1

Cells and HeredityCells and Heredity

““The Building Blocks of The Building Blocks of

LifeLife””

What is What is ““Life?Life?””

Characteristics that all living Characteristics that all living

things possessthings possess…………..

6 Characteristics of Life6 Characteristics of Life

�� Compare the Compare the

following following

photos. What photos. What

characteristics characteristics

do they do they

exhibit?exhibit?

1. All organisms must be 1. All organisms must be

composed of one or more Cellscomposed of one or more Cells

�� Different types of Different types of

cells have different cells have different

"jobs" within the "jobs" within the

organism organism

�� They can be as simple They can be as simple

as one cell as one cell

(paramecium) or as (paramecium) or as

complex as an complex as an

elephantelephant

2. Living things have levels of 2. Living things have levels of

organizationorganization

�� Living things range Living things range

from the very simple from the very simple

to the very complexto the very complex

�� Cells, Tissues, Cells, Tissues,

Organs, Organ Organs, Organ

Systems, OrganismSystems, Organism

3. All living things use Energy3. All living things use Energy

�� All organisms use energy to surviveAll organisms use energy to survive

�� Plants (autotrophs): sunlight to make Plants (autotrophs): sunlight to make

energyenergy

�� Animals (heterotrophs): eat other plants Animals (heterotrophs): eat other plants

and animals to get energyand animals to get energy

2

4. Homeostasis4. Homeostasis

�� The maintenance of stable internal The maintenance of stable internal

conditionsconditions

�� All organisms have stable internal All organisms have stable internal

conditions which must be maintained in conditions which must be maintained in

order to remain alive. order to remain alive.

�� Example: 98.6 degree temperatureExample: 98.6 degree temperature

�� Maintained by sweating or shiveringMaintained by sweating or shivering

5. Growth5. Growth

�� All organisms grow All organisms grow

and changeand change

�� Cells divide to form Cells divide to form

new identical cellsnew identical cells

�� Ex: an infant Ex: an infant

growing into an growing into an

adultadult

6. Reproduction6. Reproduction

�� All organisms reproduce All organisms reproduce in order to continue the in order to continue the species' existence. species' existence.

�� New offspring are New offspring are produced from the produced from the genetic material passed genetic material passed from the parentfrom the parent

�� Reproduction may be Reproduction may be either sexual or asexualeither sexual or asexual

Sexual ReproductionSexual Reproduction

�� Involves the uniting of egg and spermInvolves the uniting of egg and sperm

�� Allows for genetic variation Allows for genetic variation

�� Egg:Egg: Female sex cell; half the genetic material Female sex cell; half the genetic material necessary for an offspring necessary for an offspring

�� Sperm:Sperm: Male sex cell; half the genetic material Male sex cell; half the genetic material necessary for and offspring necessary for and offspring

�� Ex: Ex: Humans: 46 chromosomes are necessary for Humans: 46 chromosomes are necessary for the creation of a humanthe creation of a human�� Egg: 23 chromosomesEgg: 23 chromosomes

�� Sperm: 23 chromosomesSperm: 23 chromosomes

Asexual ReproductionAsexual Reproduction

�� A process where an organism creates a A process where an organism creates a geneticallygenetically--similar or identical copy of similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual material from another individual

�� Common in lower level (singleCommon in lower level (single--cell) cell) organismsorganisms

�� Individual cells grow and split to form two Individual cells grow and split to form two identical daughter cellsidentical daughter cells

�� DOES NOT allow for genetic variationDOES NOT allow for genetic variation

What is means to be What is means to be ““ALIVEALIVE””

�� All LIVING THINGS require:All LIVING THINGS require:

��Energy:Energy:

��Nutrients to carry on life functionsNutrients to carry on life functions

��Space:Space:

��A place for living things to thrive and A place for living things to thrive and

make a livingmake a living

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Classification of LifeClassification of Life

�� Classification of life is based on similarities Classification of life is based on similarities

and difference between organismsand difference between organisms

�� Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial or Carl Linnaeus introduced the binomial or

22--name classification system in the late name classification system in the late

17001700’’ss

�� Genus species systemGenus species system

�� Example: Homo sapiens Example: Homo sapiens -- humanshumans

Classification of LifeClassification of Life

�� Kingdom Kingdom –– Phylum Phylum –– Class Class –– Order Order –– Family Family ––Genus Genus –– SpeciesSpecies

�� Kingdom is the most general classification of Kingdom is the most general classification of organism they are similar most similar in organism they are similar most similar in appearance and behavior appearance and behavior -- there are 5:there are 5:�� 1. Monera 1. Monera –– bacteriabacteria

�� 2. Protista 2. Protista -- amoebaamoeba�� 3. Fungi 3. Fungi -- mushroommushroom

�� 4. Plantae 4. Plantae -- grassgrass

�� 5. Animalia 5. Animalia -- monkeymonkey�� Monera is the least complex organisms Monera is the least complex organisms

�� Animalia is the most complex organismsAnimalia is the most complex organisms

Classification of LifeClassification of Life

�� Species is the most specific classification Species is the most specific classification

of organismof organism

�� Organisms of the same species can Organisms of the same species can

reproduce and produce fertile offspringreproduce and produce fertile offspring

�� Ex: Poodle and a cocker spanielEx: Poodle and a cocker spaniel�� CockaCocka--poopoo is the resultis the result

