Report No. 35327-TZ

United Republic of Tanzania

Water Resources Assistance StrategyImproving Water Security for Sustaining Livelihoods and Growth

February 2006

Water and Urban Unit 1 Africa Region

Document of the World Bank

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS

Currency Unit = Tanzanian Shilling (Tsh.)US$ 1.00 = Tsh. 1195 ( February 2006)

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AAA Analytical and Advisory ActivitiesAfDB African Development BankASDP Agricultural Services Development ProjectBADEA Arab Development BankBNWPP The Bank Netherlands Water Partnership ProgramBWO Basin Water OfficeCAS Country Assistance StrategyCEM Country Economic MemorandumCDD Community Driven DevelopmentCWRAS Country Water Resources Assistance StrategyDANIDA Danish International Development AgencyDFID Department of International DevelopmentDRC Democratic Republic of CongoDWSSP Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation ProjectEAC East African CommunityEF Environmental FlowEIA Environmental Impact AssessmentEWURA Energy and Water Utility Regulatory AgencyFAO Food and Agriculture OrganizationGDP Gross Domestic ProductGEF Global Environment FundGOT Government of TanzaniaIFAD International Fund for Agriculture DevelopmentILFEMP Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental

Management Project IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and

Natural ResourcesNGO Non -Governmental OrganizationNORAD Norwegian Agency for International DevelopmentNSGRP National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of PovertyJAS Joint Assistance StrategyJICA Japanese International Cooperation AgencyKFW German Development Bank LKEMP Lower Kihansi Envitonmental Management Project LMBC Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project LNBWO Lake Nyasa Basin Water Office LTBCP Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Conservation ProgramLVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project

LVBWO Lake Victoria Basin Water OfficeO&M Operations and MaintenanceMAFS Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security MDGs Millenium Development Goals MOP Memorandum of the PresidentMKUKUTA National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty MTEF Medium Term Budget Framework MW Ministry of WaterMWLD Ministry of Water and Livestock Development NAWAPO National Water Policy NBI Nile Basin Initiative NELSAP Nile Equatorial Lakes Investment Program NEMC National Environmental Management CouncilNGO Non -Governmental OrganizationNORAD Norwegian Agency for International DevelopmentNSGRP National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of PovertyNYM Nyumba ya Mungu DamPBWO Pangani Basin Water OfficesPER Public Expenditure ReviewPRSC IV Poverty Reduction Support CreditRBMSIIP River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation

Improvement Project RBO River Basin Office RBM&D River Basin Management and Development Projects RBWO Ruaha Basin Water OfficeRCU Regional Consultancy Unit RIPWARIN Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for

Intersectoral Needs Projects RRFP Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project RWRA Rapid Water Resources Assessment RWSSP Rural Water Supply and Sanitation ProjectSADC Southern African Development CommunitySIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation AgencySMUWC Sustainable Management of the Usandu Wetland and its

CatchmentSNV Netherlands Development OrganizationSSEA Strategic / Sectoral Environmental AssessmentSWAp Sector Wide ApproachTANESCO Tanzania National Electric Supply CompanyTASAF Tanzania Social Action FundTIRDEP Tanzania Integrated Rural Development ProgramTWRAS Tanzania Water Resources Assistance StrategyUCLAS University College of Lands and Architectural Studies UN United NationsUNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNICEF United Nations Children Fund

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNOPS United Nations Office Project Services USRP Urban Sector Rehabilitation Project WMO World Meteorological OrganizationWSSP Water Sector Support ProgramZAMCOM Zambezi Watercourse Commission

Vice President: Gobind NankaniCountry Manager/Director: Judy O’Connor

Sector Manager: Jaime BidermanTask Team Leader: Francis Ato Brown

TANZANIA WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY

IMPROVING WATER SECURITY FOR SUSTAINING LIVELIHOODS AND GROWTH

TABLE OF CONTENTSPage

FOREWORD......................................................................................................iACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................................................................iiiCHAPTER 1.....................................................................................................1OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................1

Water Resources and Security.....................................................................................................1

Rationale for TWRAS...................................................................................................................6

Organization of the TWRAS........................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................8FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS.................................................................8

Water Resources Management and Development and NSGRP................................................8

The Economy Relies Heavily on Water.......................................................................................8

Limited Development and Weak Management of Water Resources......................................11

Water and Social Development..................................................................................................14

Good Governance and Accountability.......................................................................................14

CHAPTER 3...................................................................................................16WATER RESOURCES REFORMS AND INVESTMENTS....................16

Tanzania’s Water Sector Reforms: Background......................................................................16

Water Sector Review...................................................................................................................17

Track 1 - Water Resources Reforms..........................................................................................18

Track 2- Sectoral Water Developments.....................................................................................24Water and Sanitation Sector.........................................................................................24Irrigation Subsector......................................................................................................26Hydropower Subsector.................................................................................................27Environment Sector......................................................................................................28

Summary......................................................................................................................................29

CHAPTER 4...................................................................................................30WATER RESOURCES CONFLICTS........................................................30

Tanzania’s Water Resource........................................................................................................30

Current Water Conflicts.............................................................................................................33

Potential Sources of Tension.......................................................................................................38

Summary......................................................................................................................................42

CHAPTER 5...................................................................................................44ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES, AND LESSONS.............................44

Key Achievements........................................................................................................................44A Strong Policy Platform..............................................................................................44Institutional Reorganization..........................................................................................45Supporting Legislation..................................................................................................45Cooperative Transboundary Waterbody Management.................................................46Sectoral Developments Recognize the Importance of Water Resources......................46Demonstration of Decentralized Urban and Rural WSS..............................................47

Remaining Challenges.................................................................................................................48Inadequate and Unreliable Infrastructure.....................................................................48Weak Institutions..........................................................................................................48Uncoordinated Management.........................................................................................50Stakeholder Group Engagement...................................................................................50Limited Technical and Administrative Capacity..........................................................51Weak Water Allocation Procedures..............................................................................51Polluted Water Resources.............................................................................................52Transboundary Water Management.............................................................................52Poor Knowledge of Water Resources...........................................................................52

Lessons Learned...........................................................................................................................54

CHAPTER 6...................................................................................................57TANZANIAN WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY......57

Context..........................................................................................................................................57

Priority Bank Assistance Topics.................................................................................................58Water resources reforms at local and basin levels........................................................58Cross-sectoral Coordination.........................................................................................59Investments in Infrastructure........................................................................................60Support for the NGRSP................................................................................................62

ANNEX A. WATER AND ECONOMIC GROWTH................................65ANNEX B. WATER RESOURCES OF TANZANIA...............................80ANNEX C. TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS.............................................86ANNEX D. REVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION SERVICES.....................................................................................................89

ANNEX E. CAPACITY BUILDING TO UNDERTAKE ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENTS IN TANZANIA...................96

FOREWORD

This report—the Tanzania Water Resources Assistance Strategy (TWRAS): Improving Water Security for Sustaining Livelihoods and Growth—was prepared to support implementation of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP). It was prepared, as a joint ESW supported by AFTU1 and ENV, following yearlong consultations with key sectors of the economy such as agriculture, energy, environment, livestock, mining and water sectors, as well as the Office of the President, professional community, civil society, and institutions of higher learning and draws on data, knowledge, and experience gained over the past decade.

The TWRAS argues that Tanzania’s high economic growth masks serious structural weaknesses related to the management of an essential endowment—water resources. The nationwide and economy-wide problems currently being experienced due to the drought highlight the fundamental weaknesses. The concerns raised by President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete about water, energy, food security and environment are underscored in the TWRAS. Water has profound implications for human health, social well-being, rural livelihoods (farming, herding, fishing, and artisanal mining), and the performance of key sectors (agriculture, energy, and industry) and emerging sectors (mining, tourism, and fisheries) of the economy. The TWRAS illustrates that food security, energy security, environmental security, health security, industrial security, and social and economic security all hinge directly or indirectly on water security. Over abstraction of water from Lake Victoria by Uganda to generate electricity as well as the cooperative management and development of rivers, lakes, and aquifers shared with other nations have significant implications for national security.

Water security remains an elusive goal in Tanzania, despite the fact that it is relatively well-endowed with freshwater resources. Water insecurity is characterized by vulnerability of the people and economy to frequent cycles of droughts and floods to increasing conflicts over water and increasing degradation of the water resources. Droughts and floods, which form a natural part of the hydrological cycle, have revealed serious weaknesses in the planning and governance of water resources as well as limitations in the stock of water resources infrastructure to buffer against too much water and too little water. Insecurity is also characterized by increasing water use conflicts and local shortages, water resources that are too polluted to be used or too costly to use, as well as by dysfunctional water utilities that are unable to effectively provide services or poorly empowered river basin water offices that are unable to perform their regulatory functions, and which perpetuate rather than resolve conflicts.

In the last decade, the Government of Tanzania with the support of many development partners, including the World Bank, has made important strides in addressing some deficiencies—constructing new hydropower plants, rehabilitating urban water supply and sewerage facilities, building rural water supplies, improving smallholder irrigation schemes, promoting the management of selected river and lake basins, and laying the policy and legal foundation for a sound water resources management framework. While progress has been positive in achieving some targets, the necessary water resources

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institutional and legal reforms have evolved very slowly. Implementation is very weak. Water resources institutions are poorly resourced and poorly functioning. Huge infrastructure gaps remain. Important lessons learned from recent projects have yet to be fully internalized, and acute water resources governance problems persist.

Water security is critical to the livelihoods of Tanzanians and the national economy. Yet, given the persistent weakness in the governance of water resources, the goals of the NSGRP are not likely to be achieved if business as usual continues. This TWRAS argues that a) water resources management and development needs to be made a key national priority and b) the water reforms need to be broadened—to effectively include other key sectors such as agriculture, energy, environment, industry, mining, and natural resources—and accelerated, elevated, and pursued with strong political backing at the Cabinet level. They need to be adequately supported; that is, institutions at the national, ministerial, and river and lake basin levels need to be properly mandated and empowered and given sufficient staff and resources to tackle the huge governance challenge, which is not only causing major conflicts between various users of water and also undermining past investments in costly hydropower and irrigation infrastructure. These institutions need to be held fully accountable for the actions they take and for the decisions they make. Sectoral users of water have to be held accountable for their actions. Investments in the protection of watersheds, recharge areas, wetlands, and lakes are needed. Demand management and wise use of water needs to be promoted, to ensure reliable and sustained growth, investments in infrastructure need to be accelerated to provide an adequate level of constructed water storage and water and wastewater treatment.

For the World Bank, the challenge is to strengthen its partnership with the Government of Tanzania to jointly ensure that ongoing and future World Bank support is both targeted to assist the government in the most effective manner, as well as integrated across sectors within the Bank and the government.

Judy O’ConnorCountry Director for Tanzania and Uganda

World Bank

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The preparation of the TWRAS was supported by the Country Team, Bank Netherlands Water Partnership Program and the Government of Tanzania. The TWRAS was prepared, as a joint ESW supported by AFTU1 and ENV, following yearlong consultations with key sectors of the economy such as agriculture, energy, environment, livestock, mining and water, as well as the Office of the President, professional community, civil society, and institutions of higher learning. It draws on data, knowledge, and experience gained over the past decade.

The preparation process was a collaborative effort. The team comprised Rafik Hirji (Lead Author), Richard Davis (consultant), Francis Ato Brown (Sr. Water Supply and Sanitation), Jakob Granit (International Waters), IJsbrand de Jong (Irrigation), Reynold Duncan (Lead Power Engineer), Ladisy Chengula (Environment) Robert Livernash (editor) and England R. Maasamba, assisted in processing the report for publish . Mike Acreman and Jackie King prepared Annex E.

Peer reviewers were Claudia Sadoff (Lead Economist, ARD), and Andrew Macoun (Lead Water Supply and Sanitation Specialist, AFTU1). The team was guided by David Grey, Senior Water Resources Advisor, AFR and World Bank, and Jaime Biderman, Sector Manager, AFTU1.

The draft TWRAS was presented at the Ministry of Water and Livestock’s Development Awareness Raising workshop chaired by Mr. Vincent Mrisho, the Permanent Secretary of the then MWLD (and now the MW), at the Landmark Hotel on February 21, 2005; at the multsectoral high-level consultation meeting at the Royal Palm Hotel chaired jointly by Mr. Mrisho and Judy O’Connor, World Bank Country Director, on February 22, 2005; and at the East African Integrated River Basin Conference at Sokoine University on March 9, 2005. The revised draft TWRAS was discussed at the Country Team decision meeting chaired by Melanie Marlett from Washington and Judy O’Conner in Dar es Salaam on May 24, 2005. The final draft was presented to the MWLD’s river basin and lake basin water officers and water resources staff on August 15–16, 2005. The TWRAS incorporates comments received from these forums.

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TANZANIA WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY:

Improving Water Security for Sustaining Livelihoods and Growth

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW

Water Resources and SecurityIn the past decade, Tanzania has experienced high economic growth and it is in the global limelight as a recent success story in Africa. A variety of factors have contributed to this success, including liberalized policies and reforms, infusion of external capital from development partners and the private sector, debt cancellation, and a strong performance by emerging sectors such as mining, tourism, and fisheries. Its social policies, largely influenced by the First President Julius Kambarage Nyerere, including a single national language and relative political stability have contributed to a strong sense of nationhood, which sets it apart from many of its neighbors and has provided an unusual degree of stability that has facilitated major economic transformation without a significant social backlash.

Tanzania’s high economic growth, however, masks some serious structural weaknesses that are related to the management of an essential natural endowment—water resources. The economy-wide problems caused by the present drought highlights serious vulnerabilities and structural weaknesses (see Box 1.1). Water has profound implications for human health, social well-being, rural livelihoods (farming, herding, fishing, and artisanal mining), and the performance of both key sectors of the economy (agriculture, energy, and industry) as well as emerging sectors (mining, tourism, fisheries). In this Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy, we focus on factors contributing to the structural vulnerabilities and weaknesses related to water resources in Tanzania.

To ensure a secure and sustainable future for its people (to meet the goals of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty), the Government of Tanzania (GoT) faces a complex water resources management and development challenge. Food security, energy security, environmental security, health security, industrial security, and social and economic security all hinge directly or indirectly on water security.1 Over abstraction of Lake Victoria by Uganda as well as the cooperative management and development of rivers, lakes, and aquifers shared with other nations have significant implications for national security.

1 Annex A highlights the central role of water in the performance of key sectors of the economy. It describes the inter-linkages among different sectoral uses of water, their implications for the management of water resources, as well as how land use and land degradation impacts water resources and quality.

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Water security remains an elusive goal in Tanzania, despite the fact that it is relatively

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Box 1.1 Press coverage on economy-wide implications of the current drought

(The Citizen, February 3, 2006): Drought likely to slow down growth in Tanzania

Tanzania’s robust growth has now hit 7 per cent but the on-going drought and high fuel costs are threatening to dampen further prospects, according to an announcement by the Bank of Tanzania. In an update of economic performance, Daudi Balali, the Central Bank governor said that foreign reserves fell from $2.3 billion to $ 1.7 billion (26 per cent) over the past few months due to an increase in imports costs for industrial machinery mainly in the mining and building sectors. Balali said that other sectors such as tourism, construction, mining and agriculture performed well during the period under study.

(The Daily News, The Guardian, The Citizen, Mtanzania, Majira, February 2, 2006): Tanzania goes into full daytime electricity rationing.

The Government of Tanzania has announced countrywide electricity rationing effective Thursday, a move that has been necessitated because the Mtera and Kidatu Hydropower Dams that feed hydropower generating stations has dropped below levels that production is allowed. According to the Minister for Energy and Minerals, Ibrahim Msabaha , electricity rationing will go on until mid-March when an additional 60-megawatt gas turbine will be installed at Ubungo Power station in Dar es Salaam. But the Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO) managing director, The power rationing has come just a day after President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete sounded an alarm over decline of hydropower generation due to falling water elevels at the country’s main dams as a result of persistent drought that is currently hitting most parts of Tanzania.

(The Guardian, February 1, 2006): Over 600,000 face food shortage in Tanzania

About 613,005 people are facing acute food shortage in the country following persistent drought currently affecting most parts of the country. Releasing the report on the country’s state of food in Dar es Salaam on Tuesday, President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete has said that ten regions have been identified as facing acute food shortage. They are; Shinyanga, Mwanza, Kilimanjaro, Singida, Tanga, Dodoma, Mara, Tabora, Arusha and Morogoro.

(The Guardian, January 20, 2006): Water crisis in Tanzania worrisome

The Prime Minister, Edward Lowassa has said in Dar es Salaam on Thursday that the water situation in the country is getting worse as a result of prevailing drought. But the situation in Dar es Salaam city is more critical because the situation at Ruvu pumping station which supplies water the city is in its lowest level. The PM directed the new ministry, the Dar es Salaam water and Sewerage Corporation (DAWASCO) and the regional water authorities to ensure that the people are made aware of the crisis and learn from it to forestall future recurrence.

(The Citizen, January 19, 2006): Dar to face acute water shortage

The Dar es Salaam Water Supply Company (DAWASCO) Monday sent out an alert over an impending acute water shortage in the city and advised against misuse of the available supply. The company’s managing director, Alex Kaaya said in a statement that pumping of water from its sources at Ruvu and kizinga rivers had dropped by about 40 per cent. He said meeting the city’s water demand had been hampered by drought that led to the falling of water levels in the two rivers which are the main source of water for Dar es Salaam. Kaaya said the Upper Ruvu water plant capable of pumping 81,000 cubic meters of water daily, is currently yielding 60 per cent of the demand only. The Lower Ruvu, with a capacity of 182,000 cubic meters, had dropped to 120,000 cubic meters.

well endowed with freshwater resources. Tanzania is riparian to all three largest freshwater lakes in Africa (with an immense volume of freshwater) and has many rivers, wetlands, lakes, and groundwater resources. There are many plans to develop these water resources—17 Regional Water Master Plans, a National Energy Master Plan, and a National Irrigation Master Plan are in place. It has invested in urban and rural water supply and water resources infrastructure for electricity, livestock water supply, and irrigation over the past three decades.2 Box 1.2 describes the paradox of being both water-rich and water-poor in Tanzania.

Water insecurity is characterized by frequent cycles of droughts and floods, which underscores the vulnerability of the people and economy to climate variability and change. Droughts and floods have highlighted serious weaknesses in the planning and governance of water resources. Insecurity is characterized by the rapidly declining water levels in Lake Victoria due to over abstraction of water (caused by unusual patterns of abstractions that deviate from the agreed principles and rule curves) for generating hydropower in Uganda. Insecurity is also characterized by water resources that are too polluted to be used or too costly to use and by dysfunctional water utilities that are unable to effectively provide services or poorly empowered river basin water offices that are unable to perform their regulatory functions, thus perpetuating rather than resolving conflicts.

Many factors contribute to water insecurity. Investments in unreliable water resources infrastructure are costly to the economy and result in suboptimal energy and irrigation benefits. Inadequate investments in water resources infrastructure is resulting in food insecurity and energy insecurity. Inadequate management of water utilities and investments in domestic water supplies are contributing to water shortages, social stress, and losses in productivity. Inadequate treatment of water supplies negatively impacts human health and reduces productivity. Weak enforcement of water rights is contributing to water shortages and increasing conflicts over water use, which is exacerbating inequity and undermining economic growth by creating an insecure investment climate. Inadequate investments in flood control and protection impacts people and livelihoods, as well as causing property and infrastructure damage. Growing pollution of rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater from municipal sewage, industries, mining, livestock, poultry, and agricultural operations —coupled with inadequate treatment and control of waste discharges from these point and nonpoint sources of pollution—impacts human health, ecosystem functions, and the economy. Uncontrolled groundwater pumping in coastal areas induces saltwater intrusion and causes irreversible loss of that resource. Uncontrolled groundwater pumping is also known to cause land subsidence in many parts of the world, a consequence that could have profound implications for the new tall buildings that are slowly filling the skyline of Dar es Salaam. Encroachment on water sources—springs, watersheds, and groundwater

2 Annex B describes the characteristics of Tanzania’s water resources.

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recharge areas—threatens the viability of water supplies. Unsustainable abstractions of Lake Victoria water for generating hydropower in Jinja is seriously impacting navigation, commerce, fisheries and ecosystem health. In general, water insecurity is compounded by (a) inadequate investments in constructed water storage and other water resources infrastructure for multi-purpose uses to buffer against the impact of droughts and floods (climate variability) and inadequate investments in water supplies and pollution control; (b) poor investments in costly and unreliable infrastructure, (c) inadequate investments in water resources management systems, institutions, and regulations, which has created a climate of poor governance and is contributing to water-use conflicts, threatening water sources and the destruction of natural storage capacities as well as (d) inadequate investments in institutions for fostering regional cooperation and development on shared waters.

In the last decade, the GoT has made important strides in addressing some deficiencies—constructing new hydropower plants, rehabilitating urban water supply and sewerage facilities, building rural water supplies, improving smallholder irrigation schemes, promoting the management of selected river and lake basins, and laying the policy and legal foundation for a sound water resources management framework. While progress has been positive and measurable in achieving some specific targets—especially in the delivery of services, such as increasing the number of water supply schemes and hydropower generation capacity—the necessary institutional and legal reforms for water resources management have evolved very slowly. Implementation of the old laws (1981 Water Law) is very weak. Water resources institutions are poorly resourced and poorly functioning. Huge infrastructure gaps—for urban and rural water supply, and for meeting energy demand and food security needs—remain. Important lessons learned from recent projects have yet to be internalized, and acute water resources governance problems persist. The concept of integrated water resources management adopted in the past decade is not uniformly understood, accepted, or properly supported —even within the Ministry of Water (MW)3, the ministry charged with the responsibility for managing the nation’s water resources.

3 Formerly Ministry of Water and Livestock Development (MWLD)

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Box 1.2 Scarcity in the midst of abundance

Unlike many sub-Saharan nations (including neighbors Kenya and Malawi), Tanzania is endowed with relatively abundant freshwater sources—rivers, springs, lakes, wetlands, and aquifers. On average, it has about 2,300 m3 of renewable freshwater per capita per year, which is more than 400 percent of Kenya’s per capita availability. The three largest African freshwater lakes, which hold about 390 times the total mean annual runoff from all of its rivers, provide an immense natural storage capacity, possibly the highest in Africa. Current stocks of freshwater are sufficient for meeting all of the country’s current and future water resources development and supply needs. However, because of climate variability and geography, water is not available uniformly or reliably in many parts of the country. Because of inadequate investments and weak management of water resources, localized water shortages and water-use conflicts are growing in many cities and rural areas, and are becoming acute in the Pangani, Ruaha, and Internal Drainage basins.

While there is a growing impetus within the MW on expanding rural and urban water supplies and in water utility reforms, the governance of water resources has received inadequate attention and support. Often, such support is an ad hoc response to crisis – droughts and floods. The water resources regulatory environment is very weak. Poor planning, coordination, and enforcement are persistent. These factors have contributed to the development of expensive hydropower plants facing uncertain water availability and generating suboptimal benefits. In addition, schemes with secure water rights may not provide assured irrigation water for production after initial investments have been made. Important decisions to operate large dams for hydropower generation at operationally dangerous levels (at dead storage levels, for example) are made against the advice of the water management institutions. Urban water supplies are vulnerable to poor management of surface and groundwater. There is also a growing problem of pollution that remains largely unchecked. Pollution control is practically nonexistent. Controls over land use to restrict encroachment on important water catchments and groundwater recharge areas are practically nonexistent. Externalities from the fastest growing sector, mining, including growing mercury contamination from artisanal mining, remain unattended.4 This poses a serious threat to surface and groundwater quality, to lucrative inland fisheries, and to human health. The Ministries of Water and Ministry of Environment (the two regulatory bodies) are inadequately staffed or supported to address this growing problem - pollution.

The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) lays a foundation for government investment over the next 10 years. It has defined ambitious targets related to the growth of key sectors of the economy, including agriculture, industry, mining, tourism, and transport. Given how critical water security is to the livelihoods of Tanzanians and the national economy, and how weak the governance of water resources is, the goals of the NSGRP are not likely to be achieved if business as usual continues and water resources and environmental management institutions remain under funded and weak. The Bank’s analytical work and policy dialogue, including the Country Economic Memorandum (CEM) and Joint Assistance Strategy (JAS), are based on supporting the implementation of the NSGRP. This TWRAS, a contribution to both the CEM and JAS, argues that the water reforms need to be broadened—to effectively include other key sectors such as agriculture, energy, environment, industry, mining, and natural resources—and accelerated, elevated, and pursued with strong political backing at the Cabinet level. They need to be adequately supported; institutions at the national, ministerial, and basin levels need to be properly empowered, staffed, and resourced to tackle the huge governance challenge ahead that is undermining sunk investments in costly hydropower and irrigation infrastructure. These institutions also need to be held fully accountable for the actions they take and for the decision they make. Sectoral users of water such as Urban Water Supply Authorities, Electricity Generating Company, Irrigation Agencies and Industries need both to pay full water user charges and pollution charges and be held accountable for their actions and violators of the Water Law need to be met with tough punitive sanctions and penalties that deter institutionalized offenses. Investments in the protection of watersheds, recharge areas, wetlands, and lakes need to be undertaken to protect these important sources of water and to optimize the utilization of natural storage capacity. Investments in infrastructure also need to be accelerated to provide an adequate

4 See Annex A for a discussion about the growing threat from mercury contamination.

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level of constructed water storage and water and wastewater treatment needed for reliable and sustained growth. In summary, water resources management and development needs to be made and funded as a high political priority.

Rationale for TWRAS

The overall goal of this Tanzania Water Resources Assistance Strategy (TWRAS) is to identify a strategy by which the Bank can assist the GoT in improving the water security of the country as a contribution to the NSGRP and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The objectives of the TWRAS are to: Inform the Bank about the central role of water resources in the NSGRP and the

challenges and experiences associated with Bank-supported projects Guide the preparation of the second generation of the Bank’s programmatic and

sector-wide investments, including the Water Sector Support Program (WSSP) and ongoing projects and programs (in agriculture, health, energy, environment, international waters, and mining)

Reshape existing projects in a way that helps achieve the outcomes defined in Box 2.1

Inform the Country Economic Memorandum (CEM) and Joint Assistance Strategy (JAS).

The World Bank and GEF have a long history of engagement with water-related development in Tanzania. Since the early 1990s, they have supported 11 projects and programs in water-related subsectors such as urban and rural water supply, sewerage, smallholder irrigation, hydropower development, lake basin management, river basin management, and management of international waters in Tanzania (Box 1.3). Even though support for water resources reforms was among the early pilots to implement the World Bank’s 1993 Water Resources Management Policy, most of these programs have not been linked by a clear GoT or Bank strategy. As a consequence of the loose linkage between various projects and programs, many important opportunities for promoting and building on policy and institutional reforms have been lost. In some instances, reforms and investments promoted under one Bank project or program have undermined reforms/actions in other projects or directly resulted in major externalities to other sectors. Developments in some sectors such as mining—with very weak regulatory controls on handling and disposal of wastewaters from artisanal miners—are generating externalities with significant consequences that will likely have a profound impact on human health and possibly fisheries if environmental and social safeguards are not adequately instituted and implemented. The growing cost of unreliable water supply, hydropower, and irrigation infrastructure is a significant constraint to growth and poverty reduction.

The challenge now facing the Bank and the GoT is to build a partnership to jointly ensure that ongoing and future Bank support is both targeted to assist the GoT in the most effective manner, as well as integrated across sectors within the Bank and the GoT.

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Organization of the TWRAS

The TWRAS is organized as follows. Chapter 2 provides the analytical framework linking water resources management and the outcome indicators of the NSGRP. Chapter 3 reviews water resources reforms, including investments supported by the Bank and the GEF. Chapter 4 describes the current and potential conflicts between water-using sectors as a result of water shortages, unreliable infrastructure, and poor management of Tanzania’s water resources. Chapter 5 presents the achievements, challenges remaining, and lessons learned from the water reforms and investments to date. Chapter 6 presents a framework for the Bank to assist the GoT in improving the management of its water resources, thereby promoting growth, the quality of life, and the NSGRP. Annex A lists the persons who participated in the forums that reviewed the Draft TWRAS. Annex A describes the role of water and the linkage with water resources management in the key sectors of the economy. Annex B discusses the characteristics of Tanzania’s water resources. Annex C highlights the transboundary water resources management and development challenges and opportunities. Annex D is a review of water supply and sanitation services. Annex E describes the capacity building needs for undertaking environmental flow assessment.

