CHAPTER 17 Managing Leadership and Influence Processes Managing Leadership and Influence Processes Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights

CHAPTERCHAPTER

1717

Managing Leadership and Influence Processes

Managing Leadership and Influence Processes

Copyright Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company.© by Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved.All rights reserved.

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Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 17–2

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Describe the nature of leadership and distinguish leadership

from management.– Discuss and evaluate the trait approach to leadership.– Discuss and evaluate models of leadership, focusing on

behaviors.– Identify and describe the major situational approaches to

leadership.– Identify and describe three related perspectives on

leadership.– Discuss political behavior in organizations and how it can be

managed.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Describe the nature of leadership and distinguish leadership

from management.– Discuss and evaluate the trait approach to leadership.– Discuss and evaluate models of leadership, focusing on

behaviors.– Identify and describe the major situational approaches to

leadership.– Identify and describe three related perspectives on

leadership.– Discuss political behavior in organizations and how it can be

managed.


Chapter OutlineChapter Outline• The Nature of Leadership

– The Meaning of Leadership– Leadership Versus Management– Power and Leadership

• The Search for Leadership Traits• Leadership Behaviors

– Michigan Studies– Ohio State Studies– Managerial Grid

• Situational Approaches to Leadership

– LPC Theory– Path-Goal Theory– Vroom’s Decision Tree– The Leader-Member Exchange

• The Nature of Leadership– The Meaning of Leadership– Leadership Versus Management– Power and Leadership

• The Search for Leadership Traits• Leadership Behaviors

– Michigan Studies– Ohio State Studies– Managerial Grid

• Situational Approaches to Leadership

– LPC Theory– Path-Goal Theory– Vroom’s Decision Tree– The Leader-Member Exchange

• Related Perspectives on Leadership

– Substitutes for Leadership– Charismatic Leadership– Transformational Leadership

• Political Behavior in Organizations

– Common Political Behaviors– Managing Political Behaviors

• Related Perspectives on Leadership

– Substitutes for Leadership– Charismatic Leadership– Transformational Leadership

• Political Behavior in Organizations

– Common Political Behaviors– Managing Political Behaviors


The Nature of LeadershipThe Nature of Leadership

• The Meaning of Leadership– Process: what leaders actually do.

• Using noncoercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s goals.

• Motivating others’ behavior toward goals.

• Helping to define organizational culture.

– Property: who leaders are.• The set of characteristics attributed to individuals perceived to be

leaders.

– Leaders• People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to

rely on force.

• People who are accepted as leaders by others.

• The Meaning of Leadership– Process: what leaders actually do.

• Using noncoercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s goals.

• Motivating others’ behavior toward goals.

• Helping to define organizational culture.

– Property: who leaders are.• The set of characteristics attributed to individuals perceived to be

leaders.

– Leaders• People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to

rely on force.

• People who are accepted as leaders by others.


The Nature of Leadership (cont’d)The Nature of Leadership (cont’d)

• Leadership Versus Management• Leadership Versus Management

Leadership Activity Management

Establishing direction and vision for the organization

Creating an agenda Planning and budgeting, allocating resources

Aligning people through communications and actions

that provide direction

Developing a human network for achieving the agenda

Organizing and staffing, structuring and monitoring

implementation

Motivating and inspiring by satisfying needs

Executing plans Controlling and problem solving

Produces useful change and new approaches to challenges

Outcomes Produces predictability and order and attains results

Source: Adapted from A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management by John P. Kotter. Copyright © 1990 by John P. Kotter, Inc. Reprinted with permission of The Free Press, a division of Simon & Schuster Inc. Table 17.1



• Power and Leadership– Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others.

• Legitimate power is granted through the organizational hierarchy.

• Reward power is the power to give or withhold rewards.

• Coercive power is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat.

• Referent power is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.

• Expert power is derived from the possession of information or expertise.

• Power and Leadership– Power is the ability to affect the behavior of others.

• Legitimate power is granted through the organizational hierarchy.

• Reward power is the power to give or withhold rewards.

• Coercive power is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat.

• Referent power is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.

• Expert power is derived from the possession of information or expertise.



• Using Power– Legitimate request

• Compliance by a subordinate with a manager’s request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request.

– Instrumental compliance• A subordinate complies with a manager’s request to get the rewards

that the manager controls.

– Coercion• Threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand

subordinates if they do not do something.

– Rational persuasion• Convincing subordinates that compliance

is in their own best interest.

• Using Power– Legitimate request

• Compliance by a subordinate with a manager’s request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request.

– Instrumental compliance• A subordinate complies with a manager’s request to get the rewards

that the manager controls.

