Chapter 17: Elections and Voting

474

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 17—Overviewto preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

Every Vote Counts A successful demo-cracy is built on an informed electorate that isinfluenced by many factors. You are—or soonwill be—part of that electorate.

To find out more about how to castyour vote and to learn about its

impact, view the Democracy in ActionChapter 17 video lesson:

Elections and Voting

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

CHAPTER 17: ELECTIONS AND VOTING 475

Running for political office is expensive.National elections to select all represen-tatives and one-third of the senators areheld every two years. Senators and repre-

sentatives spend considerable time and effort rais-ing campaign funds. Presidential elections are heldevery four years. Candidates for the highest officemust have access to hundreds of millions of dollarsto run their campaigns. The presidential campaignis not only expensive, but also is a lengthy and com-plex process. The reward for the winner, however,is the most powerful position in government.

Electing the President Candidates for president begin organizingtheir campaigns almost one year before the

election. Primary races in the spring help to nar-row the field of candidates. Following the nationalconventions in late summer, the presidential cam-paigns become intense by early September. Theyend on Election Day—the first Tuesday after thefirst Monday of November. During the final eightweeks of the campaign, the candidates spend long,frenzied hours traveling from state to state. Tapingtelevision messages, shaking hands, makingspeeches, giving interviews, and many other cam-paign activities are exhausting. Candidates mayforget where they are and greet the people ofDenver with a “Hello, Dallas.” The slipup will beon the nightly news.

Electoral Votes and the States To beelected president, a candidate must win at least270 of the 538 available electoral votes. The totalelectoral vote is equal to the number of repre-sentatives and senators from all the states, plus 3votes from Washington, D.C. Each state’s elec-toral vote is the total number of its senators andrepresentatives in Congress.

The candidate who wins the greatest num-ber of popular votes in any state usually receivesall of that state’s electoral votes. To win the

Election CampaignsS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Election ControversyWASHINGTON, D.C., DECEMBER 14, 2000

The presidential election of

2000 was finally concluded

last night, 36 days after its

scheduled ending date. Vice

President Al Gore conceded

victory to Texas governor

George W. Bush after the

Supreme Court halted a Florida

statewide manual vote recount.

The ruling allowed Florida’s

electoral votes to be counted for Bush, thus making

him the 43rd president of the United States. The

election hinged on Florida’s final tally, which was

contested by Gore. He had petitioned for a recount,

which focused on individual punch cards and absen-

tee ballots. The Court’s decision allowed Bush to

become only the fourth president to win the election

while losing the popular vote.

TIME Cover

Reader’s Guide

Key Termscampaign manager, image, political action committee, soft money

Find Out■ What are the basic elements of a presidential

campaign?■ Why were the Federal Election Campaign Acts

passed?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes What strategic decisionsmust political parties and candidates make duringeach campaign?

Students support an election campaign.▲

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presidency, a candidate must pay special attentionto those states with large populations, such asCalifornia, Texas, New York, and Florida. The larg-er a state’s population, the more electoral votes ithas. A presidential candidate who won the elec-toral votes of the 11 largest states would obtain the270 votes necessary to win the presidency.

Because a candidate needs to win as manystates as possible, he or she must appeal to a broadrange of voters across the nation. A candidate whoruns on a single issue or only appeals to a certainregion of the country will find it much harder towin the necessary number of electoral votes. Thisneed for broad appeal works against third-partycandidates, who usually do not have the level ofnational organization or the amount of moneythat is available to Democrats and Republicans.

Campaign Strategy Planning how to capturekey states is only one of many decisions a presiden-tial candidate must make. For example, should thecandidate wage an aggressive, all-out attack on anopponent, or would a more low-key campaign be abetter strategy? What should be the theme or sloganof the campaign? What issues should be stressed?How much money should be spent on televisioncommercials, radio advertising, and newspaper ads?

Campaign Organization A strong organiza-tion is essential to running a presidential cam-paign. Heading the organization is a campaignmanager, who is responsible for overall strategyand planning. In the national office, individualshandle relations with television, radio, and theprint media and manage finances, advertising,opinion polls, and campaign materials.

On the state and local levels, the state partychairperson usually coordinates a campaign. Localparty officials and field workers contact voters,hold local rallies, and distribute campaign litera-ture. The field workers, who are usually volunteers,ring doorbells, canvass voters by telephone, anddo whatever they can do to make sure voters turnout to vote on Election Day.

Using Television The most important com-munication tool for a presidential candidateis television. Television coverage is the main waymany citizens find out how a campaign isprogressing. The image, or mental picture, thatvoters have of a candidate is extremely important.A candidate’s organization spends a great deal of time“packaging” him or her for television appearances.

Political commercials provide an effective meansof shaping a candidate’s image. Appearances on television news programs are equally important.Television is now the single most commonly usedsource of news for most Americans. Candidates alsouse television by participating in debates. Televiseddebates usually come late in a campaign and can havea big impact on voters who are undecided. Politicalparties know that these voters may determine thewinner of the election.

Using the Internet Candidates running fornearly every office from president of the UnitedStates to county clerk are making increasing use ofthe Internet. The World Wide Web is become a keytool for raising the money all candidates need tocompete effectively for office. In addition, everycandidate for higher office will have a campaignWeb site. Voters and reporters can visit these sitesto learn about the candidate’s background, sched-ule of appearances, positions on issues, votingrecord, recent speeches, and more; some sites alsoinclude a list of campaign contributors. Many sitesalso offer an electronic newsletter that provides e-mail updates on a candidate’s activities.

476 CHAPTER 17: ELECTIONS AND VOTING

Every Vote Counts A single votesometimes makes the difference in anelection. In 1997 Sydney Nixon, a Vermontstate representative, won his seat by a vote of 570 to 569. After a recount showed he actually lost 572 to 571, Nixon was forced to give up his seat to his opponent. In 1999,in Bering Strait, Alaska, an election for a school board seat ended in a tie. Later, a flip of a coin gave candidate Wayne Morgan the seat.

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Financing CampaignsRunning for political office is very expen-sive. In the 2004 elections, presidential and

congressional candidates spent a combined total of$3.9 billion dollars. Candidates need money forsuch things as office space, staff salaries, consul-tants, pollsters, travel, campaign literature, and ad-vertising in the mass media, especially television.

Money can contribute to open political debateby giving candidates the chance to broadcast theirviews to voters. However, the possibility arises thatcandidates will need to give special favors to con-tributors rather than represent all voters.

Regulating Campaign Financing Todaycampaign financing is heavily regulated. The Fed-eral Election Campaign Act (FECA) of 1971 and itsamendments in 1974, 1976, and 1979 provide theframework governing campaign financing. Thislaw and its amendments require public disclosureof each candidate’s spending, provide federalfunding for presidential elections, prohibit laborunions and business organizations from making

direct contributions, and limit how much individ-uals and groups can contribute. At first the regula-tions also tried to limit how much candidatescould spend in a campaign.

The 1974 amendment to the law created theFederal Election Commission (FEC) as an inde-pendent agency in the executive branch to admin-ister federal election laws. Records of campaigncontributions must be kept, and all contributionsover $100 must be reported to the FEC. The FEC’srecords are open to public inspection.

In 1976 the Supreme Court ruled that eventhough limiting individual contributions to candi-dates did not violate the First Amendment, anoverall limit on the total cost of a campaign wasunconstitutional. As a result, some candidates havespent huge sums. In 2000, for example, DemocratJon S. Corzine used $65 million of his own moneyin winning a New Jersey Senate seat.

Public Funding The 1974 campaign financelaw also established public funding for presidentialcampaigns. Presidential candidates may acceptfederal funding from the Presidential Election


Critical Thinking There has been a growing concern in recent years over the amount of campaign spending in presidential and congressional elections. How much more was spent on congressional campaigns than on presidential campaigns in 1992?