Classification of HumansClassification of Humans

�� Kingdom Kingdom –– AnimaliaAnimalia

�� Phylum Phylum –– Chordata vertebrataChordata vertebrata

�� Class Class –– MammaliaMammalia

�� Order Order –– PrimatesPrimates

�� Family Family –– HominidaeHominidae

�� Genus Genus –– HomoHomo

�� Species Species -- SapiensSapiens

The CellThe Cell

�� All Living Things Are All Living Things Are

Made Up of CellsMade Up of Cells

CellsCells

�� Often called, Often called, ““BASIC BASIC

UNIT OF LIFEUNIT OF LIFE””

�� The basic units of The basic units of

structure and function structure and function

in all living thingsin all living things

�� Cells make up living Cells make up living

things just as bricks things just as bricks

make up buildingsmake up buildings

Animal Cells

Plant Cells

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CellsCells--A Brief HistoryA Brief History

�� Prior to the 1500Prior to the 1500’’s, no s, no

one knew cells one knew cells

existedexisted

�� The Breakthrough:The Breakthrough:

�� The development of The development of

the Microscope around the Microscope around 1590 made it possible 1590 made it possible

for people to discover for people to discover

and study cellsand study cells

The compound MicroscopeThe compound Microscope

�� A more complex and A more complex and

powerful microscopepowerful microscope

�� A scope with more A scope with more

than one lensthan one lens

�� Allowed for viewing of Allowed for viewing of

even smaller cellseven smaller cells

Robert Hooke Robert Hooke

�� English Scientist/InventorEnglish Scientist/Inventor

�� In 1663, was one of the In 1663, was one of the first to observe cells with first to observe cells with a homea home--build microscopebuild microscope

�� Studies Cork from the Studies Cork from the cork oak treecork oak tree

�� Saw what looked like tiny Saw what looked like tiny rectangular rooms (prison rectangular rooms (prison cells)cells)

�� He named them He named them ““CellsCells””

�� Was amazed at Was amazed at ““How How ManyMany”” cells were therecells were there

Anton van LeeuwenhoekAnton van Leeuwenhoek

(LAY (LAY vunvun hook)hook)

�� A Dutch businessman and A Dutch businessman and

amateur scientistamateur scientist

�� Build his own microscopeBuild his own microscope

�� Looked at pond water and Looked at pond water and

was the first to describe was the first to describe

what he called what he called ““animalculesanimalcules””

or or ““tiny animalstiny animals””

�� These tiny These tiny ““animalculesanimalcules””

were singlewere single--celled celled

organisms called BACTERIAorganisms called BACTERIA

MatthaisMatthais SchleidenSchleiden (SHLY dun)(SHLY dun)

�� German Scientist in German Scientist in

1838 who concluded 1838 who concluded

that all plants were that all plants were

made of cellsmade of cells

�� Based his conclusion Based his conclusion

on his own research on his own research

and that of othersand that of others

TheodorTheodor SchwannSchwann

�� German science who German science who

concluded in 1839 that all concluded in 1839 that all animals were made up of animals were made up of

cells.cells.

�� Knowing of Knowing of SchleidenSchleiden’’sswork, he therefore work, he therefore

concluded that, concluded that, ““ALL ALL

LIVING THINGS ARE LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF CELLSMADE UP OF CELLS””

�� Problem: still didnProblem: still didn’’t know t know where cells came fromwhere cells came from

5

Rudolf Rudolf VirchowVirchow (FUR (FUR kohkoh))

�� A German doctor who A German doctor who

in 1855 proposed that in 1855 proposed that

new cells are formed new cells are formed

only from existing only from existing

cells.cells.

�� ““All cells come from All cells come from

Cells,Cells,”” wrote wrote VirchowVirchow

The Cell TheoryThe Cell Theory

�� The work of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, The work of Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, SchleidenSchleiden, ,

SchwannSchwann, , VirchowVirchow, others lead to the cell theory, others lead to the cell theory

�� A widely accepted explanation of the relationship A widely accepted explanation of the relationship

between cells and living thingsbetween cells and living things

�� Cell theory states:Cell theory states:

�� All living things are composed of cellsAll living things are composed of cells

�� Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living thingsliving things

�� All cells are produced from other cellsAll cells are produced from other cells

The compound light microscopeThe compound light microscope

�� A powerful tool for scientistsA powerful tool for scientists

�� Uses lenses to magnify (enlarge) very tiny Uses lenses to magnify (enlarge) very tiny objectsobjects--cellscells

�� The lenses magnify an object by bending The lenses magnify an object by bending the light that passes through themthe light that passes through them

�� The magnification is found by:The magnification is found by:�� Eyepiece X objective = magnificationEyepiece X objective = magnification

�� Ex: 10x eyepiece X 20x objective = Ex: 10x eyepiece X 20x objective =

200x magnification200x magnification

ResolutionResolution

�� The ability of a The ability of a

microscope to clearly microscope to clearly

distinguish the distinguish the

individual parts of an individual parts of an

objectobject

�� The higher the The higher the

resolution, the better resolution, the better

the image qualitythe image quality

Low Resolution

High Resolution

Electron MicroscopesElectron Microscopes

�� Scopes that use a Scopes that use a

beam of electrons beam of electrons

instead of light, to instead of light, to

examine specimensexamine specimens

�� Since electrons are so Since electrons are so

small, they produce small, they produce

extremely high quality extremely high quality

or high resolution or high resolution

imagesimages

Coral sperm-20,000x

Looking inside cellsLooking inside cells

�� OrganellesOrganelles

�� Tiny structures inside cells which carry on Tiny structures inside cells which carry on

necessary life functionsnecessary life functions

�� These structures are similar in both plant These structures are similar in both plant

and animal cellsand animal cells

�� HOWEVER, plant cells have a cell well and HOWEVER, plant cells have a cell well and chloroplasts, animal cells DO NOTchloroplasts, animal cells DO NOT