– Coercion• Threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand

subordinates if they do not do something.

– Rational persuasion• Convincing subordinates that compliance

is in their own best interest.



• Using Power (cont’d)– Personal identification

• Using the referent power of a superior’s desired behaviors to shape the behavior of a subordinate.

– Inspirational appeal• Influencing a subordinate’s behavior through an appeal to a set of

higher ideals or values (e.g., loyalty).

– Information distortion• Withholding or distorting information

(which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates’ behavior.

– Personal identification• Using the superior’s referent power over

a subordinate to shape his behavior.

• Using Power (cont’d)– Personal identification

• Using the referent power of a superior’s desired behaviors to shape the behavior of a subordinate.

– Inspirational appeal• Influencing a subordinate’s behavior through an appeal to a set of

higher ideals or values (e.g., loyalty).

– Information distortion• Withholding or distorting information

(which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates’ behavior.

– Personal identification• Using the superior’s referent power over

a subordinate to shape his behavior.


The Search for Leadership TraitsThe Search for Leadership Traits

• Traits Approach to Leadership– Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated

leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leaders.

– The trait approach was unsuccessful in establishing empirical relationships between traits and persons regarded as leaders.

• Traits Approach to Leadership– Assumed that a basic set of personal traits that differentiated

leaders from nonleaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leaders.

– The trait approach was unsuccessful in establishing empirical relationships between traits and persons regarded as leaders.


Leadership BehaviorsLeadership Behaviors

• Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)– Identified two forms of leader behavior

• Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates’ work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.

• Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.

• These two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum and similar to (respectively) Likert’s System 1 and System 4 of organizational design.

• Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)– Identified two forms of leader behavior

• Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates’ work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.

• Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.

• These two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum and similar to (respectively) Likert’s System 1 and System 4 of organizational design.


Leadership Behaviors (cont’d)Leadership Behaviors (cont’d)

• Ohio State Studies– The studies did not interpret leader behavior as being one-

dimensional as did the Michigan State studies.– Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited

simultaneously:• Initiating-structure behavior—the leader

clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda.

• Consideration behavior—the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate.

• Ohio State Studies– The studies did not interpret leader behavior as being one-

dimensional as did the Michigan State studies.– Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited

simultaneously:• Initiating-structure behavior—the leader

clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agenda.

• Consideration behavior—the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate.


Leadership Behaviors (cont’d)Leadership Behaviors (cont’d)

• Ohio State Studies (cont’d)– Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who

exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Subsequent research indicated that:• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on initiating structure were

high performers, although they expressed low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism.

• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on consideration had low- performance ratings, but they had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.

• Other situational variables were making consistent leader behavior predictions difficult.

• There is no universal or “one best way” model of leadership.

• Ohio State Studies (cont’d)– Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who

exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Subsequent research indicated that:• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on initiating structure were

high performers, although they expressed low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism.

• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on consideration had low- performance ratings, but they had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.

• Other situational variables were making consistent leader behavior predictions difficult.

• There is no universal or “one best way” model of leadership.


LeadershiLeadership Gridp Grid

4

6

2

1

3

5

8

7

9

01 4 6 952 3 87

Concern for production

High

Low

Low High

1,9 9,9

1,1 9,1

Team Management

Work accomplishment isfrom committed people;

interdependence through

a “common stake” inorganization purpose

leads to relationships

of trust and respect.

Middle of the RoadManagementAdequate organization performance is

possible through balancing the necessity

to get out work with maintaining moraleof people at a satisfactory level.

Impoverished Management

Exertion of minimum effortto get required work done

is appropriate to sustain

organization membership.

Authority-Compliance

Efficiency in operations

results from arrangingconditions of work in

such a way that

human elementsinterfere to a

minimum degree.

5,5

Country Club Management

Thoughtful attention to theneeds of people for satisfying

relationships leads to a

comfortable, friendlyorganization atmosphere

and work tempo.

Co

nce

rn f

or

peo

ple

The Leadership Grid® is a method of evaluating leadership styles. The Grid® is used to train managers so that they are simultaneously more concerned for people and for production (9,9 style on the Grid®).

Source: From Leadership Dilemmas—Grid Solutions by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse. (Formerly the Managerial Grid by Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton.) Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright © 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners.

Figure 17.1


Situational Approaches to Situational Approaches to LeadershipLeadership

• Situational Models of Leader Behavior– Assume that:

• Appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another.

• Key situational factors that are interacting to determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.

• Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)– Variables influencing the decision-making continuum:

• Leader’s characteristics—value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security.

• Subordinates’ characteristics—independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations.