Source: Federal Election Commission, Annual Reports. * Numbers include primary and general election figures. † Preliminary figure

Am

ou

nt

(in

mil

lio

ns)

0

$100

$200

$300

$400

$500

$600

$700

$800

$900

$1,000

TotalWinning Candidates

Spending for Congressional Candidates1986–2002

Presidential Campaign Spending1984 –2004

2000

2004

†

1996

1992

1988

1984

Am

ou

nt

(in

mil

lio

ns)

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

0

$100

$200

$300

$400

$500

$600

$800

$700

200

349 340

629684

401

Campaign Spending*Campaign Spending*

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Campaign Fund for the primary campaigns andthe general election but must agree to limit theirtotal campaign spending. From 1976 to 2004, allmajor party candidates accepted these funds for the general election. Third-party presidentialcandidates can also receive federal funds if theirparty received at least five percent of the vote in theprevious presidential election.

Private Funding In every election, the bulk ofcampaign funding comes from private sources,such as individual citizens, party organizations,corporations, and special interest groups. The pas-sage of FECA in 1974 limited direct donations to acandidate by an individual to $1,000.

Direct donations to candidates or politicalparties may also come from political actioncommittees, or PACs. These organizations areestablished by interest groups to collect money andprovide financial support to favored candidates orpolitical parties. Like individuals, PACs are limitedby FECA in how much they may donate directly toany single candidate in one election cycle (whichincludes the primary and general election).

Political parties have found loopholes in FECAregulations and used them to maximize the impactof campaign contributions and to get an edge dur-ing election campaigns. One method used to bypasslimits on campaign spending is issue advocacyadvertising. Such advertising, paid for by interestgroups, urges voters to support a particular posi-tion on issues such as gun control or health care.Issue ads do not ask people to vote for or against acandidate, but they do often contain a candidate’sname or image. They can be a powerful way forinterest groups to support someone they like ortarget a candidate they dislike. FECA placed nolimits on this practice, and the top ten advertisersfor issues spent approximately $2.39 million onsuch ads during the 2000 election.

In 2002 Senators John McCain and RussFeingold sponsored a bill that would place newcontrols on campaign spending. The BipartisanCampaign Reform Act (BRCA) targeted the use ofissue advocacy advertising and the use of soft-moneydonations to national political parties. Soft-moneydonations were contributions given directly to apolitical party by PACs or individuals for general


Even if you are not eligible tovote, you can still support thecandidate of your choice by

becoming a volunteer in his or hercampaign. A phone call or a visit tothe candidate’s local headquarterswill sign you up as a campaignworker.

Volunteers perform many rou-tine campaign activities. On one occasion you might stuff envelopeswith campaign literature. On anoth-er, you may go door to door in aneighborhood to distribute bro-chures and talk to people about the candidate. You could help staffa phone bank that is calling voterswith a prepared message about

the candidate. On Election Day,your job might be to call selectedvoters to remind them to vote or toask if they need a ride to the polls.

Volunteering in a campaignhelps the candidate you favor, aswell as gives you a good look atelection politics from the inside.

Activity1. Contact your local branch of the

Democratic Party, RepublicanParty, or favorite third party toobtain more information onvolunteering. Share thisinformation with the class.

2. Find the candidate of your choicein an upcoming election. Focuson a race and gather informationon the candidates involved. Thencreate a summary of each candi-date’s position on issues. Whichcandidate do you support? Why?

Working in a Campaign

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

Campaign workers

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purposes, such as voter registration drives,party mailings, and political advertisements.In past elections this money was spent by po-litical parties to benefit the campaigns of theirpresidential and congressional candidateswithout ever giving the money directly to thecandidates. FECA placed no limits on thesecontributions, and in the 2000 election eachparty raised over $250 million in soft-moneycontributions. The BRCA banned all soft-money donations to national political par-ties, but it did raise the limit for individualdirect donations to $2,000. It also prohibitedunions, corporations, and nonprofit groupsfrom running issue ads aimed at a candidatewithin 30 days of a primary election and 60days of a general election. This law was chal-lenged as an unconstitutional restriction onfree speech, but it was largely upheld by theSupreme Court in December 2003.

Campaign Law and the Internet Mostcampaign finance regulations were writtenbefore the Internet became an electioneeringtool. The FEC has issued rulings on howfederal election laws apply to the Internet. The FEChas ruled, for example, that election Web site oper-ators must identify themselves online, even if theyare acting as individual citizens.Web sites operatingindependently of official campaigns must beregistered with the FEC if they spend $250 or more

Campaign Reform Questionable campaign fundinghas dominated partisan battles on Capitol Hill.According to the cartoonist, how has the highcost of running for public office affected the ethicsof campaign fund-raising?

Money and Ethics

Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Political Processes Imagine that you are running for political office. Prepare a campaignstrategy for your election. Explain what cam-paign tools you would use and how you wouldfinance your campaign. Create an illustratedposter outlining your strategy.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

below to show the effects the Federal ElectionCampaign Acts had on campaign financing.

2. Define campaign manager, image, political action committee, soft money.

3. Identify Federal Election Commission.4. How can third-party candidates qualify for fed-

eral funds for a presidential campaign?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing Information PACs can contribute to

as many political candidates as they wish. Whymight they contribute to all major candidates in apresidential campaign?


Federal ElectionCampaign Acts

EFFECTSCAUSE

on the site, including the cost of the computer usedto build the site and the software and Internetconnection used to keep it live. Official candidateand party Web sites may receive contributionselectronically, but they must follow establishedreporting procedures.

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480

Synthesizing information involves integrat-ing information from two or more sources.The ability to synthesize, or combine,

information is important because informationgained from one source often sheds new lightupon other information. If you can synthesizeinformation, you will get more out of every-thing you read.

Learning the Skill

To synthesize information, follow these steps:• Decide whether the two sources are compa-

rable. Ask: Can Source A give me new information or new ways of thinking aboutSource B?

• If you decide that the two are comparable,put into your own words what you can learnor what new hypotheses you can make.

Following are a chart and a bar graph givinginformation on votes by major political partiesand political party identification of the adult pop-ulation. The first step in synthesizing informationis to examine each source separately. The bargraph shows the votes cast for president in 1988and 1992. The chart details what political partyadults claimed to support.

The next step is to ask whether the informa-tion given in the two sources is comparable. Theanswer is yes. Finally, we ask: what can the chart tellus about the bar graph? The bar graph indicateswhether adults voted in 1988 and 1992 accordingto the political party they claimed to support.

Practicing the Skill

Use what you have learned to examine thegraph and the chart, and answer the questionsthat follow.

Synthesizing Information

1. What percentage of Americans identifiedthemselves as Independent in 1988? How didthis change in 1992? How did this change af-fect the presidential election of 1992?

2. Did more Americans identify themselves asDemocrats or Republicans in 1992? Did thismatch the way people voted? Explain.

3. What conclusions can you draw from thegraph and chart together?

1988 1992

Political PartyIdentification

Democrat36%

Independent36%

Republican28%

Democrat36%

Independent38%

Republican25%

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1996 (Washington, D.C.: 1996).

Popular Vote Cast for President

1988 19920

10

20

30

40

50

60

Perc

en

tag

e

DemocratsRepublicans

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Find two sources of information on atopic dealing with political parties and writea short report. In your report, answer thesequestions: What are the main ideas in thesources? How does each source add to yourunderstanding of the topic? Do the sourcessupport or contradict each other?

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Voting is not a privilege, it is a right. Vot-ing is absolutely vital to the success ofAmerican democracy. After all, democ-racy means rule by the people. Through

their votes, Americans have the power to selectmore than 500,000 government officials at all lev-els of government.

The right to vote, or suffrage, is the foundationof American democracy. Today almost all UnitedStates citizens 18 years old or older may exercisethis right. Like other rights, however, the right tovote is not absolute. It is subject to regulations andrestrictions. Unlike today, the right to vote for allcitizens over the age of 18 did not always exist. Dur-ing various periods in the history of the UnitedStates, law, custom, and sometimes even violenceprevented certain groups of people from voting.

Early Limitations on VotingBefore the American Revolution, thecolonies placed many restrictions on the

right to vote. Women and most African Ameri-cans were not allowed to vote; neither were whitemales who did not own property or pay taxes.Also excluded in some colonies were people whowere not members of the dominant religiousgroup. As a result, only about 5 or 6 percent of theadult population was eligible to vote.

Why did these restrictions exist? Educatedmen of the time did not believe in mass democ-racy in which every adult could vote. Many be-lieved voting was best left to wealthy, white,property-owning males. As John Jay, first chiefjustice of the United States, put it: “The peoplewho own the country ought to govern it.”

