postcolonial Era

– Many emerging nations write female suffrage into their constitutions– Some women’s rule can be deceptive

• Indira Gandhi: India’s prime minister, one of the most resolute and powerful of all third world leaders

– Daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru (India’s first prime minister)• Corazon Aquino: President of Philippines

– Wife of martyred leader of Filipino opposition to Ferdinand Marcos• Benazir Bhutto: Prime minister of Pakistan

– Daughter of Pakistani prime minister toppled by military coup and executed– Most women in Africa, Middle East, Asia have been relegated to peripheral political positions or

have no participation in political process– Second class position in most societies

• Early marriage ages, large family norms prevent higher education or career• Male-centric customs (India serve husbands and son first, eat what is left)

– 1970’s: 20% of female population is malnourished, 30% have diet below acceptable UN standards

– Low sanitation and scarcity of food causes anxiety for women about nutrition for children and disease

– Religious Revivalism: • Veiling, stoning those caught in adultery• Dominated by male family members

Neocolonialism, Cold War Rivalries, and Stunted Development

• Industrial development

– little success, need capital to develop, little left once other state expenses are paid

• Cash crops, minerals– dependent on prices, causes problems with future spending plans

• Other Problems:– Neocolonialism: global economy dominated by industrial nations– Corruption– High concessions for international assistance

Post-Colonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice

• Charismatic Populists and One-Party Rule– Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana

• Soviet support• cocoa, cash crop• deposed, 1966

The New West African Nations

Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions

• Muslim Brotherhood– Hasan al-Banna

• Free Officers, 1930s– nationalistic– Gamal Abdul Nasser– allied with Muslim Brotherhood

Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions

• Nasser– land redistribution– free education– food staples regulated– forced British from Canal zone– Israel

• Six-Day War, 1967

Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions

• Anwar Sadat– negotiations with Israel

• Hosni Mubarak

The Middle East in theCold War Era

The Indian Alternative: Development for Some of the People

• Indian National Congress– social reform– economic development– democracy– civil rights

• Jawaharlal Nehru– Green Revolution

• private investment

Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies

• Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West– Pahlavi shahs

• modernization• alienates religious leaders• overthrown by Khomeini, 1978

– Ayatollah Khomeini• similar to Mahdi

Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies

• Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West– Radical reform

• Sharia law• opposition suppressed• women more restricted

– War with Iraq• 1988, peace

South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise

• Nationalist Party– Afrikaner

• 1948 elections• Afrikaner rule

• Independence, 1960• Apartheid

– complete separation– African National Congress outlawed– Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko

South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise

• Opposition, 1960s• Economic, political pressure, 1980s• F.W. DeKlerk• Mandela freed, 1990• Elections, 1994

– Mandela president

Comparisons of Emerging Nations

• Patterns– some reflect traditions– depends on continuity of native culture