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The Plant CellThe Plant Cell Cell WallCell Wall

�� Thick, nonliving, Thick, nonliving,

material which material which

surrounds the cells of surrounds the cells of

plantsplants

�� Made us cellulose, a Made us cellulose, a

tough flexible materialtough flexible material

�� Provides structure, Provides structure,

and protection for the and protection for the

plantplant

ChloroplastsChloroplasts

�� Large green Large green

structures in the structures in the

cytoplasm of plant cytoplasm of plant

cellscells

�� Capture energy from Capture energy from

the sun and use it to the sun and use it to

produce food for the produce food for the

cell (plant)cell (plant)

�� Chloroplasts are what Chloroplasts are what

give plants their give plants their

green colorgreen color

The Animal CellThe Animal Cell

Cell MembraneCell Membrane

�� Located inside the cell Located inside the cell

well in plant cellswell in plant cells

�� Forms the outside of Forms the outside of

animal cellsanimal cells

�� Separates the cell Separates the cell

from its environmentfrom its environment

�� Has tiny openings or Has tiny openings or

pores which control pores which control

what goes into and what goes into and

out of the cellout of the cell

NucleusNucleus

�� Large oval structure, Large oval structure,

or the or the ““BrainBrain”” of the of the

cellcell

�� The The ““control centercontrol center””

of the cellof the cell

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Nuclear MembraneNuclear Membrane

�� Separates the nucleus Separates the nucleus

from the surrounding from the surrounding

cytoplasmcytoplasm

�� Protects the nucleus Protects the nucleus

�� Allows materials to Allows materials to

pass into and out of pass into and out of

the nucleus through the nucleus through

small poressmall pores

ChromatinChromatin

�� The strands of The strands of

genetic material genetic material

which float within the which float within the

nucleusnucleus

�� Directs the function of Directs the function of

the cellthe cell

�� Chromatin is the Chromatin is the

necessary genetic necessary genetic

material which allows material which allows

the nucleus to the nucleus to ““knowknow””

how to direct the cellhow to direct the cell

NucleolusNucleolus

�� Small round object Small round object

within the nucleuswithin the nucleus

�� Responsible for the Responsible for the

production of production of

ribosomes ribosomes –– organelle organelle

where proteins are where proteins are

mademade

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm -- not really an organellenot really an organelle

�� The region between the cell membrane The region between the cell membrane and the nucleusand the nucleus

�� Clear, thick, gelClear, thick, gel--like fluidlike fluid

�� Constantly movingConstantly moving

�� Houses more organelles which are Houses more organelles which are responsible for:responsible for:�� Energy production, building and transport of Energy production, building and transport of

needed materials, storing, and recycling of needed materials, storing, and recycling of wasteswastes

MitochondriaMitochondria

�� Rod shaped Rod shaped

structuresstructures

�� The The ““PowerhousePowerhouse”” of of

the cellthe cell

�� Produces energy the Produces energy the

cell needs to carry out cell needs to carry out

its normal functionsits normal functions

�� Muscle cells have Muscle cells have

large numbers of large numbers of

mitochondriamitochondria

Endoplasmic ReticulumEndoplasmic Reticulum

�� A maze of A maze of

passageways which passageways which

carry proteins and carry proteins and

other materials from other materials from

one part of the cell to one part of the cell to

anotheranother

�� Rough endoplasmic Rough endoplasmic

reticulum has the reticulum has the

ribosomes attachedribosomes attached

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RibosomesRibosomes

�� Small grainSmall grain--like like

bodies attached to bodies attached to

the endoplasmic the endoplasmic

reticulumreticulum

�� Protein factoriesProtein factories

�� They release some of They release some of

those proteins into those proteins into

the endoplasmic the endoplasmic

reticulum where they reticulum where they

are transported to the are transported to the

Golgi bodiesGolgi bodies

Golgi Bodies (apparatus)Golgi Bodies (apparatus)

�� Flattened collection of Flattened collection of

sacs and tubessacs and tubes

�� The cellThe cell’’s s ““mail roommail room””

�� They receive proteins They receive proteins

and other newly and other newly

formed materials, formed materials,

package them, and package them, and

distribute them to distribute them to

other part of the cellother part of the cell

VacuoleVacuole�� Large, round, waterLarge, round, water--

filled sacs floating in filled sacs floating in

the cytoplasmthe cytoplasm

�� Storage areas of the Storage areas of the

cellcell

�� One large one in plant One large one in plant

cells; small or totally cells; small or totally

absent in animal cellsabsent in animal cells

�� Store food and waste Store food and waste

producesproduces

�� Help cells hold their Help cells hold their

shape when fullshape when full

LysosomesLysosomes

�� Small, round, Small, round, structures which structures which contain chemicals that contain chemicals that break down large break down large food particles into food particles into smaller onessmaller ones

�� Recycle old cell partsRecycle old cell parts--cleanup crewcleanup crew

�� More common in More common in animal cells than in animal cells than in plantsplants

Bacterial CellsBacterial Cells

�� Smaller than plant of Smaller than plant of

animal cellsanimal cells

�� Have both a cell wall Have both a cell wall

(like plants) and a cell (like plants) and a cell

membranemembrane

�� DO NOT HAVE A DO NOT HAVE A NUCLEUS!!!NUCLEUS!!!