During the first half of the 1800s, state legislatures gradually abolished property requirements and religious restrictions for voting. By the mid-1800s the country hadachieved universal white adult male suffrage.The issue of woman suffrage, however, had notbeen addressed.

Expanding Voting RightsS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Videotaping of Polls OK?MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA, OCTOBER 1994

The U.S. Department of

Justice has advised

state officials in Mississippi

and Alabama that to allow

private videotaping at

polling places on Election

Day may be a violation of

federal law. Some largely

white citizens’ groups in

these states have formed

so-called “ballot security”

forces to police certain

polling places. These groups

claim that their videotap-

ing helps to combat voting

fraud. However, Justice Department attorneys worry

that the taping makes some African Americans un-

comfortable and may prevent them from voting.

“We will not countenance any thinly veiled attempts

to intimidate black voters at the polls,” warned

Assistant Attorney General Deval Patrick.

Not intimidated by “security”

Reader’s Guide

Key Termssuffrage, grandfather clause, poll tax

Find Out■ Why did it take so long for African Americans

and for women to win voting rights?■ What did each of the voting rights acts

achieve?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy What were the steps in theprocess of extending the right to vote to all adultcitizens?

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Condoleezza Rice

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference Did you know that CondoleezzaRice once intended to studymusic in college? Did you

know that she has had an oiltanker named after her? Rice hasled an interesting life.

She grew up in Birmingham,Alabama, during the early yearsof the civil rights movement. Herparents, both teachers, taughther that education was the bestdefense against the segregation-ist policies and prejudices com-mon during her youth. “I canremember my parents taking meto watch the [civil rights]marchers,” Rice once noted.“[T]hey wanted [me] to know thehistory and to know what washappening.”

Rice, George W. Bush’snational security adviser duringhis first term, was appointed sec-

retary of state in 2004. Rice hasintensely studied international re-lations and the Soviet Union. Oneof her college courses was taughtby Josef Korbel, the father of thefirst female secretary of state,Madeleine Albright.

Rice also served in the GeorgeH.W. Bush administration asspecial assistant to the presidentfor national security affairs. Shejoined the faculty of Stanford Uni-versity in 1981 and has served inthe classroom as a professor ofpolitical science and as the uni-versity provost. She has alsoserved as a member of the boardof directors of many corporations.

Rice is also a devoted fan offootball and has said that shewants to become commissionerof the National Football Leaguesomeday.

Woman SuffrageThe fight for woman suffrage dates from the mid-1800s. Woman suffrage groups

grew in number and effectiveness in the last halfof the century, and by 1914 they had won the right to vote in 11 states, all of them west of the Mississippi. Not until after World War I, when theNineteenth Amendment was ratified, was womansuffrage put into effect nationwide. The Nine-teenth Amendment states:

“The right of citizens of the United States tovote shall not be denied or abridged by theUnited States or by any State on accountof sex.”—Nineteenth Amendment, 1920

African American SuffrageWhen the Constitution went into effect in1789, African Americans, both enslaved and

free, made up about 20 percent of the United Statespopulation. Yet nowhere were enslaved persons

permitted to vote, and free African Americans who were allowed to vote could do so in only a few states.

The Fifteenth Amendment The first effortto extend suffrage to African Americans nationwidecame shortly after the Civil War, when the FifteenthAmendment 1 was ratified in 1870. The amend-ment provided that no state can deprive any citizenof the right to vote “on account of race, color, orprevious condition of servitude.” This amendmentwas also important because for the first time thenational government set rules for voting, a powerthat only the states had previously exercised.

Grandfather Clause Although the FifteenthAmendment was an important milestone on theroad to full suffrage, it did not result in completevoting rights for African Americans. Southern statesset up a number of roadblocks to limit and discour-age the participation of African American voters.

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

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One such roadblock was the so-called grand-father clause incorporated in the constitutions ofsome Southern states. The grandfather clauseprovided that only voters whose grandfathers hadvoted before 1867 were eligible to vote withoutpaying a poll tax or passing a literacy test. Becausethe grandfathers of most African AmericanSoutherners had been enslaved and had not beenpermitted to vote, this clause prevented most ofthem from voting. The Supreme Court declaredthe grandfather clause unconstitutional in 1915.

Literacy Test Until recent years many states re-quired citizens to pass a literacy test to qualify tovote. Some Southern states used the literacy tests tokeep African Americans from the polls. While inmany cases white voters were judged literate if theycould write their names, African American voterswere often required to do much more. For exam-ple, they were frequently asked to explain a com-plicated part of the state or national constitution.The Voting Rights Acts of 1965 and 1970 and lateradditions to these laws outlawed literacy tests.

Poll Tax Another device designed to discourageAfrican American suffrage was the poll tax. A poll

tax was an amount of money—usually one or twodollars—that a citizen had to pay before he or shecould vote. Because the poll tax had to be paid notonly for the current year, but also for previous un-paid years as well, it was a financial burden for poorcitizens of all ethnic backgrounds. In addition, thetax had to be paid well in advance of Election Day,and the poll-tax payer had to present a receipt show-ing payment before being permitted to enter the vot-ing booth. Voters who lost their receipts were barredfrom voting. Thousands of African Americans in thestates with poll taxes were excluded from the polls.

In 1964, the Twenty-fourth Amendment out-lawed the poll tax in national elections. The use ofthe poll tax in state elections, however, was noteliminated until a 1966 Supreme Court decision.

The Voting Rights Acts Despite the elimina-tion of many discriminatory practices by the early1960s, African American participation in elections,particularly in the South, was still limited. The civilrights movement of the 1960s resulted in nationallegislation that enabled larger numbers of AfricanAmericans to participate in the electoral process.The 1965 Voting Rights Act was one of the mosteffective suffrage laws ever passed in this country.


Tools of Citizenship Throughout theSouth in the 1960s African Americansfaced formidable rules and regulationswhile attempting to register to vote.African Americans encountered obsta-cles such as these even after the Vot-ing Rights Act of 1965 became law.What were the major empower-ments given through this votingrights act?

Overcoming Obstacles

Button supportingvoting rights

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965 and later votingrights laws of 1970, 1975, and 1982 brought thefederal government directly into the electoralprocess in the states. The 1965 law empowered thefederal government to register voters in any districtwhere less than 50 percent of African Americanadults were on the voting lists. The governmentcould also register voters in districts where it ap-peared that local officials were discriminatingagainst African Americans.

The voting rights laws also forbade the unfairdivision of election districts in order to diminishthe influence of minority groups. The laws provid-ed for the appointment of poll watchers to ensurethat the votes of all qualified voters were properlycounted. Literacy tests were abolished. The lawsalso required that ballots be printed in Spanish forSpanish-speaking communities. Other minoritylanguage groups—Native Americans, Asian Ameri-cans, Aleuts—were given the same right.

The Voting Rights Acts resulted in a dramaticincrease in African American voter registration. In1960 only 29 percent of all African Americans inthe South were registered. By 2000, however, thefigure had risen to more than 64 percent.

The increased opportunity to vote meant thatAfrican American Southerners could now play amore important role in political life in the South.More than 1,000 African Americans were elected to political office within a few years of the passage ofthe Voting Rights Act of 1965. In the North the elec-tion of African American mayors in large cities couldbe traced to the Voting Rights Acts as well.

Recent efforts at voting reform include theHelp America Vote Act of 2002. Under this act,states must meet new federal requirements toreform the voting process and make it as consistentand inclusive as possible.

Twenty-sixth Amendment For many years the minimum voting age inmost states was 21. In the 1960s, when many

young Americans were fighting in Vietnam, amovement to lower the voting age to 18 began. Thebasic argument was that if individuals were oldenough to be drafted and fight for their country,they were old enough to vote. The Twenty-sixthAmendment ended this debate, stating that:

“The right of citizens of the United States,who are eighteen years of age or older, tovote shall not be denied or abridged by theUnited States or by any State on accountof age.”—Twenty-sixth Amendment, 1971

Thus more than 10 million citizens between theages of 18 and 21 gained the right to vote.


Growth of Democracy Create an illustratedtime line that focuses on major events in theextension of voting rights in the United States.Include events between 1791 and the present.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a chart to explain the changes

brought about by the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, andTwenty-sixth Amendments.

