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CAST Item Specs—LS PS - CAASPP (CA Dept of Education)

Physical Sciences—High School

Item Specifications

Prepared for the California Department of Education by Educational Testing Service

Presented June 28, 2019

Physical Science—High School

California Science Test—Item Specifications

Table of ContentsHS-PS1-1 Matter and its Interactions1HS-PS1-2 Matter and its Interactions5HS-PS1-3 Matter and its Interactions9HS-PS1-4 Matter and its Interactions15HS-PS1-5 Matter and its Interactions19HS-PS1-6 Matter and its Interactions24HS-PS1-7 Matter and its Interactions29HS-PS1-8 Matter and its Interactions33HS-PS2-1 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions37HS-PS2-2 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions42HS-PS2-3 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions46HS-PS2-4 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions52HS-PS2-5 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions57HS-PS2-6 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions61HS-PS3-1 Energy65HS-PS3-2 Energy70HS-PS3-3 Energy76HS-PS3-4 Energy81HS-PS3-5 Energy85HS-PS4-1 Waves and their Application in Technologies for Information Transfer90HS-PS4-2 Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer95HS-PS4-3 Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer99HS-PS4-4 Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer105HS-PS4-5 Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer110

HS-PS1-1 Matter and its Interactions

Students who demonstrate understanding can:

Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level of atoms.

[Clarification Statement: Examples of properties that could be predicted from patterns could include reactivity of metals, types of bonds formed, numbers of bonds formed, and reactions with oxygen.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to main group elements. Assessment does not include quantitative understanding of ionization energy beyond relative trends.]

Science and Engineering Practices

Disciplinary Core Ideas

Crosscutting Concepts

Developing and Using Models

Modeling in 9–12 builds on K–8 and progresses to using, synthesizing, and developing models to predict and show relationships among variables between systems and their components in the natural and designed world(s).

Use a model to predict the relationships between systems or between components of a system.

PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter

13. Each atom has a charged substructure consisting of a nucleus, which is made of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.

14. The periodic table orders elements horizontally by the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus and places those with similar chemical properties in columns. The repeating patterns of this table reflect patterns of outer electron states.

Patterns

Different patterns may be observed at each of the scales at which a system is studied and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena.

Assessment Targets

Assessment targets describe the focal knowledge, skills, and abilities for a given three-dimensional Performance Expectation. Please refer to the Introduction for a complete description of assessment targets.

Science and Engineering Subpractice(s)

Please refer to appendix A for a complete list of Science and Engineering Practices (SEP) subpractices. Note that the list in this section is not exhaustive.

2.2Ability to use models

Science and Engineering Subpractice Assessment Targets

Please refer to appendix A for a complete list of SEP subpractice assessment targets. Note that the list in this section is not exhaustive.

2.2.2Ability to use the model to generate explanations and predictions about the behavior of a scientific phenomenon

Disciplinary Core Idea Assessment Targets

PS1.A.13aIdentify and describe an atom in terms of a substructure consisting of a positively-charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons, surrounded by negatively-charged electrons

PSA1.A.14aExplain the arrangement of elements on the periodic table in terms of the number of protons (atomic number) and electron configurations

PSA1.A.14bDetermine the number of valence electrons for a given element or group of elements on the periodic table

PSA1.A.14cRelate the number of valence electrons to the chemical behavior of an element or group of elements on the periodic table, such as the charge of a stable ion and the number and types of bonds formed (e.g., ionic, covalent, metallic) by an element and between elements

PSA1.A.14dDescribe periodic trends within the main group elements, such as electronegativity, reactivity, metallic character, and atomic size based on electrostatic attractions of electrons to the nucleus

PSA1.A.14eUse the positions of elements on the periodic table and periodic trends to predict chemical formulas and type of compound (e.g., ionic, covalent)

Crosscutting Concept Assessment Target(s)

CCC1 Identify different patterns at each of the scales at which a system is studied and can provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena

Examples of Integration of Assessment Targets and Evidence

Note that the list in this section is not exhaustive.

The task provides a periodic table or part of a periodic table and a relevant question/phenomenon:

Uses the patterns on the periodic table to explain a chemical behavior (2.2.2, PS1.A.14, and CCC1)

Identifies an element or group of elements based on the chemical behavior (2.2.2, PS1.A.14, and CCC1)

Predicts the chemical behavior of an element or group of elements based on the position of the element(s) on the periodic table (2.2.2, PS1.A.14, and CCC1)

Possible Phenomena or Contexts


The data presented on the periodic table

Predicting formulas of compounds made with metals, charges of ions, number of valence electrons

Identifying an element given some properties, e.g., number of valence electrons

Identifying an element based on the types of bonds it forms with other elements or itself

Common Misconceptions


Atomic radii should increase from left to right across a row on the periodic table because the number of protons and electrons increases.

Additional Assessment Boundaries

None listed at this time.

Additional References

HS-PS1-1 Evidence Statement https://www.nextgenscience.org/sites/default/files/evidence_statement/black_white/HS-PS1-1 Evidence Statements June 2015 asterisks.pdf

The 2016 Science Framework for California Public Schools Kindergarten through Grade 12

Appendix 1: Progression of the Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas, and Crosscutting Concepts in Kindergarten through Grade 12 https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/sc/cf/documents/scifwappendix1.pdf



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Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties.

[Clarification Statement: Examples of chemical reactions could include the reaction of sodium and chlorine, of carbon and oxygen, or of carbon and hydrogen.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to chemical reactions involving main group elements and combustion reactions.]




Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

Constructing explanations and designing solutions in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to explanations and designs that are supported by multiple and independent student-generated sources of evidence consistent with scientific ideas, principles, and theories.