�� Genetic material is a Genetic material is a

thick, tangled string thick, tangled string

found in the found in the

cytoplasmcytoplasm

�� Contain Contain ribosomesribosomesbut but NO OTHER NO OTHER

ORGANELLESORGANELLES

Specialized CellsSpecialized Cells

�� Found in many forms Found in many forms

in plants and animalsin plants and animals

�� Structure of each type Structure of each type

of cell serves a of cell serves a

specific purposespecific purpose

�� Examples:Examples:�� Skin, smooth muscle, Skin, smooth muscle,

cardiac muscle, nerve cardiac muscle, nerve

cellscells

�� Root cells, liver cells, Root cells, liver cells,

stem, leaves, etc. stem, leaves, etc.

9

Chemical Chemical

Compounds in CellsCompounds in Cells

Materials Necessary to Materials Necessary to

sustain lifesustain life

Elements and CompoundsElements and Compounds

�� Element:Element:�� Any substance that cannot be broken down Any substance that cannot be broken down

into simpler substancesinto simpler substances

�� Atom:Atom:�� The smallest unit of an elementThe smallest unit of an element

�� Compound:Compound:�� 2 or more elements chemically combined2 or more elements chemically combined

�� Molecule:Molecule:�� The smallest unit of a compoundThe smallest unit of a compound

Organic Vs. Inorganic CompoundsOrganic Vs. Inorganic Compounds

�� ORGANIC ORGANIC

COMPOUNDSCOMPOUNDS

�� Contain CarbonContain Carbon

�� CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

�� LipidsLipids

�� ProteinsProteins

�� Nucleic acidsNucleic acids

�� All of these are All of these are

necessary to necessary to

sustain lifesustain life

�� INORGANIC INORGANIC

COMPOUNDSCOMPOUNDS

�� Most do not contain Most do not contain

carboncarbon

�� Carbon Dioxide is the Carbon Dioxide is the

one exceptionone exception

�� WaterWater

�� Sodium chlorideSodium chloride

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

�� EnergyEnergy--rich organic rich organic

compoundcompound

�� Made of carbon, Made of carbon,

hydrogen, and hydrogen, and

oxygenoxygen

�� Examples: sugar, Examples: sugar,

starchstarch

ProteinProtein

�� Large organic moleculesLarge organic molecules

�� Made of carbon, hydrogen, Made of carbon, hydrogen,

oxygen, nitrogen oxygen, nitrogen

(sometimes sulfur)(sometimes sulfur)

�� Made up of smaller Made up of smaller

molecules called : molecules called : amino amino

acidsacids

�� Ex: Meat, eggs, fish, nuts, Ex: Meat, eggs, fish, nuts,

beansbeans

�� ““construction moleculesconstruction molecules””

�� Make up cell membranes, Make up cell membranes, organelles, hair, etc.organelles, hair, etc.

EnzymesEnzymes

�� Type of protein that speeds up a chemical Type of protein that speeds up a chemical

reaction in living thingsreaction in living things

�� Ex: Ex: amylaseamylase in saliva begins to change starch in saliva begins to change starch

into sugar in the mouthinto sugar in the mouth

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LipidsLipids�� Fats, oils, and waxesFats, oils, and waxes

�� High energy organic High energy organic

compounds stored in compounds stored in

cells as fatcells as fat

�� Even more energy Even more energy

than carbohydratesthan carbohydrates

�� Example: CholesterolExample: Cholesterol

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

�� Very large organic molecules in the Very large organic molecules in the

nucleusnucleus

�� Made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, Made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,

nitrogen, and phosphorusnitrogen, and phosphorus

�� Contain the necessary information cells Contain the necessary information cells

need to carry out all the functions of the need to carry out all the functions of the

cellcell

DNADNA

�� DDeoxyriboeoxyribonnucleic ucleic aacidcid

�� Genetic materialGenetic material

�� Carries information Carries information that is passed from that is passed from parent to offspringparent to offspring

�� Directs all functions of Directs all functions of the cellthe cell

�� Found in the Found in the chromatinchromatin in the in the nucleusnucleus

�� The The ““Double HelixDouble Helix””

RNARNA

�� RRiboibonnucleic ucleic aacidcid

�� Directs the Directs the

production of production of

proteinsproteins

�� Found in the Found in the

cytoplasm as well cytoplasm as well

as in the nucleus of as in the nucleus of

cellscells

Water and Living ThingsWater and Living Things

�� Water is required for Water is required for most chemical reactions most chemical reactions within cellswithin cells

�� ““NO WATER Means NO NO WATER Means NO LIFELIFE””

�� Helps cells keep their Helps cells keep their shapeshape

�� Helps maintain cell Helps maintain cell temperaturetemperature

�� Helps with material Helps with material transport into and out of transport into and out of cellscells

Cells and The Cells and The

EnvironmentEnvironment

Diffusion, Osmosis, & Diffusion, Osmosis, &

TransportTransport

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HomeostasisHomeostasis

�� The maintenance of constant internal The maintenance of constant internal

conditions conditions

�� This process is essential for organisms to This process is essential for organisms to

survivesurvive

�� Accomplished through:Accomplished through:�� Cell membraneCell membrane

�� DiffusionDiffusion

�� OsmosisOsmosis

�� TransportTransport

Cell MembraneCell Membrane--““The GatekeeperThe Gatekeeper””

�� Selective Permeability:Selective Permeability:

�� Property of the cell wellProperty of the cell well

�� Allowing only some Allowing only some

substances to pass through substances to pass through

itit

�� Ex: water, oxygen, carbon Ex: water, oxygen, carbon

dioxidedioxide

�� Like the gatekeeper of a Like the gatekeeper of a

castlecastle--only lets the only lets the

““friendlysfriendlys”” in or outin or out

Diffusion Diffusion

�� Process where Process where

molecules tend to molecules tend to

move from areas of move from areas of

high concentration to high concentration to

low concentrationlow concentration

�� WHY?, you may askWHY?, you may ask……..