2. Define suffrage, grandfather clause, poll tax.3. Identify Voting Rights Act.4. What did the Twenty-fourth Amendment outlaw?5. Why were the provisions of the Voting Rights

Acts important?

Critical Thinking6. Making Inferences John Jay said, “The people

who own the country ought to govern it.” Analyzethe impact of the extension of voting rights onthe meaning of Jay’s statement.


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 17—StudentWeb Activities for an activity about voting rights.

GOVERNMENT

15th 19th 26th

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Background of the CaseIn 1970 Congress passed the Voting Rights Act

Amendments (not amendments to the Constitu-tion). These laws changed residency and literacytest requirements and lowered the voting age forfederal, state, and local elections to 18 years. Presi-dent Richard Nixon signed the bill into law, butstrongly objected to the provision on the voting age.Nixon stated that he approved lowering the votingage, but believed “along with most of the nation’sleading constitutional scholars—that Congress hasno power to enact it by simple statute, but rather itrequires a constitutional amendment.” The states ofOregon, Arizona, Texas, and Idaho also opposed thelaw. Both the Nixon administration and the statesfiled suits against the law. Since the presidentialelection of 1972 was rapidly approaching, theSupreme Court quickly accepted the cases. TheSupreme Court wanted to hear the case and render adecision since it would impact the national election.

The Constitutional IssueThe major question was whether Congress had

the authority to lower the voting age in state andlocal elections. Congress argued that Article I, Sec-tion 4, and Article II, Section 1, clearly gave it theauthority to set conditions in the states for electingthe president, vice president, and members of Con-gress. Further, Congress claimed the Fourteenthand Fifteenth Amendments allowed Congress to forbid states from excluding citizens 18 to 21years of age from voting, just as they had allowedCongress to eliminate other restrictions on voting in the states.

The states raised the issue of federalism. Article I, Section 2, of the Constitution reserved tothe states the power to set qualifications to vote inelections for their own officials such as governors,state lawmakers, and so on. Further, the TenthAmendment reserved to the states all powers notexpressly given to the national government.

Questions to Consider1. Did the Constitution intend for the states or Con-

gress to have the authority to regulate age lim-its for voting in national elections?

2. Did the Constitution intend for the states or Con-gress to have the authority to regulate state andlocal elections?

3. How should the two levels of government—na-tional versus state and local—relate to eachother under the Constitution?

You Be the JudgeReview the parts of the Constitution cited by

each side. Based on your interpretation of the Con-stitution, which side’s reading of the Constitution doyou agree with? What could be the consequencesof letting Congress set the voting age for state andlocal elections? In your opinion, did the Constitutiongive Congress the power to lower the voting age to18 in national elections and in state and local elec-tions as well?

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

Before the Twenty-sixthAmendment gave 18-year-olds the right

to vote, many people questioned whether Congress had the power to set the voting age in state and local elections. The issue came to theSupreme Court in the case of Oregon v. Mitchell.

Oregon v.Mitchell, 1970

CASES TO DEBATE

A new voter

485

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Voting is a basic political right of all citizens in ademocracy who meet certainqualifications set by law.Voting allows citizens to takepositive actions to influenceor control government.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termscanvass, register, polling place, precinct,office-group ballot, ticket-splitting, party-column ballot, canvassing board,absentee ballot

Find Out■ How does a person register to vote?■ What are the procedures for voting?

Understanding ConceptsCivic Participation How can a person prepare to vote?

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VOTER’S HANDBOOK 487

Qualifications to Vote

Today you are qualified to vote if you are(1) a citizen of the United States, (2) atleast 18 years old, and (3) not a convicted

felon or legally insane. Most states also requirethat you be a resident of the state for a specifiedperiod and that you register or enroll with theappropriate local government.

Who Sets the Qualifications to Vote?Originally, under Article I, Section 2, the

Constitution left voting qualifications entirelyto the states. The Constitution gave to Congressonly the power to pick the day on which presi-dential electors would gather and to fix “theTimes, Places, and Manner of holding elec-tions” of members of Congress.

Since the end of the Civil War, Congress andthe federal courts have imposed national stan-dards on state-run elections. A series of consti-tutional amendments, federal laws, andSupreme Court decisions forced the states toconduct elections without discrimination be-cause of race, creed, color, or gender. Even withsuch federal requirements, however, the regis-tration of voters and regulation of elections areprimarily state powers.

Will My Vote Count?Each person’s vote counts. If you doubt it,

think about the times when a few votes have de-cided elections. In the 2000 election, over 5.8million votes were cast in the state Florida. Whenthe vote tally was completed, George W. Bushwon the state’s 25 electoral votes, and thereforethe presidency, by a margin of only 537 votes!

When Milton R. Young, a Republican, ranfor the Senate in North Dakota, he led his chal-lenger by fewer than 200 votes out of more than236,000 cast. The official canvass, the votecount by the official body that tabulates electionreturns and certifies the winner, finally con-firmed Young’s victory. Sometimes victoryhinges on a single vote. In a Cincinnati, Ohio,suburb a candidate for the town council wassuddenly hospitalized and unable to vote. Whenthe votes were counted, he had lost by 1 vote.

Registering to Vote

Americans must take the initiative if theywant to vote. Unlike in many countries,in the United States you must register, or

enroll with the appropriate local government.

Why Do You Have to Register to Vote?Registration became common in the late

1800s as a way to stop voting fraud. In thosedays the slogan “Vote Early and Often” was nota joke. In Denver in 1900, for example, one man confessed to having voted 125 times onElection Day! Reformers saw registration as away to stop such abuses and clean up electionsby giving officials a list of who could legallyvote. In the South, registration laws came to beused to stop African Americans and poor whitesfrom voting.

How Can I Register to Vote?Registration requirements are set by state

law and differ from state to state. Telephoneyour local board of elections or county or city government to check on your state’s re-quirements.

Encouraging people to exercise their right to vote

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488 VOTER’S HANDBOOK

Registration forms typically ask for yourname, address, place and date of birth, gender,Social Security number, and party. You mustalso sign your name so your signature can bechecked at the time you vote.

Usually, you must register to vote by 15 to30 days before an election. Only three states(Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin) allow youto register on Election Day.

The National Voter Registration Act thattook effect in 1995 requires states to make regis-tration forms available not only at motor vehi-cle departments but also at numerous stateoffices, welfare offices, and agencies that servethe disabled. It also requires states to allow mail-in registration. It permits, but does not require,states to use information from change-of-ad-dress forms filed with the U. S. Postal Service toupdate voter lists. Driver’s license applicants arerequired to fill out a separate form for register-ing to vote. Public agencies must make it clear tobeneficiaries that registering to vote is optionaland that not registering will not affect theamount of assistance they receive.

Supporters of the National Voter Registra-tion law believed that it would add 50 millioncitizens to the voting rolls when the changeswent into effect. Many more citizens did regis-

ter. However, the ease of registration did nothelp voter turnout in the 1996 election. Lessthan half the voting age population participat-ed, one of the lowest turnouts in history.

Voting Procedures

You vote at a polling place in your homeprecinct. A precinct is a voting district.Each city or county is usually divided into

precincts containing from 200 to 1,000 voters.

What Happens at the Polling Place?Generally, before the date of the election

you will receive notification of where you are tovote. Procedures will vary slightly at differentpolling places. Look over the sample ballot post-ed on a wall near the entryway. Then: (1) Go tothe clerk or election judge’s table and sign in bywriting your name and address on an applica-tion form. (2) The clerk will read your namealoud and pass the application to a challenger, alocal election official representing a politicalparty. (3) The challenger compares your signa-ture with your voter registration form. If theymatch, the challenger initials your form and re-turns it to you. (4) Give your form to one of thejudges and enter the booth to vote.

Critical Thinking During the first two years of the National Voter Registration Act (NVRA), registration increased significantly. Why was voter turnout so much higher in 2000 than in 2002?

1994* 1996 1998* 2000 2002*

*1994, 1998, and 2002 were not presidential election years.Source: Federal Election Commission, Executive Summary of the Federal Election Commission’s Report to the Congress on the Impact ofthe National Voter Registration Act of 1993 on the Administration of Federal Elections. (Washington, D.C.:2003).Federal Election Commission Web site, www.fec.gov.