Construct and revise an explanation based on valid and reliable evidence obtained from a variety of sources (including students’ own investigations, models, theories, simulations, and peer review) and the assumption that theories and laws that describe the natural world operate today as they did in the past and will continue to do so in the future.


14. The periodic table orders elements horizontally by the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus and places those with similar chemical properties in columns. The repeating patterns of this table reflect patterns of outer electron states.

PS1.B: Chemical Reactions

9. The fact that atoms are conserved, together with knowledge of the chemical properties of the elements involved, can be used to describe and predict chemical reactions.

Patterns


Assessment Targets




6.1Ability to construct explanations of phenomena

6.2Ability to evaluate explanations of phenomena



6.1.2Ability to apply scientific concepts, principles, theories, and big ideas to construct an explanation of a real-world phenomenon

6.1.3Ability to use models and representations in scientific explanations

6.2.1Ability to evaluate and revise a given explanation based on accepted scientific theory and/or data provided


PS1.A.14aUse the periodic table to determine the number of valence electrons in an atom of an element

PS1.A.14bRelate the number of valence electrons to the chemical behavior of an element or group of elements on the periodic table, such as the charge of a stable ion and the number and types of bonds formed (e.g., ionic, covalent, metallic) by an element and between elements

PS1.A.14cDescribe periodic trends within the main group elements, such as electronegativity, reactivity, and metallic character that are based on electrostatic attractions of electrons to the nucleus

PS1.A.14d Use the positions of elements on the periodic table and periodic trends to predict chemical formulas and types of compound (e.g., ionic, covalent)

PS1.B.9aIdentify the components of a chemical reaction (i.e., reactants and products) represented in a chemical equation or description

PS1.B.9bDescribe how conservation principles (of atoms and mass) can help to explain/predict the outcome of a chemical reaction

PS1.B.9cUse periodic trends to describe and predict the outcome of a chemical reaction





Task provides a description of a simple chemical reaction:

Uses scientific concepts, principles, theories, and big ideas (e.g., conservation of atoms and mass, Lewis theory of bonding, and periodic trends) to explain the outcome of the chemical reaction (6.1.2, PS1.A.14/PS1.B.9, and CCC1)

Task provides a description and an incomplete chemical equation of a simple chemical reaction (e.g., the equation is missing a necessary reactant or product). The task also includes a selection of ways to complete the equation:

Explains the best way to complete the equation by using the periodic table as a model to predict the product(s) of the reaction (6.1.3, PS1.A.14/PS1.B.9, and CCC1)

Task provides a description of a simple chemical reaction that includes the outcome and a choice of models that may represent the reaction:

Selects the model that best represents the correct explanation for the outcome of the reaction (6.1.3, PS1.A.14/PS1.B.9, and CCC1)

Task provides a flawed explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction. Potential flaws include, but are not limited to, incorrect predictions of the outcome, incorrect application of scientific theories, or use of irrelevant evidence:

Identifies the flaw in the reasoning and/or predictions described in the provided explanation of the reaction (6.2.1, PS1.A.14/PS1.B.9, and CCC1)

Amends the flawed features of the provided explanation (6.2.1, PS1.A.14/PS1.B.9, and CCC1)



The formation of and ratio of elements in a binary ionic compound when a metal and a nonmetal react

The formation and structure of covalent compounds when two nonmetals react

The formation and number of carbon dioxide and water molecules during the combustion of a simple hydrocarbon

Identifying the reactants and relative proportions

Using Lewis electron-dot structures to show bond formation from elements

Using Lewis electron-dot structures to show their formation from elements (limited to those that obey the octet rule)



The octet rule can be used for all elements.









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Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances at the bulk scale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on understanding the strengths of forces between particles, not on naming specific intermolecular forces (such as dipole-dipole). Examples of particles could include ions, atoms, molecules, and networked materials (such as graphite). Examples of bulk properties of substances could include the melting point and boiling point, vapor pressure, and surface tension.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include Raoult’s law calculations of vapor pressure.]

Continue to the next page for the Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas, and Crosscutting Concepts.




Planning and Carrying Out Investigations

Planning and carrying out investigations in 9-12 builds on K-8 experiences and progresses to include investigations that provide evidence for and test conceptual, mathematical, physical, and empirical models.

Plan and conduct an investigation individually and collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, and in the design: decide on types, how much, and accuracy of data needed to produce reliable measurements and consider limitations on the precision of the data (e.g., number of trials, cost, risk, time), and refine the design accordingly.


The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical forces within and between atoms.

Patterns


Assessment Targets




3.1 Ability to clarify the goal of the investigation and identify the evidence needed to address the purpose of the investigation

3.2 Ability to develop, evaluate, and refine a plan for the investigation



3.1.2 Ability to identify relevant independent and dependent variables and to consider possible confounding variables or effects

3.1.3 Ability to describe what and how much data need to be collected to provide sufficient evidence to the purpose of the investigation

3.2.2 Ability to describe detailed experimental procedure, including how the data will be collected, the number of trials, the experimental setup, and the equipment and tools required

3.2.3 Ability to compare and evaluate alternative methods to determine which design provides the evidence necessary to address the purpose of the investigation


PS1.A.15aIdentify bulk properties that are related to the strength of electrical forces of attraction between particles of a substance

PS1.A.15bUse the periodic table to predict the properties of elements based on the patterns of valence electrons

PS1.A.15cDescribe atomic structure and the electrical interactions among subatomic particles

PS1.A.15dRecognize that the strength of electrical forces of attraction between particles of a substance is related to the magnitude of and distance between the electrical charges

PS1.A.15eDescribe how the input of thermal energy affects the spacing between particles of a substance, in particular, during changes of state

PS1.A.15fInfer the strength of the electrical forces of attractions based on the spacing between particles in the different states of matter