�� Molecules are always Molecules are always moving and bumpingmoving and bumping

�� As they bump they move As they bump they move

further and further apart; further and further apart; spreading out evenlyspreading out evenly

Diffusion in CellsDiffusion in Cells

�� Organisms/cells require nutrients from Organisms/cells require nutrients from their environmenttheir environment

�� Ex: Oxygen from pond waterEx: Oxygen from pond water

�� The O is in The O is in high concentration in the waterhigh concentration in the waterand in and in low concentration with a singlelow concentration with a single--cell cell organismorganism

�� DiffusionDiffusion moves the O from the pond moves the O from the pond water across the cell membrane into the water across the cell membrane into the cellcell

Osmosis:Osmosis: diffusion of water diffusion of water

moleculesmolecules�� OSMOSIS:OSMOSIS:

�� Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively Diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membranepermeable membrane

�� Ex: Plant CellsEx: Plant Cells--leavesleaves�� A normal leaf is stiff and smoothA normal leaf is stiff and smooth

�� As the soil dries up, the plant will wilt; thus osmosis As the soil dries up, the plant will wilt; thus osmosis removes water from the cells since the concentration removes water from the cells since the concentration is greater inside the cellsis greater inside the cells

�� As the soil becomes moist, the plant recovers; As the soil becomes moist, the plant recovers; osmosis returns water to the cells since the osmosis returns water to the cells since the concentration is greater outside the cellsconcentration is greater outside the cells

Passive TransportPassive Transport

�� The movement of The movement of

materials through cell materials through cell

membranes membranes

WITHOUT the use of WITHOUT the use of

energyenergy

�� Ex: osmosis, diffusionEx: osmosis, diffusion

�� Material move from Material move from High concentration to High concentration to Low concentrationLow concentration

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Active TransportActive Transport�� The use of energy to The use of energy to

move materials move materials

through a cell through a cell

membranemembrane

�� This forces materials This forces materials

against a against a

concentration concentration

gradientgradient; ; from low from low concentration to high concentration to high concentrationconcentration

�� This is the opposite of This is the opposite of diffusion!diffusion!

Cell Processes and Cell Processes and

EnergyEnergy

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

�� The process where a cell The process where a cell

captures sunlight and uses captures sunlight and uses

it to make its own foodit to make its own food

�� ““photophoto””--means means ““lightlight””

�� ““synthesissynthesis””--means means ““to put to put

togethertogether””

�� Converting Carbon dioxide Converting Carbon dioxide and water into sugars and water into sugars (glucose) and oxygen(glucose) and oxygen

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis--2 step process2 step process

�� Step #1: Step #1:

�� Capture sunlightCapture sunlight�� Chloroplasts (organelles in Chloroplasts (organelles in

the cell) the cell)

�� ChlorophyllChlorophyll: green : green

pigments in the pigments in the

chloroplasts absorb chloroplasts absorb

sunlightsunlight

�� Act as Act as ““solar cellssolar cells””; just ; just

like a solar powered like a solar powered

calculator calculator

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis--2 step process2 step process

�� Step #2:Step #2:

�� Using sunlight to make foodUsing sunlight to make food��Roots absorb water that moves up to the leavesRoots absorb water that moves up to the leaves

�� Leaves absorb carbon dioxide through openings Leaves absorb carbon dioxide through openings

called called STOMATASTOMATA

��Water and carbon dioxide move into the Water and carbon dioxide move into the chloroplasts in the leaveschloroplasts in the leaves

�� Sunlight (chlorophyll), water, and carbon dioxide Sunlight (chlorophyll), water, and carbon dioxide go through complex chemical reactionsgo through complex chemical reactions

��Products:Products: oxygen gas, sugars (including glucose)oxygen gas, sugars (including glucose)

��Glucose (CGlucose (C66HH1212OO66) and other sugars now power ) and other sugars now power

other cell processesother cell processes

Photosynthesis Photosynthesis

EquationEquation

6 CO6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22O CO C66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22

6 Carbon Dioxides

6 waters 1 glucose (sugar)

6 oxygens

In the presence

of light energy

13

Autotroph Vs. HeterotrophAutotroph Vs. Heterotroph

�� AutotrophAutotroph�� An organism that An organism that can can

makemake its own foodits own food

�� Uses sunlight, water, Uses sunlight, water,

carbon dioxide, or carbon dioxide, or

other materials to other materials to create its foodcreate its food

�� HeterotrophHeterotroph�� An organism An organism which which

cannot makecannot make its own its own foodfood

�� Must consume (EAT) Must consume (EAT)

autotrophs or other autotrophs or other heterotrophsheterotrophs

Photosynthesis and LifePhotosynthesis and Life

�� Nearly all living things obtain energy Nearly all living things obtain energy

either directly or indirectly from the suneither directly or indirectly from the sun

�� This means; photosynthesis is the This means; photosynthesis is the

process which powers much of the life on process which powers much of the life on