Total Registered

Total Voting AgePopulation 193,650,000 196,511,000 200,929,000 205,815,000 215,400,000

130,292,822 146,211,960 141,850,558 156,421,311 168,440,000

75,105,860 96,456,345 73,117,022 105,586,274 79,830,000

38.8% 49.1% 36.4% 51.3% 37.0%

Turnout

% Turnout

Impact of the National Voter Registration ActImpact of the National Voter Registration Act

481-491 CH17S2-860053 12/4/04 12:54 AM Page 488


Can My Right to Vote Be Challenged?You cannot be stopped from voting because

of your race, gender, religion, income, or politi-cal beliefs. You can be challenged, however, ifyour registration or identification is in question.

What Will the Ballot Look Like?Two forms of ballots are generally used.

An office-group ballot lists the candidates ofall parties together by the office for which theyare running. Their political party affiliationis listed beside their name. Many believe thisform of ballot encourages ticket-splitting,voting for candidates from different parties fordifferent offices.

The party-column ballot lists each party’scandidates in a column under the party’s name.There is usually a square or circle at the top ofeach party’s column. By putting one mark in thesquare or circle, you can vote a straight ticket forall the party’s candidates. You may also vote foreach office individually by marking one box ineach column. You may also write in the name ofsomeone not listed on the ballot for any office.

How Do I Use the Voting Machine?As a result of incorrectly marked ballots dur-

ing the 2000 presidential election, many states aremodernizing their voting machines.Besides newertouch-screen systems, the most common votingsystems are the punch-card machine and the levermachine.

If you are given a punch-card ballot, insert itin the voting machine and line up the ballot withthe names of the candidates. Punch holes in theappropriate places on the ballot with the providedstylus. Put your card in its envelope and give it tothe election judge.

To use the lever machine,pull the large lever toone side to close the booth’s curtain. The ballot ispart of the machine facing you. Vote by pullingdown the small levers beside the names of the can-didates you are choosing. Then pull the large leveragain to record your vote and reset the machine.

Touch-screen systems use a ballot displayedon a computer screen. You vote by touching thebox beside the appropriate name. These systemsalso allow voters to review their choices beforeelectronically storing their vote.

Source: The New York Times, November 7, 2004.

** Hispanics may be of any race.

* Preliminary data based on nationwide exit polls conducted after the November 2 election.

Other3%

White79%

AfricanAmerican

12%

Hispanic**6%

Voted60%

Did not vote40%

Women49%

Men51% P

erc

en

tag

e

010

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

BushKerry

2004 Voter Distribution by CandidateTotal eligible voters

% of voters by gender

% of voters by ethnic group

Women

Men

Voters Aged 18–29

African Americans

Voter Characteristics in 2004 Presidential Election*Voter Characteristics in 2004 Presidential Election*

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490 VOTER’S HANDBOOK

Will My Vote Be aSecret?

The law entitles youto a secret ballot. Bor-rowed from a proceduredeveloped in Australiain 1856, the Australianballot was printed atgovernment expense.The ballot listed all candidates, was givenout only at the polls on Election Day, wasmarked in secret, andwas counted by govern-ment officials. By 1900,nearly all states hadadopted this system.

Who ActuallyCounts the Votesand Certifies a Winner?

A canvassing board, or official body that isusually bipartisan, counts votes. As soon as thepolls close, the ballots from each precinct areforwarded to city or county canvassing boards.These boards put all the returns together andsend them on to the state canvassing authority.Within a few days of the election, the state can-vassing authority certifies the election of thewinner. Each winner gets a certificate of electionfrom the county or state canvassing board.

Through television and radio, people usuallyknow the winners before canvassing boards cer-tify them. In close elections the result may dependupon the official vote count and certification.

How Can I Prepare to Vote?The best way to prepare to vote is to stay in-

formed about candidates and public issues. AsElection Day nears, newspapers, TV, radio, andnewsmagazines will carry useful information.You might also try the following: (1) The localLeague of Women Voters may publish a Voters’Information Bulletin, a fact-filled, nonpartisanrundown on candidates and issues. (2) Each

political party has litera-ture and other infor-mation about theircandidates and will beeager to share it withyou. (3) Many interestgroups such as theAmerican ConservativeUnion or the AFL-CIOCommittee on PoliticalEducation rate mem-bers of Congress ontheir support for thegroup’s programs. If youagree with the views ofan interest group, checkits ratings of candidates.

How Can I Choose a Candidate?

Everyone has differ-ent reasons for support-ing one candidate overanother. Asking these

questions may help you decide: (1) Does thecandidate stand for things I think are impor-tant? (2) Is the candidate reliable and honest?(3) Does the candidate have relevant past expe-rience? (4) Will the candidate be effective in of-fice? Look for the resources the person will bringto the job. Does the candidate have good politi-cal connections? (5) Does the candidate have areal chance of winning? You have a tough choiceto make if it appears that your favorite candidatehas a slim chance of winning. You may want tovote for a losing candidate to show support for acertain point of view. You may also want to votefor someone having the greatest chance of beat-ing the candidate you like the least.

Special Circumstances

With more than 190 million potentialvoters, special circumstances alwaysaffect some voters. Over the years,

special procedures and protections have beendeveloped to help ensure that despite such cir-cumstances all eligible Americans may vote.

A delegate to the national convention proclaims her support for Democratic

candidates.

481-491 CH17S2-860053 12/3/04 5:29 AM Page 490

What Is an Absentee Ballot?An absentee ballot allows you to vote with-

out going to the polls on Election Day. You mustobtain an absentee ballot within a specifiedtime before an election, fill it out, and return it(usually by mail) to the proper election official.The deadlines to apply for and return absenteeballots vary by state. Check with local electionofficials for details.

When Can I Use an Absentee Ballot?Rules vary from state to state. Generally you

may vote by absentee ballot if: (1) you will beout of town on Election Day; (2) you will behospitalized on Election Day; (3) you have aphysical disability or special illness that makes itdifficult to get to the polling place (in such casesa doctor’s certificate may be needed); (4) youcannot vote on Election Day because of reli-gious observances; or (5) you will be in jail for amisdemeanor or are awaiting trial.

In an effort to increase voter turnout, somestates have relaxed rules on absentee ballots.Texas, for example, allows anyone who wishes todo so to cast an absentee ballot. The voter mustsimply request one.

How Do I Apply for an Absentee Ballot?Request an absentee ballot (in person or by

mail) from your local board of elections or

other appropriate office. In order to receive yourballot, you will need to give your name, votingresidence, and reason for being absent from thepolls on Election Day.

Can Disabled Voters Receive Special Assistance?

Any voter who needs help in voting becauseof a disability is entitled to receive it. Some statesallow you to pick the person to assist you. Otherstates require that only officials at the pollingplace can help. To protect disabled voters frompressure, some states require that two electionofficials from opposite parties be present duringvoting. Election officials may not disclose anyinformation about how you voted.

Do Non-English-Speaking Voters Receive Special Help?

Under the Voting Rights Act of 1975, ballotsand related election materials must be printedin the language of voting minorities as well as inEnglish. This provision applies only in areaswhere illiteracy in English is high or recent vot-ing turnout was unusually low.

Election materials, for example, are availablein Spanish and English in many parts of Florida,Texas, California, and other states. In Hawaii,election materials have been put into Cantonese,Ilocano, and Japanese as well as English.

Civic Participation Citizens must prepareto vote. Walking into a voting booth withoutpreparation makes voting a meaningless ac-tivity. What should a person know in orderto vote meaningfully? Create a pamphlet describing the kinds of things voters shouldknow in order to make their vote count.


to the right to show the circumstances under which a voter can use an absentee ballot.

2. Define canvass, register, polling place, precinct,office-group ballot, ticket-splitting, party-columnballot, canvassing board, absentee ballot.

3. Identify Australian ballot.4. What are two requirements to vote in the

United States?

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Why do you think the

secret ballot was adopted?