Box 1.3 Recent and ongoing World Bank- and GEF-supported investment projects

World Bank support for water and water-related sector activities in Tanzania focuses on poverty alleviation as a primary goal. Since the early 1990s, the World Bank (and GEF) has supported water resources development and management through investments in various subsectoral activities, including water, energy, agriculture, environment, and international waters.

Lower Kihansi Hydropower Project (Power VI) River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (RBMSIIP) Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project (LKEMP) Rural Water Supply Sector Project (RWSSP) Urban Sector Rehabilitation Project (USRP) Dar es Salaam Water Supply Sector Project (DWSSP) Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project I (LVEMP) Lake Malawi Biodiversity Project (LMBC) Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Conservation Program (LTBCP) Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) – Kagera and Mara Integrated River Basin Management and

Development projects Emergency Power Supply Project

World Bank-supported projects in preparation: Water Sector Support Program Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project II Agriculture Services Program Energizing Rural Transformation Minerals Project Health Sector Development Project Marine and Coastal Environment Project NBI/NELSAP Strategic/Sectoral and Environmental Assessment of Power Development Options

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CHAPTER 2

FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

This chapter describes the analytical framework for TWRAS. It establishes that equitable and sustainable management and development of water resources is a fundamental pre-requisite for achieving the outcomes of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) and the MDGs. The primary goal of this chapter is to improve the understanding and appreciation of this linkage by policy and decision makers.

Water Resources Management and Development and NSGRP

The NSGRP defines the following clusters of poverty reduction outcomes based on the PRSP and the National Development Vision 2025:

Growth and reduction of income poverty Improved quality of life and social well-being Good governance and accountability.

Box 2.1 highlights the close relationship between water resources management and the NSGRP outcomes.

The Economy Relies Heavily on Water

The recent growth in the economy has been fueled largely by expansion and improved performance in some of the emerging sectors of the economy such as mining, tourism, and fisheries. The contributions of these sectors to the overall GDP however remain relatively small. In this section we argue that the traditional sectors (some of the largest contributiors to the economy as well as the emerging sectors are both heavily dependant on reliable supplies of water and electricity. They are also highly vulnerable to poor management of water resources.

The Tanzanian population (currently estimated at around 35 million) is largely rural; its economy is highly dependent on water resources (Figure 2.1 and Annex A). About half of GDP comes from agricultural (including livestock) production, the majority of which is rain-fed and highly vulnerable to climate variability (droughts and floods). The total livestock population in 2002 was estimated at 30.3 million head and corresponded to an annual water demand of 200,000–500,000 Ml/yr.5 Livestock rearing occurs largely in the arid and semi-arid parts of the country,6 where water supplies are low. In these areas,

5 Using 35–80 l/day, 2–6 l/day, and 4–9 l/day for cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively.6

? Livestock distribution follows the pattern of human population and is inversely correlated with areas infested by the tsetse fly. Ninety nine percent of all cattle, sheep, and goats are kept by small-scale

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such as the Usangu Plains and in the semi-arid areas of Shinyanga and Dodoma, livestock water demands, especially during the dry season, compete with water used for agriculture.

About 191,000 hectares are under irrigation (representing about 20 percent of the irrigation potential), mainly traditional, smallholder schemes. Large-scale irrigation occurs in the Pangani, Rufiji, and Ruvu/Wami basins. Irrigation is by far the largest consumptive water use, comprising about 97 percent of total water use. On-farm water use efficiencies in irrigated agriculture are very low, typically between 10–20 percent, contributing to the heavy use of water by this sector. There is little operational headwater storage available for irrigated agriculture, with little consequent buffering for periods of low river flows.

Box 2.1 Linkages between water resources interventions and poverty reduction

Growth and reduction of income poverty Sustainable growth calls for the protection of existing water resources and the development of new

resources because they are vital inputs to the nation’s productive sectors. Equity. Inequitable and unjust water allocation practices and ill-defined water rights that restrict access

to and control over water resources pose a major obstacle to poverty reduction. Planning processes that alienate affected communities from decision making and from sharing benefits of water development projects foster social stratification and limit the prospects of poverty reduction through economic growth.

Improved quality of life and social well-being Human health. Good water management reduces exposure to waterborne diseases by increasing access

to clean water and adequate sanitation; reduces exposure to toxic chemicals by policing the disposal of industrial, mining, and agricultural wastes; and controls vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, by better management of standing waterbodies and floodwaters.

Sustainable livelihoods. The livelihoods of poor people who depend on land, water, forests, fish, livestock, and biodiversity will be enhanced if they secure reliable access to water resources through well-enforced water allocation and pollution control procedures in which they have had a role.

Security and vulnerability. The poor are particularly vulnerable to floods and droughts since they often live in vulnerable areas such as floodplains or steep slopes. People’s vulnerability to climate variability and resource degradation would be reduced by investing in strategies that limit and control floods and provide water storage for droughts.

Good governance and accountability Empowerment. Helping people to plan and manage their own water resources by ensuring participation

in decisionmaking, creating user organizations, and transferring operations and maintenance responsibilities to the basin level will increase empowerment and promote good governance.

Source: Hirji and Ibrekk (2001)

Tanzania is a low consumer of electricity; less than 10 percent of the population—and only 1 percent of the rural population—has access to electricity. Most (65–70 percent) of the nation’s electricity (currently about 561 MW) is generated from hydropower plants livestock keepers in the rural areas; over one third of the cattle are located in the Lake Victoria region.

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on the Pangani and Rufiji rivers. This represents about 12 percent of Tanzania’s hydropower potential. Production of hydropower at optimal levels requires a reliable flow of water. However, these hydropower plants continue to experience periods of low flows and significantly reduced power generation. Low rainfall, a high percentage of illegal upstream water extractions, and the poor enforcement of water rights all contribute to the low inflows into the dams. Another set of reasons relate to the poor and limited data— hydrological and water demand projections—used in the design of the power plant, as well as short-sighted operational decisions to run the power plants (for exmple, to optimize operating Mtera to offset generating capacity losees at Kidatu) to avoid load shedding (due to political considerations, including during a politically sensitive election year). The resulting electricity shortages have caused significant economic losses in the industrial, manufacturing, commercial, and service sectors. Even after diversification of electricity sources (with the expansion of thermal plants and Songas7), hydropower will continue to provide the majority of Tanzania’s electricity.

The 2005 World Development Report estimates that unreliable infrastructure8 is responsible for approximately a 13 percent reduction in sales within the Tanzanian economy. Utz (2005) identifies unreliable power as one of the key constraints for manufacturing enterprises, with power outages affecting capacity utilization and fluctuations in power damaging equipment9.

Industrial processes require electricity (which is largely generated from hydropower plants) for production and water for cooling, washing, gas scrubbing, product rinsing, heat exchange, and as a solvent in most manufacturing processes. Low flows in rivers affect all these aspects of industrial production. In addition, industrial wastewater discharges, if they are not treated adequately, contaminate rivers, imposing costs on downstream water uses.

Rainfall variability and GDP

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Figure 2.1 The close relationship between Tanzanian GDP and rainfall variability

7 The new Songas plant faces operational difficulties on a regular basis.

8 In the past also referred to as White Elephants. 9 Robert Utz (2005) “Is there a Single Binding Constraint to Growth in Tanzania” a note prepared for the Country Economic Memorandum.

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Mining is Tanzania’s fastest growing sector. In 2003, gold exports increased by 20 percent. Mining now accounts for 62 percent of total exports. There are five large-scale commercial mines in the Lake Victoria basin. Small-scale artisanal gold mining, which employs nearly a million people, is also growing rapidly. Commercial mines depend on electric power from thermal plants or hydropower, which is dependent on reliable river flows. Both commercial and artisanal mines also require water for extracting and processing the minerals.

Fisheries from Tanzania’s many lakes, especially Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa, are an important source of local protein. The Nile perch fishery in Lake Victoria also provides 10 percent of Tanzania’s external income. However, this fish production is highly dependent on the health of the various lake ecosystems and their water quality. There are few controls over pollutants entering these lakes and there are already localized areas of high mercury concentration from mining activities in the Lake Victoria basin.

Tourism, another fast growing sector, requires water for both consumption by visitors and for the fauna and flora on which much of the tourism relies. However, flows in rivers through some national parks have been significantly reduced through poorly controlled upstream abstractions. Coastal tourism has also grown rapidly. It relies on adequate infrastructure, including reliable electricity and clean, safe domestic water. Both tourism and the inland fisheries depend on the water needs of the environment being met—a dependence that is not yet fully appreciated in all sectors.

Limited Development and Weak Management of Water Resources

Efforts are under way to build a strong enabling environment for water resources management. But inadequate investment in water resources development—and slow implementation of the water resources reforms, and in particular, enforcement of the existing water law—is directly constraining the country’s robust economic performance. Investment in water supply, energy and irrigation infrastructure is critical to meet increasing demand resulting from population growth and rising incomes. Tanzania has abundant surface water resources, moderate groundwater resources,10 and an adequate annual water renewal rate to meet its current demand, but most of these resources have not been developed and those that have been developed are not managed well. To date, the limited amount of investment in water supply, water treatment, wastewater treatment, and in conveyance and storage facilities for water supply, irrigation and hydropower has failed to keep up with increasing demand, let alone provide the necessary buffer against shocks from floods and droughts. Many of Tanzania’s waterbodies are transboundary; their development requires joint action in order to maintain harmony with neighboring nations.11 10 SADC Regional Situation Analysis, June 2003.

11 The majority of Tanzania’s water resources are located in shared river basins—the Nile basin (Lake Victoria), the Congo basin (Lake Tanganyika), the Zambezi basin (Lake Nyassa), the Ruvuma basin, and the Pangani basin. They represent important national interests, but their transnational characteristic adds an additional complexity to their management. In selected cases in the last few years, the cooperation between

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Although there have been substantial improvements in the enabling environment for water resources management as well as in improved targets (such as rehabilitation of so many hydrological stations or expanded service delivery), management continues to be problematic or deficient, and (outcomes such as improved reliability of water flows or energy production is have yet to be realized):

Water allocation decisions, and consequently, important infrastructure design decisions are often based on inadequate or inaccurate information about water resources. In addition, allocation decisions and conditions are often not enforced.

Pollution from municipal, industrial, mining, agriculture, poultry, and livestock operations and urban runoff is neither monitored systematically nor regulated.

Land use controls for protecting important watersheds, recharge areas, and habitation on floodplains are weak.

The policy development and legal frameworks of sectors that rely on water (or that impact water resources) are uncoordinated.

Institutions responsible for regulating water allocation and abstractions are weak or nascent with limited resources and experience; institutions responsible for controlling pollution and land use have inadequate capacities, authorities, and resources to implement their mandates.

Until recently, there was little regard for the environmental impacts of development decisions.

Management of the country’s numerous transboundary water resources is improving with a more cooperative approach by riparian countries in few instances and not all, although it could be better coordinated within Tanzania in order to take advantage of opportunities.

The above weaknesses are increasing water insecurity. Poor design considerations—for example, of rapid sand filters at the Lower Ruvu Water Treatment Plant, the main water treatment plant—have contributed to poor water quality and inadequate performance of the treatment works supplying a large segment of the population of Dar es Salaam. This has been the case since the water treatment plant was constructed in the 1970s. Poor planning, design and operations, has resulted in a decline in the performance of large and costly infrastructure—including hydropower plants such as the New Pangani Falls Hydropower Development, and irrigation projects such as the Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme. These facilities cannot ever be utilized optimally due to lack of reliable water flows. Increased soil erosion and silt loads from deforestation, land degradation, and poor catchment management have filled reservoirs,12 blocked inlets, altered gradients in canals in irrigation schemes, and imposed excessive costs on water treatment plants. Unreliable infrastructure—developed on the basis of poor data or poor oversight— imposes a huge cost on the nation’s economy. Figure 2.2 illustrates the very high cost (both absolute and relative) to the private sector of unreliable infrastructure in Tanzania compared to other nations. Conflicts over water resources are increasing, as are

the numerous basin nations needed to derive benefits from these shared water resources has started to emerge. 12 Fourteen of the 21 dams constructed for irrigation supply in the 1970s are no longer operational because of siltation.

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shortages of water in major cities, eutrophication and pollution, and threats to water sources (catchments and recharge areas) and groundwater.

Figure 2.2 High costs to the private sector from unreliable infrastructure Source: World Development Report (2005).

Achieving the first outcome of the NGSRP—growth and reduction of income poverty—will require better management of the country’s existing water resources, better planning and design of new water resources infrastructure, greater investment in new infrastructure, and greater equity in the distribution of these resources. This will require major realignment of sector policies, legal frameworks, and institutions and significantly increased attention and funding for water resources institutions.

Water and Social Development

Water plays a central role in Tanzania’s social development. Despite decades of priority investment in water supply and sanitation, coverage of reliable and safe domestic water supply remains low—only 50 percent of rural and 73 percent of urban residents have access to potable water. Not only is this inequitable, but it imposes an impact on the economy through loss of production from ill-health and time spent gathering water from distant sources, particularly in rural areas. Women and children are particularly affected by the time spent gathering water. Even those on reticulated water supply are subject to water shortages. Dar es Salaam experiences high unaccounted-for losses (40–50 percent) in its system and faces frequent water shortages that reduce productivity and impact the main commercial and industrial hub of the country. The current drought is imposing a major toll on the reliability of the city’s water supply.

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The poor, in particular, are affected by unreliable and poor quality and/or contaminated sources of water. Poverty is higher among the rural population (39 percent compared to 18 percent in Dar es Salaam), whose subsistence existence is often heavily reliant on water for farming, herding, and fishing, and more recently, artisanal mining. Even among the urban poor, coverage of drinking water is low and the cost of obtaining basic water requirements is higher than it is for the better off.

Improved health outcomes are closely linked to improved water supply and sanitation. However, they are also linked to improved water resources management. Harmful discharges from industry, mining and agriculture threaten the health of downstream communities. Thus, the health of people downstream of Rwamagasa is threatened from mercury contamination because of the lack of understanding of the significance of this problem by political decision makers; inadequate efforts to promote changes in mining practices, even though cleaner and safer technologies exist; absence of pollution control regulations; and a lack of enforcement of pollution regulations over artisanal gold mining. Some diseases, such as malaria, are spread by vectors that thrive in flood-prone areas and are harbored by aquatic weeds. Reservoirs, lakes, wetlands, and irrigation channels also provide habitats for bilharzia.

The second outcome of the NGSRPI—improved quality of life and social well-being—will be directly supported by increased coverage of water supply and sanitation facilities and through better water resources management.

Good Governance and Accountability

The governance of Tanzania’s water resources (for allocating it for multiple uses, for controlling pollution from various uses or for protecting important sources) remains highly problematic. The Tanzanian government’s 2002 National Water Policy promotes decentralization of authority to river and lake basins, and involvement of water user groups in key decisions. Implementing these actions can make a contribution to the third outcome of the NSGRP —good governance and accountability13—by empowering local groups, including the poor; encouraging participatory, transparent and accountable decision making; and granting secure rights and enforceable pollution discharge permits with responsibilities to water users, water and energy utilities, community groups, and local governments. It will help ensure that actions taken by sectoral water users follow procedures laid down in water law, and decisions by river and lake basin organizations are fair, transparent, and accountable to users. To effectively support the third outcome indicator of the NSGRP, it is necessary to promote an informed water user constituency that understands its rights and responsibilities, as well as the roles and obligations of the river and lake basin water offices and pollution control authorities and the courses of action that are available to resolve conflicts, unfair practices, and to ensure fair and transparent decision making.

13 This is consistent with the Vision and Guiding Principles of the Public Service Management and Employment Policy (1999).

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CHAPTER 3

WATER RESOURCES REFORMS AND INVESTMENTS

Tanzania’s water sector, particularly its rural water supply program, has been a focus of support by bilateral and multilateral donors for over 30 years. An ambitious rural water supply program—with a goal of developing full coverage by 1991—was started in the late 1960s. However, it became inescapably obvious by the early 1990s that investments —mostly through external supported programs in rural water supply—were not sustainable, and that investments in these water-related sectors would not succeed while utility management was not responsive to the needs of the consumers and continued business as usual and there remained major problems in the management of the country’s water resources.

The GoT embarked on a major program of water resources reforms through the 1990s with assistance from many donors, including the UNDP and the World Bank. The framework for improved management of the country’s water resources has now emerged. A forward-looking water policy was approved in 2002, and a Water Resources Management Act is nearing completion. Institutions will be reformed, with river basin organizations established throughout the country. This approach encourages greater involvement of affected water user groups; in addition, it proposes streamlining of functions within the Ministry of Water and Livestock Development. There has also been greater attention to the cooperative management of the country’s major transboundary waterbodies. A National Water Sector Development Strategy is being finalized that will support a 10-year program of implementation.

The government has also pursued sectoral development programs with assistance from donors. FAO, IFAD, UNDP, USAID, SNV, AfDB, JICA, and DANIDA have supported irrigation development; NORAD, KFW, and Sida have been actively engaged in the energy sector; and Sida has supported the environment sector. In the past decade, the World Bank has supported investments and reforms in all water related subsectors—urban and rural water supply, hydropower, irrigation, and management of river and lake basins, ecosystems, and international waters (Box 1.2).

While the overall framework (after the new Water Law is passed and new institutional arrangements are finalized) will largely be in place, much remains to be done to make the framework operational and effective. Although this is a huge challenge, it is essential for achieving the poverty reduction outcomes of the NSGRP. According to Utz (2005), “the challenge is not so much one of further reforms, but of consolidating ongoing reforms and guarding against any backsliding in the face of pressures from vested interests or impatience with the pace of measured poverty reduction.”

Tanzania’s Water Sector Reforms: Background Tanzania’s early post-independence period was focused on the development of rural and urban water supplies with the goal of access to safe water for all citizens by 1991. The Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act and subsequent amendments (the legal

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framework for the sector) evolved progressively to include the main provisions for the management of water resources—water allocation, water pollution control, water user charges, water quality standards, and river basin water offices (Box 3.1). Water was treated as a free good, planned centrally by the Ministry responsible for Water and delivered through Regional Water Engineers who reported to the Ministry.

A review in 1985 of the Rural Water Supply Program showed that, after nearly 20 years, coverage remained low, with only 46 percent of the rural population having access to water supply services. The reasons for this poor performance included noninvolvement of the beneficiaries, inappropriate technologies, use of a top-down approach, and continued centralization. In response, the government adopted a National Water Policy in 1991 that placed emphasis on community participation, decentralized management, use of appropriate technologies, cost sharing for rural water supply, and cost recovery for urban water supply.

Water Sector ReviewA water sector review in 1993 revealed that more emphasis needed to be placed on:

Involvement of the private sector Full involvement of beneficiaries A strengthened legal and institutional framework The management of the basic water resource.

The review also resulted in reforms to water resources management in Tanzania, with two parallel but loosely linked tracks for the water sector and water related subsectors (Figure 3.1). The first track, which was directly related to the water sector review, focused on reforming the management of water resources through a 3-phased approach:

Phase 1: Rapid Water Resources Assessment Phase 2: Management Actions of Specific Basins Phase 3: Implement Policy, Interventions and Programs sector-wide

The second track involved development and policy reforms in the various water-using sectors—rural and urban water supply, irrigation, and hydropower development. In

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Box 3.1 Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act

The main thrust of the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974 related to granting legal rights to the use of water. The Amendment Act No. 10 of 1981 established the Central Water Board and Basin Water Boards, and respectively, the principal water officer and basin water officers. It also introduced pollution control measures, water quality standards, and permissible effluent standards. The Water Quality Standards were established as temporary standards and have remained so over two decades later. Amendment No. 17 of 1989 increased the penalties against pollution. The regulations provide for the granting of water rights (1975), and determining user fees for various water uses (1994, 1996).

The Water laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act No. 8 of 1997 created the Central Water Board and Basin Boards as administratively and financially autonomous bodies. The Water Utilization (General) Regulations, 1997, provided for the implementation of Act. No. 8, including the constitution and roles and responsibilities of the Basin Boards.

addition, the government initiated environmental policy and legal reforms and implemented a series of water-related environmental management projects in the three Great Lakes and in the Lower Kihansi Gorge.

Track 1 - Water Resources ReformsLegal provisions for establishing river basin offices with the authority to allocate water and control pollution had been in place for over 20 years (since 1981), but implementing these provisions was not recognized as a priority until the early 1990s. Until then, investments in rural, urban, irrigation, and hydropower projects, often on the same river system, were made independently of other water-using sectors. By the early 1990s, it became clear that uncontrolled use of water by one sector affected the access of other sectors to water in the more heavily used regions of Tanzania, such as the Pangani and Rufiji basins. In some cases, water use conflicts also occurred between upstream users and downstream users within the same sector. This was contributing to the development of costly—but unreliable—water resources infrastructure.

Figure 3.1 Two parallel tracks for the water sector reforms

Phase 1: Rapid Water Resources Assessment. The Rapid Water Resources Assessment (RWRA) was undertaken in mid-1994 by the GoT with technical and financial support from DANIDA and the World Bank.14 It identified and assessed issues affecting the availability, quality, and use of surface and groundwater, including environmental issues, in the nation’s nine river and lake basins.

14 The World Bank’s 1993 Water Resources Management Policy Paper provided a framework to guide these reforms.

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Water Sector Reforms

Tracks 1: Water Resources Reforms

Phase 1: Rapid Water Resources Assessment

Phase 2: Management Actions of Specific Basins

Phase 3: Implement Policy, Interventions and Programs sector wide

Track 2: Sectoral Programs

Irrigation

Hydropower

Water Supply & Sanitation

Environment

The RWRA found serious inadequacies in inter-sectoral coordination of water use and management, limited representation of stakeholders in decision making, insufficient incentives for efficient water use, occurrences of serious water pollution, and very limited data on which rational allocation decisions could be based. It recommended the priority actions listed in Table 3.1. These actions would be implemented in two phases—initially at the national level and in priority river basins (Rufiji, Pangani, Ruvu-Wami and Lake Victoria basins), and subsequently throughout the country.

Action Projects1. Water use plans in at least the three main water using sectors (power, water supply and sanitation, and irrigated agriculture) should be coordinated to avoid water allocation conflicts. Priority should initially be given to the Rufiji, Pangani, Ruvu/Wami, and Lake Victoria basins.

RBMSIIP and DSWSSP.

2. Upgrade of the 1991 Water Policy to take better account of water resources management, harmonization of land and water management legislation, and revision of the 1974 Water Utilization Act to allow:

A water user fee to promote efficient water use and provide a source of revenue for catchment management and water resources monitoring

Water rights to be granted for specific periods Establishment of further river basin boards and to reinforce

the water resources management system Wider involvement of stakeholders in the Basin Water Board.

RBMSIIP, USRP, DSWSSP and RWSSP.

3. Improved monitoring of water resources and water quality. RBMSIIP, DSWSSP, LVEMP.

4. Improved control of pollution to prevent industrial and agricultural pollutants contaminating water resources, through a review of water quality standards and regulations, enforcement mechanisms, and incentives for pollution reduction.5. Expansion of water supply and sanitation programs to reduce the occurrence of water-related diseases.

DSWSSP, RWSSP and TASAF.

Table 3.1 Priority Actions from the Rapid Water Resources Assessment

Phase II: Management Actions in Specific Basins. The actions recommended in the RWRA were implemented through a series of projects (see Box 1.2 and Table 3.1).

River Basin Management & Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (RBMSIIP).The river basin component of the RBMSIIP was the main vehicle through which the Bank assisted the GoT in implementing the RWRA recommendations. The 2002 National Water Policy (NAWAPO) was developed with support from RBMSIIP, USRP, DWSSP, and RWSSP. It was approved by the GoT in 2002 (Box 3.2). A draft water law is under preparation that will provide the legislative backing for the institutional restructuring, re-setting of water use charges, and multisectoral representation on the National and Basin Water Boards.

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Box 3.2 The National Water Policy

The National Water Policy, approved in July 2002, dealt with reforms to water resources management, urban water supply and sanitation, and rural water supply.

The management of water resources follows these principles: Management is based on river basin units Management responsibility is devolved to river basins, catchments, and water user groups Planning is an inter-sectoral process involving all stakeholders The value of water is recognized through charges for water use and pollution discharge To ensure river health, environmental water allocations are needed Transboundary waters are managed through a cooperative approach.

These principles are to be backed up by legislation.

The management of urban water supply and sanitation follows these principles: Access to water and sanitation is the right of all citizens, including the poor Cost recovery is vital to ensure quality Service delivery is to be decentralized and accompanied by institutional reforms Wastewater treatment must be paid for by water users Private sector participation is encouraged The regulatory framework will be independent and transparent.

The management of rural water supply follows these principles: Human consumption is the highest priority water use Water-scarce areas receive priority Water is an economic good requiring financing by water users at full cost recovery Water resources need to be protected for the benefit of rural water users Beneficiaries of rural water schemes will own and manage their schemes Technology and the level of service will be commensurate with the economic capacity of users.

The project also strengthened the Pangani basin and Rufiji basin water offices, which had been established in 199115 and 1993 respectively. Basin office staff members were trained in water resources management. In addition, stakeholder representation on the basin boards was expanded, and 51 water user groups and basin representative groups were established in these two basins. Further, buildings were upgraded and equipment and vehicles purchased; the climate and hydrometric network was rehabilitated and expanded and a groundwater monitoring network was designed; a water user database was established in each office; and a community awareness and sensitization program was initiated.

The Pangani BWO is currently receiving support from IUCN in areas of economic valuation of water and payment for environmental services, environmental flow assessment, and transboundary dialogue for addressing the causes of Lake Jipe degradation and for resolving conflicts. The Rufiji BWO is receiving support from WWF. DFID supported the SMUWC project (Box 4.2), and is now supporting the

15 The Pangani Basin Water Office had earlier been supported through the NORAD program for the New Pangani Falls Hydropower Development.

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Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for Intersectoral Needs project (RIPWARIN).

Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project (DWSSP). The Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project’s (DWSSP)16 objective is to improve water supply and sanitation to Dar es Salaam. A lease contract was issued to City Water, a private operator, to manage the city’s water supply. Failure to meet performance targets and inadequate injection of equity funding by City Water resulted in breakdown in negotiations in May 2005. As a consequence, the GOT is preparing an alternate institutional arrangement for water supply and sewerage services in Dar es Salaam. The project will also improve regulation and water storage to ensure a more reliable supply, and improve management of the Ruvu catchment so that river water quality is improved and water treatment costs are lowered. The catchment management component includes the establishment of offices for the Ruvu River/Wami basin office and the establishment of a flow gauging network within the basin. In addition, the project will support groundwater monitoring and a pre-feasibility study for augmenting the city’s water supply.

Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). The Nile Basin Initiative is a framework agreed by the 10 countries in the Nile River basin to fight poverty and promote economic development in the region. The NBI includes the Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program (NELSAP),17 comprising physical investment in the Nile Equatorial lakes regions involving two or more countries.

The progress made in developing the first set of inter-country NELSAP projects has created a cooperative spirit amongst the NELSAP countries. In March 2005, the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs approved a NELSAP Scaling Up Strategy to further the cooperation and development of their shared water resources. NELSAP projects supporting multisector water resources development in Tanzania include:

Definition of major regional power generation options through a Strategic/Sectoral Social and Environmental Assessment of Power Development Options (SSEA) in the NBI.

A feasibility study, including detailed design of key NEL power transmission interconnection projects, to promote connection of the region’s isolated transmission networks and in particular western Tanzania.

Two River Basin Management and Development Projects (RBM&D), to be funded by Sida and NORAD, for implementation in the Mara and Kagera River basins in 2005. Within Tanzania, both projects fall within the responsibility of the Lake Victoria basin office.

16 Approved by the Board of the Bank in May 2003.

17 Transboundary Environmental Action, Regional Power Trade, Efficient Water Use for Agricultural Production, Water Resources Planning and Management, Confidence Building and Stakeholder Involvement, Applied Training, Socioeconomic Development, and Benefit Sharing. The project management unit for the Regional Power Trade Project is based in Dar es Salaam.