PS1.A.15gDistinguish between intramolecular and intermolecular forces


CCC1 Identify different patterns at each of the scales at which a system is studied and provide evidence for causality in explanations of phenomena



Task provides a scenario involving an investigation of a bulk property related to the strength of electrical forces between particles in a substance or substances to investigate:

Identify variables that need to be controlled to produce reliable data (3.1.2, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)

Task provides a scenario involving an investigation of a bulk property related to the strength of electrical forces between particles in a substance or substances to investigate and a list of variables:

Identifies the independent and dependent variables (3.1.2, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)

Task provides a scenario that involves determining the relative strengths of electrical forces between particles for a set of substances:

Identifies what data to collect in an investigation (3.1.3, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)

Task provides a scenario involving a bulk property to investigate and determine the strength of electrical forces between particles of a substance or substances and a list of experimental procedures:

Identifies the procedure that will produce the most relevant and reliable data (3.2.2, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)

Task provides a flawed experimental plan and/or data generated from an investigation involving the measurement of bulk properties to determine the strength of electrical forces between particles of a substance or substances:

Identifies the flaws and refines the plan to better address the purpose of the investigation (3.2.3, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)

Uses the data to evaluate and refine the experimental plan (3.2.3, PS1.A.15, and CCC1)



Specific type of interaction (e.g., ionic, hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, London forces)

Relative strength of an interaction in a set of related compounds

Factors to consider when planning or evaluating an investigation

Relevance of collected data

Appropriateness of measuring tools and instruments

Properties due to intermolecular forces

Similarities/differences in compounds due to intermolecular forces

Phase transition dependence on the magnitude of charges on ions of a compound



There is no empty space between particles in a solid.

State changes of matter involve chemical changes.

Attractive and repulsive forces exist between particles of a gas.

Ionic compounds have a molecular structure like covalent compounds.

Breaking bonds releases energy and forming bonds requires energy.









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Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that a chemical reaction is a system that affects the energy change. Examples of models could include molecular-level drawings and diagrams of reactions, graphs showing the relative energies of reactants and products, and representations showing energy is conserved.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include calculating the total bond energy changes during a chemical reaction from the bond energies of reactants and products.]





Modeling in 9–12 builds on K–8 and progresses to using, synthesizing, and developing models to predict and show relationships among variables between systems and their components in the natural and designed worlds.

Develop a model based on evidence to illustrate the relationships between systems or between components of a system.


16. A stable molecule has less energy than the same set of atoms separated; one must provide at least this energy in order to take the molecule apart.


7. Chemical processes, their rates, and whether or not energy is stored or released can be understood in terms of the collisions of molecules and the rearrangements of atoms into new molecules, with consequent changes in the sum of all bond energies in the set of molecules that are matched by changes in kinetic energy.

Energy and Matter

Changes of energy and matter in a system can be described in terms of energy and matter flows into, out of, and within that system.

Assessment Targets




2.1Ability to develop models



2.1.1Ability to determine the components as well as relationships among multiple components, to include or omit, of a scientific event, system, or design solution

2.1.2Ability to determine scope, scale, and grain-size of the model, as appropriate to its intended use

2.1.3Ability to represent mechanisms, relationships, and connections to illustrate, explain or predict a scientific event


PS1.A.16aRecognize that a stable molecule has less energy than the same set of atoms separated, thus energy is required to break the molecule apart

PS1.B.7aIdentify and describe the relevant chemical components of a reaction, including the bonds broken in the reactants and bonds formed in the products during the course of the reaction

PS1.B.7bRecognize that breaking bonds requires the input of energy and forming bonds releases energy

PS1.B.7cDescribe that the reactants and products have different potential energies or total bond energies as a result of the different arrangement of atoms, resulting in a net energy change in the chemical system

PS1.B.7dDescribe that a net energy change in the system is accompanied by a transfer of an equal amount of energy from the system to the surroundings or from the surroundings to the system

PS1.B.7eDescribe that the total energy of the system and the surroundings is conserved

PS1.B.7fDescribe that energy transfer occurs through molecular collisions (e.g., the transformation of potential energy of the chemical system to kinetic energy in the surroundings [or vice versa])


CCC5 Describe changes in matter and energy in a system in terms of the energy and matter that flows into, out of, and within the system



Task provides information about energy changes in a chemical system and a list of relevant and irrelevant components to model the system:

Selects the relevant components to illustrate the energy changes in the chemical system (2.1.1, PS1.B.7, and CCC5)

Task provides information about energy changes in a chemical system and an incomplete model of the system (e.g., molecular-level drawing, diagram of a reaction, potential energy diagram):

Selects the components or labels to complete the model to illustrate or explain the energy changes in the chemical system (2.1.1, PS1.B.7, and CCC5)

Task provides information about energy changes in a chemical system and a list of models:

Selects the appropriate model to illustrate the energy changes in the chemical system (2.1.2, PS1.B.7, and CCC5)

Task provides a model and/or information about energy changes in the chemical system and a list of correct and incorrect representations or descriptions of the mechanisms and behaviors underlying the energy changes:

Selects the representations or descriptions of the mechanisms and behaviors (2.1.3, PS1.B.7, and CCC5)



A potential energy diagram that best represents a particular endothermic or exothermic reaction based on an observed temperature change in the surroundings

A description of the components and/or relationships between components of a chemical system based on their representation in a model

Demonstrating what happens to energy when amounts of reactants are doubled/tripled/etc.

Establishing if the total energy of reactant bonds is greater/smaller than product bonds based on a description of reaction and temperature changes in the surroundings

Graphs that show initial energy equal to final energy, generated using total bond energies of reactants and products for endothermic or exothermic reactions



Energy is released when bonds are broken and absorbed when bonds are formed.









Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the rate at which a reaction occurs.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on student reasoning that focuses on the number and energy of collisions between molecules.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to simple reactions in which there are only two reactants; evidence from temperature, concentration, and rate data; and qualitative relationships between rate and temperature.]






Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation of phenomena and solve design problems, taking into account possible unanticipated effects.


7. Chemical processes, their rates, and whether or not energy is stored or released can be understood in terms of the collisions of molecules and the rearrangements of atoms into new molecules, with consequent changes in the sum of all bond energies in the set of molecules that are matched by changes in kinetic energy.

Patterns


Assessment Targets




6.1Ability to construct explanations of phenomena



6.1.1Ability to construct a quantitative and/or qualitative explanations of observed relationships

6.1.2Ability to apply scientific concepts, principles, theories, and big ideas to construct an explanation of a real-world phenomenon

6.1.3Ability to use models and representations in scientific explanations


PS1.B.7a Recognize that the collision of molecules may result in the breaking of bonds and the forming of new bonds

PS1.B.7b Quantify energy transfer associated with the breaking of bonds (energy required) and forming of bonds (energy released)

PS1.B.7c Use ideas regarding probability and kinetic energy to describe chemical reactions in terms of a chance collision between molecules with sufficient kinetic energy (i.e., activation energy) to undergo a chemical change

PS1.B.7d Use temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules and, by extension, of the average mass or average speed of the molecules

PS1.B.7e Describe the relationship between temperature and reaction rate in terms of temperature’s impact on frequency of collisions and on the percentage of molecules that have sufficient kinetic energy to meet activation energy requirements

PS1.B.7fDescribe the relationship between concentration in solution, collision frequency, and number of collisions producing the reaction

PS1.B.7gDescribe a mathematical rate law that considers the number of successful collisions and its dependence on the temperature and concentration of the reactants

PS1.B.7h Describe that the reactants and products have different potential energies or total bond energies because of the different arrangement of atoms, resulting in a net energy change in the chemical system





Task provides a chemical equation representing simple two-reactant reaction and rate data:

Uses the data to make a conclusion about the relationship between concentration and rate of reaction (6.1.1, PS1.B.7, and CCC1)

Uses the data to explain an observed pattern between concentration and the rate of reaction (6.1.1, PS1.B.7, and CCC1)

Task provides observations of a simple two-reactant reaction that illustrates the temperature or concentration dependence of reaction rate:

Explains the observations using concepts of collision theory (6.1.2, PS1.B.7, and CCC1)

Task provides observations of a simple two-reactant reaction that illustrates a pattern of temperature or concentration dependence of reaction rate:

Identifies the model that best explains the systematic pattern of observations (6.1.3, PS1.B.7, and CCC1)

Task provides a model of a simple two-reactant reaction that illustrates collision theory:

Uses the model to construct an explanation of the temperature or concentration dependence of the reaction rate (6.1.3, PS1.B.7, and CCC1)



Measurements or observations of a property, such as a color change or gas production, of a reaction carried out at different temperatures

Data that show how a chemical system responds if the concentrations of each reactant is changed

Real-world phenomenon that illustrate the temperature or concentration dependence of reaction rates, such as catalysts, enzymes, and runaway reactions

Using graphs of changes in concentration vs. time for a reactant at different initial concentrations to determine the relationship between instantaneous rate changes and collision frequency

Cryoablation for cancer treatment

Refrigeration and food preservation of tissues, cells, etc.



Matter is continuous rather than particulate.

Any collision of particles will result in a chemical reaction.

All reaction rates increase or remain constant over time.

Reactions are purposeful.









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Refine the design of a chemical system by specifying a change in conditions that would produce increased amounts of products at equilibrium.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the application of Le Chatelier’s Principle and on refining designs of chemical reaction systems, including descriptions of the connection between changes made at the macroscopic level and what happens at the molecular level. Examples of designs could include different ways to increase product formation including adding reactants or removing products.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to specifying the change in only one variable at a time. Assessment does not include calculating equilibrium constants and concentrations.]






Refine a solution to a complex real-world problem, based on scientific knowledge, student-generated sources of evidence, prioritized criteria, and tradeoff considerations.


In many situations, a dynamic and condition-dependent balance between a reaction and the reverse reaction determines the numbers of all types of molecules present.

ETS1.C: Optimizing the Design Solution

5. Criteria may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be approached systematically, and decisions about the priority of certain criteria over others (trade-offs) may be needed. (secondary)

Stability and Change

Much of science deals with constructing explanations of how things change and how they remain stable.

Assessment Targets




6E.2Ability to evaluate and/or refine solutions to design problems



6E.2.1Ability to compare or critique competing design solutions based on design criteria

6E.2.2Ability to evaluate and/or refine (optimize) design solutions based on scientific knowledge or evidence


PS1.B.8aRecognize that for a reversible chemical reaction at equilibrium, both reactants and products are present in concentrations that do not change over time

PS1.B.8bExplain that although the concentrations of the reactants and products remain unchanged at the macroscopic level, chemical changes are occurring at the molecular level

PS1.B.8cExplain that for a reversible reaction at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal

PS1.B.8dExplain that a change to one component (e.g., increasing the concentration of a reactant) in a chemical system at equilibrium affects the other components

PS1.B.8eExplain that rates of the forward and reverse reactions will change and the equilibrium will shift in response to a change to the system (i.e., a stress) until equilibrium is re-established

ETS.1.C.5aExplain that criteria for solving complex real-world problems, such as the optimization of a chemical system, may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be evaluated systematically

ETS.1.C.5bExplain that the prioritization of criteria or constraints (tradeoffs) may be necessary for the selection of a design solution


CCC7 Construct explanations of how things change and how they remain stable



Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium; criteria (e.g., increase the amount of product formed); and a list of possible changes, or stresses, to the system:

Identifies the change(s) to the system that will meet the criteria (6E.2.1, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium; criteria (e.g., increase the amount of product formed) and constraints, and a list of possible changes, or stresses, to the system:

Assesses how well each change meets the criteria and constraints (6E.2.1, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium; criteria (e.g., increase the amount of product formed); and two or more possible changes, or stresses, to the system to meet the criteria:

Identifies tradeoffs or advantages and disadvantages for each change (6E.2.1, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium; two or more changes to the system, one of which is identified as best meeting the criteria and/or constraints; and data related to the changes to the system:

Identifies the prioritized criteria and/or constraints that resulted in selection of one change over the alternatives (6E.2.1, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium, a list of possible changes to the system, data related to the changes to the system, and prioritized criteria or constraints:

Selects the change that best meets the prioritized criteria or constraints and provides justification for the selection based on prioritization of criteria (6E.2.1, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium, criteria (e.g., increase the amount of product formed), and a change to the system:

Identifies or describes the scientific principles that support the effectiveness of the change to meet the criteria (e.g., an increase in the concentration of a reactant results in an increase in the rate of the forward reaction) (6E.2.2, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)

Task provides a description of a chemical reaction system at equilibrium, a list of possible changes to the system, and data related to the changes to the system:

Selects the change that best meets the criteria and justifies the change using the data (6E.2.2, PS1.B.8, and CCC7)



Simple gas-phase reactions

Heterogeneous equilibria

Common ion effect

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions

Carbonic acid/CO2+H2O equilibrium

Synthesis of methane inside “Earth’s vault”

Equilibrium reactions involving nitrogen oxides in atmosphere

Solubility equilibria

Predicting the effect of a change in conditions using Le Châtelier’s Principle

· Carbonic acid/CO2+H2O equilibrium to predict surface water acidity or blood pH

· Synthesis of methane in the upper mantle from the decomposition of higher-order hydrocarbons (possible focus on P and T effects)

· Equilibrium reactions involving nitrogen oxides in atmosphere



At equilibrium, both the forward and reverse reactions stop.

Catalysts affect the equilibrium concentration of the components in a chemical system.

The amount of solids present affects the equilibrium concentration of the components in a chemical system.









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Use mathematical representations to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on using mathematical ideas to communicate the proportional relationships between masses of atoms in the reactants and the products, and the translation of these relationships to the macroscopic scale using the mole as the conversion from the atomic to the macroscopic scale. Emphasis is on assessing students’ use of mathematical thinking and not on memorization and rote application of problem-solving techniques.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include complex chemical reactions.]




Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking

Mathematical and computational thinking at the 9–12 level builds on K–8 and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis, a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms, and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.

Use mathematical representations of phenomena to support claims.


The fact that atoms are conserved, together with knowledge of the chemical properties of the elements involved, can be used to describe and predict chemical reactions.

Energy and Matter

The total amount of energy and matter in closed systems is conserved.

Connections to Nature of Science

Scientific Knowledge Assumes an Order and Consistency in Natural Systems

Science assumes the universe is a vast single system in which basic laws are consistent.

Assessment Targets




5.1Ability to develop mathematical and/or computational models

5.2Ability to conduct mathematical and/or computational analyses



5.1.1Ability to generate mathematical measurement and representations to describe characteristics and patterns of a scientific phenomenon and/or a design solution

5.2.1Ability to use the results of computational models (e.g., graphical representation in a simulation) to identify the mathematical and/or computational representations to support a scientific explanation or a design solution

5.2.2Ability to use computational models (e.g., simulations) to make predictions of a scientific phenomenon


PS1.B.9aIdentify the components of a chemical reaction (i.e., reactants and products) represented in a chemical equation

PS1.B.9bCalculate the molar masses of the components of a chemical reaction based on their chemical formulas

PS1.B.9cUse the molar masses of the components of a chemical reaction to calculate their molar quantities

PS1.B.9dUse Avogadro’s number to calculate the numbers of molecules and/or atoms in the components of a chemical reaction given their mole quantities or masses

PS1.B.9eDescribe the stoichiometric relationships represented by the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation on an atomic/molecular scale and a macroscopic scale

PS1.B.9fUse stoichiometric relationships to calculate the mass of any component of a reaction given the mass of another component

PS1.B.9gUse mathematical representations based on the stoichiometric relationships in a balanced chemical equation to show that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction


CCC5 Identify that the total amount of energy and matter in closed systems is conserved



Task provides a balanced chemical equation and the masses of the components of a reaction:

Selects the mathematical relationships that best demonstrate that atoms are conserved in the chemical reaction (5.1.1, PS1.B.9, and CCC5)

Task provides data or graphical representations of the mass or the number of particles generated from a simulation of a reaction:

Uses data and/or graphical representations of data to determine the mathematical relationship(s) between the reactant(s) and product(s) (5.2.1, PS1.B.9, and CCC5)

Task provides a balanced chemical equation, the mass of one of the components of the chemical reaction, and a prompt to predict the mass of another component:

Selects the mathematical representation that predicts the mass of the other component (5.2.2, PS1.B.9, and CCC5)



Conservation of atoms/mass

Amount of excess reactant consumed/needed

Amount of product predicted

Stoichiometry

· Making caramel (hydrolysis of sucrose)

· Making soap from fats and NaOH

· Synthesis of compounds used for perfumes, or responsible for aroma in food

· Simple acid/base, precipitation, and redox reactions for items that focus on balancing chemical equations or limiting reactant calculations



In a reaction, atoms can be gained or lost depending on whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic.











Develop models to illustrate the changes in the composition of the nucleus of the atom and the energy released during the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on simple qualitative models, such as pictures or diagrams, and on the scale of energy released in nuclear processes relative to other kinds of transformations.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include quantitative calculation of energy released. Assessment is limited to alpha, beta, and gamma radioactive decays.]





Modeling in 9–12 builds on K–8 and progresses to using, synthesizing, and developing models to predict and show relationships among variables between systems and their components in the natural and designed worlds

Develop a model based on evidence to illustrate the relationships between systems or between components of a system.

PS1.C: Nuclear Processes

Nuclear processes, including fusion, fission, and radioactive decays of unstable nuclei, involve release or absorption of energy. The total number of neutrons plus protons does not change in any nuclear process.

Energy and Matter

In nuclear processes, atoms are not conserved, but the total number of protons plus neutrons is conserved.

Assessment Targets




2.1Ability to develop models



2.1.1 Ability to determine the components as well as relationships among multiple components, to include or omit, of a scientific event, system, or design solution

2.1.2Ability to determine scope, scale, and grain-size of the model, as appropriate to its intended use

2.1.3Ability to represent mechanisms, relationships, and connections to explain the event, system, or design solution with multiple types of models


PS1.C.2aIdentify an element based on the number of protons in an atom of the element

PS1.C.2bDetermine the number of neutrons in an element based on the atomic number (number of protons) and mass number (total number of protons and neutrons)

PS1.C.2cExplain that the total number of neutrons plus protons does not change during nuclear processes (the law of conservation of nucleon number)

PS1.C.2dApply the law of conservation of nucleon number to identify the components of a nuclear process

PS1.C.2eRecognize that the relative scale of energy change in nuclear processes is greater than in other types of reactions

PS1.C.2fDifferentiate between fission and fusion and the characteristic features of each process

PS1.C.2gDifferentiate between the three major radioactive decay processes, including the characteristics of the emitted particles


CCC5 Identify that, in nuclear processes, atoms are not conserved, but rather the total number of protons plus neutrons is conserved



Task provides a complete model of a nuclear process:

Labels the components by applying the scientific principle of nucleon conservation (2.1.1, PS1.C.2, and CCC5)

Task provides an incomplete model of a nuclear process and a list of relevant and irrelevant components:

Selects the relevant components to complete the model by applying the scientific principle of nucleon conservation (2.1.1, PS1.C.2, and CCC5)

Task provides a description or representation of a nuclear process and a choice of models:

Identifies the model that best illustrates the process, including the scale of energy change associated with the process (2.1.2, PS1.C.2, and CCC5)

Task provides a description or representation of a nuclear process and a choice of models:

Identifies the model that illustrates the process on the subatomic scale (e.g., a neutron decaying to a proton and electron in beta decay) (2.1.3, PS1.C.2, and CCC5)



Fusion of hydrogen in the Sun and other stars

Fission of uranium in nuclear reactors

· Substitution of Th for U in nuclear reactors

Radioactive decay of isotopes used for radioactive dating

· Carbon-14 to examine remnants of shipwrecks (like the Java Sea Shipwreck and studies from the Black Sea Maritime Project)

Balancing nuclear reactions or choosing the type of decay

· Radioisotopes used in medicine (such as I-131, Tc-99m, Rb-82m, Tl-201, B-10, Ac-225, etc.)

· K-40 to Ar-40 conversion for geological dating



The conservation of atoms and mass is not the same as the conservation of nucleons.









Page 36

HS-PS2-1 Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions


Analyze data to support the claim that Newton’s second law of motion describes the mathematical relationship among the net force on a macroscopic object, its mass, and its acceleration.

[Clarification Statement: Examples of data could include tables or graphs of position or velocity as a function of time for objects subject to a net unbalanced force, such as a falling object, an object rolling down a ramp, or a moving object being pulled by a constant force.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to one-dimensional motion and to macroscopic objects moving at non-relativistic speeds.]





Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Analyzing data in 9–12 builds on K–8 and progresses to introducing more detailed statistical analysis, the comparison of data sets for consistency, and the use of models to generate and analyze data.

Analyze data using tools, technologies, and/or models (e.g., computational, mathematical) in order to make valid and reliable scientific claims or determine an optimal design solution.


Science Models, Laws, Mechanisms, and Theories Explain Natural Phenomena

Theories and laws provide explanations in science.

Laws are statements or descriptions of the relationships among observable phenomena.

PS2.A: Forces and Motion

Newton’s second law accurately predicts changes in the motion of macroscopic objects.

Cause and Effect

Empirical evidence is required to differentiate between cause and correlation and make claims about specific causes and effects.

Assessment Targets




4.1Ability to record and organize data

4.2Ability to analyze data to identify relationships



4.1.1Ability to record information and represent data in tables and graphical displays

4.1.3Ability to organize data in a way that facilitates analysis and interpretation

4.2.1Ability to use observational and/or empirical data to describe patterns and relationships

4.2.2Ability to identify patterns (qualitative or quantitative) among variables represented in data


PS2.A.8aOrganize data, graphs, charts, or vector drawings representing the net force and acceleration for an object with constant mass

PS2.A.8bRecognize that, for the same net force, objects with a larger mass experience a smaller acceleration

PS2.A.8cRecognize that, for an object with a constant mass, a larger net force exerted onto the object results in a larger acceleration

PS2.A.8dIdentify that the force of gravity exerted onto a free-falling object produces a constant acceleration because the net force/mass ratio is the same for all objects in a specific local gravitational field

PS2.A.8eAnalyze data as empirical evidence describing the relationship between net force, acceleration, and mass

PS2.A.8fRecognize the cause-effect relationship in that the net force exerted onto an object causes the object to experience accelerated motion using the expression Fnet = ma


CCC2 Identify empirical evidence to differentiate between cause and correlation and make claims about specific causes and effects



Task provides a description of a physical situation involving an object being accelerated:

Identifies from a list the correct information and data corresponding to the physical situation (4.1.1, PS2.A.8, and CCC2)

Task provides a simulation of a physical situation involving an object being accelerated. As the object accelerates, the simulation provides information/data of time, position, and velocity:

Identifies the free-body diagrams and/or motion diagrams corresponding to the presented physical situation (4.1.3, PS2.A.8, and CCC2)

Task provides graphs or a data table of position, velocity, and force as a function of time:

Describes the relationship between net force and acceleration, and/or net force and mass, and/or mass and acceleration (4.2.1, PS2.A.8, and CCC2)

Task provides a data set of acceleration, mass, and net force:

Identifies the relationship between net force and acceleration, and/or net force and mass, and/or mass and acceleration (4.2.2, PS2.A.8, and CCC2)



Motion diagrams

Motion graphs (e.g., position-time, velocity-time, and acceleration-time graphs)

Data regarding changes in position, time, instantaneous velocities, and/or acceleration

Freely-falling objects in gravitational fields

Data regarding mass and acceleration of a two-cart system



The forces exerted on an object are unbalanced when the object moves with constant velocity.









Page 41



Use mathematical representations to support the claim that the total momentum of a system of objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the quantitative conservation of momentum in interactions and the qualitative meaning of this principle.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to systems of two macroscopic bodies moving in one dimension.]





Mathematical and computational thinking at the 9–12 level builds on K–8 and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis; a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms; and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.

Use mathematical representations of phenomena to describe explanations.


Momentum is defined for a particular frame of reference; it is the mass times the velocity of the object.

If a system interacts with objects outside itself, the total momentum of the system can change; however, any such change is balanced by changes in the momentum of objects outside the system.

Systems and System Models

When investigating or describing a system, the boundaries and initial conditions of the system need to be defined.

Assessment Targets








5.2.3Ability to use the results of computational models (e.g., simulations) to identify patterns in natural and/or designed worlds


PS2.A.9aClearly define the reference frame and identify the objects that define the system

PS2.A.9bDefine momentum p as the product of the object’s mass m and velocity v and mathematically model the net momentum and/or individual momenta of a system of objects based on either the system’s initial or final conditions

PS2.A.10aRecognize, through the analysis of the motion of the objects, that the net momentum of a system remains constant before and after any interactions from the objects within the system

PS2.A.10bBalance the losses and gains of momentum across objects in a closed system using mathematical representations

PS2.A.10cAttribute changes in the net momentum of a system to the openness of the system (objects in the system are able to interact with objects external to the system)


CCC4 Identify that the boundaries and initial conditions of the system need to be defined when investigation or describing a system



Task provides values for the physical properties of the system and options to complete any missing values or to determine/predict the values before/after the collision:

Mathematically determines the properties of the system using the conservation of momentum of objects in the system (5.2.2, PS2.A.9, and CCC4)

Task provides a simplified computational model for the collision of two objects that produces an inaccurate prediction. Task also provides data from the actual collision:

Identifies which ways a model was simplified (e.g., it assumed conservation of momentum, but an outside force was actually applied) and how it contributed to the difference between predicted and experimental values (5.2.3, PS2.A.10, and CCC4)



Two objects traveling in the same direction (but at different velocities) collide and stick together.

Two objects travelling toward each other collide and stick together.

A single moving object breaks apart into two separate objects, each with their own mass and velocity.

An open system of continuous, successive collisions seems to decay due to losses to the environment.



Momentum is a scalar physical quantity.

Momentum is conserved for an individual object, rather than a system.

Momentum is like a force.









Page 45



Apply scientific and engineering ideas to design, evaluate, and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision.

[Clarification Statement: Examples of evaluation and refinement could include determining the success of the device at protecting an object from damage and modifying the design to improve it. Examples of a device could include a football helmet or a parachute.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to qualitative evaluations and/or algebraic manipulations.]







Apply scientific ideas to solve a design problem, taking into account possible unanticipated effects.


If a system interacts with objects outside itself, the total momentum of the system can change; however, any such change is balanced by changes in the momentum of objects outside the system.

ETS1.A: Defining and Delimiting an Engineering Problem

6. Criteria and constraints also include satisfying any requirements set by society, such as taking issues of risk mitigation into account, and they should be quantified to the extent possible and stated in such a way that one can tell if a given design meets them. (secondary)

ETS1.C: Optimizing the Design Solution

5. Criteria may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be approached systematically, and decisions about the priority of certain criteria over others (tradeoffs) may be needed. (secondary)

Cause and Effect

Systems can be designed to cause a desired effect.

Assessment Targets




6E.1Ability to solve design problems

6E.2Ability to evaluate and/or refine solutions to design problems



6E.1.1Ability to engage in a systematic, iterative process to solve design problems that result in structures or processes, or the plans for structure or processes

6E.2.1Ability to compare or critique competing design solutions based on design criteria

6E.2.2Ability to evaluate and/or refine (optimize) design solutions based on scientific knowledge or evidence


PS2.A.10aIdentify that the change in momentum of an object during a collision is equal to the change in momentum in the other object(s) involved in the collision

PS2.A.10bRecognize that the momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity (p = mv)

PS2.A.10cUnderstand that to decrease the momentum of an object, an opposing force must be applied

PS2.A.10dUnderstand that for a given decrease in momentum, the magnitude of the opposing force is decreased by extending the time the force is applied, as represented by the equation ( F∆t = m∆v )

ETS1.A.6aIdentify the criteria and constraints involved in an engineering problem, including those set by society

ETS1.A.6bIdentify and determine methods for quantifying criteria and constraints so that design solutions can be evaluated by testing

ETS.1.C.5aExplain that criteria for solving complex real-world problems, such as the minimization of force acting on an object during a collision, may need to be broken down into simpler ones that can be evaluated systematically

ETS.1.C.5bExplain that the prioritization of criteria or constraints (tradeoffs) may be necessary for the selection of a design solution


CCC2 Identify systems that are designed to cause a specific effect



Task provides both a description of a problem involving a collision where the force on an object can be minimized using a device and a list of possible features to incorporate into the device:

Identifies the feature(s) that will enable the device to meet the criteria (6E.1.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Task provides multiple design solutions that are intended to minimize the force on an object in a collision and the criteria for the design solutions:

Selects the design solution that best meets the provided criteria (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Assesses how well each design solution meets the criteria and constraints (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Identifies tradeoffs or advantages and disadvantages for each design solution (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Task provides two or more design solutions that are intended to minimize the force on an object in a collision, the criteria and constraints for the design solutions, and performance data:

Identifies the prioritized criteria and/or constraints required for the design (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Selects one design based on data and criteria (6E2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Task provides a device designed to minimize the force on an object involved in a collision, data related to the performance of the device, prioritized criteria or constraints, and possible refinements:

Selects the refinement that best meets the prioritized criteria or constraints (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Justifies the selection based on prioritization of criteria (6E.2.1, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Identifies the scientific principle (e.g., impulse-momentum theorem) that supports the effectiveness of the refinement to meet the criteria (6E.2.2, PS2.A.10, and CCC2)

Task provides a list of possible refinements to a prototype device intended to minimize the force on an object during a collision, and data related to the refinements to the device:

Selects the refinement that best meets the criteria and justifies the refinement using the data (6E.2.2, ETS.1.C.5, and CCC2)



Seatbelts, bumpers, airbags

Helmets, hardhats

Baseball mitts

Gym mats, safety nets, climbing ropes



Momentum is a scalar quantity.

Momentum is the same as force.

Momentum depends on the acceleration of an object rather than its velocity at a particular moment.

Momentum is conserved for each object involved in a collision.

There is no change in momentum to an extremely large or heavy object involved in a collision.









Page 51



Use mathematical representations of Newton’s Law of Gravitation and Coulomb’s Law to describe and predict the gravitational and electrostatic forces between objects.

[Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on both quantitative and conceptual descriptions of gravitational and electric fields.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to systems with two objects.]






Mathematical and computational thinking at the 9–12 level builds on K–8 and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis; a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms; and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.

Use mathematical representations of phenomena to describe explanations.


Science Models, Laws, Mechanisms, and Theories Explain Natural Phenomena

Theories and laws provide explanations in science.

Laws are statements or descriptions of the relationships among observable phenomena.

PS2.B: Types of Interactions

9. Newton’s law of universal gravitation and Coulomb’s law provide the mathematical models to describe and predict the effects of gravitational and electrostatic forces between distant objects.

10. Forces at a distance are explained by fields (gravitational, electric, and magnetic) permeating space that can transfer energy through space. Magnets or electric currents cause magnetic fields; electric charges or changing magnetic fields cause electric fields.

Patterns


Assessment Targets








5.2.4Ability to use critical mathematical skills to compare simulated effects in computational models to real world observations to identify limitations of computational models

5.2.5Ability to use mathematical and statistical tools to analyze trends and patterns in data from scientific investigations


PS2.B.9aDefine the system of objects that are being represented

PS2.B.9bIdentify and describe the gravitational attraction between two objects as the product of their masses divided by the separation distance squared

PS2.B.9cIdentify and describe the electrostatic force between two objects as the product of their individual charges divided by the separation distance squared

PS2.B.9dPredict the change in the gravitational and/or electrostatic force between objects when properties of the system are changed

PS2.B.9eUnderstand that the ratio of the gravitational force and the electrostatic force between two objects with a given charge and mass is independent of distance

PS2.B.10aUnderstand that the gravitational and electrostatic forces can be described by fields that permeate all of space

PS2.B.10cIdentify that the field strength associated with a massive and/or charged object goes to zero as the distance from the object becomes very large





Task provides a description or presentation of observations from a simulation portraying two objects of given charge or mass:

Identifies the magnitude and direction of specific attractive or repulsive forces (5.2.2, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Identifies (if electrostatic) the charge (magnitude and sign) of an unknown object based on interactions with other charged objects (5.2.2, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Identifies if the simulation is depicting an electrostatic or gravitational interaction based on interactions with other objects of known mass and/or charge (5.2.2, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Task provides an interactive simulation portraying two objects of given charge or mass:

Identifies any shortcomings or limitations of the simulation, using the law of universal gravitation (5.2.4, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Identifies any shortcomings or limitations of the simulation, using Coulomb's law (5.2.4, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Identifies correct behavior of a simulation based on extreme case analysis (separation = 0 or separation = infinity) (5.2.4, PS2.B.9, and CCC1)

Task provides data generated from either scientific investigations or values of mass, charge, and separation distance:

Identifies that the ratio between gravitational and electric forces between objects with a given charge and mass is a pattern that is independent of distance (5.2.5, PS2.B.10, and CCC1)

Identifies whether the interaction is an electrostatic or gravitational force interaction (5.2.5, PS2.B.10, and CCC1)



A system of two massive and/or charged objects with spherical symmetry

Quantitative treatment of tides

Planetary motion

Comparison of magnitudes of the gravitational and electrostatic forces and between charged particles



Gravitational forces only apply to objects near the surface of a planet, not between planets.

Gravitational forces are stronger than electrostatic forces between charged particles.

In a two-object system, the more massive object (or object with the greater charge) exerts a greater force on the other object.









Page 56



Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that an electric current can produce a magnetic field and that a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current.

[Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to designing and conducting investigations with provided materials and tools.]




Planning and Carrying Out Investigations

Planning and carrying out investigations to answer questions or test solutions to problems in 9–12 builds on K–8 experiences and progresses to include investigations that provide evidence for and test conceptual, mathematical, physical and empirical models.

Plan and conduct an investigation individually and collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, and in

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