Handb o ok AssessmentHandb o ok Assessment


aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

Absentee Ballot

If then

481-491 CH17S2-860053 12/3/04 5:29 AM Page 491

Five major factors influence voter decisions:(1) personal background of the voter; (2)degree of voter loyalty to one of the politi-cal parties; (3) issues of the campaign; (4)

voters’ image of the candidates; and (5) propagan-da. Perhaps the biggest decision, however, iswhether to vote on Election Day.

Personal Background of Voters

Voters’ personal backgrounds affect theirdecisions. A person’s background includes

such things as upbringing, family, age, occupation,income level, and even general outlook on life.

Age Consider, for example, how an individual’sage might affect a voting decision. A 68-year-oldsenior citizen would probably favor a candidatewho promised an increase in Social Security pay-ments, provided, of course, that positions the can-didate took on other issues did not offend thatvoter. On the other hand, a 23-year-old votermight resent the prospect of having more moneydeducted from her paycheck to pay for increasedSocial Security payments. This young voter mightthen decide to vote against the candidate.

Other Background Influences Voters’ ed-ucation, religion, and racial or ethnic back-ground also affect their attitudes toward thecandidates. For example, an African Americanmight favor a candidate who supports strong an-tidiscrimination measures in education and em-ployment. A Jewish voter might not vote for acandidate who has expressed strong reservationsabout American support of Israel.

It is important to understand that people’sbackgrounds tend to influence them in particu-lar ways. However, individuals do not alwaysvote the way their backgrounds might lead oneto believe. Will labor union members always

Influences on VotersS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Motor Voter Law WorksATLANTA, GEORGIA, JULY 12, 1995

Nearly three times

more Georgians

registered to vote in the

six months since the

National Voter Regis-

tration Act took effect

than registered in all of

1994. The new law has

been labeled “Motor

Voter” because it re-

quires states to offer

voter registration with

driver’s license applica-

tions, renewals, or address changes. Thanks in part

to the “Motor Voter” law, 72.77 percent of the voting

age population was registered, the highest level since

1960, when reliable records were first analyzed. The

United States, however, currently has the lowest

voter participation of any Western democracy.

A registered voter


Reader’s Guide

Key Termscross-pressured voter, straight party ticket, propaganda

Find Out■ What personal background factors do you

believe will influence your decision as a voter?■ What outside influences affect how a person

votes?

Understanding ConceptsCivic Participation How does a citizen overcomeobstacles to voting and voter apathy?

492-501 CH17S3-860053 12/3/04 5:54 AM Page 492

Traditions of Voting A person’s affiliationswith family, coworkers, and friends is just oneof the factors that influences how and howoften that person votes. What practice of regular voters does this cartoon illustrate?

vote for the Democratic presidential candidate, asthey historically have? The large number of unionmembers who voted for Republican Ronald Rea-gan in 1980 confirms that they do not. Will col-lege-educated voters, most of whom usually voteRepublican, always give their votes to the Republi-can candidate? The landslide vote by which Lyn-don Johnson, a Democrat, defeated RepublicanBarry Goldwater in 1964 indicates that this has notalways been the case.

The Cross-Pressured Voter One reasonwhy voters’ backgrounds do not always forecast howthey will vote is that many voters are cross-pres-sured. A cross-pressured voter is one who is caughtbetween conflicting elements in his or her own lifesuch as religion, income level, and peer group. Forexample, Catholics are generally more inclined tovote Democratic than Republican. Yet, suppose anindividual Catholic voter is also a wealthy businessexecutive. Well-to-do businesspeople are usuallyRepublicans. Furthermore, many of this voter’sclose friends are Democrats. They will no doubthave some influence on this voter’s thinking.

How will this person vote? Such a voter’s per-sonal background, like that of millions of other vot-ers, has conflicting elements. For this voter, otherareas important to voter decision making—such ascampaign issues and the personalities of the candi-dates—will probably play an equally influentialrole in determining how he or she will vote.

Loyalty to Political PartiesAnother influence on voters’ decisions istheir loyalty (or lack of it) to one of the po-

litical parties. Because the majority of Americanvoters consider themselves either Republicans orDemocrats, most vote for their party’s candidates.

Strong Versus Weak Party Voters Not allvoters who consider themselves Republicans orDemocrats support their party’s candidates withthe same degree of consistency. Strong party votersare those who select their party’s candidates inelection after election. Strong party voters tend tosee party as more important than the issues or thecandidates. In the voting booth, they usually vote astraight-party ticket—they select the candidatesof their party only.

Unlike strong party voters, weak party votersare more likely to switch their votes to the rivalparty’s candidates from time to time. In 1980, as anexample, 27 percent fewer Democrats voted forCarter than had voted for him in 1976. Weak partyvoters are more influenced by issues and the can-didates than they are by party loyalty.

Independent Voters Another importantgroup of voters is the independent voters, whothink of themselves as neither Republicans norDemocrats. Even when independents tend to leantoward one party, their party loyalty is weak.

The number of independent voters has in-creased over the years. Because of this increase, in-dependent voters have become an importantelement in presidential elections. Along with weakparty voters, independent voters may help deter-mine who wins the right to occupy the WhiteHouse every four years. In 1992 Ross Perot, an in-dependent candidate, won many of these votes.


Loyal Voters

492-501 CH17S3-860053 12/3/04 5:54 AM Page 493

today are better educated than were voters of thepast. A third reason is that current issues seem tohave a greater impact on the personal lives of manymore voters than at any time since the Great Depres-sion of the 1930s. These issues include Social Secu-rity, health care, taxes, education, affirmative action,abortion, gun rights, and the environment.

A presidential election that demonstrated theimportance of issues was the election of 1980. Forexample, many Americans blamed PresidentJimmy Carter for the high cost of living, the highrate of inflation, and the high rate of unemploy-ment. In his four years in office the economy hadworsened, and Carter seemed unable to turn itaround. Carter’s opponent, Republican RonaldReagan, used the economic issue to attack thepresident’s administration.

At the end of the televised debate between thetwo candidates, Reagan asked the millions ofAmericans watching, “Are you better off than youwere four years ago? Is it easier for you to go andbuy things in the stores than it was four years ago?”


Both President Bill Clinton and Republican BobDole adjusted their message and strategy to appealto these voters in 1996. Eventually, Perot’s supportdeclined to less than half its 1992 level.

Experts believe that the number of weak partyvoters and independent voters will increase in thefuture. Presidential candidates will no longer beable to rely on party loyalty for victory. Analystspredict that the issues of a campaign and the candi-dates’ images will influence more and more voters.

Issues in Election Campaigns

Many voters are not well-informed aboutall the issues discussed in election cam-

paigns. Still, today’s voters are better informedthan the voters of earlier years. Several reasons ac-count for this shift.

First, television has brought the issues into al-most every home in the country. Second, voters

Critical Thinking More than 115 million people voted for president in 2004, the highest voter turnout in U.S. history. In which areas of the country did Bush receive the strongest support?

Year % Turnout

1964

1968

1972

1976

1980

1984

1988

1992

1996

2000

2004

61.9%

60.7%

55.2%

53.5%

52.6%

53.1%

50.1%

55.1%

49.1%

51.2%

59.6%

Presidential Elections

Sources: Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002; USA Today, Nov. 4, 2004; The New York Times, Nov. 5, 2004.

Electing the PresidentElecting the President

WA

ORID

MT

WY

CA

AK

HI

NV UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LAMS AL GA

FL

SC

NC

WV VA

VT

NY

PA OH IN

MI

IL DE NJ CT

DC

RI MA

MENH

TN KY

MD

WA

ORID

MT

WY

CA

AK

HI

NV UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

ND MN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LAMS AL GA

FL

SC

NC

WV VA

VT

NY

PA OH IN

MI

IL DE NJ

CT

DC

RI MA

MENH

TN KY

MD

0–29%

30–39%

40–49%

50% or more

Kerry’s Percentage of Popular Vote, 2004Kerry’s Percentage of Popular Vote, 2004

Bush’s Percentage of Popular Vote, 2004Bush’s Percentage of Popular Vote, 2004

492-501 CH17S3-860053 12/4/04 12:51 AM Page 494

Knowing Your Political ID

P erhaps you have not thought much aboutwhether you are a liberal (left), conserva-tive (right), or moderate (center); a Demo-

crat, a Republican, or an Independent. You canmeasure your “political ID” by how you feelabout certain issues. Democrats are generallymore liberal and Republicans generally moreconservative. Independents may fall in betweenon some issues and lean left or right on others.Liberals tend to be “loose constructionists” and conservatives “strict constructionists” ofthe Constitution. A liberal generally believesthat government has more social responsibilityfor providing education, health, welfare, and

civil rights. A conservativegenerally believes that individuals and voluntaryassociations should begiven more responsibilityto make choices in these areas.