EarthEarth

Cell Processes and Cell Processes and

EnergyEnergy

Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

�� Breaking down of Breaking down of

simple molecules simple molecules

(glucose) to (glucose) to

release energyrelease energy

�� Happens in the Happens in the

cells at the cells at the

mitochondriamitochondria

Respiration Respiration

EquationEquation

CC66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22 6 CO6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22O + EnergyO + EnergyGlucose 6 Oxygen 6 Carbon

Dioxide6 Water Molecules

2 Stages of Respiration2 Stages of Respiration

�� Stage #1:Stage #1:

�� Takes place in cytoplasm of the cellTakes place in cytoplasm of the cell

�� Glucose molecules are broken down into Glucose molecules are broken down into

smaller moleculessmaller molecules

�� NO Oxygen is used hereNO Oxygen is used here

�� Little energy from glucose is releasedLittle energy from glucose is released

14

2 Stages of Respiration2 Stages of Respiration

�� Stage #2:Stage #2:�� Takes place in mitochondriaTakes place in mitochondria

�� Small molecules from stage #1 are broken down into Small molecules from stage #1 are broken down into even smaller moleculeseven smaller molecules

�� Oxygen is requiredOxygen is required

�� These reactions release a great deal of energyThese reactions release a great deal of energy

�� This is why mitochondria are the This is why mitochondria are the ““powerhousespowerhouses”” of of the cellthe cell

�� Small sugar molecules and oxygen go into the Small sugar molecules and oxygen go into the mitochondriamitochondria

�� Energy, Carbon dioxide, and water come outEnergy, Carbon dioxide, and water come out

Photosynthesis Vs. RespirationPhotosynthesis Vs. Respiration

�� Photosynthesis:Photosynthesis:

�� Uses carbon dioxide Uses carbon dioxide

and waterand water

�� Produces oxygen and Produces oxygen and

sugarssugars

�� Respiration:Respiration:

�� Uses glucose (sugars) Uses glucose (sugars)

and oxygenand oxygen

�� Produces carbon Produces carbon

dioxide and waterdioxide and water

Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and

Respiration can be Respiration can be Respiration can be Respiration can be

considered considered considered considered

opposites of one opposites of one opposites of one opposites of one

another!another!another!another!

Photosynthesis and Photosynthesis and

RespirationRespiration

Yes!!!!You need to DRAW and LABEL this

diagram!!

FermentationFermentation

�� The production of The production of

energy without the energy without the

use of oxygenuse of oxygen

�� Not as efficient at Not as efficient at

respirationrespiration

�� Most common in Most common in

singlesingle--celled celled

organismsorganisms

�� EX: YeastEX: Yeast

Alcoholic FermentationAlcoholic Fermentation

�� This is what puts the This is what puts the

fizz in alcoholic fizz in alcoholic

beveragesbeverages

�� Yeast consumes sugar Yeast consumes sugar

and produces carbon and produces carbon

dioxide and a small dioxide and a small

amount of energyamount of energy

LacticLactic--acid Fermentationacid Fermentation

�� Fermentation which Fermentation which occurs within muscle cellsoccurs within muscle cells

�� When working hard, When working hard, muscles use up oxygen muscles use up oxygen faster than the blood can faster than the blood can provide itprovide it

�� Fermentation releases a Fermentation releases a burst of necessary energy burst of necessary energy leaving lacticleaving lactic--acid behindacid behind

�� This causes muscles to This causes muscles to temporarily feel weak or temporarily feel weak or sore after extensive sore after extensive workoutsworkouts

15

Cells DivisionCells Division

““How old cells produce How old cells produce

new cellsnew cells””

The Cell CycleThe Cell Cycle�� The regular sequence of growth and division that The regular sequence of growth and division that

cells undergocells undergo

�� The length of the cycle depends on the individual The length of the cycle depends on the individual

cellcell

�� Ex; 2 hours in a sea urchin, 22 hours for a human Ex; 2 hours in a sea urchin, 22 hours for a human

liver cellliver cell

�� However; some cells never divide, they remain in However; some cells never divide, they remain in

Interphase for as long as they liveInterphase for as long as they live

�� Ex. Human brain cellsEx. Human brain cells--this is why brain damage is this is why brain damage is

such a serious concern for humanssuch a serious concern for humans

MitosisMitosis

�� The replication of 2 identical daughter The replication of 2 identical daughter

cells from one parent cell cells from one parent cell –– Cell DivisionCell Division

�� The process which produces new body The process which produces new body

cellscells

�� The Process is as follows:The Process is as follows:

�� 1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase1. Interphase 2. Prophase 3. Metaphase

4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis4. Anaphase 5. Telophase 6. Cytokinesis

Mitosis Mitosis –– 1. Interphase1. Interphase

�� cell grows to its cell grows to its

mature sizemature size

�� Centrosomes replicateCentrosomes replicate

�� DNA Replication DNA Replication

occursoccurs

�� The cell makes an The cell makes an

identical copy of its identical copy of its

Chromatin (DNA) to Chromatin (DNA) to

pass on to the pass on to the daughter cellsdaughter cells

Mitosis 2. ProphaseMitosis 2. Prophase

�� Chromatin in nucleus Chromatin in nucleus winds up to form pairs winds up to form pairs of chromosomes of chromosomes connected at a connected at a centromerecentromere

�� Spindle fibers begin to Spindle fibers begin to bridge the ends of the bridge the ends of the cellcell

�� Centrosomes migrate Centrosomes migrate to ends of the cellto ends of the cell