• Situational Characteristics—type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.

• Situational Models of Leader Behavior– Assume that:

• Appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another.

• Key situational factors that are interacting to determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.

• Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)– Variables influencing the decision-making continuum:

• Leader’s characteristics—value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security.

• Subordinates’ characteristics—independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations.

• Situational Characteristics—type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.


Situational Approaches to Leadership Situational Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum• Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

Use of Authorityby Manager

Boss-centered leadership

Manager makesdecision andannounces it

Manager permitssubordinates tofunction withinlimits defined bysuperior

Manager defineslimits, asks groupto make decision

Manager presentsproblem, getssuggestions,makes decision

Manager presentstentative decisionsubject to change

Manager presentsideas and invitesquestions

Manager“sells”decision

Area of Freedomfor Subordinates

Subordinate-centered leadership

Source: Reprinted by permission of the Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt (May–June 1973). Copyright © by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved. Figure 17.2



• Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)– The appropriate style of leadership varies with situational

favorableness (from the leader’s viewpoint).– Least preferred coworker (LPC)

• The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well.

• High LPC scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low LPC scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader.

– Contingency variables determining situational favorableness:• Leader-member relations—the nature of the relationship between the

leader and the work group.

• Task structure—the degree to which the group’s task is defined.

• Position Power—the power vested in the leader’s position.

• Least-Preferred Coworker Theory (Fiedler)– The appropriate style of leadership varies with situational

favorableness (from the leader’s viewpoint).– Least preferred coworker (LPC)

• The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work well.

• High LPC scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; low LPC scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leader.

– Contingency variables determining situational favorableness:• Leader-member relations—the nature of the relationship between the

leader and the work group.

• Task structure—the degree to which the group’s task is defined.

• Position Power—the power vested in the leader’s position.



• The Least-Preferred Coworker Theory of Leadership• The Least-Preferred Coworker Theory of Leadership

Contingency Factors Situations

Leader-member relations Good

Task structure High

Position power Strong

Bad

Low High Low

Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak

Favorablenessof Situation

AppropriateLeader Behavior

Most favorable Moderately favorable Most unfavorable

Task-oriented Task-orientedRelationship-oriented

Figure 17.3



• Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)– The primary functions of a leader are to make valued or

desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards.

– Leader Behaviors:• Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is

expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.

• Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.

• Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.

• Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.

• Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)– The primary functions of a leader are to make valued or

desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards.

– Leader Behaviors:• Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is

expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.

• Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.

• Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.

• Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.


The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory

• Situational Factors:• Situational Factors:WorkSituation

Follower lacks self-confidence

Supportive

Achievement-oriented

Participative

Directive

LeadershipStyle

Impact onFollowers

Expected Results

Lack of jobchallenge

Improperprocedures and poor decisions

Ambiguous job

Increases self-confidence to complete task

Encourages setting high but attainable goals

Clarifies followerneed for makingsuggestions andinvolvement

Clarifies path toget rewards

Increased effort. job satisfaction, and performance; fewer grievances

Improved performance and greater job satisfaction

Improved performance and greater satisfaction; less turnover

Improved performance and job satisfaction


Path Goal Theory to Leadership Path Goal Theory to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Path-Goal Framework• The Path-Goal Framework

Subordinates’personalcharacteristics

• Perceived ability• Locus of control

Leader behaviors

• Directive• Supportive• Participative• Achievement-

oriented

Environmentalcharacteristics

• Task structure• Work group

Subordinates’ motivation to perform

Figure 17.4



• Vroom Decision Tree Approach– Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a

given situation.– Basic Premises

• The degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation.

• No one decision-making process is best for all situations.

• After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation.– Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have

an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.

– Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates.

• Vroom Decision Tree Approach– Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a

given situation.– Basic Premises

• The degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation.

• No one decision-making process is best for all situations.

• After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation.– Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have

an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.

– Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates.



• Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)– Decision-Making Styles

• Decide—manager makes decision alone and then announces or “sells” it to the group.

• Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.

• Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision.

• Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.

• Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.

• Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)– Decision-Making Styles

• Decide—manager makes decision alone and then announces or “sells” it to the group.

• Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.

• Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision.

• Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.

• Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.


Vroom’s Time-Vroom’s Time-Driven Decision Driven Decision

TreeTree

Source: Victor Vroom’s Time-Driven Model from A Model of Leadership Style, copyright Vroom, 1998.

PROBLEM

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Figure 17.5


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Facilitate

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Consult (group)

Consult (group)

Facilitate

Decide

Facilitate

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Source: Victor Vroom’s Development-Driven Model from A Model of Leadership Style, copyright Vroom, 1998.