Check Some Issues Research some recent controversial political issues. With which side do you agree? Place yourself on a chart of thepolitical spectrum between the far left and far right side.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

For most Americans the answer to these questionswas “No.” Because Reagan made such a strongissue of the economy, millions of voters who hadvoted for Carter four years earlier switched to theRepublican challenger.

The Candidate’s ImageJust as important as the issues themselves isthe way the voters perceive the issues. If, for

example, they believe that an administration isdealing effectively with the economy, they may re-ward the president with their votes. Conversely, ifthey believe an administration’s measures are inef-fective, voters may punish the president by votingfor the other candidate.

Certainly, most Americans want a presidentwho appears to be someone they can trust as a na-tional leader. All candidates try to convey thisimage to the public, but not all are successful indoing so. Gerald Ford, running for president in1976, struck many voters as well-meaning but dull.Adlai Stevenson, who lost to Dwight D. Eisenhow-er in 1952 and 1956, was perceived by many votersas too intellectual to be president.

Many voters select candidates on imagealone—for the personal qualities they perceivethem to have. In 1964 President Lyndon Johnsonhad the image of a peacemaker, while his oppo-

nent, Barry Goldwater, was viewed as more willingto lead the nation into war. At the very least, a can-didate must be viewed as competent to handle theproblems of the day. Many voters rejected MichaelDukakis in 1988 because they believed he was un-qualified to deal with the nation’s problems. Presi-dent Harry S Truman cited the danger of gettingthis image when he said:

“Being a president is like riding a tiger. Aman has to keep riding it or be swallowed.. . . A president is either constantly on topof events or, if he hesitates, events will soonbe on top of him.” —Harry S Truman

A candidate, then, must convey the impression ofhaving the qualities voters expect in a president.

Propaganda Political parties, interest groups, and busi-nesses need to convince people of the value

of their candidates, ideas, goods, or services. Amer-icans are used to hearing hundreds of such mes-sages every day. Many of these messages could beclassified as “propaganda.” Propaganda involvesusing ideas, information, or rumors to influenceopinion. Propaganda is not necessarily lying or

495

492-501 CH17S3-860053 12/3/04 5:54 AM Page 495

deception; however, neither is it objective. Propa-ganda uses information in any way that supports apredetermined objective.

Propaganda techniques were initially used ona mass scale by commercial advertisers. As politicalcampaigns adapted to television, campaign man-agers developed sophisticated messages usingseven propaganda techniques.

“Plain folks” has been a popular techniquesince Andrew Jackson won the White House in1828. The technique that asks a person to “jumpon the bandwagon” followed close behind. When aparty’s convention is all decked out in patrioticsymbols, it is using “transfer” to influence viewers.A Hollywood actor or popular musician whospeaks for a candidate is giving a “testimonial,” orendorsement. Republicans used the term “liberal”as a negative label for Democrats beginning in the1980s. Democrats often refer to conservative Re-publican candidates as “right-wing” politicians. Adebate is a good place to identify “card stacking,” aseach candidate quotes only those statistics thatsupport his or her position.

When political propaganda becomes obvious-ly misleading, people become skeptical of politi-cians. Name calling can override the importantissues of a campaign. Voters say they do not appre-ciate that approach, and some analysts believe theresult can be reduced voter participation.

Profile of Regular VotersCitizens who vote regularly have certainpositive attitudes toward government and

citizenship.Investigators have found that education, age,

and income are important factors in predictingwhich citizens will vote. The more education a cit-izen has, the more likely it is that he or she will be aregular voter. Middle-aged citizens have the highestvoting turnout of all age groups. Voter regularityalso increases with income—the higher a person’sincome, the more regularly that person votes.

Profile of Nonvoters The struggles over the extension of suffragehave resulted in more Americans having the

right to vote than ever before. Nevertheless, forseveral reasons many Americans do not vote.

Some citizens do not vote because they do notmeet state voting requirements. Almost all stateshave three basic requirements—United States citizenship, residency, and registration. A voterwho does not fulfill all of these requirements is notpermitted to vote.

All states limit the voting right to Americancitizens. Even people who have lived in this coun-try for many years but who have not formally


Critical Thinking Campaigns use different techniques to promote the best interests of their candidates. Which techniques would an incumbent candidate more likely use? Why?

How to Recognize ItTechnique

Spin

Labeling Name calling; identifying a candidate with a term such as “un-American”

Interpreting a political event or statement from a particular point of view

Giving only one side of the facts to support a candidate’s position

Associating a patriotic symbol with a candidate

Card Stacking

Transfer

Identifying the candidate as “just one of the common people”Plain Folks

A celebrity endorses a candidateTestimonial

Urging voters to support a candidate because everyone else isThe Bandwagon

Propaganda TechniquesPropaganda Techniques

492-501 CH17S3-860053 12/3/04 5:54 AM Page 496

become United States citizens cannot vote inAmerican elections.

Most states require voters to be residents ofthe state for a certain period before they are al-lowed to vote. When a voter moves to a new state,he or she needs time to become informed aboutlocal and state issues and candidates. Before 1970the period of required residence ranged from 3months to 2 years. The Voting Rights Act of 1970,however, along with two Supreme Court deci-sions, created a residence period of 30 days in allelections. Some states have no required residenceperiod at all.

All states, with the exception of North Dakota,require voters to register or record their names of-ficially with local election boards. On Election Dayan election official must check voters’ names. Vot-ers whose names are on the list sign in by writingtheir names on a form. Registration is a way to pre-vent voter fraud or dishonest elections. All voterregistration is permanent if a voter, once regis-tered, remains on the list unless he or she dies,moves, or fails to vote within a certain number ofyears.

One problem in meeting residency and regis-tration standards is that American society is high-ly mobile. Experts estimate that almost one-fifth ofAmericans move to a new location every five years.A new resident may forget to register or find thatthe registration offices are open at inconvenienttimes. Also, complicated registration proceduresand residency requirements affect voter participa-tion. In recent years, these requirements have been

made less burdensome, but voter turnout is stillrelatively low.

Voter Participation The percentage of Amer-icans voting in presidential elections declined fromabout 62 percent in 1960 to just over 50 percent in2000. Even fewer Americans voted in congressional,state, and local elections.

In 2004, however, voter participation jumpedto almost 60 percent in the hotly contested racebetween incumbent George W. Bush and Massa-chusetts senator John Kerry. The election ended inBush’s victory over Kerry. Some voters in keybattleground states waited in line for hours to casttheir ballots. Each candidate received more votesthan any presidential candidate had ever receivedbefore. However, even with this voting surge, therewere still millions of eligible voters who did notparticipate in the election.

Ways of Increasing Voter Turnout Politi-cal experts who are concerned about the high rateof nonvoting in the United States have suggested anumber of ways to get more citizens to the polls onElection Day. For example, shift Election Day fromTuesday to Sunday, so that citizens are free to votewithout having to take time off from work. Anoth-er idea would be to allow voters to register on Elec-tion Day. Some favor a national registrationsystem, so that voters’ registration follows them toa new state when they move. Making it easier tovote, however, has not been effective in gettingmore people to the polls in recent years.


Civic Participation Voter apathy is an issue in the United States today. Draw a politicalcartoon that depicts a reason people give fornot voting.


below to show how parties try to influence voters.

voters

2. Define cross-pressured voter, straight party ticket, propaganda.

3. Identify independent voter.4. Identify factors in a voter’s personal background

that influence that individual’s vote.

Critical Thinking5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment What

qualities of competence and leadership wouldyou think are important for a presidential candi-date to have?


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DECISION 2000 THE 2000 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

was probably the most controversialone ever. A voting card known as aBUTTERFLY BALLOT caused a lotof controversy that still lingers inthe minds of many Americans. Some people in Florida found thebutterfly ballot confusing and felt that they may have accidentallyvoted for the wrong person. Adding to the mix-up, some ballots hadincomplete perforations (known as “hanging chads”) or just slightindentations. In these cases, counting machines might not havecounted the votes.