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The Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project (RRFP) to be developed within the broader multipurpose Kagera River Basin Management and Development Project.

Figure 3.2 illustrates three levels of cooperation agreed to by the eight NELSAP countries.

Figure 3.2 Three tracks for continued and increased cooperation among the Nile Basin and NELSAP countries.

Southern African Development Community (SADC). SADC18 has the goal of fostering cooperation and mutual benefit from the resources of the Southern Africa region. Through its Infrastructure and Services Directorate, it manages a number of agreements and projects that affect water resources management in Tanzania. Under the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, a project has been commenced to help develop joint water resources management in the Ruvuma (Tanzania and Mozambique) basin, and assist in the formation of the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM). ZAMCOM—involving the riparian states of Angola, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe—is designed to promote efficient management and sustainable development of water and other natural resources in the Zambezi basin. All countries, except Zambia, have now signed the agreement to establish the Commission.

SADC is also concerned with the sustainable development of groundwater resources, particularly transboundary aquifers. Projects in SADC’s groundwater program that

18 SADC consists of the 14 countries of southern Africa—Angola, Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Mauritius, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

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involve Tanzania include the development of a regional hydrogeological map, the establishment of regional standards for groundwater development, and a GEF-funded project to protect strategic transboundary groundwater resources, drought-proof the region using groundwater resources, and build management and technical capacity.

GEF Lake Basin Management Programs. During the 1990s, the government implemented GEF-funded projects jointly with the other riparian countries in the three African Great Lakes (Box 3.3).

Box 3.3 The GEF-funded African Great Lakes projectsLake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP). The LVEMP was a large ($77m), ambitious project funded by GEF and IDA to both help develop the lake’s resources for the benefit of the people in the catchment and conserve its important biodiversity. The project comprised components covering development of groundwater resources; conservation and development of wetlands; reduction of contaminant inflows to the lake through land management; regulation and stabilization of the fishing industry; and reduction in water hyacinth infestations. The project was successful in gathering extensive knowledge about the physical, chemical, and biological processes occurring in the lake, but less successful in transmitting this understanding into management action. Nevertheless, the sudden and destructive infestation of water hyacinth in the lake was successfully controlled with assistance from LVEMP and the foundation was laid for effective management of the lake’s economically important fishery through the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization. A follow-up project is in preparation.

Lake Tanganyika Biodiversity Project (LTBP). Lake Tanganyika is one of the largest and deepest lakes in the world and contains globally important biodiversity. It also provides an important source of protein for the region and is an important transport route between coastal ports and inland regions of East Africa. While lake water quality is currently good, there are indications that it is facing environmental change from overfishing, localized eutrophication, and warming from climate change. The LTBP (1995–2000) gathered considerable information on the lake’s biodiversity and, in spite of war and civil unrest, succeeded in having a Strategic Action Program and a Convention for the future management of the lake signed by all riparian states. The SAP was drawn up with close involvement from communities and governments and consequently its implementation is strongly supported. A follow-on project is now being prepared to implement the SAP.

Lake Nyasa/ Malawi Biodiversity Conservation Project. Lake Nyasa/Malawi has the highest biological diversity of fish species in the world and provides essential protein for its hinterland; facilitates transportation; provides water for irrigation, especially downstream in the Shire River; and contributes to hydroelectric energy production. The lake is facing increasing human pressure from overfishing, especially in near-shore areas; potential eutrophication; habitat destruction, and potential loss of some highly localized endemic fish species. The project included reviews of environmental laws and regulations, strategic park planning, environmental education, and water quality and biological assessment. The project increased the knowledge base on the lake and undertook innovative public education activities. It failed to bring about changes in park management or protection of threatened fish species. Subsequent to the project, stakeholders made advances toward an agreement among the riparian countries.

Source: adapted from Davis and Hirji (2003) Lake Management, Water Resources and Environment Technical Note G.2, Environment Department, World Bank: Washington, DC.

While primarily focused on the management of the lake waterbodies, all three projects recognized that good basin management was an integral part of lake management and that national water resources management activities need to be coordinated within these lake basins. The projects were primarily undertaken by environmental agencies (Division of Environment), although they dealt with water resources issues. Actions to support

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basin-wide management have yet to be properly defined and implemented. Lake basin water offices in all three lakes have been established recently. These nascent institutions need to be fully integrated in the subsequent phases of the GEF lake basin management project preparation and implementation..

Phase III: Country-Wide Introduction of Programs In the final phase of the program, decentralized, multisectoral water resources management will be implemented across Tanzania using the institutional and legal framework supported in the second phase and drawing on the early experience gained in the Pangani, Rufiji, and Ruvu/Wami basins and the GEF-funded lake basin projects. This effort will be coordinated with other projects that assist in water resources management, such as the strengthening of river basin management through the NBI coordinated projects in the Mara and Kagera river basins, the second phase of the GEF-financed Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika projects, and the SADC projects.

Track 2- Sectoral Water Developments

The GoT has proceeded with the development of sectors that rely on water resources, in parallel with strengthening Tanzania’s capacity to manage water resources.

Water and Sanitation SectorThe GoT is actively expanding urban and rural water supply and sanitation services (WSSS) consistent with the priorities established in the PRSP and according to the principles in the NAWAPO. The Bank is assisting through four projects: Urban Sector Rehabilitation Project (USRP) Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RWSSP) Tanzania Social Action Fund (TASAF) Dar es Salaam Water Supply and Sanitation Project (DWSSP).

Annex C provides a summary of achievements. As a result of the USRP and DWSSP, urban water and sewerage authorities have now been established in eight regional capital cities, and a transitional arrangement from the private sector operator is being established to operate the Dar es Salaam water and sewerage services. The latter does not address the threats to the sources of the city’s water (Box 3.4). The current drought has imposed enormous stress on the city’s water supply. The framework for an Energy and Water Utility Regulatory Agency (EWURA) has been established to oversee the economic and tariff issues arising from the new water authorities. The EWURA will not

Box 3.4 Threats to Dar es Salaam Water Supply

1. Highly vulnerable water source. The Ruvu River is not regulated and remains vulnerable to droughts and occasional floods. During the 1997 drought, the upper and Lower Ruvu WTPs were unable to pump sufficient water, resulting in acute water shortages. During the 1998 rains, floodwaters almost changed the course of the river away from the intake structures and washed away the Lower Ruvu Transmission Main supplying the city, which resulted in severe water shortages for almost a million

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residents. Low flows occurred again in November and December, 2003, while floods breached the Ruvu River banks again in January 2004. The present drought has resulted in the introduction to water rationing.

2. Inadequate information base. The poor state of the hydrologic and climatic networks in the Ruvu basin has compounded the vulnerability of users dependent on this water source. Without such data it is difficult to allocate, regulate, and monitor water use, especially on unregulated sources such as the Ruvu River. With support from AfDB as part of the DAWASA project, the Ruvu River hydrometric network is undergoing some rehabilitation and replacement.

3. Upstream uses of water. At present there are several hundred water rights recorded for abstraction for irrigation, livestock, and water supply from the river. These are currently being verified and the total number of abstractions is likely to be higher. The total amount of water abstracted from the Ruvu River is not known accurately. 4. Underutilization of the current water rights. DAWASA has been granted the right to abstract 90,800 m3/day at Upper Ruvu and 272,000 m3/day at Lower Ruvu—totaling 372,200 m3/day. On average, DAWASA has been abstracting only about 254,000 m3/day, or 68 percent of its total water right. 5. Catchment degradation. In recent years, encroachment and deforestation in the upper Ruvu catchment appear to have increased peak flows, sediment transport, and to have reduced base flows in the river. Increasing urbanization of the Kizinga River catchment area has adversely affected the reliability and quality of river flows.

6. Uncontrolled groundwater development. Groundwater was initially developed as an emergency source during the drought years—without a careful investigation about its safe yield or constraints to its development. Because of the shortage of reticulated supply, use of groundwater has expanded until there are now between 3,000 and 4,000 boreholes in the city. These boreholes are largely uncontrolled, posing a risk of irreversible damage to an important emergency source of water.

7. Increasing risk of contamination. Although groundwater quality is generally good, the resource is becoming vulnerable due to saltwater intrusion and nitrate contamination from septic tanks and industrial contaminants.

regulate to ensure that water is used efficiently and sustainably. This institutional gap needs to be addressed either by explicitly stipulating and strengthening the role of the river and lake basin water offices vis-à-vis the urban water authorities or to ensure that EWURA like legislation and complementary institutions are established to ensure the regulation of urban water authorities.

Several water resources developments are under way. Under the DWSSP, a new study has been commissioned to review future water supply options for Dar es Salaam. The GoT, through its own budget largely resulting from the HIPC debt cancellation, has initiated construction of a water transfer project from Lake Victoria to address the acute water shortages in Shinyanga (Box 4.3) and Kahama, an area experiencing a mining boom.

The RWSSP has introduced community management of rural water supply in 12 of Tanzania’s 93 rural districts, while the TASAF has supported large-scale testing of multisector CDD instruments in a further 43 districts. Rural water supplies in many villages face enormous problems related to inadequate operations and maintenance and threats to and degradation of water sources (Box 3.5). The pace of implementation has

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been delayed by (a) start-up problems related to the scale of the program, (b) district capacity constraints, and (c) project-management-related bottlenecks. Particular attention also needs to be placed to protect developed and undeveloped water sources, to site pit latrines properly, and to introduce systematic monitoring so that changes in water quality and quantity can be detected early and crisis such as those at Kwakombo Village are avoided or addressed in time.

Irrigation SubsectorThe 1994 National Irrigation Development Plan established that the rehabilitation and upgrading of traditional irrigation schemes and water harvesting technology, and investment in new smallholder schemes, were priorities in this subsector. This plan

Box 3.5 Fragile Water Supply for Kwakombo Village, Tanga Region

Background. Kwakombo Village is located along the main highway from Tanga to Arusha, about 7 miles from Korogwe and 40 miles from Tanga. Lying at the base of the western block of the Usambara Mountains, it is bordered on its northern edge by a short stretch of the Pangani River. Registered as a village since 1976, Kwakombo has a population of about 2,500 people reflecting, including indigenous Zigua and Sambaa as well as a wide range of other ethnic groups that mark the village’s history as a settlement of migrants seeking work on nearby sisal plantations. It is primarily an agricultural community, consisting of 1,700 hectares, producing maize, cassava, rice, fruits, and vegetables for local consumption and sale. Remittances from relatives of village residents working in towns and cities across Tanzania also contribute significantly to the local economy.

Water sources. There is no piped water to the village. In 1982, the village participated in the regional development program run by GTZ, the Tanga Integrated Rural Development Program (TIRDEP). After surveys and testing, five boreholes were dug to supplement the village’s existing hand-dug wells (“visima”). In 2005, only one of the original boreholes still produced water, which is salty; the other pumps have broken down, and efforts to find replacement parts for repair have been unsuccessful. Villagers continue to carry water from hand-dug wells and from a piped water outlet at the sisal estate two miles away. The village government maintains a bank account from fees paid by residents to purchase water from an outlet of the Handeni Trunk Main..

has been implemented through a number of activities, notably the RBMSII,P where (a) water-use efficiency and the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes in the priority Pangani and Rufiji basins were improved through demonstration projects; (b) water user groups were established; and (c) 15 smallholder irrigation schemes were rehabilitated (Box 3.6). No new schemes were established under this project, although its success led to unanticipated and unauthorized expansion of irrigation in the upper Pangani and Ruaha basins. The developments in these basins are consistent with the general devolution of water management responsibility to user groups contained in the 2002 NAWAPO.

Box 3.6 Water Resource Issues in Irrigation Areas

Irrigated agriculture mainly occurs on smallholder farms, principally in the Pangani and Rufiji basins as well as in a few large state farms. Capital investment is low; traditional techniques, such as simple furrow irrigation, are widely used. Water is widely regarded as a free good and many irrigators do not possess formal water rights. Prior to the RBMSIIP project, there were few irrigator organizations and each farmer acted largely independently.

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Irrigation districts face a variety of environmental problems, largely arising from poorly controlled applications of water and poor disposal practices. Water is used inefficiently, in part due to lack of control structures, few water licenses, and an absence of oversight from water management authorities. Drainage is poor, and there are few centrally maintained drainage systems in areas of both traditional furrow irrigation and larger centralized schemes. Consequently, waterlogging and salinization are widespread. Poor management also means that there is uneven distribution of water within these schemes, with farmers at the tail-end of the canals often not receiving any allocation.

The irrigation conveyance systems have also suffered from land degradation. Thus, increased soil erosion has partially blocked the intake and has caused sediment deposition in channels in the Mombo Rice Irrigation Scheme.

Finally, there is little control over the use of chemicals in these irrigation schemes. Nutrients and agri-chemicals are transported in drainage waters into rivers and lakes, promoting eutrophication and fish kills.

An irrigation bill was drafted in June 2003 following a recommendation in the National Irrigation Development Plan. The bill is generally consistent with the National Water Policy and will strengthen water resources management through its recognition that water allocation needs to be a multisectoral activity, as well as promotion of local irrigator groups and improved funding for O&M through water-user levies. The irrigation potential in the National Irrigation Masterplan however needs to be re-evaluated in light of water supply constraints and water use conflicts in several parts of the nation.

Hydropower SubsectorProblems in commissioning Pangani Falls and Lower Kihansi hydropower plants (Chapter 4) illustrated shortcomings in multisectoral water resources planning, allocation, and enforcement in Tanzania. The environmental problems in the Kihansi Gorge also illustrated the need to ensure that planning and construction of water resources infrastructure meets the environmental requirements established in the Water Policy, the National Environmental Policy, and NEMA.

The 2003 National Energy Policy—as well as actions on the water right for the Lower Kihansi hydropower plant—indicates that this subsector has yet to absorb the importance of cross-sectoral water resources management. The energy policy assesses other sectors in terms of their demand for electricity, but does not consider the effects of those sectors on provision of water for electricity generation. The 1999 Tanzanian National Power Masterplan is due to be updated. The identification of further hydropower projects in any new plan will be dependent on ongoing work on regional power integration (such as the EAC Power Masterplan study, the power program of the NBI/NELSAP, and similar work in the southern Africa sub-region) together with the likely increased use of natural gas. Any decision on further hydropower plants will take into account non-hydropower benefits and the possibility of the plant being operated as a multipurpose development.The planning for the Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project (RRFP) needs to integrate lessons from the LKEMP given the water needs of a protected area downstream.

In the short-to-medium term, generating capacity will be diversified through conversion of existing diesel fuel plants to natural gas, and installation of further gas-fired turbines.

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The Emergency Power Supply Project19 (2004) provided funds for implementing emergency measures to avert a prolonged period of severe load shedding, which would cripple economic activities and hinder the delivery of social services. The diversification program will mean that existing hydropower stations in the Pangani and Rufiji basins will be switched from maximizing average energy production for baseload operations to meeting peak capacity needs. This will have implications for reservoir operations and water use by other sectors, including environmental water needs.

Environment Sector The National Environmental Policy (1997) sets out a multisectoral framework for mainstreaming and coordinating environmental protection in national decision making and policy implementation through: The introduction of an environmental impact assessment (EIA) process Promoting market valuation of environmental services to reflect their true

economic worth Implementing a system of environmental standards and indicators Engaging with ongoing international initiatives to address global environmental

problems.

In 1998, the vice president’s office launched the Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental Management Project (ILFEMP) to assess the country’s capacity for decentralized implementation of the National Environment Policy and to help establish an operational framework. A National Environment Act was signed into law in July 2005. It will considerably strengthen environmental aspects of development by requiring all sectoral agencies to institute sections within their Ministries that are responsible for environmental aspects of development as described in ILFEMP.

The Bank-supported Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project (LKEMP) was approved in 2001 in response to the concerns about the spray-dependent ecosystem in the Kihansi Gorge that was threatened by the water abstractions for the development of the Lower Kihansi hydroelectric plant. The project is promoting specific actions to conserve this ecosystem, establish the water needs of the gorge ecosystem, and strengthen national water resource management capabilities. The LKEMP has highlighted very serious and systemic weaknesses in the administration and enforcement of water rights, the importance of determining water requirements to maintain ecosystem functions prior to project design, and the role of environmental assessments to support project planning and management decision making. This project also funded an assessment of capacity in the Tanzanian water resources sector, including the capacity to undertake environmental flows assessments (Annex D).

19 An important justification used to support this project was that water inflows to the overall hydropower system were two-thirds of the average inflows over the past 25 years. The 2003 inflow into Mtera Reservoir, the most important reservoir in Tanzania’s hydropower system, was just 40 percent of the 60-year average inflows. (MOP, 2004, p. 8).

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SummaryGovernment-initiated water reforms during the 1990s have led to the development of a farsighted policy for water resources management. Based on that policy, major institutional changes are being carried out. Basin water offices have been established in all nine river and lake basins, and multisectoral boards have been established to broaden user representation. Transboundary water management has received a higher priority. A new water law is being drafted to back other policy changes, such as charging for water use and pollution permits and improving stakeholder involvement.

Investments in water-related sectors—WSS, irrigation, hydropower, and environment—have also led to investments and management reforms that are mostly complementary to those occurring in water resources management. There have been some improvements in urban water supply and sanitation services, expansion in rural water supply, increases in hydropower production capacity, and the development and rehabilitation of irrigation systems. However, much remains to be accomplished. Targets for water supply and sanitation have not been met, and many urban and rural water supply schemes face numerous challenges, including threats to and degraded water sources. Policy and institutional reforms in water resources have not been internalized effectively in service sectors; institutions for developing water resources for water supply, irrigation and hydropower production remain weak; and environmental impacts need to be considered when development and operational decisions are being made.

The cross-sectoral aspects of water management remain particularly weak. This is a result of the absence of a coherent strategy by either the GoT or the Bank to link and guide reforms in the various sectors. Consequently, sector policies have been developed (in some cases with Bank support) without thorough consideration of important water management implications. Unless there is clear internal consensus within the MWLD and better cross-sectoral coordination during the roll-out of the water resources reforms and the continuing investment in water-related sectors, there will be further water allocation conflicts and inefficiencies in sectoral investments, such as the impact of mining on freshwater fisheries and of land degradation on water storages.

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CHAPTER 4

WATER RESOURCES CONFLICTS

Tanzania’s Water ResourceIn 2002, Tanzania received an estimated average of 2,300 m3 per capita of renewable freshwater. This is significantly above the level of 1,700 m3 per capita as denoting water stress, or the 1,000 m3 per capita denoting water scarcity. However, this average figure does not reflect the temporal (seasonal or annual) or spatial variability of water, which varies greatly across the country. Figure 4.1 provides a comparison of estimated and projected per capita water availability in 1990 and 2025 in SSA nations. If population projections prove accurate, population growth alone would drop Tanzania’s annual renewal rate to 1,500 m3 per capita by 2025, putting it within the water-stressed category.20

F r e s h W a t e r A v a i l a b i l i t y i n 1 9 9 0 a n d 2 0 2 5 i n s e l e c t e d s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a n n a t i o n s

0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 0 0 0

C o t e d ' I v o i r e

N i g e r

B e n i n

S u d a n

S e n e g a l

M a u r i t a n i a

M o z a m b i q u e

U g a n d a

G h a n a

T o g o

N i g e r i a

M a d a g a s c a r

B u r k i n a F a s o

T a n z a n i a

Z i m b a b w e

E t h i o p i a

L e s o t h o

M a u r i t i u s

C o m o r o s

S o u t h A f r i c a

E g y p t

S o m a l i a

M a l a w i

R w a n d a

B u r u n d i

K e n y a

C a p e V e r d e

D j i b o u t i

m 3

in 1 9 9 0

in 2 0 2 5

S c a r c i t y S t r e s s V u l n e r a b l e

W a t e r s c a r c i t yl e s s th a n 1 0 0 0 m 3 / p e r s o n / y e a r

W a t e r s t r e s s1 0 0 0 to 1 7 0 0 m 3 / p e r s o n / y e a r

W a t e r v u l n e r a b i l i t y1 7 0 0 to 2 5 0 0 m 3 / p e r s o n / y e a r

W a t e r a v a i l a b i l i t y p e r c a p i t a

S o u r c e : U n i te d N a ti o n s E c o n o m ic C o m m i s s i o n fo r A fr i c a ( U N E C A ) , A d d i s A b a b a ; G l o b a l E n v i r o n m e n t O u tl o o k 2 0 0 0 ( G E O ) , U N E P , E a r th s c a n , L o n d o n , 1 9 9 9

Figure 4.1 Per Capita Water Availability in 1990 and 2025

The monsoon-type climate causes extreme intra-annual variability in rainfall and river flows. Typically, short rains fall in November and December and long rains from March 20 The 2025 levels were projected on the basis of the UN’s medium-level population growth rate.

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through May. Annual rainfall variability (see Figure 4.2) shows that droughts and floods are periodic events. The 2003–04 drought caused acute water shortages in the Rufiji, Wami-Ruvu, Pangani, and Internal Drainage basins, with very significant impacts on people’s livelihoods and on key sectors of the economy. The current drought is impacting many key sectors of the economy (agriculture, livestock, industry, and energy).

Figure 4.2 Mean Annual Rainfall Showing the High Degree of Spatial Variability

Figure 4.3 shows the five river basins (Pangani, Rufiji, Wami/Ruvu, Ruvuma and Internal Drainage) and the four lake basins (Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Rukwa) that are the legally defined units for planning, development, and management of water resources under the 1974 Water Utilization and Control Act No. 42 and its Amendment Act No. 10 of 1981. Tanzania has 14 lakes, rivers, and aquifers that are shared with other nations, including the three African Great Lakes (Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa).

About 25 percent of total surface runoff flows into the Indian Ocean from the Rufiji River; another 25 percent flows in the other major east-flowing rivers—the Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Mbwemkuru, Matandu, and Ruvuma rivers. The remaining 50 percent drains into Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and into the Lake Nyasa-Zambezi River system.

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Figure 4.3 The Nine River Basins of Tanzania

The Pangani River is regulated by the Nyumba ya Mungu (NYM) dam for power generation at several plants, including the Pangani Falls hydroelectric plant (68 MW) located in the lowest reach of the river. The Mtera dam on the Great Ruaha River is the main structure for regulating the Rufiji River, primarily for the Kidatu hydroelectric plant (204 MW). The Tanzania Electric Supply Company Ltd (TANESCO) is the parastatal institution responsible for power generation in Tanzania. Considerable irrigation and hydropower development potential exists in the Rufiji basin. The Ruvu River in the Wami/Ruvu basin is the primary source of Dar es Salaam’s and Morogoro’s water supply for domestic and industrial uses. Irrigation is practiced upstream in the basin.

The three great lakes—Victoria, Tanyanika, and Nyasa/Malawi—contain immense volumes of freshwater (about 27 percent of the global surface freshwater stock). They are of great ecological significance and provide many benefits, including major fisheries, sources of water supply, sinks for wastewater disposal, and transportation routes to neighboring countries. These lakes contain the world’s greatest concentration of freshwater fish diversity. The country also has a number of smaller lakes. Lakes Chala and Jipe on the border with Kenya are important for local water supply and stock use.

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Lakes Twamwala and Ihema border with Rwanda. There are a number of large salt lakes within the country, notably Lakes Natron, Manyara, and Eyasi.

Overall, Tanzania is endowed with abundant freshwater sources of adequate quality for meeting its present and future water needs. If harnessed and managed properly, the large renewable stock of freshwater represents an opportunity for growth in many key sectors of the economy. These water resources are also fundamental for sustaining livelihoods.

Current Water ConflictsIn spite of recent improvements in establishing an enabling environment for managing water resources, Tanzania currently has a water shortage, largely caused by the coupled effect of unreliable infrastructure and water resources infrastructure deficit, particularly due to low water storage, together with deficiencies in water resources management. These shortages have become a source of conflict in some parts of the country, notably in the heavily exploited Pangani and Rufiji basins and the semi-arid Internal Drainage basin. Other basins in the country generally have sufficient water supplies to meet present demands.

Hydropower and Irrigation In 1990, the Mtera reservoir reached full capacity. Reservoir water levels then declined, with serious consequences for hydroelectric generation. The consequent reduction in generation resulted in load shedding and rationing of electricity nationwide during 1992–94. The electricity shortages affected industrial and commercial production and had a significant impact on the national economy.

The 2003–04 drought again reduced inflows to Mtera reservoir, threatening electricity production. Although flows in these years were low, they were not equal to the worst recorded lows. In November 2004, to avoid another incident of load shedding, TANESCO requested a special waiver from the RBWO to operate Mtera Dam below its dead storage level. A similar request was made recently. These procedures would place turbines at great risk of abrasion and increase the chances of sending poor quality water downstream. This current crisis amplify the vulnerability of the economy.

Through much of the early 1990s, water levels in NYM reservoir in the Pangani basin had also been depressed. Table 4.1 shows the estimated water demands of the major water-using sectors in the basin compared to the monitored inflow at the time of the 1993 drought. This was a time when the construction of the new Pangani Falls Hydropower Development project was nearing completion. The deficit amounted to approximately 8 percent of the downstream needs and resulted in interrupted and reduced hydroelectric power at NYM, Hale, and the New Pangani Falls power plants.

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Use M3/s Mm3/yr % demandDemand above NYM

Irrigation 52.0 1,640 64Municipal 1.1 35 1

Demand below NYMHydropower 23.6 744 29Irrigation 3.5 110 4Environment 1.4 44 2Total demand below NYM 28.5 898 35Recorded Inflow to NYM 26.3 829DEFICIT 2.2 69

Table 4.1 Water Demand and Supply in Pangani Basin

The causes of these reduced inflows to the Mtera and NYM reservoirs were heavily disputed. According to TANESCO, poor water management, and specifically, increased and uncontrolled abstractions for irrigation were the main cause of water shortages in both basins. Farmers blamed the low rainfall conditions at the time, while others claimed that poor operational procedures at the reservoirs were the problem. Technical studies were conducted in the two basins to determine the real causes of low storage levels and inflows (Box 4.1). Both the Rufiji BWO report21 and the SMUWC study22 concluded that increased demand for electricity and inadequate supply is resulting in ad hoc responses leading to poor operational procedures at the Mtera reservoir as the primary cause of the low reservoir levels.

Because of concerns about the very low inflow into NYM in the early 1990s, when the construction of the new Pangani Falls hydropower plant was nearing completion, NORAD asked the GoT to take strong action to better manage water resources in the Pangani and Rufiji basins. As a result, the government initiated actions to strengthen the PBWO and establish the RWBO. One of their primary tasks was to carry out a detailed survey to identify the number of water abstractors, to estimate the quantity that was being abstracted, and to institute measures to control the abstractions, such as installing gates.

21 Rufiji Basin Water Office (2005). The Mtera and Kidatu Water Situation 2005.

22 Project Report: The sustainable management of the Usangu Wetland and its Catchment. December 1998–March 2002. Ministry of Water and Livestock Development, Tanzania.

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The irrigators in the two basins initially viewed river basin management negatively as an effort to safeguard TANESCO’S interests in reserving sufficient water for hydropower. This perception was reinforced by the fact that TANESCO was providing most of the financial and material support for managing water resources in the two basins. Peasant farmers saw basin management as a ploy to deprive them of their historical (customary) rights to use water for irrigation. Furthermore, the farmers saw that the benefits derived from the hydropower went to distant urban dwellers, especially since rural electrification has not been accorded a high priority in Tanzania.

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Box 4.1 The Multiple Causes of Water Shortage at NYM and Mtera Reservoirs

Pangani Basin. Drought alone could not explain the water shortages in the NYM reservoir since the design and operating rules for the NYM reservoir were developed on the basis of historical records of precipitation, which incorporated seasonal and annual variations. A study funded by NORAD indicated that the drought of the 1990s fell within the expected statistical variation for the region.

Irrigation is the largest consumptive use in the basin. Water extracted for this purpose—through thousands of traditional furrows upstream of the reservoir, which are difficult to monitor and regulate—was a second possible factor causing the water shortages in NYM. Water resources planners carrying out the feasibility studies for the Pangani Falls Re-Development Project estimated that irrigation water use upstream from NYM had increased by about 2.4 m3/s since the 1978 Kilimanjaro Water Master Plan (when it was 5.85 m3/s). However, a NORAD-supported study in 1993 concluded that the increase in upstream irrigation abstraction was actually between 4.4 m3/s and 9.2 m3/s.

Poor management of water resources was also a possible factor (ORGUT/WSP 2005). Water in Tanzania is allocated through formal and informal (customary) water rights. In the Pangani basin, the traditional furrows are usually unlined ditches without control structures; water extraction occurs even when it is not required for crops. Until the recent RMBSIIP project, there had been no major attempts by the GoT to improve the efficiency of this water use or to limit increases in these abstractions.

Rufiji Basin. The Mtera reservoir has also experienced low water levels. The 1995 DANIDA/World Bank study of the Great Ruaha basin identified similar causes for these low water levels to those operating in the Pangani basin. These included drought, increased upstream abstractions for irrigation, weak enforcement of the water law, and poor operational procedures of the Mtera reservoir. The study suggested that neither changes in rainfall patterns in the basin over the past two decades nor the scale of irrigation expansion upstream from Mtera were able to explain the significant changes in reservoir inflows and water levels.

The 1995 study concluded that improper operation of the Mtera Dam appeared to be the factor that had most affected water levels in the reservoir. Two of the turbines at the Kidatu hydropower station (204 MW) were designed to be operated only during wet periods or when the reservoir had excess water. However, power continued to be generated between 1990 and 1995, even when spillway discharges had stopped during the dry season, indicating that the Mtera reservoir may not have been operated according to its design assumptions. It is possible that TANESCO operated the Mtera reservoir to meet the increased demand for electricity and to offset the losses in electricity production that were resulting from a broken 50 MW turbine and another 50 MW turbine under maintenance at Kidatu.

The 2001 report from the SMUWC study (Box 4.2) validated these conclusions. While it found that upstream irrigation was primarily the cause of the drying of the Great Ruaha River in the Ruaha National Park and the shrinking of the Usangu wetlands, it was not the cause of the water crisis in the reservoir.

The Bank-supported RBMSIIP project was a direct response to assist with reforms to water management in these two basins. Under the RBMSIIP, progress has been made in measuring flows, delineating the water users, granting formal rights, and instituting a participatory mechanism for improving awareness and water use and supporting a rational water policy platform.

Pastoralists and Irrigators Water shortages in the Great Ruaha basin have resulted in intense competition between irrigators and pastoralists, particularly during the dry season. In the Usangu Plains, upstream from the Mtera reservoir, water scarcity has caused tensions over access to both land and water. There was a perception among farmers that increasing numbers of cattle were placing greater demand on water and forage during the dry season both within and around the Utengule Swamps. At the same time, the gradual expansion of areas under irrigation by farmers decreased land that was previously available for grazing and the availability of water for livestock. The pastoralists and their cattle trespassed on cultivated fields to access water sources during the dry season, causing severe damage to the crops and cultivated fields, intensifying the hostility between farmers and pastoralists.

The DFID-supported SMUWC study (Box 4.2) was initiated to obtain a scientifically credible explanation for the water shortages in the Great Ruaha basin. Its findings made it clear that livestock numbers in Usangu were smaller than previously claimed and that livestock water and pasture needs were within the carrying capacity of the basin. They

Box 4.2 The SMUWC Project

The Sustainable Management of the Usangu Wetland and its Catchment (SMUWC) project began in September 1998 in response to the recent seasonal drying up of the Great Ruaha River. This was widely thought to be linked to water shortages at Mtera reservoir, and consequent severe national electrical shortages in the mid–1990s. The low flows were widely attributed to land-use activities in the Usangu catchment.

The project confirmed that the Great Ruaha River was drying up more often, earlier, and for longer periods each dry season. The drying of the river was having serious effects on the Ruaha National Park. However, the seasonal drying of the river was having little impact on inflows to Mtera reservoir, and so was not a cause of the electricity shortages. The immediate cause of the low flows was water abstractions into the irrigation systems, leading to the Western Wetland not being flooded regularly. In the dry season, abstractions of water come directly from the water that would naturally flow down to the swamp and onwards to feed the Great Ruaha River.

This study illustrated the value of objective scientific investigations in developing a factually based consensus about contentious issues. The results of the study have been widely disseminated among residents of the region and are now widely accepted.

Source: Project Report: The sustainable management of the Usangu Wetland and its Catchment. December 1998- March 2002. Ministry of Water and Livestock Development, Tanzania.

were not the cause of either the water shortage or the environmental degradation within the basin. These highly credible findings have been disseminated widely through the

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SMUWC, but have yet to be widely accepted in the face of long-held beliefs. These findings and recommendations have yet to be acted on by the planning and decision-making system.

Agriculture and the Environment The Great Ruaha River flows through the Great Ruaha National Park and provides the basis of the wildlife-based tourism industry. The river first dried up in the 1993 dry season and has subsequently dried up at an earlier date every year since, causing the animals to move away from the river and affecting the income from tourists. Increases in the area irrigated for rice, increases in livestock numbers, and land degradation were all blamed for the drying up of the river. As the SWUMC study made clear, the primary cause of the drying up of the river was the expansion of irrigated rice farming above the Usangu wetlands. The diversion of water was affecting both the wetlands themselves as well as the flows through the Great Ruaha National Park.

The SWUMC study formulated a framework for improving the flows in the river and restoring the functioning of the wetlands. A planning group was formed to come up with a management strategy that would achieve this outcome. In March 2001, the Prime Minister of Tanzania committed to restore the flows of the Great Ruaha River by 2010 through “a programme to ensure that the Great Ruaha River has a year-round flow by 2010. The programme broadly aims at integrated comprehensive approaches towards resources planning, development, and management so that human activity does not endanger the sustenance of the Great Ruaha ecosystems.”

Hydropower and the Environment The Lower Kihansi hydroelectric plant was constructed under the Bank-financed Power VI project and commenced operations in December 1999. It represents an example of a highly contested water right. As a result of ecological studies conducted during project construction, a rare endemic toad in a rare wetland system was discovered to exist in the Kihansi Gorge located downstream from the Kihansi Dam. Operation of the hydroelectric plant has drastically reduced the spray, which sustains the wetland, and threatens the existence of this ecosystem. Temporary measures were taken as part of the Power VI project to safeguard the ecosystem, including a captive breeding program for the toad and the construction of an artificial spray system in the gorge.

Approved by the Bank in 200, the Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project was authorized to conduct studies into habitat and species conservation and build national capacity in conservation biology at the University of Dar es Salaam; help establish a final water right for the operation of the hydroelectric plant; prepare an Environmental Management Plan to be implemented as part of the water allocation; and strengthen national water and environmental management capacities.

The determination of a final water right for the hydroelectric plant was delayed while the environmental water needs of the gorge were determined. During this flow testing, the fragile in situ Kihansi Spray toad population collapsed. Several causes including Chytrid Fungus and pollution were though to be contributing factors. The final water right for the

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hydroelectric plant was granted to TANESCO by the Rufiji Basin Water Board in June 2004. It stipulates a minimum environmental flow requirement of 1.5- 2.0 m3/s to be coupled with measures to ensure the conservation of the Kihansi Gorge.

Conflict between Farmers Following the construction of the first phase of the 2,300-hectare Lower Moshi Irrigation Scheme (LMIS) in the Pangani basin, upstream farmers on the Rau River began to employ the successful production techniques used in LMIS to put over 3,000 additional hectares under rice irrigation. Much of the water used for this expansion was abstracted without water rights. These increased upstream abstractions resulted in acute water shortages in the Weru Weru River, which constrained further development of the LMIS in spite of the existing water rights. Efforts to address the water rights issue resulted in physical violence.

The conflicts over access to water in the Pangani basin can be categorized into three types, according to IUCN (Box 4.3).

Box 4.3 Types of Conflict in the Pagani Basin

Conflicts of scale. Conflicts have emerged between water users of different sizes and power in the basin. Large-scale plantations, often backed by foreign investment and using hundreds of liters of water per second through efficient drip irrigation systems, differ starkly from small-scale users of traditional furrow systems with efficiency as low as 14 percent. Similarly, the three urban centers in the basin require more water as they expand, pitting city municipalities against the village governments of farming communities.

Conflicts of tenure. Tenure is the right to manage a resource. Many small-scale users in Pangani basin are reluctant to apply and pay for water rights, arguing that water is a “gift from God’.” These communities reject government efforts to manage water resources, even to the point of vandalizing water control gates and structures.

Conflicts of location. Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO) pays a royalty to the Ministry of Water & Livestock Development for 95 MW, assuming a 45 m3/s flow. Because of reduced rainfall and upstream abstractions, flow to the hydropower installation is often as little as 15 m3/s, limiting production to as low as 32 MW and creating national-level conflicts as power supply to the national grid is compromised. In addition, reduced flows have led to saltwater intrusions almost 20 km upstream, compromising agricultural activities in the lower basin.

Source: Sarmett, J., R. Burra, R. van Klinken, and K.West. 2004. “Managing Conflicts through dialogue from Reduced Supply and Increasing Demand in Pangani Basin, Tanzania.” IUCN Policy Brief.

Potential Sources of Tension

Increased Urban Water Demand Water has always been scarce in the Internal Drainage basin; the town of Shinyanga has been the hardest hit urban area. Major surface sources of water supply have dried up and emergency measures have been instituted to develop supplementary groundwater sources (Box 4.4). The increased demand for water for Shinyanga has impacted most other local water users.

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Box 4.4Impact of Drought on Shinyanga Water Supply

During normal periods, water demand for Shinyanga was 20,000 m3/day. The installed production capacity of all existing water sources (surface water and groundwater) was 23,800 m3/day. Ninghua Dam accounts for 80 percent of the total capacity. However, the supply for Shinyanga from all sources was only 56 percent of the total demand.

Drought has considerably reduced inflows into Ninghua Dam. The dam has a total storage capacity of 13.6 million cubic meters. At the end of June 1996, the reservoir had only 800,000 m3 of water in storage, which provides only one month’s supply. Moreover, the actual production from the dam was only 9,050 m3/day (installed production capacity is 19,000 m3/day) because of operational difficulties, including inadequate pumping capacity, dilapidated equipment, and leaking pipes.

The Shinyanga crisis led to the following emergency actions: Construction of 22 new shallow wells Rehabilitation of 15 existing shallow wells Rehabilitation of existing boreholes (including installation of new pumps).

As part of a longer-term strategy, the GoT has initiated the development of Lake Victoria water as a source of municipal supply for Shinyanga.

Dar es Salaam water supply is also facing increased competition from upstream water users. While the major problems arise from inadequate expansion and maintenance of the existing water supply infrastructure, the city’s two intakes on the unregulated Ruvu River are subject to increasing pressures from upstream developments, which are abstracting increased quantities water, as well as contributing to higher sediment loads reaching the intakes.

Water Pollution from Point Sources Wastewater from municipalities and industries is typically discharged into receiving water bodies untreated or only partially treated. Only 7 out of the 52 urban centers—namely Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Moshi, Arusha, Dodoma, Tabora, and Tanga—have sewerage systems, covering only a small part of the population. Most of the sewerage systems—except for Dodoma, Tanga, and Arusha towns which were renovated recently—are old and overloaded and in urgent need of rehabilitation. At Njoro Juu springs in Moshi, sewage contamination has caused periodic outbreaks of cholera. The overloaded sewerage system of Arusha is polluting the Themi River. Iringa, the only major urban center in the Rufiji basin, discharges raw sewage into the Great Ruaha River. In Mwanza, where part of the town is connected to a central sewerage system, raw sewage has been discharged directly into Lake Victoria for the past decade.

Some of these wastewater discharges pose a health hazard. Lake Victoria water is used as a source of urban water supply for Mwanza. Some industrial discharges in the Rufiji basin are located near an existing municipal water supply intake.

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The increased nutrient loads from sewage, together with other nutrient sources, have resulted in a five-fold increase in algal growth in Lake Victoria, deoxygenation of the lake’s bottom waters, clogging of the water intake filters, increased chemical treatment costs for urban centers, and localized fish kills. The high nutrient concentrations in the lake waters promoted the growth of water hyacinth, which spread rapidly around the shoreline in 1998, causing considerable economic loss to fishermen and to ferry operators.

Industries in Dar es Salaam and Morogoro have heavily polluted rivers in the Wami-Ruvu basin. Pesticide manufacturing, textiles, tanneries, and coffee-processing and sisal industries discharge untreated effluents into tributaries of the Pangani River. Textile mills, oil mills, and a variety of fish processing plants discharge pollutants into Lake Victoria. The Kiwira coal mine discharges large quantities of pollutants into the Kiwira River, which empties into Lake Nyasa. These effluents pose health hazards to downstream communities, deplete dissolved oxygen in the river, and damage sensitive ecosystems.

While there is not a widespread perception of the direct connection between the discharge of these wastes and the downstream consequences, these polluting discharges impose costs on downstream water users. They remain a cause of ill health and environmental degradation, as well as a potential source of conflict.

Water Pollution from Nonpoint Sources Since water quality is not monitored systematically throughout Tanzania, the extent and severity of water pollution from agro-chemicals and the consequences of this pollution are not known. However, data from the increasing use of agro-chemicals and the expansion of cropped area implies that this is a growing problem. Nutrients from fertilizer applications (as well as from soil erosion) add to the nutrient load reaching lakes. Sediments from poor land management contribute to downstream problems such as siltation of dams, clogging of water intakes, increased water treatment costs, and damage to irrigation and hydropower equipment. Sediment deposition from the Soni River in the Pangani basin has changed the riverbed dimensions and reduced the conveyance capacity of the river channel near Mombo. The loss of conveyance capacity is believed to have exacerbated the consequences of the 1991 floods, which resulted in the loss of many lives and widespread property damage.

Deforestation has increased soil erosion and sedimentation in river channels and water resources infrastructure such as reservoirs and irrigation systems. The live storage of reservoirs has been affected due to poor land use; siltation has reduced the live storage of the Hale Reservoir, in the Pangani basin, from 0.46 million m3 to 0.35 million m3. Increased soil erosion has caused over 3 meters of sediment deposition in channels near the Mombo Rice Irrigation Scheme, causing it to stop functioning. This has had asignificant impact on the local economy.

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Mining activities are a threat to the health of downstream communities and are believed to be the source of elevated mercury concentrations in localized areas of Lake Victoria. This poses a potential threat to the important Nile perch export industry, which generates revenues of around $90 million annually for Tanzania.

Transboundary Waters: a National Security Issue Tanzania shares many surface and groundwater bodies with its neighbors (Annex B). While there have been some disputes over transboundary waters—such as access to fishing on Lake Victoria, the location of the boundary between Tanzania and Malawi on Lake Nyasa, and concerns over developments in Kenya that would impact Lake Natron and Lake Jipe—there have been an increasing number of examples of a cooperative approach to the management of transboundary waters, including on the Kagera and Mara Rivers and in the three Great Lakes.

The rapidly declining water levels in Lake Victoria (see Figure below) largely due to the unsustainable operating practices of the hydropower facility in Uganda poses a particular problem to the region. Between 1950 and 2000, outflows in Uganda used for generating hydropower were correlated to lake levels, but from 2000 a new operating regime was adopted and outflows increased by 15% at a time when lake levels were falling. Recent information from a water balance study indicates that the recent dam operating practices in Uganda is the primary factor that is contributing to the rapidly declining lake levels of about 1.64 m in the past 4 years.

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Management efforts on some of the smaller transboundary lakes and catchments have also been initiated. A joint study supported by the Governments of Tanzania and Malawi has considered water resources development options for the Songwe River. Another example is illustrated by Lake Jipe, which has experienced decreased inflows, increased siltation, and an increase in nutrient-related problems such as water weeds and algal blooms (Box 4.5). These changes have generated considerable tension between communities dependent on the lake for their livelihoods and those upstream.

SummaryThere have been numerous conflicts between water-using sectors (as well as within sectors such as agriculture), particularly in the heavily exploited water resources of the Pangani and Rufiji River basins. In addition, there are further examples where water flow and water quality issues have the potential to cause tensions between upstream and downstream water users. Tanzania has a special need to collaborate with its neighbors for management and development of its transboundary water resources. To date, attempts at joint management have been encouraging, at least in the major transboundary lakes and river basins. Yet many challenges related to the management of transboundary water resources remain.

Box 4.5Degradation of Lake Jipe

Lake Jipe is a small (28 km2), shallow lake on the Kenya-Tanzania border. The lake receives its main inflow from the Lumi River, which originates on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and then flows through Kenya. The surrounding region is arid, and the lake is an important resource for the riparian communities and their livestock and for game from the nearby Tsavo West National Park. The lake is also a refuge for many Palaearctic migrant waders and inter-African migrant water birds.

The lake has become shallower, saltier, and more polluted during the 1990s. Inflows to the lake have decreased. Fringing typha beds have increased significantly so that they now cover between 60 and 80 percent of the Tanzanian area of the lake. This spread is possibly because of the reduced lake depth and increased nutrient inflows. There have been changes in the species of fish and birds in the lake, possibly caused by changes in habitat and changes in water chemistry. The wetlands where the Lumi River enters the lake have received increased silt loads.

The causes of these changes have not been established through scientific studies and are disputed to some extent by different groups in the lake’s catchment. However, the decreased river flows are likely to be at least partially caused by increased upstream irrigation in Kenya and possibly by changes in snow melt on Mt. Kilimanjaro. The increased silt load reaching the lake is likely to arise from increased upstream cultivation and poor land management. However, until scientific studies are carried out, it is difficult to identify the causes of the problem with sufficient certainty to act as a basis for management.

Kenyan and Tanzanian officials have met with local stakeholders in a series of workshops to reach agreement on the root causes of these problems and the best methods for tackling them. More recently, the Lake Jipe catchment has been selected for study by the East African Community for the introduction of common EIA guidelines. This study has recommended scientific studies to establish the causes of the problems experienced in the lake and increased involvement of local affected communities in decision making in the catchment.

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CHAPTER 5

ACHIEVEMENTS, CHALLENGES, AND LESSONS

The fact that Tanzania continues to face very serious water problems after three decades of investments in rural, urban, and irrigation water supply and hydropower development and a decade of reforms is an indication of how complex and difficult the problem is. The achievements to date, the challenges remaining, and the lessons learned need to be reviewed carefully in order to guide the TWRAS.

Key AchievementsA Strong Policy Platform The 2002 National Water Policy incorporates sound principles of water resources management (Box 5.1), including separation of operational and policy and regulatory functions; involvement of stakeholders at both policy and operational levels; reinforcement of economic incentives (charges for water use and penalties for pollution discharge); and coordination across water-using sectors. A new national water sector

Box. 5.1 Principles of Sound Water Resources Management

Subsidiarity. River basins would be the units of operational water resources management. Operational decisions will be decentralized to these basin offices. A Basin Water Board that represents the various water user communities in the basin will oversee each basin office

Separation. Resource management and regulatory functions have been separated from service delivery functions in the revised institutional arrangements.

Comprehensiveness. A restructured National Water Board would provide oversight of the basin water offices. The Department of Water Resources would be responsible for policy issues and provide technical support functions to the regions. Improved coordination with other water-related sectors would be promoted at both national and basin levels.

Sustainability. Water resources will be utilized within sustainable limits (safe yields of surface and groundwater and assimilative capacities for discharge of pollutants) to minimize the effects of externalities of investment decisions on water quantity and quality, to ensure the protection of the water resource, and to better incorporate environmental issues such as environmental flows and habitat protection into management decisions.

Economic value. Charges will be introduced for use of raw water for urban supply, irrigation, hydropower generation and other uses, and for issuing licenses for the discharge of pollutants. The income from these water-use levies and pollution discharge licenses will be retained within the basins and used to support costs of managing the basins’ water resources.

strategy, legislation, and institutional framework are being finalized to implement the policy. It is important that these instruments and strategies are finalized in close consultations with key stakeholders in the water sector. Success must ultimately be judged by improvements in outcomes—that is, the reliability and quality of the country’s water resources for the productive sectors of the economy (such as agriculture, energy, fisheries, industry, livestock, tourism, and mining) and the access of all people to those resources. Implementation is difficult; nevertheless, this policy lays the foundation for success.

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Institutional ReorganizationUnder the proposed institutional arrangements within the Ministry of Water and Livestock Development, the office of the Principal Water Officer will be abolished to realign regulatory functions and to reduce parallel tracks of operations and duplication of functions. An effective operational arrangement has yet to be established to implement the water policy; oversee the basin water offices; coordinate cross-sectoral efforts to control water pollution; protect water sources; support the management of international waters; and oversee the development of guidelines for water resources management.

The GoT also intends to strengthen the decentralized management of priority river basins. All nine river and lake basin offices have been formally established (but basin water boards in two of these have yet to be established). Two basins (Pangani and Rufiji) have received significant donor support to help them become operational. The Wami-Ruvu Basin Water Office (WRBWO) is receiving support from the AfDB and DWSSP. The experience from these three BWOs in managing these important sectoral uses of water will be useful for other river BWOs with dominant water users. The four lake BWOs (Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, and Rukwa) will particularly need support, since technical and administrative capacity and experience with lake basin management in Tanzania is weak. Particular attention should be paid to strengthening the regulatory roles and responsibilities of the newly created lake basin water offices in the existing Lake Victoria and Tanganyika basin management projects. A transition program is being developed to transfer operational responsibility from the regions and districts (including regional consulting units) to the river-basin level. The transfer of staff from RCUs to BWOs needs to be implemented carefully to ensure that the BWOs are strengthened with the right capacity and incentives; not just to meet political expediency goals.

In pilot basins, local users are being involved in decision making through water user groups and catchment committees. Improvements in water monitoring in both the Pangani and Rufiji basins have contributed to improving transparency in water allocation decisions and have helped reduce unlicensed abstractions, although many water right infringements remain in both basins and much remains to be done.

Supporting LegislationNew water resources management legislation has been drafted to extend as well as provide legal authorization for many components of the NAWAPO, including the proposed institutional changes. The legislation will reinforce the powers of the basin water boards and the new central oversight structure; authorize water abstraction charges and pollution permits; empower the Minister to establish and set aside a “reserve” before water allocation decisions are made, and to promote transboundary water resources management and collect relevant data; provide for cross-sectoral collaboration; and support the establishment of water user groups. When passed, this legislation will provide the necessary authority for institutional reorganization, autonomous financing of basin water resources management offices, and wide participation in decision making. In the past, the problem has not been inadequacies in the law, but effective enforcement of the law. Thus, by refining and strengthening the law will not automatically imply that it will now be enforced more effectively. Whether these sound principles are put into

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practice will depend on internal commitment by MWLD management as well as political drive, access to financial support, and expertise.

Cooperative Transboundary Waterbody ManagementThe GoT is also actively engaged in promoting cooperative management and development of its international rivers basins and lakes, as shown by its participation in the strategic action plan and inter-government convention for Lake Tanganyika, the cooperative efforts with Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi to develop the resources of the Lake Victoria basin through the EAC, and the drafting of a convention for the joint management of Lake Nyasa with Mozambique and Malawi. It is also engaged with neighboring countries in preparing water resources development projects in the Mara and Kagera catchments, and is exploring regional power development options and trade under NELSAP and the EAC. With IUCN’s support, high level discussions and joint studies have recently been initiated with Kenya to understand and address the rapid degradation of Lake Jipe. In 2000, GOT agencies had met to discuss the potentially significant impacts on Lake Natron (an ecologically sensitive ecosystem of high biodiversity and tourism value) from the proposed water resources development on the Ewasso Ngiro in Kenya. Through SADC, programs are being prepared to support the development and management of the Ruvuma and Songwe rivers.

Sectoral Developments Recognize the Importance of Water Resources Some water-dependent sectors (particularly agriculture and environment) are recognizing the benefits from improved water resources management. This is most apparent in irrigation, the largest water-using sector, where the productivity benefits from water-user associations and improved water-use efficiency have been demonstrated in the Pangani and Rufiji basins through the RBMSIIP (Box 5.2). The sector has now drafted legislation to assist in the formation of water-user groups throughout the country and to support the water resources reforms.

Box 5.2 Important Irrigation Improvement Achievements in Rufiji and Pangani Basins

On the basis of 15 smallholder irrigation schemes improved under the RBMSIIP, the following has been accomplished:

a. Institutional development. Ten district catchment facilitation teams were formed to replace multidisciplinary teams from MAFS/MLWD. Environmental cell units were established to conduct environmental evaluation of irrigation schemes.b. Training. Extensive training was provided to farmers and scheme extension agents on irrigation, water management, O&M of schemes, and crop production techniques.c. Water Productivity. Irrigation efficiency in selected schemes improved from 7–14 to 30 percent although there are differing views about the best methodology to use to measure efficiency.d. Crop Productivity. Rice productivity in the improved schemes increased from 1.8-2 tons/ha before improvements to 5 tons/ha after improvements.e. Cost of improvements. Irrigation scheme improvements cost an average of $1,742/ha; this is about 35 pecent of the costs incurred through previously established improvements.

Source: World Bank (2004) Implementation Completion Report for RBMSIIP.

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The water supply and sanitation sector is also aware of the benefits from managing the quantity and quality of the basic water resource so that supply is more certain and treatment costs are reduced. Box 3.4 summarized the water resources management threats to Dar es Salaam’s water supply and Box 3.5 illustrates the water resources challenges related to rural water supplies. Box 5.3 summarizes the areas of cooperation on groundwater management and monitoring under the recently signed MOU between the WRBWO and DAWASA.

The environment is also recognized as an important user of water, as well as a key part of the water resources base. Many recent issues have illustrated the role of the environment in water resources management, including the water-use conflicts in Usangu and consequent impacts on both the energy sector and the Great Ruaha National Park; potential concerns over the ecological impacts of developments in Kenya on Lake Natron; the impact of water-quality-related problems on fisheries in Lake Victoria; growing concerns over increasing mercury contamination from the mining sector; and water right violations at the Lower Kihansi hydropower development project. While the experience of the Lower Kihansi hydropower project has sensitized the energy sector to environmental aspects of water management and the experience of the Lower Pangani hydropower plant made the importance of engaging in water resource allocation decisions more apparent, the energy sector has yet to fully engage in a multisectoral approach to water resources.

Box 5.3 Dar es Salaam Water Supply: Areas of Cooperation and Collaboration Between WRBWO and DAWASA

Groundwater resources inventory. An appropriate inventory of groundwater resources in the area of DAWASA operations will be established and maintained. The inventory will include aquifer and recharge area characteristics and potential demand for groundwater supply.

Groundwater users’ registration and database. All users in the area of operations will be inventoried and registered and properly licensed and pay the required fees and levies related to the extraction of groundwater. A database of users will be established and maintained to control extraction.

Groundwater monitoring. An appropriate groundwater monitoring plan will be prepared with details of sampling and test methods, test frequency, sampling points, monitoring resources, and budget. Monitoring will be carried out and a database of results will be established and maintained.

Groundwater status reporting. Quarterly groundwater status reports indicating the level of extraction, recharge potential, quality, and potential risks will be prepared and distributed to interested parties

Demonstration of Decentralized Urban and Rural WSSDecentralized, community-driven rural WSS has now been successfully implemented in 12 districts. There is evidence that communities are willing to contribute to the capital works program as well as O&M if service improves and they are involved in expenditure decisions. The elements of this success have been captured in guidelines and procedures that can now be rolled out into other rural communities. Urban water and sewerage services have been successfully transferred to an autonomous operator in Dar es Salaam (DAWASCO), where the cost of water dropped significantly after meters were installed. The level of service is expected to improve, and supply will be extended to previously unserviced parts of the city after the replacement and rehabilitation of the distribution

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system is completed. A framework has been established for extending this experience to other major towns in Tanzania.

Remaining ChallengesA number of structural weaknesses remain that, unless tackled as part of the implementation of the reforms, will hamper achieving the outcomes of the NSGRP.

Inadequate and Unreliable Infrastructure Substantial new investments in water resources infrastructure will be needed to meet urban and rural water supply and sanitation needs, new hydropower developments anticipated under the energy master plan, the proposed doubling of irrigated areas under the irrigation masterplan, and the water needs of the rapidly growing tourism and mining sectors. Such investments could include development of new sources (including surface, groundwater, and interbasin transfers), river regulation structures, and water and wastewater systems, including wastewater reuse schemes. With proper planning, some of these investments could have multiple objectives.

Some major water resources facilities—including hydropower plants, irrigation schemes, and urban water supplies—have become unreliable. They are not generating optimal benefits because of poor design, poor maintenance, and weak water allocation control.

In addition, the existing water resources infrastructure has not been maintained, and dam safety is a growing concern. An audit of existing infrastructure is needed, and funds need to be provided for maintenance and repairs.

Financing Water Resources Management Developing mechanisms for sustainable financing of river and lake basin organizations is one of the key implementation challenges. For many years, the MWLD has not provided adequate financial resources for the building and operating of water resources management systems (for river flow, groundwater, climate and water quality monitoring), for water resources assessment or planning, and for water resources institutions (department of water resources and basin water offices). A 3-year study (2000/1-2002/3) in the Pangani basin—the most mature basin water office in Tanzania—showed that on average, the main sources of funding for the operations of the PBWO were water user fees (37 percent), MW (30 percent), TANESCO royalties (20 percent), and funds from RBMSIIP (12 percent).23 The water user fees, including TANESCO royalties, will not be sufficient to cover the costs of management, and external funds are not sustainable. The contribution from the MW for water resources management has been declining over the past 10 years. Reversing this trend in a significant manner will be a key test of GoT’s commitment to ensure that this contribution increases in line with management needs.

Weak InstitutionsExisting institutions suffer from a shortage of the legal, scientific, and administrative skills needed for implementing the new water resources framework. This shortage will become more acute as responsibility for operational matters is transferred to the basin management offices, especially those where transboundary waterbodies are located.

23 Turpie, Ngaga and Karanja, 2003, p. 86.

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There are several factors that have contributed to weak water resources institutions. For example:

There is an institutional bias toward water supply institutions where outcomes (such as number of schemes built or population served) can be measured in quantitative terms. Outputs from water resources work (such as improved data, planning, regulation and enforcement, or mediated or reduced conflicts) are often difficult to measure in the short term. This has contributed to inadequate understanding and appreciation of the role of water resources management and development in the nation’s economy, and thus to lack of a clear consensus on how to address this within the senior management of the MW.

The multisectoral, decentralized, community-relevant nature of the work—as well as the increasing inclusion of water law, economics, environmental uses of water, conflict resolution, and transboundary issues—has left many staff without the tools, skills, or resources to cope.

For river and lake basin offices to be respected and effective, a significant amount of effort needs to be put in place to ensure that these water offices are operating in a transparent and fair manner and are accountable to the users for their actions.

Within the MW there are no clear mechanisms or procedures for effectively integrating water quantity and water quality management, reflecting a major constraint to sound water management. Operationally streamlining water quantity and water quality management in essential. These functions are currently handled by different departments and carried out as independent operations that are clearly not serving common regulatory or management goals.

Within the government there are no mechanisms, regulations, or procedures for the MW to (a) work with the National Environment management Council or Division of Environment to operationally deal with water quality management and pollution control or (b) work with the Ministries of Lands and Settlement and Natural Resources to institute and implement land use controls for the protection of important water sources (watersheds, groundwater recharge areas, and wetlands).

There is no clear strategy with assigned roles and responsibilities (within the MW or GOT) to address the growing challenge of managing the nation’s numerous transboundary water resources management and development needs. Tanzania’s approach remains ad hoc and reactive, but not strategic, and important benefits and opportunities are being lost.

The budget allocation for water resources management services has declined sharply. This has resulted in poor operation and maintenance of hydrometric and water quality monitoring networks, as well as inadequate numbers of technical

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staff. Declining national budgets have been exacerbated by the low level of recovery of water-use fees and the lack of transparency in the use and retention of funds at the operational level. Although pollution penalties have been established, their implementation is not clear and they have not been a source of funds to date. The current year’s budget indicates a reversal in the above trend, which is a positive sign.

The increasing attention given to Tanzania’s international waters has also had a significant impact on staff available for national water resources work.

Uncoordinated ManagementAlthough the NAWAPO, the proposed institutional structure, and legislation all promote the participation of sectoral agencies in water resources management, the reality is that these sectoral agencies have not shown any indication that they understand and/or are taking actions and resourcing these actions to internalized these requirements. They still deal with the management of water resources according to their specific sectoral mandates and priorities. They have yet to adopt a cross-sectoral, basin-wide perspective when making planning, design, and operations decisions. In short, business as usual is continuing.

In addition, these agencies are themselves undergoing reforms that are not well-integrated with the water resources reforms. Even though the energy sector is heavily dependent on water and has had a long history of highly politicized problems with water management in its major hydropower plants, the 2003 National Energy Policy (which was developed a year after NAWAPO) makes no reference to the need for the sector to engage in water resources management to ensure that a strong water resources management regulatory capacity is developed to so that adequate water is available for hydropower production. In another example, the National Environment Management Act (2004) empowers the Environment Minister to charge for use of natural resources (such as water) when, under NAWAPO, the water minister has been assigned the power to charge for the use of water.

Sectoral organizations have limited capacity to become actively engaged in water resources management. They have difficulty finding staff sufficiently well-trained in their sectoral responsibilities, let alone assigning staff to engage in water resources management. Without assistance, their involvement in the water reforms is likely to be limited.

Stakeholder Group EngagementThe representation of stakeholder groups—such as irrigation or livestock water user associations and energy, environment, industry and urban users—on the basin water boards and the Central Water Board is a key part of the water reforms. Effective stakeholder representation and participation enhances transparency and accountability in decision making, which is crucial to good governance. There is little history of direct stakeholder involvement in decision making in Tanzania. Few representative water resources stakeholder groups exist, apart from some pilot groups established as part of the RBMSIIP project. Historically, basin board representatives have been appointed by the minister. Centrally appointed representatives may not necessarily have adequate interest, or knowledge on local resource use issues. In contrast, representatives from water user

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groups from the basin water would have a greater stake and incentive to participate more effectively in the basin water boards. Experience in projects to date shows that it takes many years for stakeholder groups to be effective. There will need to be a long-tem program established to provide the capacity and skills at the community level for engagement in water resources management.

Limited Technical and Administrative CapacityA recent review of human capacity in the water resources sector24 concluded that a large number of hydrologists will retire in the next few years, leaving the government with a serious gap in expertise. Even now, many of the roles and responsibilities of the Department of Water Resources are not undertaken because of lack of funds; examples include predicting flood recurrence and flood mitigation; surface and groundwater quality monitoring; pollution control; source protection; surface and groundwater resources assessment; planning and designing of the hydro-meteorological networks; calibration of current meters and automatic water level recorders; and preparation of hydrological year books. The new basin water offices have not appointed sufficient staff trained in water resources management issues. This has led to ineffective water resources assessment, inefficient water allocation, and inadequate enforcement of the water law and water pollution. Skilled professionals in the water sector are poorly remunerated with little or no incentives. As a result, some professionals have left to seek “greener pastures.” Some professionals routinely tend to seek conferences, workshops, seminars, study tours, etc. in search of supplementary income to augment their low salaries.

Weak Water Allocation ProceduresEven in the priority Rufiji and Pangani River basins, water rights are sometimes allocated without adequate consideration for water availability, especially during periods of drought, and there is no effective monitoring program and enforcement of the water law. This is partly a result of a lack of information, and partly due to a lack of transparent administrative procedures for issuing the water right. Consequently, over-license abstractions remain common in both of these highly stressed river basins. For example, a review of water use in the Rufiji basin resulted in 27 unauthorized canals being closed, 17 others being registered, and 63 authorized canals being more tightly regulated.25

Polluted Water ResourcesRivers and lakes in the more densely settled regions of Tanzania remain polluted with point source and diffuse source discharges. Although the NAWAPO and the draft legislation provide for discharge licenses, these are not issued in all cases. There are no permanent water quality standards and no regular water quality monitoring; in addition,

24 Mtalo, Felix W. and Datius G. Rutashobya. 2005. “Human capacity needs assessment for water resources management and development in Tanzania.” Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Water and Livestock Development.

25 See the May/June 2005 reports by the RBWO and the PBWOs.

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water quality sampling and analysis is underfunded. Even when data are available, there is not always the will to enforce regulations. Consequently, there is little effective regulation and control of water pollution.

Transboundary Water ManagementAlthough the GoT has increased its involvement with the management of its transboundary waters, much remains to be done to put the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses, the EAC Shared Vision and Strategy Framework for Lake Victoria, the NBI, and the Lake Tanganyika Environmental Management Convention into practice. New transboundary lake basin management authorities will need to be integrated with the RBOs and staffed by officers with appropriate skills in aspects of lake and catchment management. These skills are in short supply in Tanzania, and there is likely to be even greater competition for these skills as the new RBOs become operational.

Water Resources Regulatory Capacity GapsFair water allocation and pollution control procedures require that the institutional and legal structures being introduced are enforced and backed up with technical, political, and administrative support. This requires good monitoring data, adequate financial resources, and local support. In the case of the Dar es Salaam water supply, it also requires that there are controls over water abstractions and wastewater discharges. At present the regulator, EWURA (which is responsible for economic and tariff regulation), does not have these oversight responsibilities and the WRBWO does not have the capacity to regulate these complex areas of WRM.

The lack of a strong regulatory capacity is responsible for violations of water right conditions by a spectrum of water users—domestic suppliers, irrigators, and hydropower producers. There will be a growing need for an effective regulatory capacity with increasing liberalization, including the expanding role of the private sector in the irrigation, power, water supply, mining, tourism, and industrial sectors.

Poor Knowledge of Water ResourcesThe hydrological monitoring network has improved in the Rufiji and Pangani basins under the RBMSIIP, and the monitoring network in the Ruvu/Wami basin will be improved under the DWSSP. Many flow monitoring stations in other basins are inoperative and there are insufficient resources to allow regular reading of those that remain operational. In addition, historical flow data are not integrated with the recently rehabilitated system in the Rufiji and Pangani basins. Groundwater monitoring is only carried out in a few selected areas.

Water quality sampling and analysis is also hampered through limited funding and poorly equipped analytical laboratories. Four mobile laboratories were provided under the CIDA program in the 1980s, but they were never utilized for their intended purpose.

The major water sources (catchments, groundwater recharge areas, and wetlands) have not been properly delineated and are not monitored or protected. They face constant threats. In Dodoma, an entire community inhabiting a sensitive recharge area had to be relocated because it was contaminating the Makutopora aquifer. Uncontrolled shallow well and borehole development in Dar es Salaam is inducing saltwater intrusion. The

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absence of systematic monitoring precludes knowledge on the severity and extent of the problem.

There is only limited understanding of the natural processes occurring in Tanzanian waters, apart from the information gathered during the GEF-funded studies into the three Great Lakes. The SMUWC study (Box 5.4) shows the importance of developing scientifically based knowledge and presenting it in a manner that stakeholders can understand.

Framework for Establishing Environmental FlowsThere are no standards/criteria/guidelines established for setting river flows for environmental purposes. While the SMUWC project has successfully clarified the root causes of the water allocation problem in the upper Rufiji basin, similar studies are needed in other regions to identify causes of problems and possible solutions. Support for the Bank Netherlands Water Partnership Program for RBMSIIP and LKEMP has been used to develop a framework for supporting capacity building for environmental flow assessment (Annex D presents a 10-point plan developed under this support).

Progress Action Comment Establish a new legal and institutional

framework for water resources management, including cross-sectoral involvement

Nine basin authorities now declared, with three operational; national institutions undergoing reorganization; water-user groups yet to be involved in water management; registers of water users being established, and issuing of licenses is improving in priority basins; new water legislation drafted, yet to be harmonized with other sectoral legislation; sectoral ministries informed but not yet mainstreamed.

Improve operations of irrigation areas The largest and most inefficient user of water, and the largest violator of water rights.Considerable progress in establishing an institutional framework that allows technical solutions to be adopted through demonstration projects in the main two river basins; yet to be rolled out basin-wide and nation-wide. Irrigation development (including master plan) needs to consider water as a limiting constraint in some parts of the country.

Improve operations and coverage of urban and rural WSS

Considerable improvements in demonstrations in urban and rural areas; Dar es Salaam WSS under an autonomous operator; improvements still to be extended nation-wide.

Improved water management in hydropower sector

Sector sensitized through crises in Pangani and Rufiji basins, but still to be effectively engaged in multisectoral management of water resources.

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Improved protection of catchments and source areas

Continued loss of forested areas and poor land management resulting in encroachment on recharge areas, soil loss, and diffuse pollution of rivers. Siltation of dams.

Increase water storage capacity Very little additional storage has been developed since the hydropower plants were commissioned in the Rufiji and Pangani basins. Storage potentially decreasing because of siltation and poor maintenance. Natural storage from Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa not utilized effectively.

Improve transboundary management of shared water bodies.

Lake Tanganyika Convention signed; Lake Victoria Vision agreed and EAC involvement; Lake Nyasa convention drafted; joint fisheries management initiated in Lake Victoria; no transboundary lake authorities yet operational.

Key - No Progress - Minimal Progress - Moderate Progress - Substantial Progress - Completion

Figure 5.1 Scorecard of Progress in Implementing the Tanzanian National Water Policy 2002

Lessons Learned A Solid Policy, Institutional, and Legal Framework is Necessary but not Sufficient The reforms—new policies, institutions, laws, strategies, finances—need to be implemented. For example, basin water offices were authorized as far back as 1981, but implementation only commenced in 1991 and was completed recently. While the framework for the reforms is an impressive achievement, their implementation has been patchy, with perhaps the most important element—the basin water offices—yet to be fully functional, even in the two basins where they have received strong donor support. A Multisectoral Approach Requires Active Intervention at all Levels While a multisectoral approach to water resources management appears to be broadly accepted, there are indications that it has not been fully understood by all the staff within the MW or water-related sectors and is yet to be mainstreamed. The water resources sector—at the national, basin, and catchment levels—needs to engage with counterparts in other sectors to promote their involvement in management activities. This engagement needs to be supported at the highest government levels to ensure that good water resource management is fully absorbed into the work of all water-related sectors.

Developing a Strong Basin-level Structure is Key to the Reforms

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There is sufficient existing capacity for the institutional framework to be implemented at the national level. However, the basin organizations have yet to be fully functional and effective and this is essential if the devolution of responsibility to basin level is to succeed. They will need to be staffed with properly trained and led staff, their relationship with the ministry needs to be established as early as possible, and their sources of funding need to be secured. It will also require a sustainable source of finance to fund operations and maintenance costs, with water-user fees being a significant component of these finances. Locally sourced fees will not only loosen the basin’s dependence on central funds, but will help promote an increased involvement by water users in basin decisions.

Changing to a New Model of Water Management Takes Time and Commitment Major change, such as is under way in the water resources sector, takes time. The lesson from the changes that have already taken place in the Pangani and Rufiji basins, the transboundary lakes, as well as in the WSS sector is that these changes need a balance between patience and support to see the changes through. For donors, a long-term commitment providing certainty of continued funding support (within accountability requirements) would assist the stability of new organizations.

A Multisectoral Approach Applies to the Bank as well as to the Borrowers Donors are often organized along the same sectoral lines as the borrowers. Their water-related staff are sometimes not aware of the changes occurring in the water resources sector in Tanzania. The Bank and other donors can do more to promote the necessary multisectoral approach to water management. This will require that they coordinate across their sectors in formulating their lending programs.

Alignment Between Country Policy and Bank Activities is Key to Effectiveness The RBMSIIP and WSS projects were developed with the close involvement of ministry staff. These projects were carefully designed to complement and support emerging government policy intentions, and this was central to their success. Any future water-sector support from the Bank needs to be carefully aligned with government priorities (such as those laid out in MKUKUTA) so that the support is targeted to the needs of the government.

Cross-compliance is Essential to Successful Reforms Community involvement needs to be part of an agreed schedule of compliance—between the community, the government, and potentially development partners—of actions to be undertaken as part of the reforms. Irrigators receiving the benefits of improved infrastructure must also accept the responsibility of joining a water management committee. Some of these studies (for example, Lake Tanganyika) also emphasize how effective engagement of communities takes careful planning and continuing effort. The lesson is that communities have to be carefully selected to have a common purpose; have to be engaged in an active two-way information program, based on existing structures where possible; and have to be provided with the resources to be involved, and have responsibilities clearly defined.

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Knowledge is Important but needs to be Management Driven There are instructive lessons from the technical/scientific programs in the RBMSIIP. Targeted studies were carried out addressing clear management issues. In the upper Rufiji basin, they had a major impact on community attitudes and water allocations. The lesson is that knowledge acquisition can be crucial if it is commissioned by decision makers for clear purposes and if the scientific findings are transmitted to decision makers through an agreed communications strategy.

Management of Transboundary Waterbodies is Challenging but Achievable Despite the difficulties in building consensus among riparian nations on the cooperative management of these waterbodies, Tanzania has now taken major steps toward transboundary management of the three African Great lakes and is engaged in joint projects in the Songwe, Mara, Kagera and Ruvuma river basins. The overriding lesson is that engagement from national level to local communities in all riparian nations coupled with a focus on issues affecting local livelihoods is the best way to initiate transboundary waterbody management.

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CHAPTER 6

TANZANIAN WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY

ContextThis TWRAS must fit into the context of an economy with key water-using sectors linked to the management of water resources (Figure 6.1) and with the following characteristics:

A large unmet demand for rural, urban, and industrial water supply.

The dominant sector—agriculture—and the most rapidly growing sectors—mining and tourism—are highly dependent on access to reliable, good quality water.

Electricity production is highly reliant on hydropower, even following planned diversification, which is subject to interruptions because of weak control over competing uses and poor management of storage reservoirs.

Poverty is most concentrated and resistant in the rural areas and is closely connected to reliance on water for subsistence needs, including farming, livestock, fishing, and artisanal mining.

Up to 2025, annual water renewals for natural population increases are adequate, but there are potential shortages thereafter.

Development of natural resources occurs in a transboundary context.

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Figure 6.1. Conceptual Framework Linking Water Resources Management with

Water-dependent Sectors

Priority Bank Assistance TopicsFrom the analysis of progress with the water reforms and the Bank’s experience in Tanzanian water management, three topics emerge as priorities for Bank assistance to help the GoT expand investments in water-related sectors and complete the implementation of the reforms. Supporting these three topics will help embed the water resources reforms in the fabric of decision making, and increase Tanzania’s stock of water resources infrastructure. These actions will underpin growth, equity, and citizen participation, providing support to the NSGRP.

Water resources reforms at local and basin levels The decentralization of responsibility to river basin and local levels is at the heart of the water resource reforms. It will lead to greater individual and community responsibility for water resources management, reduce demands on national government funds, improve efficiency of operations, improve local financial support for operations and maintenance, and improve basin-level coordination of sectoral agencies. Without firm but supportive central oversight, it can also lead to entrenched local power elites, reduced national coordination, and a dilution of the nations technical and administrative skill base. This transfer of responsibility has commenced under the NAWAPO but will take many years to complete. The Bank has been closely involved in supporting the decentralization process through the RBMSIIP and DWSSP projects, and is in a strong position to use its experience and skills to help GoT implement the reform agenda. Possible activities include:

Support River Basin Organizations. Provide support for the development of RBWOs with staffing, training, offices, and equipment. The experience of the Pangani and Rufiji RBOs is that it takes a long time for the offices to be effective. The support should include (a) the registering and licensing of water use activities and polluting enterprises in accordance with NAWAPO; (b) strengthening of enforcement capabilities so that water use permit conditions are enforced, resulting in water being shared equitably and with minimum loss, and pollution permit conditions are monitored so that water quality is not compromised; and (c) upgrading of flow and water quality monitoring so that information is available for decisions on water allocations and pollution control. Support could also be extended to the preparation of integrated river and lake basin management and development plans. There is also a need to increase capacity for training in hydrology and hydrogeology to replace the large number of hydrologists soon to retire. Training in water law, economics, and environmental aspects of water management is needed to meet the emerging challenges.

Strengthen water user groups. Assist water user groups and subcatchment organizations in developing their capacity to play a constructive role in monitoring and reporting on water use and in taking decisions about water use at local, catchment, and basin levels. These groups should not be restricted to

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powerful interest groups—it is essential that marginalized water users are also represented in the decision making. This will require a long-term investment beyond the traditional project cycle since it typically takes many years for groups to be formed, to be empowered, and to be effective.

Support transboundary water resources. The Bank could use its expertise in transboundary water resources management and development, through both NELSAP and GEF-funded projects, to assist the four lake basin offices with transboundary lake and lake basin issues. This would include ensuring that the lake basin offices are harmonized with the transboundary management organizations being proposed for Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika, and possibly Lake Malawi/Nyasa. It would also include basin-level assistance with major development proposals such as the multipurpose development of the Kagera River basin, the Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project, and developments in the Mara River basin under NELSAP.

Cross-sectoral Coordination

The water resources reforms are a cross-sectoral issue requiring involvement from all water using sectors at the national, basin, and local levels. This is essential for preventing the development of unreliable infrastructure. Sectoral involvement has been patchy to date. The irrigation and the WSS sectors have been involved in the decentralization of water resources responsibility, while the power sector has tended to remain isolated. The environment sector needs to be developed. Given the Bank’s history of assistance to a wide spectrum of water using sectors, it is in a good position to assist with cross-sectoral coordination. Possible activities include:

National-level coordination. Sectoral reforms are occurring in water-related sectors and it is important that the strategies, laws, and institutional structures that are developed are consistent with the water resources reforms. The Bank can, as part of its assistance to these sectors, assist GoT ministries seeking to realign policy, legal, and administrative reforms with those in the water resources area. Particular attention needs to be paid to the potentially serious threat of mercury contamination from Tanzania’s rapidly expanding mining operations. The Bank can help the mining sector promote the use of cleaner technologies using incentives, regulation, and awareness raising and education.

Promote and strengthen education curricula in national institutions. To meet the emerging water management challenges, it is important to promote programs that support changes in people’s and institution’s behaviors and actions. Three specific programs could be supported to meet this important objective. First, a well-designed communications strategy could be used to educate people, institutions, and sectors on the important role of water and responsible water use and management imperatives. Second, education curricula at the primary, secondary, and high school levels need to be reviewed to promote stewardship of Tanzania’s water resources, the wise use of water, and protection of the nation’s water resources and environmental assets. Third, education curricula in the institutions of higher learning (for example, University of Dar es Salaam,

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UCLAS, Sokoine University) and vocational schools (such as the Water Resources Institute) need to be reviewed and strengthened to be better prepared to generate a new generation of water resources planners, engineers, and managers to meet the emerging needs of the nation.

Water for the Environment. There is little appreciation among sectoral agencies of the environmental services provided by adequate flows of good quality water. While Tanzania has adequate legal and institutional structures for protecting aquatic environments, sectoral water users have often been disregarded—with consequent costs for downstream water users and, in some instances, threats to major infrastructure investments. Any increase in water resources infrastructure will place increasing pressure on the aquatic environment unless developments take consider environmental aspects early in the decision making process. The Bank can help strengthen environmental assessment capacity, including the country’s long-term training capabilities in environmental water management.

Water Quality Standards. Permanent water quality standards for various uses should be established. Effluent discharge standards for different types of receiving waters would provide a benchmark against which the water quality monitoring data can be assessed. This is an important component in establishing a viable pollution enforcement system to protect downstream water users, as well as the aquatic environment. In several basins, it is particularly important to address mercury contamination from the mining sector, which is a growing threat to water quality with consequent impact on human health and fisheries.

Protect Water Sources. Support development of land use regulations and land protection measures by lands, forestry and agricultural agencies so that important water sources are protected (through gazettment) and soil and nutrient losses from deforestation and poor agricultural practices are minimized. The Bank can support the coordination of these measures across government agencies (for example, lands, forestry, water and environment) and develop programs for controlling nonpoint sources of pollution.

Coordination across Bank sectors. For the Bank to be fully effective in promoting cross-sectoral coordination by GoT agencies, it needs to have a mechanism for ensuring that all its lending and nonlending operations in Tanzania are coordinated within the Bank itself. This will ensure that all opportunities are taken to support the implementation of the water resources reforms through the Bank’s portfolio.

Investments in Infrastructure

Tanzania lacks water resources infrastructure and many of its sectors—including hydropower, urban water supply and sanitation, and agriculture—will remain vulnerable to both droughts and floods unless there is an increase in infrastructure investment. In addition, existing infrastructure has not been maintained adequately and may need rehabilitation for safety and efficiency.

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Promote Irrigation Improvements. The Bank has been closely involved with the irrigation subsector improvements in some districts within the Pangani and Rufiji basins and is well-placed to assist the GoT introduce these improvements to other irrigation districts. These include not just technical improvements, but also support for the Irrigation Bill and reforms, formation of water user groups, licensing of water extractions and discharge permits, and monitoring of water use.

Expansion of WSS. The expansion of WSS services remains a high priority for the GoT. The Bank has extensive experience through the RWSSP, DWSSP, and USRP projects in assisting with these services. Any expansion of these services would need to take account of the water abstraction and wastewater impacts on the country’s water resources. Private sector could be encouraged to provide materials and services to many of these organizations. Possible areas of Bank support could also include development of future water supplies for Dar es Salaam and towns in the Internal Drainage basin.

Hydropower operations. Expansion of hydropower plants will be determined as part of a wider assessment of electricity expansion options. However, the operation of existing plants could be improved with assistance from the Bank either through increased water storage or improved operating procedures. All hydropower operations need to be fully consistent with the environmental and water resources reforms. It would benefit the power sector to take up the opportunities provided by the water resource reforms for participating in water resources planning and decision making to avoid the disputes that have occurred over water allocations in the past and to provide reliable electricity supply for domestic and industrial users.

Flood Protection. Flood protection measures are urgently needed in vulnerable areas such as those parts of the Ruvu River supplying water to Dar es Salaam and the Songwe River. While the Bank has no history of being involved in this area, it could assist in flood protection of the Ruvu River as part of its urban WSS assistance. The Bank could also support the Songwe River Development Program.

These three priority topics will require investments in a range of spatial scales from local to transboundary (Table 6.1).

Level of Operation

Knowledge, information,

Communications

Good governance &

Decentralization

Policy & Processes

Sectoral Investments

Potential Assistance Mechanism

Local Communication strategy and training to form and empower water user groups ( irrigation, water supplies, pastoralist, and artisanal miners)

Improve water use minimize pollution, improve waste disposal and handling of toxic materialsImprove land use

Introduce operational guidelines for irrigation management, rural water supply and utility management,

Improve smallholder irrigation practices

Expand coverage of rural/urban water supply

ASDP PRSCIV-VI WSSP Mining

Project DWSSP RWSSP

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handling of mining wastes,and land use controls

schemes Mining

regulations

Basin Rehabilitate and extend flow, climate & WQ monitoring networks; Communication strategy for promoting wise use of waterTraining in enforcement

Establish RBOs with cross-sectoral basin water boards and high capacity staffEnforce water rights, pollution controls, and land use controls

Establish environmental water needs of each basin, water quality monitoring, and land use control guidelines

Institute land protection measures

Develop flood protection measures in vulnerable areas

Develop river basin plan

WSSP LVEMP II ASDP DWSSP NBI

National Trained in use of monitoring data; training institutions support for water mgmt (Unis); Ensure sectoral agencies understand the benefits of respecting water rights

Ensure multisectoral representation on central oversight mechanism is effective; Establish water resources regulatory capacity for the water, energy, mining, livestock, and WSS sectors

Ensure policies, laws, strategies are consistent with water resources policy; Develop WQ standards; Clean technology for industries.

Irrigation Master Plan

Energy Master Plan

Water Sector Strategic Plan (???)

WSSP ASDP

Trans-boundary

Needs assessment Form lake authorities consistent with sectoral and lake basin offices.

Undertake development of transboundary management (not necessarily institutions) for remaining stressed systemsStrengthen capacity

Initiate joint water resources investments

NBI LVEMPII WSSP

Table 6.1 Proposed Investments at Different Spatial Scales.

Support for the NGRSPCompletion of the reforms to the management of Tanzania’s water resources and the expansion of investments in its water-related sectors (primarily irrigation, WSS and energy), together with protection of its aquatic environment will provide direct support to the country’s poverty reduction program (Table 6.2).

Increased certainty of access to water for domestic use and for agriculture will reduce the vulnerability of the people and directly benefit the country’s rural population, where poverty is most prevalent and most severe. They are reliant on unregulated water not only for domestic consumption but also for crops, fishing, and livestock. The participation of these communities in decisions about water allocation and water quality will not only increase their sense of involvement, but will also assist transparency in

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governance at the basin level. Expansion of urban and rural water supply and sanitation programs is central to providing a healthy environment for families as well as freeing up more time for income-generating activities.

Sustainable growth in the national economy requires reliability in input factors such as water and electricity. Until the reforms in water resources management are fully implemented, there will continue to be threats to reliable electricity supply because of the lack of control over water use upstream of hydroelectric generating plants. Water supply to major cities such as Dar es Salaam will remain dependent on unregulated rivers with increasing upstream irrigation withdrawals until water allocation plans are drawn up and licenses are issued and enforced. Growth industries, such as mining and wildlife-based tourism, are particularly dependent on adequate water. The water reforms will provide greater certainty of access to water for these economic drivers.

Finally, improved health is closely linked to continued investments in WSS services. However, as the last 10 years have made very clear, physical investments in WSS services will be unsustainable without parallel improvements in the management of the basic water resource.

Sector Cluster 1Growth

Cluster IIImproved Services

Cluster III Good

Governance

Planned Sectoral Investments by GOT

Potential Assistance Mechanism

Water Resources

Better allocation of water resources for greater certainty and improved access by rural poorBetter protection of source watersBetter Pollution controlDrought management, flood management and conjunctive use of surface and groundwater

Increased involvement of local groups and basin stakeholders in water allocationsEnforcement of the water laws

Establishment of RBOs

Establishment of CWB

Reorganization of DWR

WSSP DWSSP

Water Supply

Targeted supply schemes in industrial zones/urban centers, tourism corridors and mining areas

Accelerated rural water supply program at all local government (budget support through sectoral conditional grants to all local governments)

Introduce operational guidelines for rural water supply and utility management (Rules of the game and M&E framework)

Village water supplies

Small towns supplies

Large urban water and sewerage programs

Schools and clinic supplies

Mining and tourism center supplies

PRSC IV-VI

WSSP DWSSP RWSSP

Agriculture Expansion of irrigation reforms to all districts; improved river

Promote catchment-based farmer dialogue, and support

Representation of irrigators on water allocation and

Expansion of irrigation reforms to all districts

ASDP

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flows for rural poor dependent on grazing and cropping.

services on irrigation management

management promotes involvement in governance

Environment Better land management practices leading to improved water quality; reduced pollution from industry and sewage

Improved health outcomes from reduced pollution; reduced losses from better flood management

Implementation of NEMA

LVEMP LKEMP WSSP

Energy Better operational procedures leading to more stable supply of hydropower

Preparatory planning for new hydropower plants

Emergency Power Supply Project

Songo

Table 6.2 Contributions from Water Reforms to NGRSP

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ANNEX A. WATER AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Economic PerformanceIn fiscal 2002, Tanzania had a GDP of $20.4 billion. Figure A.1 shows the contributions to GDP from different sectors, and clearly illustrates the country’s heavy dependence on agricultural production.

The economy has experienced strong growth since it was liberalized in the mid-1990s. In FY 2002, GDP grew by 6.2 percent in real terms, with growth occurring in all sectors (Table A.1). While agriculture remains by far the largest contributor to GDP, its growth has been relatively low in recent years (4.0 percent in 2003) compared to other sectors. Consequently, the current composition of growth has not benefited the rural poor as much as other groups, and the urban-rural poverty gap has widened.

Tanzania’s economic performance is very dependent on access to water. The 2003 GDP growth rate of 5.6 percent was less than the projected rate of 6.5 percent largely because of the impact that drought had on the agriculture, manufacturing, livestock, and energy sectors. Sectoral Dependency on WaterThe main consumptive uses of water are irrigation, livestock, urban, rural, mining, industrial, and wildlife supply. Nonconsumptive uses are hydropower generation, navigation, fishing, and instream environmental uses.

Figure A. 1 Contribution of Sectors to Tanzanian GDP. Yr2001.

Source: Economic Survey 2000.

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Growth rate (%)1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Agriculture 4.1 3.4 5.5 5.0 4.0Mining/Quarrying 9.1 13.9 13.5 15.0 17.0Manufacturing 3.6 4.8 5.0 8.0 8.6Electricity/Water 3.9 5.9 3.0 3.1 4.9Construction 8.7 8.4 8.7 11.0 11.0Trade, Hotels 6.0 6.5 6.7 7.0 6.7Transport/Communications 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.4 5.1Financial Services 4.1 4.7 3.3 4.8 4.4Public Administration 3.5 3.6 3.5 4.1 4.1

GDP 4.7 4.9 5.7 6.2 5.6

Table A.1 Real Annual GDP Growth (Constant 1992 prices)

Agriculture Agriculture, the mainstay of the economy, is predominantly rain fed. Maize, cassava, and rice are the staple crops for domestic consumption, and coffee, tea, cotton, cashews, and cloves are the principal export crops. Although Tanzania’s irrigation potential is estimated to be 1million hectares, less than 20 percent of this is currently developed for irrigation. Nevertheless, irrigation is by far the largest consumptive water use, comprising about 97.3 percent of total use. About 76 percent of currently irrigated land is under traditional, smallholder schemes (Table A.2). Large-scale irrigation occurs in the Pangani, Rufiji, and Ruvu/Wami basins. Box B.1 describes the importance of irrigation to livelihoods at Usangu.

Type of Irrigation No. of Schemes Existing Area (ha)Existing Schemes 1,189 191,900

Traditional Irrigation 982 122,600Water harvesting 42 7,900Modern Irrigation 52 35,900Improved traditional irrigation 113 25,500

Newly Proposed Schemes 239 -Water harvesting 163 -Modern irrigation 76 -

Total 1,428 191,900

Table A.2 Types of Irrigation Schemes (from Irrigation Master Plan 2002).

On-farm water-use efficiencies in irrigated agriculture are very low, typically between 10–20 percent, contributing to the heavy use of water by this sector. However, basin-wide efficiencies are likely to be considerably higher because of the progressive reuse of drainage water as it flows downstream. The Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for Inter-sectoral Needs (RIPWARIN) project estimates basin-wide efficiencies to be as high as 55–80 percent, although this estimate has not been substantiated and may be contested.

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Agriculture, especially rain-fed crops in the semi-arid regions, is susceptible to drought and floods (Figure AB2). There is little operational headwater storage available for irrigated agriculture with little consequent buffering for periods of low river flows. Fourteen of the twenty-one dams constructed for irrigation supply in the 1970s are no longer operational because of siltation. The dependence on water is illustrated by the low growth of only 4.0 percent in agricultural production in 2003 (lower by 25–30 percent from previous years) largely because of ongoing drought due to failure of both long rains and short rains in large areas of the country (Box A.2). Lack of reliable water supply for agricultural production makes intensification a risky growth strategy.

In 1994, the government prepared the National Irrigation Development Plan for promoting stability in irrigation production and increasing food production. The plan

Figure A. 2 Impact of Rainfall Variability on Maize Yields

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Box A.1 Value of Water for Irrigation for Livelihoods

Rice produced from Usangu accounts for 14 percent of total domestic rice production, ranging between 60,000–80,000 tons. It is valued at $16 million and provides some 30,000 households with an estimated $3.12 per day over the year. This income is vital for lifting many people out of poverty in this area, and is central to supporting a total population of 750,000 people in the region. This production extracts some 576Mm3 of water, providing value of $0.027 per cubic meter extracted.

Source: http://swmrg.suanet.ac.tz/Riparwin.htm

Box A.2 Impact of 2003/2004 Drought on Food Security

An assessment was conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security in July 2003. The team identified 47 districts—mostly in the central and northern areas, with a population of 2 million—as being in need of food assistance. The food assistance requirement was estimated at 77,500 million tons. In August 2003, the government launched an appeal for food aid.

The overall outlook was poor due to inadequate rainfall. In a few of the highland areas in the Kilimanjaro region, crops such as maize and beans were reported to be in good condition. The aggregate 2003/04 production of cereals has been forecast at about 4 million tons, or about 11 percent below the previous marketing year and 5 percent below the average for the previous five years. Below normal rainfall also affected pasture conditions and raised alarms concerning livestock productivity, though recent rainfall has raised hopes for some recovery.

Reflecting low supply, maize prices continued to rise in several markets, aggravating the food security situation. Sharp increases in maize prices were noted, particularly in the southern highlands and central Tanzania.

Serious food shortages were reported in several regions, including Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida, Manyara, Lindi, Coast, and Morogoro, with pockets of food insecurity in Tanga, Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Mwanza, Mara, and Tabora regions, where crops failed due to drought. Twenty-four districts in 10 regions were prioritized to receive available food aid.

Source: Multi-Agency Food Security Information Team

called for 147 new irrigation schemes, although few of these were implemented. A new Irrigation Master Plan was introduced in 2002 following the liberalization of the economy in the mid-1990s and the development of the Agricultural Sector Development Strategy. It envisages liberalization and private sector involvement in irrigation over the short term (to 2007), leading to a rapid growth in irrigated area to 405,000 hectares by 2017. This doubling of irrigated area is expected to be accompanied by technological changes and changes in irrigation management, including decentralization and water user group participation in basin-wide management, although the means of delivering this significant increase in water has yet to be determined. The master plan also proposed a consolidated law for irrigation. Draft legislation is under early stages of preparation.

According to current regulations, water rights (licenses) are required for abstractions for irrigation. In practice, these regulations are widely ignored by farmers and inadequately enforced by basin managers. Often, traditional furrows without any diversion works are used to abstract water before, during, and after the irrigation season. In many schemes, water control structures are not operated on a regular basis.

Table B.3 shows the large number of irrigators without licenses in the Rufiji and Pangani River basins. Enforcement of issued water abstractions also remains very poor. Recent

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data (June 2004) collected by the Pangani and Rufiji basin water offices indicate that a large number of irrigators surveyed (85 percent in the Pangani basin and 70 percent in the

Rufiji Basin Pangani BasinStatus of Abstractions Number % of Total Number % of TotalWithout Water Right 464 31 1857 58With Water Right 1050 69 1326 42TOTAL 1521 100 3183 100

Table A.3 Status of Abstractions in Rufiji and Pangani Basins Source: data from Project Implementation Report; RBMSIIP May 2004.

Rufiji basin) over-abstract and violate the water right provisions without any sanctions. These results illustrate the inability of basin water offices to enforce the law, even in the two basins that have received substantial support under NORAD, RBMSIIP, SMUWC, RIPWARIN, WWF, LKEMP, and IUCN programs. Box B.3 provides an alternative explanation for the reasons why the basin water officers are unable to enforce the water law.26

The low irrigation efficiencies, high levels of unauthorized extractions, and poor levels of service can be improved. The experience of the RBMSIIP shows that win-win solutions—devolution of responsibility for water management to water user groups and improved enforcement of regulations coupled with technical improvements—can lead to both improved water-use efficiencies and improved crop productivity.

Box A. 3 Reviewing Formal Water Rights—An Alternate View

The framework of formal water rights introduced on a pilot basis has been found to be seriously deficient. In effect, the new rights system is a rural tax on users to fund the basin water office, and not, as intended, to assist in improved basin management and promote efficient water use. Given the use of unmetered and unregulated furrows in many areas, it is not possible to implement volume-based payment. Moreover, “paying for water” has not resulted in water savings. On the contrary, it has added legitimacy to claims of upstream users (“I paid for the water, so I can use it”) to use even more water and further deprive downstream users. In combination with new intakes, these interventions are counterproductive and hindering the catchment-wide reconciliation of water sharing.

Source: http://swmrg.suanet.ac.tz/Riparwin.htm

LivestockApproximately 50 percent of the Tanzanian mainland is classified as grazing land. About 60 percent of the cattle, sheep, and goats are maintained on about 10 percent of the land. Livestock production is estimated to account for 20 percent of agricultural production and 10 percent of national income (about two-thirds of the livestock is used for subsistence). According to the National Sample Census of Agriculture carried out in 1993, the number of cattle increased by about 70 percent between 1971 and 1993, while the number of

26 This explanation is still debatable, and has not been agreed to by the Ministry of Water and Livestock staff. It is even contrary to the premise promoted by RBMSIIP.

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goats doubled. The total livestock population in 2002 (Table B.4) was estimated at 30.3 million head and corresponded to an annual water demand of 200,000–500,000 Ml/yr.27

This figure has been reasonably constant over the last decade and is not a significant fraction of overall water use. However, livestock rearing occurs predominantly in the arid and semi-arid parts of the country,28 where supply is low. While it is not significant water use nationally, livestock water use is important in areas such as the Usangu Plains and in the semi-arid areas of Shinyanga and Dodoma. In these areas, livestock water demands, especially during the dry season, compete with water used for agriculture.

Concentrated populations of livestock can degrade the land and indirectly affect water resources. Overgrazing, for example, can reduce the vegetative cover, while trampling can loosen the soil matrix. Both of these factors can make the topsoil susceptible to erosion, leading to increased sediment deposition in stream beds, reservoirs, and conveyance facilities, as well as increased costs for treating water supplies.

Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

  Cattle 13,416 15,645 13,605 13,700 13,796 13,893 13,990 14,088 14,187

  Sheep 3,554 3,493 3,552 3,551 3,550 3,549 3,548 3,547 3,546

  Goats 9,420 10,682 10,362 10,694 11,034 11,407 11,792 12,190 12,601

  Pigs 384 435 422 435 449 465 480 496 513 Table A.4

Table A. 4 Tanzania Livestock Population (in thousands) Source: data from Ministry of Agriculture/National Bureau of Statistics.

EnergyTanzania’s economy is predominantly agricultural and rural, and is a relatively small consumer of electricity. About 92 percent of energy consumed comes from fuelwood, coal, and hydrocarbons and only 8 percent comes from electricity.29 At present only 10 percent of households have access to electricity. In rural areas, this figure drops to 1 percent of households. In 2004, about 48 percent of electricity sales were for residential consumers and light industries; 46 percent for the industrial and commercial sectors combined; and 6 percent for bulk sales to Zanzibar. According to the 2003 National Energy Policy, electricity generation is expected to triple in the next 20 years to meet the demand.

27 Using 35-80 l/day, 2-6 l/day and 4-9 l/day for cattle, sheep and goats, respectively.

28 Livestock distribution follows the pattern of human population and is inversely correlated with areas infested by the tsetse fly. Ninety-nine percent of all cattle, sheep, and goats are kept by small-scale livestock keepers in the rural areas, and over one third of the cattle are located in the lake region.

29 Estimation by US/DOE/EIA.

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Until recently, hydropower accounted for 80 percent of the nation’s electricity generation. At present, it provides 65-70 percent of the country’s electricity—the remainder comes from diesel, gas, and coal-fired plants. All hydropower generation takes place on the Pangani (97 MW) and Rufiji (464 MW) River basins (Table A.5).

Hydropower Plants Year Commissioned

Installed Capacity

AvailableCapacity

Rufiji BasinKidatu 1975 204 200Mtera 1980 80 80Kihansi 2000 180 180

Pangani BasinPangani Falls 1994? 68 68Hale 1964 21 17Nyumba ya Mungu 1969 8 8

Total 561 553

Table A. 5 Tanzania Hydropower Plants

Production of hydropower at optimal levels requires a guaranteed flow of water reaching the generation plants to meet designed requirements. However, the location and design of several hydropower plants, the high percentage of illegal water extractions, coupled with the poor enforcement of water rights in these river systems, has significantly reduced the reliability of power generation.

In 1992–95, TANESCO introduced load shedding largely because of low reservoir levels after 4 years of reduced rainfall 1991–94. The resulting reduced power availability and its unreliability caused considerable economic losses to domestic users, the hotel industry, business, manufacturing, and industry (Box 2.2). In 1997, the overall rate of economic growth dropped to 3.3 percent from 4.2 percent in the previous year, largely as a result of electricity shortages. The resulting loss of confidence by industry and manufacturing had perhaps even greater long-term effects than did the direct production losses.30

To avoid load shedding during the 2003/04 drought, emergency assistance from IDA and GoT was obtained to cover the cost of imported fuel and energy purchases. Without the assistance, it was estimated that TANESCO would have shed about 891 GWh between March and December 2004, equivalent to about 27 percent of projected energy requirements in 2004, or $55 million in lost revenues. The cost of this unserved energy to the economy was estimated to be as high as $550 million, or 6 percent of GDP.31

30 Inadequate electricity supply is considered one of the major constraints faced by industry in Tanzania, and is also a major impediment to the start-up of new businesses (Draft 2004 Investment Climate Assessment).31

? Memorandum of the President for the Emergency Power Supply Project (2004).

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Urban, Rural and Industrial Water Supply Domestic (rural and urban), industrial, and mining supply comprises about 2.1 percent of total water use. Water demand for the rural population was 246.1 million cubic meters in 1995 and 298.7 million cubic meters in 2002. It is projected to rise to 558.6 million cubic meters in 2010 and 736.3 million cubic meters in 2020.32

Urban water supply. A very large segment of Tanzanians experience unreliable coverage of water supply for domestic and industrial purposes. Over 15 million people (out of the current population of 35 million) are without safe water supply. About 50 percent of the rural and 70 percent of the urban population have access to safe water supply. Although 90 percent of the population has access to latrines, coverage of waterborne sanitation remains very low (Table A.6). Most WSSS are not adequately maintained. Poor domestic water supply coverage translates into poor quality of life and a waterborne disease burden, especially for women and children.

S/N UWSA No. of Customers

Population Served (%)

Treatment Method

Effluent Discharge

1 Arusha 2561 8.5 WSPs River2 Moshi 1639 3.5 WSPs River3 Tanga 2187 15.3 Sea Ocean4 Mwanza 1400 7.8 WSPs Lake5 Tabora 158 3.7 WSPs Ground6 Morogoro 452 3.1 WSPs River7 Dodoma 2596 10.5 WSPs Ground8 Iringa 217 9.5 WSPs River9 Mbeya 55 2.3 WSPs Ground

Table A.6 Coverage of Urban Waterborne Sanitation Services

There are 62 registered urban centers in the country, including 20 regional administrative headquarters. All the regional towns have piped water supply, although the demand far exceeds supply in all these towns due to low levels of capital investment over the past 30 years. Levels of service vary greatly from one town to another.

Table A.7 shows the diversity of water sources for urban use. Urban centers, such as Shinyanga and Tabora, which depend on dams built on non-perennial rivers, are faced with increasingly unreliable water supply as the demand increases over time. In 1995, the source of water for Shinyanga town—Ning'hwa Dam—ceased to yield any significant output. People reverted to the use of traditional water sources, which were mostly contaminated, resulting in an outbreak of cholera and a number of deaths. In 1993, Tabora had faced a similar epidemic.

Arusha, Mbeya, Dodoma, Moshi, Mtwara, Lindi, Sumbawanga, and Singida obtain their supplies from boreholes and/or springs. Most developed sources are unreliable and only 32 Based on the projected 1988 population census (18,526,400) and the average national population growth rate of 2.8 percent. This assumes an average water consumption of 30 liters per capita per day (lcd) and the present design criteria used for rural water supply schemes up to the year 2002, rising to 45 lcd thereafter.

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able to meet the short-term demands. Most require investments in supply rehabilitation, new source development, and expansion of the distribution networks and water treatment plants. Singida, which relies wholly on groundwater, is already facing serious water shortages every dry season.

Water supplies are also susceptible to droughts and floods. Most notably, Dar es Salaam has faced acute water shortages in recent years because of reduced flows in the Ruvu River. The 1997-98 El Niño floods caused major damage to the country’s water supply infrastructure. In Dar es Salaam, the Ruvu River bank was breached and the river’s course threatened to change away from the intake structures. In addition, flood waters also washed away a large segment of the Lower Ruvu water supply pipeline, and left nearly a million city residents and many industries without water for 10 days in the midst of floods, posing a serious public health hazard as well as social and economic stress.

Rural water supply. The primary sources of water supply for rural communities are rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, dug wells and springs. About 68 percent of the rural dwellers obtain their water from traditional sources, either open wells or unprotected surface water sources that are easily susceptible to contamination and pose a high health risk—as evidenced by the prevalence of waterborne diseases, such as cholera and diarrhea, in both urban areas and rural areas of Tanzania.

The incidence of water-related diseases in the country has been rising.33 Between 1986 and 1992, an estimated 38,600 people throughout the country contracted cholera; 4,364 died. The diseases are more prevalent in areas where people use polluted water. Outbreaks of cholera in Kigoma, Shinyanga, Mwanza, and Dodoma regions were linked to the use of water sources with high levels of fecal coliform. Inadequate quantities of water supply have also affected the health of people in rural Tanzania because people use little water or soap for hygienic purposes, and as a result, they tend to suffer from eye and skin diseases. Water consumption in the rural areas varies from 15 to over 45 liters per capita per day, depending on availability in terms of quantity and service level. There are communities where women walk more than 15 km during the dry season to fetch a bucket of water.

UWSAs

Average Water

Production m3/day

Production from Different Sources

Dams(m3/day)

Lakes(m3/day)

Rivers(m3/day)

Spring(m3/day)

Boreholes(m3/day)

Prod/demand(%)

Arusha 32,000 - - - 18,186 13,814 76.0Dodoma 24,000 - - - - 24,000 80.0Mbeya 24,000 - - 7,720 16,300 115 81.0

Morogoro 24,000 17,770 - - 6,230 - 77.4Moshi 24,264 - - - 21,750 2,514 119

Mwanza 39,120 - 39,120 - - - 81.0Tabora 12,140 12,000 - - - 140 58.9Tanga 28,000 28,000 - - - - 92.0

33 Rapid Water Resources Assessment (1995),

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Bukoba 6,000 - 3,902 1,898 - - 88.0Iringa 12,200 - - 7,700 4,500 - 78.9

Kigoma 11,420 - 11,420 - - - 57.0Songea 3,430 - - - 3,330 100 32.5Lindi 1,010 - - - - 1010 15.3

Mtwara 5,400 - - -- - 5,400 45.0Musota 16,300 - 16,300 - - - 68

Shinyanga 7,553 4953 - - - 2,600 52.0Fingida 3,424 - - - - 3,424 45.5

Sumbawanga 4,900 - - 4818 - 82 65.0TOTAL 279,860 67,082 70,802 22,136 69,599 53,841 76.0

Table A. 7 Diversity of Water Production Sources

Industrial supply. The National Development Vision 2025 intends to transform the Tanzania economy from a least-developed (low productive agricultural) economy into a middle income (semi-industrialized) economy. Such a transformation will have a significant impact on water resources. Industrial processes require electricity, which is largely water dependent. Water is a key input for cooling, washing, gas scrubbing, product rinsing, heat exchange, and as a solvent in most manufacturing processes. In most cases, the water needs to be treated further to meet the specific process requirements.

In addition, wastewater discharged from industrial processes is contaminated or of higher temperature and cannot be used for other uses without some form of treatment. Industrial wastewater is typically characterized by high oxygen demand, suspended solids, and high total dissolved solids, as well as nondegradable and hazardous chemicals. Most industries do not have adequate pretreatment, and few have installed treatment facilities, although some industries such as the Mwanza breweries have rehabilitated their treatment plants.

MiningMining is Tanzania’s fastest growing sector. In 2003, gold exports increased by 20 percent from $414 million to $504 million, accounting for 62 percent of the value of total exports compared to 49 percent in 2002. Most large-scale commercial mines (five gold mines and a diamond mine) are in the Lake Victoria Basin. Small-scale artisanal gold mining is also growing rapidly. It employed nearly a million people in Geita, Musoma, Shinyanga, Singida, and Kilindi in the Lake Victoria basin, Chunya and Mpanda in the Lake Rukwa basin, and Morogoro and Dodoma in the Internal Drainage basin.

Mining is related to water management in three ways. First, commercial and artisanal mines are dependent on water for winning and processing the minerals. Secondly, commercial mines depend on electricity which is either supplied by the national grid (heavily based on hydropower) or from a mix of small hydro-electric and diesel plants. Thirdly, lakes and rivers are used directly or indirectly (via runoff) for the disposal of mine tailings and wastes. Artisanal gold mining is also carried out in river channels of the Lake Rukwa Basin during the dry season, destabilizing these river channels. The last practice has important health and water resources management implications.

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Information on the collection, handling, treatment and disposal of toxic waste products from commercial mining operations is limited, however, widespread knowledge exists on how poorly mercury is handled in artisanal gold mining. Box B.4 describes the growing problem of mercury contamination in artisanal mining in one hotspot near Geita. In addition, the low-level mercury concentrations recorded in the sediments of Mwanza Gulf in Lake Victoria are believed to originate from mining activities. The threat of mercury poisoning of people and aquatic life is real and growing, and efforts to control this potential problem (for example, through the use of retorts) have not worked to date.34

The rapid expansion of the sector poses a serious threat to surface and groundwater resources and to the lucrative Lake Victoria fishing industry.35 If it remains unchecked, it could undermine growth of the fastest growing growing sector and worsen poverty and human health in the lake region.

Box A.4 Growing Problem of Mercury Contamination from Artisanal Mining

The recent UNIDO-supported Final Report for an Assessment of the Environment and Health in the Rwamagasa area (located 37 km from Lake Victoria) shows an alarming problem of widespread localized mercury contamination in rivers, soils, fish, and humans in the study area. This region has a population of 712,000, including about 150,000 artisanal miners. This study also revealed that the wetlands on the river system, which drains into Lake Tanganyika (about 430 km away), provided an effective buffer against transport of mercury. The study did not examine mercury contamination of groundwater and did not include other artisanal mining areas that may be draining into other rivers and lakes. The study findings suggest this is a serious problem that can no longer be ignored.

Source: (UNIDO 2004)

TourismTourism—both inland and coastal—is one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy (6.7 percent in 2003). During the period from 1995 to 2001, the revenue base nearly tripled, increasing from $259 million to nearly $725 million. Inland tourism is primarily based on the nation’s spectacular natural assets, notably biodiversity in the national parks (for example, Lake Manyara, Serengeti, Ngorongoro Crater, Mikumi and Ruaha National Parks) and game reserves (Selous, Ugalla, and others), as well as trekking on Mt. Kilimanjaro. According to a GoT report, wildlife assets have the highest scarcity values and can be the mainstay of Tanzania’s tourism for years to come.36

Inland tourism is dependent on adequate water supplies, not only for consumption at the tourist hotels and resorts, but also for healthy habitats for animals. Wildlife on the Serengeti Plains are reliant on adequate water in the Orangi and Mbalageti rivers and in the newly established Sadani Game Reserve on the Wami River. Flamingo breeding at 34 The GEF is supporting a project “Removal of barriers to the introduction of cleaner artisanal gold mining and extraction technologies) to improve waste disposal and handling.35

? In Minamata Bay, Japan, mercury poisoning in the 1960s had a devastating impact on the fishing industry for nearly three decades.

36 MIGA (2002) Tourism in Tanzania: Investment for Growth and Diversification prepared for the GOT in cooperation with the governments of Japan and Sweden and the Development Bank of South Africa.

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Lake Natron is dependent on water availability and quality, and the wildlife at Lake Manyara depend on groundwater springs. There are no known efforts to estimate water demand for the various natural habitats. Policies and actions that encourage encroachment by pastoral communities and farmers into the conservation areas will intensify competition over water and pasture among the different water users.

Coastal tourism, based on beach hotels, resorts, diving and fishing assets, has grown rapidly in recent years, especially in Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo, and Tanga. To be sustainable, tourist facilities require adequate infrastructure - reliable electricity, potable water supply and provisions for discharging wastewater. A number of facilities have been hampered by water supply shortages and many hotels and resorts have invested in private boreholes and generators. Few have any capacity for treating wastewater which is often discharged directly into the ocean without any treatment.

Fishing Fishing has been a rapidly developing sector of the economy. In 2000, Tanzania caught 52,000 metric tons of marine fish and 356,000 tons of freshwater fish (excluding aquaculture). While the size of the marine catch has been relatively stable, the freshwater catch has fluctuated considerably. Fisheries products currently account for about 11 percent of export earnings, the majority (9.5 percent) of which comprises frozen Nile perch fillets from Lake Victoria (Box A.5). The Nile perch catch in 2001 was 220,000 tons, worth $90 million in export earnings.

Box A.5 The Growth of the Fishing Industry in Lake VictoriaCommercial fishing (selling to structured markets beyond the local village) began in Lake Victoria around the end of the 19th century when the railroad reached the lake and provided access to rapidly growing Nairobi and the coast. Even in the early 20th century, concerns were raised about falling catch per unit effort in the fishery, leading to the first scientific fisheries assessment on the lake by Graham in 1929, which recommended gear limitations. The fishery was static or slowly declining at the time the Nile perch and several exotic African tilapiines were introduced in the 1950s.

Beginning in the 1980s, the catches of perch grew dramatically and now dominate the fishery along with the exotic Nile tilapia and the native Rastrineobola (dagaa). The Nile perch catch expanded from yields of 100,000 tons to peaks of about 500,000 tons. This vibrant and regionally important export (to regional and global markets) has resulted in fisheries primary and secondary economic activity accounting for approximately 10 percent of regional GDP. The history of fisheries management for sustained yields is a sorry one internationally and in Africa, and concern for sustainability of this critical fishery resource in Lake Victoria was a primary motivation for the three riparian countries to undertake the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP).

Source: Hecky. 2003. “ Scientific Stocktaking Report: Progress during LVEMP1 and Challenges for the Future.” While the export trade in Nile perch fillets is not affected by drought, it is affected by water quality. In 1999, imports of Nile perch were banned by the EU because of bacteriological contamination arising from poor hygiene practices at fish landing sites and in processing, resulting in an estimated loss of $63 million to Tanzania. Exports have now recovered and exceeded the pre-ban level, following a rapid improvement in hygiene practices. While this contamination did not arise from degradation of lake water

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quality, it illustrated how sensitive this major export market is to any form of contamination.

There have been concerns about contamination of fish exports from Lake Victoria with heavy metals and industrial and agricultural chemicals. There are localized cases of elevated Cu, Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, and Zn concentrations in the sediments of Mwanza Gulf, although these are not at dangerous concentrations. The concentrations were greatest near towns, supporting their urban industrial origins (apart from Hg, which may originate from gold mining activities).37 Although agro-chemicals and their residues have been detected in the lake waters, their concentrations at the moment are not high enough to be a threat to human health, export products, or ecosystem integrity. Because of the tendency of organics and heavy metals to bioaccumulate in the food chain, the long-term impact from weak enforcement of agro-chemical or mining residues cannot be ignored.

Fish from all Tanzanian lakes are an important source of protein for local populations. Approximately 100,000 tons of fish are consumed within the country, the majority from the three Great Lakes. While water quality in Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika is generally good, there is evidence of growing pollution, catchment degradation, and overfishing of these subsistence species.

Environmental use of waterThere is a slowly growing recognition that the environment is an important user of water. This understanding is a result of the realization that good quality water is necessary for the country’s large inland fishery and delta shrimp production and its national parks and conservation areas. Growing concern over planned development on the Ewaso Ngiro river in Kenya that would impact flows in Lake Natron and highly publicized water use conflicts in Usangu (impacting the Ruaha National Park) and Lower Kihansi (impacting the unique and fragile Kihansi Gorge wetland and the Kihansi spray toad) have also contributed to this realization.

Until recently, the environmental dimensions of water resource planning and management have either been neglected or accorded a very low priority in Tanzania, even though Tanzania has very large areas under protection and is also a signatory to the Convention on Biodiversity Conservation. The NYM dam, for example, is operating with the single objective of maintaining flows for generating power at NYM, Hale, and the new Pangani Falls hydroelectric power plants. The dam has never been operated for releasing water for maintaining the Kirua Swamp, which was once a very large and important wetland. The wetland has almost dried up.

Instream flows are also important for maintaining the productivity of farmlands that are located in deltas and estuaries, where major changes in the freshwater/seawater balance resulting from excess regulation of the river can have major impacts. This is particularly important for the Ruvu River system, which has productive lands along its delta, and Wami River, which has a new protected area. In the Rufiji River, instream flows are important for maintaining the fish and shrimp habitats in the delta.

37 Potential pollution threats from the mining sector were discussed above under the mining section.

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The 2002 National Water Policy has reversed previous practice, according environmental uses of water a high priority in allocation decisions, second to water for basic human uses. In order to implement this provision, it will be necessary to identify the major aquatic ecosystems, assess their water needs, use this information to inform allocation decisions, and enforce the water law.

Lands and ForestryWithout proper controls, changes in land use (Box A.6) can significantly influence runoff quantity and quality and hence affect river flows and water quality. Deforestation (from clearing vegetation for agriculture, fuelwood, charcoal burning and construction, and overgrazing) is the most serious environmental concern in Tanzania. Between 1983 and 1987, forest and woodland decreased from 44 million hectares (50 percent of total land area) to 38 million hectares (43 percent of total land area). In recent years, forest and woodland is likely to have declined even further. This loss of vegetation has contributed to increased soil erosion and sedimentation in river channels, reservoirs, and irrigation systems.

Box A.6 Major Land Uses in Tanzania

The land and water surface areas of Tanzania are 888,2000 sq. km. and 54,400 sq. km., respectively. With about 33 million people, the population density is generally low. However, there are some areas—like Ukerewe, Rungwe, Lushoto, Arumeru and Bukoba districts—with high population densities of 230 people or more per sq km.

With the exception of a few mountains, most of the country forms a plateau lying 1,020 to 1,650 meters above sea level. About 75 percent of the land area is uninhabited or difficult to manage because of difficult relief or unreliable rainfall, national parks, game and forest reserves, mountains, or inland water bodies. About 407,578 sq km—or 46 percent of the total land area—are forest and woodlands, while 40 percent is permanent pasture. In 1992, only about 10.1 percent of the total arable land (48,710,000 hectares or 487,100 sq km) was under cultivation. About 93.4 percent of this was used for small-scale farming by landholders who cultivated the land mainly under customary tenure. The remaining 6.6 percent was under large-scale farming under granted rights of occupancy. Furthermore, 611,238 sq km (69 percent of the total land area) is pasture or grazing land, of which only 438,790 sq km is actually used.

Source: National Land Use Policy (1997)

People inhabiting floodplains are highly vulnerable to flooding. For example, the Songwe River basin, on the border with Malawi, has been subjected to unsustainable land management practices such as deforestation, bush burning, and shifting cultivation. Most of the original primary forests of the upper Songwe have been replaced by secondary forests or shrub vegetation. The floodplains of the river are densely populated and the land is subjected to intensive cultivation, even along the marginal areas of the riverbanks. There is high soil erosion and runoff, which leads to silting of the river and increased flooding. The river meanders considerably during flow events (sometimes shifting 10-20 kilometers off course), causing problems with locating the border between Tanzania and Malawi and property loss whenever the river changes course.

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According to the National Land Policy (1997), growth in the livestock population has raised the demand for grazing land (including land now under cultivation) and created serious soil erosion problems in Nzega, Dodoma, and Kondoa districts, and in Shinyanga and Mwanza regions. Population increases and government policies since 1967 favoring agriculture have resulted in the extension of cultivation to marginal lands. Such encroachments have resulted in a reduction of areas available for pastoralists, particularly in the Mwanza, Shinyanga, Tabora, Arusha, and Singida regions. The increased movement of large herds of livestock from traditional livestock keeping areas to low livestock population areas—such as the Mbeya, Iringa, Morogoro, Rukwa, and Ruvuma regions—is creating land use conflicts in the receiving areas.

Change in land use has another significant but little understood or appreciated economic implication. Not only can hydrologic changes associated with catchment degradation result in larger floods and longer periods of drought, but greater volumes of water need to be stored in reservoirs to achieve the same degree of water supply reliability.

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ANNEX B. WATER RESOURCES OF TANZANIA

Unlike many sub-Saharan nations (including neighbors Kenya and Malawi), Tanzania is endowed with relatively abundant freshwater sources—rivers, springs, lakes, wetlands, and aquifers. The three largest African freshwater lakes provide an immense natural storage capacity.

Current water stocks are sufficient for meeting the country’s current and future water resources development and supply needs. However, because of climate variability and geography, water is not available uniformly or reliably. Underinvestment in water resources management systems, institutions, and infrastructure has compounded the challenge and, as a consequence, local water shortages are increasing and becoming acute, water pollution is increasing, and important sources of water (rivers, lakes and groundwater) are under increasing stress.

Water Availability In 1990, Tanzania received on average 2,700 m3 per capita of renewable freshwater for all uses. By 2002, this was reduced to 2,300 m3 per capita due to increased population alone. This average figure does not reflect the temporal (seasonal or annual) or spatial variability of water, which is influenced by topography, rainfall, evapotranspiration, runoff, infiltration, and storage conditions in the different parts of the country. The average figure is significantly above the level of 1,700 m3 per capita set by the UN as denoting water stress, or 1,000 m3 per capita denoting water scarcity. On a relative scale, the current per capita level of renewable water is nearly four times that of Kenya and 80 percent that of Uganda. Figure 4.1 shows renewable freshwater availability in various SSA nations at 1990 and 2025 levels.38 Due to projected population growth alone, Tanzania’s annual renewal rate is projected to drop to 1,500 m3 per capita by 2025, categorizing the country as water stressed.

Rainfall – high spatial and temporal variabilityRainfall and snowmelt are the primary renewable sources of freshwater. The western and eastern parts of the country receive higher rainfall, while there is a distinct drier trough through the center of the country. More than half the country receives less than 800 mm of annual rainfall, while the southern highlands and the Kagera region to the northwest of Lake Victoria receive between 1,000 and 3,000 mm per annum, and coastal regions receive over 1,000 mm per annum. Consequently, renewable water resources are distributed very unevenly across the country, ranging from a relative abundance in the Ruvuma basin to an acute scarcity in the Internal Drainage basin.

The monsoon type of climate causes extreme temporal variability of rainfall and even

38 The 2025 levels were projected on the basis of the UN’s medium level population growth rate.

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greater variability of river flows. Rainfall distribution is bimodal, with short rains falling in November and December and long rains from March through May. There is an extensive dry season from June to October. Rivers in the wetter parts of the country— the southwestern highlands, the mountain ranges, the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro,and Meru and the western parts of the country—are perennial, while the rivers are intermittent in the drier parts of the country, causing seasonal scarcity.

Annual rainfall variability (see Figure 4.2 in Chapter 4) shows that droughts and floods are periodic events. The 2003/2004 drought has caused acute water shortages in the Rufiji, Wami-Ruvu, Pangani, and Internal Drainage basins, with very significant impacts on the people and on key sectors of the economy. The government’s responses to droughts and floods have been, at best, ad hoc, piecemeal, and inadequate. The nation remains highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate variability.

Climate change39 due to global warming is likely to have mixed impacts on water supply in Tanzania. It is projected to result in a small increase in rainfall during the December-February period. However, the effects of climate change are already apparent in Tanzania, with the glaciers on Mt. Kilimanjaro receding rapidly.40 The volume of the ice cap at the Kibo Summit of Kilimanjaro has been reduced by 82 percent since 1912, when the ice cap was thoroughly surveyed. The disappearing glaciers on Mt. Kilimanjaro are among the few undisputed signs of global warming in Africa.41

Snowmelt from Mt Kilimanjaro is a major source of water for the Pangani River.42 The reduction, and eventual loss, of the snowcap will change the timing of runoff and recharge. The predicted increase in December-February precipitation may lead to an increase in river flows during that period. While the overall effect of global warming on river flows is not known, it is likely to have significant impacts given the importance of this basin to the nation’s population and economy through irrigated agriculture, hydropower, industry, mining, and tourism.

Water Resources

RiversAbout 50 percent of the total surface runoff of 74 x 109 m3 flows directly into the Indian Ocean, from the Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji, Mbwemkuru, Matandu, and Ruvuma rivers. The Rufiji River, which drains nearly 177,000 sq km, contributes half of this runoff. The remaining 50 percent of the country’s runoff drains northward into Lake Victoria, westward into Lake Tanganyika, and southward into the Lake Nyasa-Zambezi

39 Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. IPCC 2001. Fig 23, page 71.40

? Vital Climate Graphics, Africa: The Impacts of Climate Change? prepared by UNEP/WMO/GRID Arendal in July 2002.41

? Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001.42

? It contributes to the Pangani River flows and groundwater recharge.

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River system. The Internal Drainage basin contains Lake Rukwa, the Bubu depression complex, Lake Eyasi, and Lake Manyara.

The Lake Victoria basin contains the Kagera, Simiyu, Magogo–Moame, Mbarageti, Grumeti, Mori, and Mara rivers, with considerable hydropower, irrigation, mining and domestic supply development potential. The Mara River is shared with Kenya and the Kagera with Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda. The Ruvuma basin is considerably less developed than the other basins but contains abundant water resources. The Internal Drainage basin, although in the driest part of the country, contains important urban centers (Dodoma,43 Tabora, Singida, and Shinyanga) and tourism and wildlife sites, and supports large livestock populations.

The Umba (Pangani basin), Songwe (Lake Nyasa basin) and Ruvuma (Ruvuma basin) rivers lie on the borders with Kenya, Malawi, and Mozambique, respectively. Annex A summarizes the challenges and opportunities facing Tanzania’s transboundary rivers, lakes, and aquifers.

LakesLakes are dominant and important waterbodies in five basins. Lake Tanganyika (shared with Burundi, Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo) is the second deepest and second largest lake volumetrically in the world, containing 19,000 km3 of water. Lake Nyasa/Malawi—shared with Malawi and Mozambique—contains 7,700 km3 of water and has amongst the highest biodiversity in the world. Lake Victoria, with a surface area of 68,000 km2, has the second largest surface area of any lake in the world. Its waters are shared with Uganda and Kenya.

While there are immense volumes of water in these three lakes (containing nearly 390 times the mean annual runoff of Tanzania, or nearly 27 percent of the global freshwater stock), most of this water is at present uneconomic to tap for direct extraction for use in distant parts of the country. This water, however, is a vital strategic national reserve, for use in water-short areas or during drought. The services that these waters provide— particularly fish habitat, urban and rural water supply and transport—are of direct economic benefit to Tanzania. The inland fisheries comprise 84 percent of Tanzania’s total fish production, estimated to be about 336,000 tons in 2001.44 The major urban centers of Mwanza, Bukoba, and Musoma on Lake Victoria and Kigoma on the shore of Lake Tanganyika obtain their water from these lakes. Lake Victoria waters are being developed for Shinyanga and Kahama town water supplies. These lakes also support numerous rural water supply schemes.

The lakes provide major transport routes between Tanzania and Burundi, DRC, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda, and Zambia. They form critical components of the system for transporting primary production from these countries to Tanzanian ports and the return of commercial and industrial goods to the inland areas.

43 Dodoma lies in three basins: Internal Drainage, Wani-Ruvu and Rufiji.

44 FAOStat database

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The lakes are also repositories for the municipal, industrial, and agricultural wastes discharged directly or via runoff from their respective basins. Urban centers in Uganda (Entebbe, Jinja), Kenya (Kisumu), and Tanzania (Mwanza, Bukoba, and Musoma) discharge untreated or partially treated municipal and industrial wastewater into Lake Victoria, contributing to increased nutrient buildup in the lakes.

These three lakes, apart from having significant economic importance, are of enormous ecological significance, since they contain the world’s greatest concentration of fish diversity. Lake Nyasa is estimated to possess between 500 and 1,000 species of fish, while Lake Tanganyika is estimated to contain about 325 species and Lake Victoria originally contained over 350 species. However, many of Lake Victoria’s species have been eliminated in the last 15 years through a combination of eutrophication and predation from introduced Nile perch. Some highly localized species in the other two lakes are under threat from capture for the ornamental fish trade.

The country has many smaller- and medium-sized lakes. Lakes Twamwala and Ihema form part of the border with Rwanda. On the border with Kenya, Lakes Chala and Jipe are important for local water supply and stock use. There are a number of large salt lakes within the country, notably Lakes Natron, Manyara, and Eyasi. Lake Natron is an important wildlife area, being the only known breeding site for the Lesser Flamingo. Lake Manyara is a protected area and a central feature of the Lake Manyara National Park. Lake Rukwa is a key source of water supply for rural communities in its basin.

GroundwaterGroundwater is a primary source of urban water supply in Mtwara, Arusha, and Dodoma and rural water supply in semi-arid and arid areas, and a key supplement to surface sources for domestic supply in many rural and urban areas (including Dar es Salaam). Groundwater is used for irrigation in some arid and semi-arid areas of the country.

Information on groundwater potential and quality is limited and region-specific. About 75 percent of the country is underlain by Precambrian basement material, which contains aquifers only where the basement is fractured or weathered. Yields from these formations are generally low and only suitable for village supply. However, there are more extensive aquifers in volcanic rocks associated with the Rift Valley in the north and south of the country, in alluvial deposits in some river basins, and in coastal formations. Groundwater is used for irrigation and domestic supply in the Mt Kilimanjaro area. although some use is restricted due to high fluoride, nitrate, iron, and manganese concentrations from the volcanic deposits.

WetlandsTanzania has 2.7 million hectares of freshwater wetlands, the largest of which are in the Rufiji/Ruaha River system (796,000 ha), Malagarasi-Moyowosi system (686,000 ha), and along the Ugalla River, Suiwe River, Mara River, and Pangani, Wami, and Ruvu rivers. Flows from rivers are linked to coastal and marine resources. Box C.1 describes a coastal marine wetland system linked to Rufiji River flows that was recently accorded

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Ramsar status. Wetlands constitute a rich and durable resource and are used for irrigation, dry season supply for livestock, and fishing and shrimp production, and provide water for livestock. They provide a buffer against floodwaters and trap contaminants. Some of them contain rare and endangered plant species. Their multiple uses are illustrated by the Usangu wetlands at the head of the Great Ruaha River in the Rufiji Basin. Usangu has traditionally been used for agriculture (including the production of rice), livestock raising and fishing. Over the past decade, the great Ruaha River which flows through the Ruaha National Park has ceased to flow in the dry season. Park animals, especially the water animals, are severely affected every year.

Box B.1 The Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa Marine Ramsar site: A Coastal Wetland of International Importance

Tanzania has recently named a 597,000 ha complex of coastal and marine habitats—comprising the delta of the Rufiji River; Mafia Island and surrounding smaller islands, sandbars, and coral reefs; the Songo-Songo Archipelago; and adjacent waters—as its fourth Wetland of International Importance. The complex is composed of mangrove forests, extensive intertidal flats, seagrass beds, and sandbars, all ecologically interlinked with the flow of the Rufiji River. The Songo-Songo Archipelago has a highly diverse and extensive coral assemblage, with records of 49 and 12 genera of hard and soft corals respectively. Five species of globally threatened marine turtles have been recorded, including Green Turtle and Hawksbill, as well as a small population of Dugong. A count in the delta alone in 2001 recorded 40,160 waterbirds, including at least 62 species.

Fishing and extraction of other coastal and mangrove resources, as well as cultivation (especially rice), seaweed farming, and tourism are the major activities within the site. The delta's artisanal fishery of about 7,000 fishermen produces about 4,500 tons of finfish per annum, as well as prawns. Thousands of families in Songo-Songo and Mafia Island make their living from fishing.

Source: http://www.ramsar.org/w.n.html

Water QualityLakes Tanganyika and Nyasa/Malawi have good water quality except in the vicinity of towns and cities where effluent and stormwater cause local contamination. Water quality in Lake Victoria is poor; high turbidity and nutrient levels lead to frequent blooms of blue-green algae and infestations of water weeds. There are also local instances of toxic contamination from mining and industrial wastes.45

Surface and groundwater quality is generally good for most uses except in specific areas. In the semi-arid regions (including Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga, and Arusha), color and turbidity levels are a problem during the rainy season. There are high levels of turbidity in most rivers during flood events, especially in rivers that drain degraded catchments. High salinity is a problem along coastal aquifers. Some shallow aquifers face a threat of nitrate contamination from poorly built and operated sanitation facilities.

Rivers and groundwater in the fluoride belt (including Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, and Shinyanga regions of the Rift Valley, and extending to the Pangani and Internal Drainage basins) have naturally high fluoride concentrations because of the tectonic origins of the

45 UNIDO (2004).

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area. Fluoride levels of up to 32 ppm have occurred in rivers such as Maji ya Chai. High fluoride concentrations cause dental and skeletal fluorosis in human populations.

Groundwater in Dar es Salaam is facing a growing problem of saltwater intrusion due to uncontrolled abstraction and overexploitation. Groundwater quality is being degraded by industrial contaminants that are poorly stored and disposed, leaking underground petrol and diesel tanks, and leachate from solid waste sites.

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ANNEX C. TRANSBOUNDARY WATERS

Lakes/Rivers/

Aquifers

Basin Riparians

Challenges Opportunities

LakesLake Victoria (Nile River Basin)

Kenya, Uganda; Burundi, Rwanda, DRC,Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea

Water quality i.e. Eutrophication (wet & dry deposition, surface runoff)

Pollution (urban point source, agriculture diffuse)

Biodiversity threats Overfishing, weak

regulation and enforcement Deforestation Water hyacinth Limited hydrological data Access to basic

infrastructure (energy, water supply, roads)

No agreed lake basin development strategy

Regional cooperation through EAC (Lake Victoria Basin Commission)

Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO)

Lake Victoria Vision NBI Transitional Cooperative

Framework NELSAP cooperative projects (power

development, transmission interconnections, River Basin Management & Development Projects)

Strengthened LVBWO LVEMP2 (to add Burundi & Rwanda) Tourism High biodiversity

Lake Tanganyika (Congo River Basin)

DRC, Burundi, Zambia; Angola, Cameroon Congo, Central African Republic

Unregulated fisheries (commercial, ornamental)

Deforestation Destruction of wetlands Siltation Pollution (urban point

source urban, agriculture) Limited hydrological data Limited access to basic

infrastructure (energy, water supply, roads)

No agreed lake basin development strategy/vision

Civil strife

Convention for Management of Lake Tanganyika (6/12/03)

Lake Tanganyika Integrated Environmental Management Program (GEF/NDF/UNOPS) focused on pollution control & catchment management

Strengthened LTBWO Power generation potential > 180 MW Irrigation potential Economic cooperation High biodiversity Increased navigation and regional trade Data on ecosystem exists (UNDP/GEF) Tourism

Lake Nyasa (Zambezi River Basin)

Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Lake border dispute Flooding of lake shores Deforestation Siltation Unregulated fisheries

(commercial, ornamental) Pollution from agriculture Limited hydrological data Limited access to energy,

water supply, roads No agreed lake basin

development strategy/vision

Revised Protocol on Shared Water Courses in SADC (2000)

Zambezi Water Course Commission, ZAMCOM (13 July 2004)

Tri-partied Task Force on LN Water Resources Management Initiative (to be Sida financed)

Strengthened LNBWO Biodiversity/ecosystem data exists Mtwara Development Corridor (roads,

mining (coal and minerals), navigation Tourism

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Lake Chala Tanzania,Kenya

Limited hydrological data Lack of common

development strategy

Cross-border Dialogue Initiative Strengthened PWBO Irrigation Tourism

Lake Jipe Tanzania,Kenya

Water weeds Navigation hindered due to

water weeds Siltation Water shortage for domestic

supply and livestock Water diversions not

regulated Wildlife migration Low water flow to

hydropower stations Lack of common

management strategy

Cross-border Dialogue Initiative Strengthened PWBO Irrigation Tourism

RiversKagera River Nile Border river

Land degradation and loss of soil fertility

Deforestation Access to basic

infrastructure (energy, water supply, roads)

Wetlands degraded Unplanned migration of

cattle Water pollution (urban point

source, agriculture diffuse) Biodiversity threats Water hyacinth Limited hydrological data No agreed cooperative

basin/lake development strategy

Limited access to basic infrastructure (energy, water supply, roads)

Civil strife

Kagera River Basin Management and Development Project (funded by Sida/NORAD)

NBI Transitional Cooperative Framework

NELSAP cooperative projects (regional power development, transmission interconnections)

Regional cooperation through EAC (Lake Victoria Basin Commission)

Major hydropower development Rusumo Falls and Kishanda

Strengthened LVBWO LVEMP2 (brings in Burundi and

Rwanda) Irrigation Tourism High biodiversity

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Mara River Nile Environmental degradation, primarily because of increasing population pressure

Deforestation Soil erosion Water pollution from

effluents and mining activities

Water scarcity and competing users (irrigation, wildlife, forestry)

Mara River Basin Management and Development Project (funded by Sida/NORAD)

NBI Transitional Cooperative Framework

NELSAP cooperative projects (regional power development, transmission interconnections)

Regional cooperation through EAC (Lake Victoria Basin Commission)

Water transfer to Ewaso Ngiro South and Lake Natron for power generation (180-240 MW)

Hydropower Flood control, irrigation, and power

generation at Nyangores River Irrigation (commercial , small scale) Tourism (Serengeti, Masaii Mara)

Umba River TanzaniaKenya

Sedimentation Limited hydrological data Lack of common

development strategy

Cross-border Dialogue Initiative Strengthened PWBO Irrigation Tourism

Songwe River

Zambezi Border issues related to unstable meandering river

Flooding Deforestation Erosion Limited access to basic

infrastructure (energy, water supply, roads)

Hydro-meteorological, water quality, and river discharge monitoring data collection systems need upgrade

Feasibility study for the stabilization of the course of the Songwe river (Tanzania, Malawi November 2003)

Songwe River Basin Plan include projects ($400 M):

Dams and reservoirs Hydropower projects (makes basin plan

economically viable) River stabilization structures Irrigation and drainage schemes Soil conservation measures Development schemes Flood mitigation schemes Afforestation schemes Roads Fish farming

Ruvuma River

TanzaniaMozambique

Lack of hydrological and other baseline data

Mtwara Development Corridor with a focus on road construction

Mining Development of deep-sea port Lake Malawi navigation with ferry Irrigation Major tourism potential-Selous and

cross-border initiatives with Mozambique

GroundwaterKilimanjaro Aquifers

TanzaniaKenya

Limited hydrogeological data Recharge rates and sustainable

yields need to be determined Overabstraction

Drought mitigation and proofing Domestic water supply Water for livestock Supplemental water for irrigation

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ANNEX D. REVIEW OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION SERVICES

Background

The Bank’s current approach to supporting water supply and sanitation services (WSSS) is based on the Government of Tanzania’s National Water Policy-NAWAPO (2002), Letters of Sector Policy for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (2002), and Urban Water Supply and Sewerage (2003). Box 1 below highlights the key policy imperatives.

Water supply and sanitation services (WSSS) has been delivered through four Bank-supported projects:

Urban Sector Rehabilitation Project ($25.0 million out of $105.0 million, 1997–2004) Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project ($26.0 million, 2002–06) Tanzania Social Action Fund (est. $ 60 million out of $ 3 million, 2000–05) Dar es Salaam Water and Sanitation Project ($65.0 million out of $164.0 million, 2002–

08).

All projects have supported the reform framework stipulated in the NAWAPO. The World Bank has employed different instruments in the delivery of WSSS. This includes dedicated rural WSS (covering 12 out of 93 rural districts), urban WSS projects (economic capital city—Dar es Salaam), social funds (43 out of 93 rural Districts), and urban infrastructure rehabilitation projects (8 out of 20 regional capitals). These programs have contributed significantly to improving WSSS in the respective districts and cities. Despite these efforts and contributions from GoT and budgetary resources and support from development partners, coverage of water supply for domestic (rural 50 percent and urban 70 percent safe water supply coverage), industrial, and agricultural purposes remains low and unreliable. This translates into poor quality of life and a significant waterborne disease burden (despite over 90 percent in latrine coverage), especially for women and children. Over 15 million people (out of the current population of 35 million) are without safe water supplies. Most WSSS are not adequately maintained.

The GoT launched its Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) in early 200, which made WSSS one of the seven pillars of its development strategy. This called for nationwide scaling up in the delivery of WSSS services. This Sector Assistance Strategy note outlines the overall framework and guiding principles for the Bank’s WSSS work program in Tanzania over the next 2–5 years. It reflects lessons learned from implementation experiences of the current approach, and addresses the major emerging challenges, notably the need for scaling up in a sustainable manner to meet the objective of both the MDGs and the PRS.

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The current strategy has been successful in rural and urban water supply and sanitation.

Rural WSS Developing institutional models for decentralized service delivery, fiscal transfers, and

community-driven development (CDD), primarily a partnership among communities, NGOs, private sector and government agencies

Mainstreaming the rural WSS aspects of NAWAPO in 20 districts (12 with IDA support and 8 with Dutch Government support) using the same sector implementation arrangements and 43 districts using social fund approaches

Demonstrating that community contribution for capital works and operation and maintenance services is possible

Using private sector consultants, contractors, and suppliers at the local government level to provide services to districts and communities, as well as establishment of a supply chain for handpumps and after-sales maintenance services

Developing model operational manuals/guidelines/documents, and promoting good and innovative practices; for example, procurement through district and community contracting; contracting of NGOs; village-level capacity building programs; financial management and accounting by villagers; environmental screening and gender mainstreaming in sub-project processing

Preparing a national rural WSS program with a roll-out plan for up to 50 districts by July 2005 and all 93 districts by July 2006.

Urban WSS

Establishing of a framework for autonomous urban water and sewerage authorities in secondary cities; all 8 cities under USRP can meet operation and maintenance costs

Providing strategic support to DAWASA in the run-up to private sector participation

Creating of an asset holding authority and introduction of private sector participation (lease operator) in water supply and sewerage services in the capital city of Dar es Salaam

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Box E.1 Key Features of the National Water Policy

Integrated Water Resources Management Framework. Address cross-sectoral interests in water, watershed management, and participatory integrated approaches in water resources planning, development and management.

Subsidiarity in Management of Services. Lay a foundation for sustainable development and management of water resources in the changing roles of the government from service provider to that of coordination, policy and guideline formulation, and regulation and for private sector delivery of goods and services.

Sustainable financing with Appropriate Safety Nets. Ensure appropriate cost recovery mechanisms in service delivery, but with considerations for provision of services to vulnerable groups through various cost-sharing instruments, including targeted declining subsidies, social connections, and lifeline tariffs.

Demand Orientation. Ensure full participation of beneficiaries in planning, construction, operation, maintenance, and management of community-based domestic water supply schemes in rural areas.

Arranging for the establishment of an Energy and Water Utility Regulatory Agency (EWURA)

Promoting partnerships by providing substantial opportunities for NGOs to work with DAWASA in providing services to the poor.

Main Sector Issues and Challenges Ahead

Currently, 18.2 million (54 percent) of Tanzania’s 33.5 million people have access to water supply and 30 million (90 percent) have access to improved sanitation. To achieve the MDG, 17 million more people would need to obtain access to water and 14 million to sanitation by 2015. This would still leave 11 million without water and 2.76 million without sanitation. Currently about 1,500 rural water supply systems and 3,100 town water supply systems (yard taps, standposts, boreholes) are being constructed each year with an annual investment of about $51 million annually. To achieve the MDG, the number of new rural systems constructed each year would reach about

2,400. Over the last 20 years, Africa has developed good strategies for providing sustainable water and sanitation services to poor people. The scorecard below shows Tanzania’s progress toward adopting key factors that affect sustainable services.

Figures D.1 and D.2

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Box D.2 Sustainability Scorecard

Rural Water Supply and SanitationCommunity Management Demand ResponsivenessHygiene/Sanitation PromotionDecentralization, National ProgramUser Friendly HandpumpSupply Chains (parts/repairs)School Latrines

Town Water Supply and SanitationAutonomy of WB and OperatorContracts with OperatorsProfessional SupportBusiness Plans and TariffsDesign Matches DemandSupply Chains (parts/chemicals)Environmental Action Plans

Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Autonomy of WB and Operator

Contracts with OperatorsBusiness Plans and Tariffs

Goal: Increase access to water from 18.3m to 35.3m by 2015.

(7.3m rural and 9.8m urban).

GoT Strategy for Accelerated Service Delivery

GoT recognizes the need to accelerate coverage, particularly in rural areas, and to improve the functionality and sustainability of the sector. It has launched significant sector reforms based on the new NAWAPO (2002). GoT intends to adopt a sector-wide approach to planning by decentralizing services delivery to the most appropriate levels. Rural water supply and sanitation will be the mandate of local governments, while urban water supply and sewerage will be delegated to autonomous urban utilities. The central government will play the role of facilitator and ensure regulation in the delivery of services. The main challenge is to develop and implement a credible national water sector investment program that ensures sector-wide application of NAWAPO principles—as outlined in the new National Water Sector Development Strategy (NWSDS, 2004).

The objectives are geared toward meeting GoT’s Poverty Reduction Strategy for accelerating coverage of WSSS and ensuring sustainability (Box D.3), as well as meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in particular halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. Establishing the necessary institutional arrangements, building institutional capacity, and bridging financing gaps to implement the scaling-up agenda are the key priorities.

Proposed Bank Approach

Bank’s Country Assistance Strategy (CAS)

The Bank’s support to Tanzania’s WSSS program will be within the framework of the Country Water Resources Assistance Strategy in the first instance, and more importantly within the Bank’s overall CAS to Tanzania. It will be consistent with the CAS priorities of supporting critical pro-poor interventions through accelerating pro-poor rural and urban development and services delivery and promoting growth. The cross-cutting principles that govern the Bank’s work in accelerating poverty reduction, outlined in the CAS, include: (a) decentralized governance and beneficiary involvement and empowerment; (b) institutional reform and capacity building of state and local governments and communities; (c) private-sector-led growth with appropriate safety nets;

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Box D.3 GoT’s Objectives Accelerate coverage of rural water supply and urban water supply to 85 percent and 100 percent

respectively by 2015 and ensure minimum (basic) service level of 25 liters per capita; maintain effective coverage and use of latrine at 90 percent

Decentralize delivery of rural water supply to local governments and urban water supply to designated autonomous urban water and sewerage authorities

Strengthen sustainability of both water supply systems and water sources through increased community and customer involvement and establishment of private sector supply chain support systems and appropriate cost recovery strategies

Improve sector planning, monitoring, and coordination by enhancing the role of the Technical Advisory Committee and strengthening sector MIS, technical and financial audits, and public expenditure reviews

Align sector objectives with sector budget allocation through targeted subsector allocation within the MTEF to ensure PRS and MDGs results.

and (d) targeting the poorest areas and most vulnerable groups. The CAS also calls for a programmatic approach to support goals over the longer-term, selectively using sector-wide approaches to planning (SWAp).

Proposed WSSS Assistance Strategy

The Bank’s support to Tanzania’s WSSS program will mainly aim at assisting the GoT in scaling-up the reform approach nationwide. To this end, the strategy will be to deploy the Bank’s resources (global experience and knowledge, staff expertise, financial support instruments, leverage and partnerships) to help (a) GoT move the sector reforms enshrined in the NAWAPO and the new Water Sector Development Strategy (2004) forward and build capacity to implement the reform approach effectively; (b) channel a greater proportion of the substantial public funds to frontline agencies (local governments and water utilities); (c) fill knowledge gaps, especially those relating to new and innovative institutional and financing arrangements; (d) enhance Tanzania ’s exposure to and learning from experiences in other countries and across states; (e) promote sanitation and hygiene promotion and education, raise awareness of the health impacts of improved sanitation and hygiene behavior, and promote increased investments in sanitation (including sewerage); and (f) establish satisfactory regulation of services delivery and monitoring and evaluation arrangements.

In line with the Bank’s CAS, the Bank’s support for WSSS will consist of investment lending (both sector-wide and specific investment lending). Analytical work would be provided to GoT to help promote dialogue and assistance to project/program preparation. The Bank will continue to partner with other external support agencies—notably Germany, Netherlands, Japan, Switzerland, DFID, European Union, UNICEF, African Development Bank, BADEA, China, and the Africa Water and Sanitation Program (WSP)—including cofinancing and consistency in strategy and program design. GoT will coordinate and ensure such consistency.

Proposed Bank Support Instruments and Priorities

The proposed Bank instruments will be used to finance a part of the National Water Sector Investment Program that is consistent with the NAWAPO and the new Water Sector Development Strategy. It will consist of a blend of instruments taken together to support the GoT SWAp. The focus will be on programmatic instruments combined with sector investment lending and specific investment lending where appropriate:

Budget support through the Poverty Reduction Support Credit. As a result of increasing budget support by the Bank (through the PRSC operation) and other development partners, GoT has doubled its annual budget allocation ($60.0 million in 2001 to $120.0 million in 2004) to the water sector. The Bank will work with GoT in strengthening sector budget management and reinforcing subsector allocations aimed at achieving the MDGs and PRS objectives within the Medium Term Budget Framework (MTEF). It will ensure accountability for results through the annual Public Expenditure Review (PER) exercises. The budget process will be used in the first instance to channel resources to local

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governments through a results-based allocation formula to improve rural water supply coverage.

Programmatic sector/poverty targeted investment lending. To support the move to the SWAp framework, the Bank will—through the Water Sector Support Program—ensure core financing of the National Water Sector Investment Program to secure the transformation of central government institutions and agencies for policy management and regulation of the sector. It will support establishment of basin water resources management institutions and inject resources to 93 local governments and utilities (20 regional capitals and 300 small towns as well as 6 national multivillage schemes) in accelerating service delivery. The program will be complemented and/or synchronized with other development partner resources within the SWAp framework. An annual flow of $30 million of Bank resources is envisaged. The program will also ensure coordination with the two key multisector programs (Local Government Support Program and the TASAF II program) in strengthening decentralized planning and management as well as enhancing community participation in service delivery.

Dedicated sector investment lending (Dar es Salaam future water source). This instrument will be used for large water supply and sewerage programs as well as multiuse water resources project (such as targeted programs under the Nile Initiative) that require multiyear dedicated design and implementation. For instance, the proposed future Dar es Salaam water source development project will be a case in point. This will involve co-financing with other development Banks and GoT.

Bank-managed sector work. Subject to demand by GoT, the Bank will undertake jointly with GoT, a range of activities to fill knowledge gaps on various program and reform issues. These would help better understand, develop, and test new and innovative approaches and instruments relating to WSSS. The priority areas for the sector work include:

a. Policy dialogue with GoT (including short policy notes as required) to help GoT develop modalities to channel public resources and ensure accountability and productive use for effective WSSS (such as performance-based support to local governments for Rural WSS or incentive-based financing of urban WSS).

b. Analytical and Advisory Activities (AAA) on (a) institutional arrangements for multivillage rural water supply schemes, and alternative institutional approaches for WSSS such as regional utilities, private sector participation in WSSS, risk-sharing between rural local governments and private sector, and joint provisioning of rural power and water supply; and (b) alternative financing instruments such as output-based aid, institutional/self-financing of WSSS, local private sector development, and new fiscal instruments for sanitation and public-private partnerships in hygiene promotion.

Learning from implementation experiences of ongoing Bank-supported projects. The Bank will continue to implement a systematic learning agenda

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through ongoing Bank-supported WSSS projects, develop knowledge products, pilot new and innovative approaches, conduct concurrent process monitoring and impact evaluation, and share its findings with GoT and development partners. Learning from other Bank-financed large-scale programs, multisectoral poverty alleviation projects, other projects supported by external support agencies, and NGO initiatives is also an important priority.

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ANNEX E. CAPACITY BUILDING TO UNDERTAKE ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW ASSESSMENTS IN

TANZANIA

M. Acreman46 and J. King47

Development of environmental flows program for Tanzania

Since independence in 1961, the Government of Tanzania has focused on three development problems: ignorance, disease, and poverty. Despite sustained efforts since the mid-1980s to address the country’s social and economic problems, one-half of all Tanzanians are considered basically poor (earning below $1 per day) and approximately one-third live in abject poverty. The government’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP, October 2000) recognizes the poor are heavily dependent on the environment for basic livelihood needs. Specifically, households are dependent on environmental resources for income generation. In addition, the rich biodiversity of Tanzania, particularly in national parks and game reserves, supports a vital tourist industry that brings valuable foreign currency. Conservation of nature and natural resources, including appropriate allocation of water to maintain aquatic ecosystems, is seen as a crucial element for sustainable development in Tanzania. Environmental impact assessments are undertaken on some projects and can include all impacts on the environment, not just those that are water related, of specific development options. Nevertheless, EIA was only made a legal requirement late last year. However, a new Water Policy has been agreed by Parliament (MWLD, 2002) that covers strategic assessment of water resources. This policy states that “water for the environment to protect ecosystems that underpin our water resources, now and in the future will attain second priority and will be reserved” (the first priority is for basic human needs). In addition, to strengthen the profile of environmental issues, the National Environment Management Council has been placed within the vice president’s office, rather than within the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. However, the capacity of Tanzania in the water resources-related environmental field remains weak; institutions need to be strengthened to ensure that the water policy is implemented effectively.

Environmental flow assessment will be required for Tanzanian rivers to implement the water policy. Tanzania has expertise in many relevant technical sectors, including hydrology and biology and the management of water for domestic supply, irrigation, and hydropower production, but lacks experience in inter-disciplinary hydro-ecological science that forms the basis of environmental flow assessments. The Bank Netherlands Water Partnership Program (BNWPP) is supporting World Bank projects in Tanzania to build national capacity to undertake environmental flow assessments. The first phase of 46 Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK (corresponding author).

47 University of Cape Town, South Africa

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the work focused on identification of specific issues of water management and freshwater ecosystems in Tanzania and how environmental flow assessment could be integrated into policy implementation. It recommended a ten-point plan for capacity building, which was supported by participants at a workshop on environmental flows that included government departments, universities, agencies, and NGOs (Acreman and King, 2002).

Although developed specifically for Tanzania, the ten-point plan contains a list of actions that have generic interest for other countries where environmental flow assessments will be useful, but where technical capacity is limited or nonexistent.

Environmental flow issues in TanzaniaTwo river basins with particularly acute water allocation issues in Tanzania are the Great Ruaha River basin and the Kihansi River basin, both of which are part of the Rufiji River basin. The two river basins provide useful examples of the issues that environmental flow assessment will need to address in Tanzania.

Great Ruaha River BasinWithin the Great Ruaha River basin, there are four primary water users. In the upstream area, several rivers flow into the Usangu plains from the south. Water is diverted from these rivers to feed a multitude of intensive rice schemes and associated small vegetable gardens. Informal off-take structures, built of mud and stones, have been replaced in some cases by concrete structures with sluice gates, which allow more effective management of water use. However, there appears to be inefficient management of many small plots where sluice boards are not used, and so the soil becomes waterlogged and water is wasted. In addition to legal state and private farms, many illegal farms have sprung up to use the available water. Large-scale farmers have in recent years begun transplanting rice at the end of the dry season as late-growing rice brings high prices. In addition there is considerable dry-season irrigation for vegetables, beans, and maize. However, this practice has been discouraged, as it starves downstream users of water during a period of naturally low river flows.

In the last 5 to 10 years, small village communities called “tail-enders” have established themselves downstream of large irrigation farms to use drainage water for rice irrigation and domestic supply. Wells hand-dug by these communities to exploit shallow groundwater dry up during the dry season. Alternative water sources from deeper groundwater are being investigated. Around Kapunga and Mbarali, it is thought that groundwater development is a viable solution for villages and tail-enders. There are 18 boreholes with depths ranging from 40 to 68 with yields of 3–40 m3/hour. The water quality in the Usangu plains is generally good with the exception of a few pockets that have yielded saline water.

Immediately downstream of this intensive farming area is the Usangu wetlands. This area is particularly important for fishing and livestock grazing. The wetland has significant influence over flows in the Ruaha River. Evaporation losses reduce the overall volume of flow, but water stored during the wet season provides a reservoir that maintains flows from the wetland in the dry season.

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Downstream of the wetlands lies the Ruaha National Park, which is an important game reserve. Historical records show that the river used to flow throughout the dry season, except in severe droughts such as in 1954. Since 1993, the river has stopped flowing earlier in the dry season, with flow ceasing in August 2002 until November 2002. Some small pools remain through the dry season, but high water temperatures and solute concentrations have led to massive fish kills. Hippopotami and crocodiles fight and have become more susceptible to diseases. Precise water requirements for the park have not been defined and although useful general data on species health are collected, these are not defined in a systematic way that can be used easily for an EF assessment.

Downstream of the park are the Mtera and Kidatu hydroelectric power reservoirs, which have an installed capacity for generating 280 MW (almost half the power needs of Tanzania). Extension of the rice area both in areal extent and in time (i.e. irrigation in the dry season) has had a knock-on impact downstream in the dry season, with loss of fish and grazing in the wetlands, stress on animals in the park, and reduced hydropower production. Defining the appropriate water allocation among these sectors is a high priority topic for Tanzania. Mitigation measures that are being explored are the use of groundwater and building of dams upstream of the rice area. The River Basin Management and Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (RBMSIIP) focuses on Pangani and Rufiji, with particular attention to date on the Great Ruaha River basin.

The Great Ruaha River basin presents a case study of competing water users, one downstream of the other, such that their cumulative impact increases downstream. This geographical distribution gives great power to the upstream users. A major problem in defining and implementing any water allocation agreement is the vast number of water users, particularly in the irrigated area. There are also many communities, especially the “tail-enders”, who may not have a legal right to water, but are nevertheless dependent on outflows from the farms, such that any increased water-use efficiency in the farms may have a detrimental impact on them. The difficulty of putting sufficient value on water needs for the national park may be helped by the downstream need for water at the hydropower stations. Construction of small dams upstream of the irrigated area and development of groundwater are being considered as possible solutions, but need to be planned and managed within the framework of environmental flows.

The RBMSIIP, funded by the World Bank, worked closely with the Rufiji Basin Water Office to achieve a better allocation of water within the Great Ruaha River basin. More efficient water management in the irrigated area has led to more water available downstream. A new project has been initiated to assess alternative water sources for the Ruaha National Park and to help define its water needs. Other projects that have contributed significantly to knowledge of the rive basin are SMUWC (Sustainable Management of the Usangu Wetlands and its Catchment) and RIPARWIN (Raising Irrigation Productivity and Releasing Water for Inter-sectoral Needs).

Kihansi River Basin

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The Kihansi River rises on the Udzungwa plateau approximately 1,100 meters above sea level and falls some 850 meters down a vertical escarpment to the Kilombero plain below, through a gorge that contains a series of spectacular waterfalls. The gorge is very steep and inaccessible, especially during the wet season. Planning for a dam to feed a hydropower plant to utilize the available head of water began in the 1980s. It was constructed from 1994 to 1999 and commissioned in 2000. The power plant, operated by TANESCO, currently has a capacity of 180 MW with the potential to increase this to 300 MW. This level of production requires use of the entire flow of the river (mean 16.3 m3s-

1), which is only returned to the river on the plain.

The initial EIA for the project did not identify any particularly significant ecological impacts. However, in 1998, as part of the long-term monitoring program, scientists from the University of Dar Es Salaam discovered a small (1 cm) endemic toad whose habitat is created by the spray from the waterfalls. TANESCO had set 1.5-2.0 m3s-1 of water to be released from the dam to the falls, but this was deemed to be insufficient to provide adequate spray for the habitat of the Kihansi spray toad.

In 2000, the Lower Kihansi Environmental Management Project (LKEMP), funded by the World Bank, was created to study the relationship between river flow and spray-toad habitat. LKEMP is now coordinating the ecological studies and is designing a data collection programme. To mitigate the impact of insufficient environmental flows, water is delivered to the falls area through pipes and forced through nozzles to create artificial spray in the Upper Gorge Wetland. Several thousand individuals have been sent to the Bronx Zoo in the United States for a captive breeding program to ensure survival of the species in the event of habitat loss at Kihansi. Test environmental flow releases of 6–14 m3s-1 were planned and implemented to test ecosystem responses. The final test release was carried out in May 2004; a month later, the population of the spray toad was found to have collapsed. Detailed investigations by leading scientists into the causes of this collapse has suggested that the most likely cause may have been the Chytrid Fungus, a fungus known to have caused serious crashes elsewhere in the world. The Final Water Right for the LKHP was granted last year and it stipulates a minimum release of 1.5-2.0 m3s-1 coupled with artificial spray.

The Kihansi River basin presents a contrasting case study to the Ruaha. There are only two water users, the hydropower company and the gorge ecosystem. From this perspective, the water allocation issue is both simple and highly complex. The major problem is that the Kihansi power station provides a significant proportion (nearly 25 percent) of the total electricity needs of Tanzania, and any reduction in power output has far-reaching implications for economic development and the profitability of TANESCO. With the high level of poverty within Tanzania, one might ask whether conservation of a minute toad in an inaccessible gorge can be afforded. While the global conservation movement has demonstrated a high internal value for rare species, it is not evident how Tanzania can appropriate this value to offset internal economic losses. Clearly the Government of Tanzania, in signing the Convention on Biological Diversity and developing its new water policy, recognizes the importance of conserving ecosystems, whose value cannot be measured merely in financial terms. Putting the principle into

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practice, however, remains a serious challenge, as noted in the Kihansi case, since our knowledge about fragile ecosystems remains inadequate. As noted from the restoration efforts made under the LKEMP, the spray toad population collapsed. This is probably a direct result of various factors: an already stressed ecosystem, and fungus very likely introduced by either the spray system engineers or maintenance crew or scientists working in what was previously an inaccessible gorge.

Draft program of action: A ten-point plan

The following 10-point plan includes a wide range of activities required to build a long-term sustainable program in Tanzania that supports institutionalization of EFA into water resources planning and management decision making. Some activities are large and will take several years; others are small and can be implemented rapidly. These activities are very broadly in the chronological order in which they would be undertaken, though some may overlap or be done in parallel. The 10-point plan is a recommendation; an implementing agency and implementation cost estimates and sources of funding have not yet been developed or agreed. Furthermore, as the institutional, legal, and political environment of Tanzania develops, the activities in the plan may become more or less relevant.

1. Training course – “getting experience of EF frameworks and methods”

The aim of the training courses would be to introduce the EF assessment concepts, frameworks, procedures, and methods that are available around the world, and their data needs. Such a training course would create awareness rather than the immediate ability to undertake EF assessments. This latter would take time, and ideally involve technical support by experienced users of the methods, at least for initial applications. Technical support could be achieved, where appropriate, through a network of mentors (see Point 8 below). Future training courses could be run by a Tanzanian expert network (see Point 8).

The first week-long training course was run in Mbeya in September 2003 (Acreman et al., 2003). It was supported by the World Bank and IUCN-The World Conservation Union.

2. Defining an assessment framework - “turning policy into action”

Implementation of the new National Water Policy for Tanzania, recently approved by the government, requires development of an appropriate assessment framework that links with the environmental impact assessment process and the water allocation framework in the context of a poverty reduction strategy. Such a framework could include classification of Tanzanian rivers, or parts of rivers, according to management objectives, each associated with a desired ecosystem status, ranging from pristine (natural) to acceptance of significant degradation. The EF needed to meet these management objectives is then assessed. This would require monitoring of indicators to determine if a given status had been achieved. In contrast, no objective may be set and the EF becomes the result of a negotiated settlement between water users based on predictions of

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ecological status for given flow scenarios. Before a decision can be made, the implications of achieving a given ecological status are required, such as the investment costs in trying to mitigate the impact of upstream abstractions on downstream use values.

It is proposed that the definition of an assessment framework is initiated at a two-day workshop attended by specialists from government departments, agencies, nongovernmental organizations (representing local communities), and universities. The objective of Day 1 would be to examine the appropriateness of existing frameworks from other countries to the Tanzania situation. For example, presentations could be made on the framework in South Africa. The objective of Day 2 would be to develop a framework for Tanzania. These working group sessions would be facilitated by BNWPP EF Window team members.

3. Trial application of EF methods – “practicing what we’ve learned”

This activity has two objectives: (1) to build capacity in undertaking EF assessments; and (2) to provide results from a rapid EF assessment for water managers in the catchment.

There are many EF methods, and the best way to understand the different kinds, including what data they need, how much they cost, how long they take, and what their results can be used for is to take part in a test application. A single case study in a high-conflict area could be chosen through discussion in the training course (Activity 1) or workshop (Activity 2), which would illustrate many of these points. A restricted number of people (perhaps 20), including key specialists from each relevant discipline, would take part in the activity. The trial application is likely to last over a period of one year, though not on a continual full-time basis. A long-term data collection program could be established if necessary.

4. Visits to foreign case studies – “seeing what others have done”

Reading reports of EF assessments on river basins around the world provides valuable information about the practicalities of the EF process, the methods used and their data needs. However, actually visiting such river basins and discussing relevant issues with scientists, water managers, and stakeholders provides a level of insight and understanding that cannot be achieved through the written word.

5. Technical workshop/symposium - “discussing our techniques”

The objective of this workshop is to provide a forum for presentation and discussion of the developing expertise. Presentations would be made by Tanzanian experts who have attended the training course and/or have been involved in the trial application, on particular topics such as hydrology and fish biology. Each presentation could use existing data on relevant aquatic ecosystems and, where possible, employ analysis methods learned during the training course and trial application. For example, a Tanzanian hydrologist could analyze river flow time series, using a simple EF tool such as Richter’s (1997) hydrological indices. This could be compared with “conventional”

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hydrological analysis. The workshop could also include some working group sessions to develop particular topics such as integrating research from different disciplines. Publications from the workshop could define the state of the art of EF assessment in Tanzania.

6. Technical support – “checking what’s been done”

Currently technical expertise on environmental flows in Tanzania is lacking. Experience will be attained by Tanzanians as EF assessment studies are undertaken. Initially, Tanzanian staff will need to work with external experts to provide them with support in terms of independent reviews of terms of reference for technical studies and reviewing reports of studies (for example, integrated hydrological, ecological, and sociological studies). Particular examples could be to review the forthcoming study on alternative water sources for Ruaha National Park.

7. National database – “assembling a library of knowledge”

Scientists, practitioners, managers, and all stakeholders need supporting written material in their work. There are many examples of environmental flow methods and assessments around the world that can provide valuable insights into decision-making frameworks, the application of methods, collection of data, and other issues. There is a need for a Tanzanian library of reports with free access that contains manuals and papers bringing together the global knowledge of EF, plus a database of the location of additional information such as data holdings. A first step will be to identify a suitable host institutional home, such as the library of the National Environment Management Council and/or Ministry of Water and Livestock Development.

8. Networking – “sharing experience”

Environmental flow assessment is a multidisciplinary activity. A key activity is establishment and coordination of a network of the various experts, so that they can work together and understand each others’ perspectives and ways of working. The network will need a coordinator or champion who will be proactive in ensuring interaction between members, can run workshops and assemble teams of experts to tackle EF assessments. The coordinator will need to come from an institution that is willing and able to support the work of this champion. One possible structure is to identify a mentor for each disciplinary area, who can provide technical support to the Tanzanian champion. A particular task of the network will be to establish an academic team that can provide future training on EF assessment.

9. Research – “improving our understanding”

Methods of EF assessment have been developed in various parts of the world, especially in three regions (Europe/North America; South Africa; Australia/New Zealand). Some of these methods, particularly those from South Africa, will be broadly appropriate for EF assessment in Tanzania. Nevertheless, any methods will need to be customized to the

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Tanzanian situation and appropriate supporting data will need to be collected. To achieve this, the science of EF would have to be given a high priority for research and teaching within universities.

Examples of issues that require research are (a) the role of dams in providing storage of wet-season flows for use during the dry season for irrigation and support of environmental flows; (b) the role of groundwater as an alternative source for rural poor on the floodplain of the Great Ruaha River and for supporting EF in the Ruaha National Park; (c) the role of floods in sediment transport and landscape evolution, and (d) flow-related habitat requirements of important plant and animal species.

10. Communications strategy – “spreading the word”

A vital step in establishing an EF programme is to ensure that everyone understands what environment flows are and how they could help promote sustainable use of water resources in Tanzania. The target audience for awareness-building is wide and includes all relevant sectors such as politicians, lawyers, and other scientists. However, the primary target would be the general public. The products required vary according to the particular target but could include brochures, newspaper articles, TV interviews, and scientific papers. The first step in this process is to develop an effective communications strategy.

ConclusionsThe Government of Tanzania has taken a major step in integrated water resources management by developing a water policy that gives high priority to allocation of water to maintain ecosystems. To implement this policy requires a range of activities, including development of legal instruments, institutional structures, and technical capacity. Some experience can be transferred from other countries, such as South Africa, which implemented similar policies. However, to some extent each country is unique in terms of its people, political structure, hydrology, and ecology. Implementing environmental flows in Tanzania will thus require particular approaches appropriate to the country. The ten-point plan provides a framework for the next few years of action.

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