�� Nuclear membrane Nuclear membrane begins to dissolvebegins to dissolve

Mitosis 3. MetaphaseMitosis 3. Metaphase

�� Chromosomes line up Chromosomes line up

along the center line along the center line

of cellof cell

�� Spindle fiber attaches Spindle fiber attaches

to a chromosome at to a chromosome at

its its centromere centromere

(attachment point of (attachment point of

chromosomes) and a chromosomes) and a

Centrosomes at one Centrosomes at one

end of the cellend of the cell

16

Mitosis 4. AnaphaseMitosis 4. Anaphase

�� Centromeres split and Centromeres split and two chromatids two chromatids separateseparate

�� Spindle fibers pull Spindle fibers pull chromatids to chromatids to opposite sides of the opposite sides of the cellcell

�� Cells get stretched Cells get stretched out as chromatids pull out as chromatids pull apartapart

Mitosis 5. TelophaseMitosis 5. Telophase�� Chromosomes begin Chromosomes begin

to stretch out and to stretch out and lose their rodlose their rod--like like shape at ends of the shape at ends of the cellcell

�� Cleavage furrowCleavage furrowdevelopsdevelops

�� New Nuclear New Nuclear membranes form at membranes form at each end of the cell each end of the cell around the around the chromosomeschromosomes

Mitosis 6. CytokinesisMitosis 6. Cytokinesis

�� Cell membrane pinches in Cell membrane pinches in

at cleavage furrowat cleavage furrow

�� Eventually, cell pinches in Eventually, cell pinches in

twotwo

�� Two identical daughter Two identical daughter

cells resultcells result

�� Each has about half the Each has about half the

number of organelles and number of organelles and

cytoplasm as the original cytoplasm as the original

parent cellparent cell

Genetics:Genetics:

The Science of HeredityThe Science of Heredity

GregorGregor MendelMendel

�� The The ““Father of GeneticsFather of Genetics””

�� 18511851

�� Priest at a Central European Priest at a Central European

MonasteryMonastery

�� Worked with pea plants in the Worked with pea plants in the

monastery gardenmonastery garden

�� TRAITS:TRAITS: physical characteristicsphysical characteristics

�� HEREDITY:HEREDITY: passing of traits from passing of traits from

parent to offspringparent to offspring

MendelMendel’’s Peass Peas

�� Mendel notices that pea plants could take Mendel notices that pea plants could take

on different physical appearanceson different physical appearances

�� He purposely He purposely crosscross--pollinatedpollinated different different

forms of the peas and noted what the forms of the peas and noted what the

offspring looked likeoffspring looked like

�� Used the monastery garden to study the Used the monastery garden to study the

inheritance of traits from one generation inheritance of traits from one generation

of plant to the nextof plant to the next

17

PurebredPurebred

�� Organism that always produces offspring Organism that always produces offspring

with the same trait as the parentwith the same trait as the parent

�� Mendel used purebred plants because he Mendel used purebred plants because he

knew which traits the offspring would knew which traits the offspring would

havehave

�� Ex: Purebred Tall pea plants produced Ex: Purebred Tall pea plants produced

purebred tall pea plantspurebred tall pea plants

�� Ex: purebred short plants produced Ex: purebred short plants produced

purebred short pea plantspurebred short pea plants

MendelMendel’’s 1s 1stst ExperimentExperiment

�� Mendel Crossed Mendel Crossed purebred tall plants with purebred tall plants with purebred short plantspurebred short plants

�� Parent plants were the PParent plants were the P--generationgeneration�� T = purebred tall; t = purebred shortT = purebred tall; t = purebred short

�� The offspring were called the The offspring were called the ““FF11”” or or ““first first filial (son) generationfilial (son) generation

�� Mendel found:Mendel found:�� All of the offspring were tallAll of the offspring were tall; even though one ; even though one

parent was shortparent was short

MendelMendel’’s 2s 2ndnd ExperimentExperiment

�� Mendel allowed the FMendel allowed the F11 offspring from offspring from

experiment #1 to selfexperiment #1 to self--pollinate and pollinate and

produce offspringproduce offspring

�� Mendel found:Mendel found:

�� OffspringOffspring--FF22 (second filial):(second filial):

�� 3 out of 4 plants were tall3 out of 4 plants were tall

�� 1 out of 4 plants was short1 out of 4 plants was short

MendelMendel’’s other Testss other Tests

�� Mendel also tested:Mendel also tested:�� Seed shape, seed color, seed coat color, pod Seed shape, seed color, seed coat color, pod

shape, pod color, flower positionshape, pod color, flower position

�� The results were identical to his stem The results were identical to his stem height testsheight tests::�� FF11 Generation: all purebred traitGeneration: all purebred trait

�� FF2 2 Generation: Generation: ¾¾ of offspring were purebred of offspring were purebred traittrait

Dominant and Recessive Dominant and Recessive

AllelesAlleles

�� Genes:Genes: the factors which control traitsthe factors which control traits

�� Alleles:Alleles: the different forms of a genethe different forms of a gene

�� Individual alleles control the inheritance of traitsIndividual alleles control the inheritance of traits

�� Dominant allele:Dominant allele:�� One whose trait always shows up in the organism if One whose trait always shows up in the organism if

the allele is presentthe allele is present

�� Recessive allele:Recessive allele:�� One whose trait is masked or covered up when the One whose trait is masked or covered up when the

dominant allele is presentdominant allele is present

MendelMendel’’s Results:s Results:

ShortShortEndEndYellowYellowPinchedPinchedWhiteWhiteGreenGreenWrinkleWrinkle

dd

Controlled Controlled

by by

Recessive Recessive

AlleleAllele

TallTallSideSideGreenGreenSmoothSmoothGrayGrayYellowYellowRoundRound

Controlled Controlled

by by

Dominant Dominant

AlleleAllele

Stem Stem

HeightHeightFlower Flower

PositionPositionPod Pod

ColorColorPod Pod

ShapeShape

Seed Seed

Coat Coat

ColorColor

Seed Seed

ColorColor

Seed Seed

ShapeShapeTraitsTraits

18

Understanding MendelUnderstanding Mendel’’s s

CrossesCrosses

�� Hybrids:Hybrids:

�� Having two different alleles for the same traitHaving two different alleles for the same trait

�� The Allele for the dominant trait shows up in The Allele for the dominant trait shows up in

the offspringthe offspring

�� MendelMendel’’s Fs F11 Generation:Generation:

�� All tall; all hybrid for the tall trait (All tall; all hybrid for the tall trait (TtTt))

�� MendelMendel’’s Fs F22 Generation:Generation:

�� ¾¾ tall; 3 plants were purebred Tall (TT)tall; 3 plants were purebred Tall (TT)

�� ¼¼ short; 1 plant was purebred Short (short; 1 plant was purebred Short (tttt))

Using Symbols in GeneticsUsing Symbols in Genetics

�� Using symbols is a shorthand method of Using symbols is a shorthand method of

representing alleles in genetic crossesrepresenting alleles in genetic crosses

�� Rules:Rules:

�� 1. Dominant alleles get CAPITAL letters1. Dominant alleles get CAPITAL letters

�� Ex: trait for Ex: trait for ““Tall StemsTall Stems”” = T= T

�� 2. Recessive alleles get lowercase version of letters2. Recessive alleles get lowercase version of letters

�� Ex: trait for Ex: trait for ““short stemsshort stems”” = t= t

�� Ex: Purebred tall = TT; Purebred short = Ex: Purebred tall = TT; Purebred short = tttt

�� Ex: Hybrid Tall = Ex: Hybrid Tall = TtTt; ; there cannot be a hybrid there cannot be a hybrid shortshort

Probability and GeneticsProbability and Genetics

The The ““NumbersNumbers--GameGame”” of lifeof life

ProbabilityProbability

�� The mathematical likelihood that a The mathematical likelihood that a

particular event will happenparticular event will happen

�� Used by scientists to predict the results of Used by scientists to predict the results of

genetic crossesgenetic crosses

�� GregorGregor Mendel was the first to recognize Mendel was the first to recognize

this!!!!!!!!this!!!!!!!!

Phenotype Vs. GenotypePhenotype Vs. Genotype

�� Phenotype:Phenotype:

�� OrganismOrganism’’s physical s physical

appearanceappearance

�� The physical traits an The physical traits an

organism possessesorganism possesses

�� Ex: size, color, Ex: size, color,

structure, etc.structure, etc.

�� Genotype:Genotype:

�� The actual genetic The actual genetic

makeup of an makeup of an organismorganism

�� Combination of allelesCombination of alleles

�� Ex: Ex: TtTt, , tttt, TT, Etc., TT, Etc.

Homozygous Vs. HeterozygousHomozygous Vs. Heterozygous

�� Homozygous:Homozygous:

�� An organism which An organism which

possesses two possesses two identical alleles for a identical alleles for a

traittrait

�� Received the same Received the same allele from each parentallele from each parent

�� Ex: TT, Ex: TT, tttt, BB, bb, BB, bb

�� Heterozygous:Heterozygous:

�� An organism that has An organism that has

two different alleles for two different alleles for a traita trait

�� Received the dominant Received the dominant

allele from one parent allele from one parent and the recessive and the recessive

allele from the otherallele from the other

�� Ex: Ex: TtTt, Bb, Bb

19

Punnett SquaresPunnett Squares

�� A chart that shows all A chart that shows all

the possible the possible

combinations of combinations of

alleles that can result alleles that can result

from a genetic crossfrom a genetic cross

�� Used by geneticists to Used by geneticists to

calculate the calculate the

probability of probability of

particular outcomesparticular outcomes

Steps for using a Punnett SquareSteps for using a Punnett Square

�� 1. Define your Alleles1. Define your Alleles

�� Ex: T = Tall; t = shortEx: T = Tall; t = short

�� 2. Draw your Punnett Square and label 2. Draw your Punnett Square and label

the allelesthe alleles

�� 3. Fill the chart in by completing the cross3. Fill the chart in by completing the cross

�� 4. Write out the possible outcomes and 4. Write out the possible outcomes and

the probability that they will occurthe probability that they will occur

Purebred Tall X Purebred Short Purebred Tall X Purebred Short

Pea Plant CrossPea Plant Cross

T T

t

t

% Tall=

% Short =

Hybrid Tall plant X Hybrid Tall Hybrid Tall plant X Hybrid Tall

plant Crossplant Cross

T t

T

t

% Tall=

% Short =

Purebred Tall plant X Hybrid Tall Purebred Tall plant X Hybrid Tall

plant Crossplant Cross

T T

T

t

% Tall=

% Short =

CodominanceCodominance

�� A situation where the alleles for a trait are A situation where the alleles for a trait are

not dominant or recessivenot dominant or recessive

�� The offspringThe offspring’’s phenotype shows a s phenotype shows a

combination of both traitscombination of both traits

�� Ex: Chicken Feathers:Ex: Chicken Feathers:

�� Black and white feathers are Black and white feathers are codominantcodominant so so

the the offspring from a pure white and a pure offspring from a pure white and a pure black chicken has white and black feathersblack chicken has white and black feathers