V E R B A T I MWHAT PEOPLE SAID

“I will never pay adollar for yourunjust fine.”SUSAN B.

ANTHONY,referring to the

$100 fine shereceived for voting

in the 1872 presidentialelection. At that time, it was

illegal for women to vote.

“During the last presidentialrace, I had the privilege oftraveling the country and meetingvast numbers of young people. Icannot express how impressed Iwas. With energy and passion ascontagious as it was inspiring,these young Americans confidedtheir dreams and shared theiraspirations, not for themselvesalone, but for their country.”SENATOR JOHN MCCAIN, who ran

for the Republican presidentialnomination in 2000

“A chicken in every pot and acar in every garage.”HERBERT HOOVER, making apromise during his 1928 presidential

campaign

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DATE WITH DESTINYIn 1845 Congress went through a process of elimination in orderto set ELECTION DAY. It settled on the Tuesday after the firstMonday in November in even-numbered years. Why did themembers choose a Tuesday? Why not just November 1? Here’swhat they were thinking:

NO to Monday (first day of the work week)

NO to Friday (last day of the week)

NO to Saturday (shopping/religious day)

NO to Sunday (shopping/religious day)

NO to Thursday (British election day)

MAYBE Wednesday (no major conflicts)

MAYBE Tuesday (no major conflicts)

Congress didn’t want to set Election Day as November 1. Why? Itmight disrupt the business of shopkeepers and accountants whohad to take care of October books. So, it finally chose the Tuesdayafter the first Monday. (Whew!)

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Florida poll workersrecount votes andstudy ballots.

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U . S . P R E S I D E N T A L E L E C T I O N S

BUTTONEDUP, 1896.CAMPAIGNBUTTONS

were firstused in the

presidentialrace between William McKinleyand William Jennings Bryan.There were no catchy slogans—just photos of the candidates,their names, and a few words,such as “For President.”

N U M B E R S N U M B E R S

1 The number ofpeople to serve asboth vice presidentand presidentwithout actuallybeing elected todo so. Gerald Fordwas appointed vicepresident byPresident Nixonafter Spiro Agnew steppeddown in 1973. Ford thenbecame president when Nixonresigned in 1974.

1 The number of vicepresidents to win apresidential election sinceMartin Van Buren in 1836.Former vice president GeorgeH.W. Bush was electedpresident in 1988.

5 The number of votes in theElectoral College that made upGeorge W. Bush’s margin ofvictory in the 2000 election.

17 The number of peopleto become president aftergoverning a state. George W.Bush is the 17th, after servingas governor of Texas.

1st Geraldine Ferraro, acongressional representativefrom New York, was the firstwoman to run for vicepresident on a majorparty ticket. Sheand running mateWalter Mondalelost the race in 1984.

PARTY ANIMALSDuring Andrew Jackson’s 1828

presidential campaign, opponentsportrayed him as stubborn, not

very bright, and similar to aDONKEY. Rather than getupset, Jackson thought itwould be a good idea to put the strong-willedanimal on his campaignposters. Later, a cartoonistnamed Thomas Nastmade the symbol famousby using it in newspapercartoons.

In 1877, after theRepublicans lost the White

House to the Democrats,Nast drew a cartoon of a trap

set by a donkey with anELEPHANT walking right into

it—and the Republican Partysymbol was born! Nast chose the

elephant because elephants areintelligent but easily controlled.

Today, Democrats use the words“smart” and “brave” to describe the donkey, and Republicans say theelephant is “strong” and “brave.”

M I L E S T O N E S

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NAMED, LATE 1700s. “Hishighness the President of theUnited States of America andProtector of their Liberties.” Thismouthful is how a Senatecommittee wanted to addressPRESIDENT WASHINGTON and allfuture presidents. The Housethought this title was too royaland reduced it to merely “thePresident of the United States.”The Senateagreed, and thename has stuckever since.

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Reviewing Key TermsWrite the term that best completes each sentence.

political action committeessoft moneystraight-party ticketcross-pressured votersuffragegrandfather clause

1. Political candidates often receive campaigncontributions and support from _____.

2. Women in the United States gained ____ in1920.

3. Most independent voters do not vote a _____.4. Political parties can raise unlimited amounts

of money for general purposes, not designatedto particular candidates, through _____.

5. The _____ was a roadblock to voting for mostAfrican American Southerners.

6. One cannot be sure how a _____ will vote be-cause that person has conflicting interests.

Recalling Facts1. How does the number of electoral votes of a

state affect presidential campaigning?2. What were the three devices used after 1870

to prevent African Americans from voting?3. Which group of Americans gained the right to

vote under the Twenty-sixth Amendment?4. What effects has television had on presiden-

tial elections?5. Describe the current voter registration system.

Understanding Concepts1. Political Processes Individuals have suggested

extending public financing of election cam-paigns to include congressional campaigns.Explain the advantages and disadvantages ofthis idea.

2. Growth of Democracy Why were the VotingRights Acts necessary?

3. Civic Participation The right to vote belongs toevery United States citizen. In your opinion,what do citizens forfeit if they do not exercisetheir right to vote?

Critical Thinking1. Predicting Consequences Identify at least three

consequences that could result from limitingthe amount of money any individual could giveto a political campaign.

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 17Chapter 17

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 17–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

Financing Campaigns

Influences on Voters

• Personal background (age, religion, education, ethnicity)• Loyalty to political parties (strong, weak, or independent)• Knowledge of campaign issues• Candidate’s image • Propaganda

• The Federal Election Commission (FEC) administers federal election laws.• The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 set up a new system for

financing federal elections.• New laws led to growth of political action committees (PACs) and the

raising of huge amounts of soft money.• Efforts to reform campaign finance have met with only limited success.

Expanding Voting Rights

• Fifteenth Amendment grants African American males right to vote• Nineteenth Amendment grants women right to vote• Twenty-fourth Amendment outlaws poll taxes• Twenty-sixth Amendment lowers voting age to 18

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2. Making Inferences In termsof percentage, far fewermembers of the 18–21 age bracket actually exercisetheir right to vote than isthe case with any other age group. How might youexplain this?

3. Making Inferences Use agraphic organizer like theone below to list three waysof increasing voter turnout.

Analyzing PrimarySourcesCivil rights activist Anne Moodyparticipated in massive drives inSouthern states to registerAfrican American voters in whatwas called the “Freedom Sum-mer” of 1964. The registrationdrives were violent, and im-mensely successful, registeringmillions of voters, some ofwhom had never before been able to vote becauseof strict voting laws in Southern states. Read theexcerpt from Moody’s autobiography and answerthe questions that follow.

“Suddenly we began to get quite a lot of support fromthe local Negroes. . . . Every day now we managed to senda few Negroes to the courthouse. . . . But the registrar wasflunking them going and coming. Sometimes out of twentyor twenty-five Negroes who went to register, only one ortwo would pass the test. Some of them were flunked be-cause they used a title (Mr. or Mrs.) on the applicationblank; others because they didn’t. And most failed to inter-pret a section of the Mississippi constitution to the satisfac-tion of Foote Campbell, the Madison County circuit clerk.”

1. What kinds of voting restrictions were beingplaced on the voters Anne Moody was trying toregister?

2. Why would the restrictions make it difficult forAfrican Americans in the South in the early1960s to register to vote? What types of lawsmake this illegal today?

1.

2.

3.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

Applying Technology SkillsUsing a Word Processor Find out the percentage of registered voters who voted in themost recent presidential election. Organize the eligible voters into specific age groups. Use thetable option of your word processor to design atable illustrating this information.

Participating in Local GovernmentFind out what the voter regis-tration laws are in your com-munity. Contact your localelection board for this information.Present the information on an illus-trated poster. Include information about local resi-dency requirements, the procedure for registering,the time and location in which people can register,and the types of identification needed to register.

Chapter 17Chapter 17

1. According to the cartoonist, why don’t some people vote?2. How does the cartoonist exaggerate campaign advertising?3. Should Americans rely on television advertisements to

gather information on candidates? Why or why not?

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Documents

Chapter 17: Elections and Voting