Vroom’s Vroom’s Development-Development-

Driven Decision Driven Decision TreeTree

Figure 17.6



• The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach– Stresses the importance of variable relationships between

supervisors and each of their subordinates.– Leaders form unique independent relationships (“vertical

dyads”) with each subordinate in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader’s out-group or in-group.

• The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Approach– Stresses the importance of variable relationships between

supervisors and each of their subordinates.– Leaders form unique independent relationships (“vertical

dyads”) with each subordinate in which the subordinate becomes a member of the leader’s out-group or in-group.

Leader

Subordinate1

Subordinate2

Subordinate3

Subordinate4

Subordinate5

Out-Group In-Group

Figure 17.7


Related Perspectives on Related Perspectives on LeadershipLeadership

• Substitutes for Leadership– A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior

is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.

• Substitutes for Leadership– A concept that identifies situations in which leader behavior

is neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.

Characteristics that Substitute for Leadership

Subordinate Task Organization

Ability

Experience

Need for independence

Professional orientation

Indifference towards

organizational goals

Routineness

The availability of feedback

Intrinsic satisfaction

Formalization

Group cohesion

Inflexibility

A rigid reward structure


Related Perspectives on Related Perspectives on Leadership (cont’d)Leadership (cont’d)

• Charismatic Leadership (House)– Charisma, an interpersonal attraction that inspires support and

acceptance, is an individual characteristic of a leader.– Charismatic persons are more

successful than noncharismatic persons.

– Charismatic leaders are self-confident, have a firm conviction in their belief and ideals, and possess a strong need to influence people.

• Charismatic Leadership (House)– Charisma, an interpersonal attraction that inspires support and

acceptance, is an individual characteristic of a leader.– Charismatic persons are more

successful than noncharismatic persons.

– Charismatic leaders are self-confident, have a firm conviction in their belief and ideals, and possess a strong need to influence people.



• Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)– Charismatic leaders in organizations must be able to:

• envision the future, set high expectations, and model behaviors consistent with expectations.

• energize others through a demonstration of excitement, personal confidence, and patterns of success.

• enable others by supporting them, by empathizing with them, and by expressing confidence in them.

• Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)– Charismatic leaders in organizations must be able to:

• envision the future, set high expectations, and model behaviors consistent with expectations.

• energize others through a demonstration of excitement, personal confidence, and patterns of success.

• enable others by supporting them, by empathizing with them, and by expressing confidence in them.



• Transformational Leadership– Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations, by

transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning, and inspiring new ways of thinking.

– Seven keys to successful leadership• Trusting in one’s subordinates

• Developing a vision

• Keeping cool

• Encouraging risk

• Being an expert

• Inviting dissent

• Simplifying things

• Transformational Leadership– Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations, by

transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning, and inspiring new ways of thinking.

– Seven keys to successful leadership• Trusting in one’s subordinates

• Developing a vision

• Keeping cool

• Encouraging risk

• Being an expert

• Inviting dissent

• Simplifying things


Political Behavior in OrganizationsPolitical Behavior in Organizations

• Political Behavior– The activities carried out for the specific purpose of

acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes.

– Common Political Behaviors• Inducement—offering to give something to someone else in return

for that person’s support.

• Persuasion—persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal.

• Creation of an obligation—providing support for another person’s position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date.

• Coercion—using force to get one’s way.

• Impression management—making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one’s image in the eyes of others.

• Political Behavior– The activities carried out for the specific purpose of

acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes.

– Common Political Behaviors• Inducement—offering to give something to someone else in return

for that person’s support.

• Persuasion—persuading others to support a goal on grounds that are objective and logical as well as subjective and personal.

• Creation of an obligation—providing support for another person’s position that obliges that person to return the favor at a future date.

• Coercion—using force to get one’s way.

• Impression management—making a direct and intentional effort to enhance one’s image in the eyes of others.


Political Behavior in Organizations Political Behavior in Organizations (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Managing Political Behavior– Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated,

others may assume that they are.– Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political

behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback.

– Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation.– Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that

subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior.

– Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists.

• Managing Political Behavior– Be aware that even if actions are not politically motivated,

others may assume that they are.– Reduce the likelihood of subordinates engaging in political

behavior by providing them with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback.

– Avoid using power to avoid charges of political motivation.– Get disagreements and conflicts out in the open so that

subordinates have less opportunity to engage in political behavior.

– Avoid covert behaviors that give the impression of political intent even if none exists.

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CHAPTER 17 Managing Leadership and Influence Processes Managing Leadership and Influence Processes Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights