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Cahiertechnique

no. 213Calculations for

LV and HV networks

B. de Metz-Noblat

Technical collection


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"Cahiers Techniques" is a collection of documents intended for engineersand technicians, people in the industry who are looking for more in-depthinformation in order to complement that given in product catalogues.

Furthermore, these "Cahiers Techniques" are often considered as helpful"tools" for training courses.They provide knowledge on new technical and technological developmentsin the electrotechnical field and electronics. They also provide betterunderstanding of various phenomena observed in electrical installations,systems and equipments.Each "Cahier Technique" provides an in-depth study of a precise subject inthe fields of electrical networks, protection devices, monitoring and controland industrial automation systems.

The latest publications can be downloaded from the Schneider Electric internetweb site.Code: http://www.schneider-electric.com

Section: Press

Please contact your Schneider Electric representative if you want either a"Cahier Technique" or the list of available titles.

The "Cahiers Techniques" collection is part of the Schneider Electrics"Collection technique".

Foreword

The author disclaims all responsibility subsequent to incorrect use ofinformation or diagrams reproduced in this document, and cannot be heldresponsible for any errors or oversights, or for the consequences of usinginformation and diagrams contained in this document.

Reproduction of all or part of a "Cahier Technique" is authorised with thecompulsory mention:"Extracted from Schneider Electric "Cahier Technique" no. ....." (pleasespecify).

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no. 213

Calculations forLV and HV networks

ECT 213 first issue, December 2004

Benot de METZ-NOBLAT

ESE engineer, worked for Saint-Gobain, then started at Merlin Gerinin 1986.He is a member of the Electrical Network competence group thatstudies electrical phenomena concerning the operation of networksand their interaction with devices and equipment.


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Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 213 / p.2


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Calculations forLV and HV networks

This Cahier Technique publication is intended to provide a general

overview of the main electrotechnical calculations carried out in

engineering studies on electrical systems at all voltage levels.

It is complementary to other Cahier Technique publications that deal more

with the operation of devices and installations in electrical systems. This

document will help owners, designers and operators understand the

importance of these calculations in ensuring correct use of the electrical

network and their impact on the total cost of ownership.

Contents

1 Introduction p. 4

2 Life of an electrical network 2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network p. 5

2.2.Electrical phenomena in networks p. 6

2.3 Types of networks and their operation p. 6

2.4 Necessary calculations p. 6

2.5 Summary table p. 7

3 Study prerequisites 3.1 Method p. 8

3.2 Role of the expert p. 10

4 Electrical-network calculations 4.1 Dependability p. 11

4.2 Steady-state conditions p. 13

4.3 Short-circuit p. 15

4.4 Protection p. 17

4.5 Stability p. 194.6 Harmonics p. 21

4.7 Overvoltages p. 23

4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility p. 26

4.9 Measurements for audits p. 28

5 Summary - Main risks for users - Answers provided by studies p. 31

6 Conclusion p. 33

Appendix 1. History p. 34

Appendix 2. Software p. 35

Appendix 3. Necessary data p. 36

Bibliography p. 37


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1 Introduction

Electrical networks have long been studied toensure effective supply of electricity to processes.The main aspects studied are design, operation andupgrades.

Note that, in this document, the term "process"refers to all applications of electricity users(commercial, infrastructure, industry, distribution-system manager).

Given the recent worldwide context, the importanceof electrical network studies is growing continuously.

cOver the past few years, the electrical world andits organisational modes have undergone rapid

change.vWith deregulation of the electric market, theeconomic rules have changed. Consumers can takeadvantage of the competition between suppliers andutilities can extend their markets.

vUsers are refocusing on their core business anddivesting secondary activities such as thoserequired to run electrical networks. Examples aresubcontracting of maintenance or operation ofinstallations to specialised service companies.

vTechnological progress has also had a number ofeffects.

First of all, digital electronics and computer networks

have opened new horizons, but also imposed newconstraints. They have improved electric systeminstrumentation and control, including remotecontrol, but at the same time have made processesmore sensitive to energy quality.

Secondly, the trend toward multiple energy sources(combined heat and power - CHP, renewableenergy) and the widespread use of non-linear loadscan, over time, have major impact on networkarchitecture and operating modes, due to voltagedisturbances, protection needs and regulations.

cElectricity is now considered a product like anyother, which implies a need for quality.Consumers want access to electrical energysuited to their needs. Given the extremelydiverse requirements of processes in terms ofsafety and quality, the electricity supplied mustmeet the stipulated specifications.At every level in the electrical supply chain(production, transmission, distribution), energysuppliers must satisfy customers and users inline with personalised contractual clauses.

cEnvironmental protection criteria have becomeobligatory in terms of the selection and

consumption of materials (minimumenvironmental impact) and energy (maximumefficiency).

cMore than ever, economic aspects are acrucial factor.

Users must optimise the total cost of ownership(TCO) of the electrical network. The TCOincludes all expenditures required to useelectrical energy, i.e. investments, operation,maintenance and the purchase of energy.

To demonstrate the importance of calculations inengineering studies, this Cahier Techniquepublication will successively discuss:

vaspects pertaining to the life of an electricalnetwork;

vcalculation methods;

vthe main calculations required according to thetype of network and the applications involved.

Note that the calculations presented hererepresent only one element in the overallelectrical-engineering process.


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2 Life of an electrical network

A number of aspects concerning the life of anelectrical network are discussed in this section,so that the readers can gain a better grasp ontheir own installations and take action at thecorrect level in terms of the subject presentedhere:clife cycle, i.e. the successive phases in the lifeof an electrical network from its design onthrough to upgrades (see Fig. 1 );celectrical phenomena encountered in systemoperation;ctypes of networks and their operation, whichdirectly determine the impact of events on

electrical components;cfinally, the calculations required to developeconomically and technically viable solutions,and which constitute one of the final selectioncriteria of the user.

2.1 Life cycle of an electrical network

Fig. 1: Life cycle of an electrical network.

Fo

recasts

-

Anti

cip

ation

New design

End

of life

Design

Construction

Maintenance

Upgrades OperationProcess

Network

The life cycle of an electrical network(see Fig. 1 ) comprises four typical phasesprimarily concerned by the calculationspresented in this document.

cDesign and installationThese are all the operations leading up to aninstallation that is ready to supply electricalpower to processes. Various studies determinethe basic choices, including the networkarchitecture, sizing of equipment, protection, etc.

During this phase, it is important to carry outcalculations that assist in making the decisionsand determine future performance.

cOperationThis is the operational phase of installations,involving the supply of electrical power toprocesses and during which various events,normal and abnormal, occur on the networkleading to operation in normal, downgraded orsafe modes.

The protection and automation systems step into deal with disturbances and critical situations.

They are defined by calculations, taking intoaccount all possible serious problems that canoccur.

cMaintenanceNetwork performance levels are maintained bymaintenance operations that can be preventive(before problems occur) or corrective (followinga problem).At times, additional measures and calculationsare required to solve unforeseen difficulties.

cUpgradesAdaptation of electrical installations to the

changing needs of processes generally results inmajor work to renovate, modify and expand thesystem. This step requires calculations for theplanned modifications, taking into account allacquired experience.

Correct execution of the calculations requiredduring the various phases of the life cyclerequires a good understanding of the electricalphenomena likely to occur in the network.


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2.2 Electrical phenomena in networks

An electrical network is made up of differentparts (components, devices and equipment) thatmutually influence each other. System operation

over time and on a given site is the result of thisinteraction, in compliance with the laws ofelectricity expressed by a set of equationsestablishing relations between values such asvoltage, current, impedance, time, etc.

The classification of electrical phenomenaaccording to the response time of the system(time constants) defines typical behaviour thatmust be handled on a case by case basis:

cdiscontinuous phenomena - temporaryinterruption of the supply;

cslow phenomena - standard changes inoperating conditions;

c

stable phenomena - steady-state conditions;cfast phenomena - influence of the variableeffects of rotating machines;

cconducted electromagnetic phenomena -influence of waves propagated by cables;

cradiated electromagnetic phenomena -radiation.

The main events associated with the aboveclasses of phenomena produce very diverseeffects on the distribution system and processes:

cinterruption and breaks in the supply ofelectricity;

cvoltage sags and variations;

ctransient currents;

charmonics;

cshort-circuits;

celectromechanical oscillations;

covervoltages due to switching, arcs andrecovery transients;

covervoltages caused by lightning;

ccoupling between power and control currents.

The magnitudes of the effects listed above

depend on the types of networks and operatingrequirements.

2.3 Types of networks and their operation

Certain parameters specific to the electricalinstallation in question determine the necessary

calculations.cType of source

vshort-circuit power;

vspeed and voltage regulators;

vharmonic pollution;

vnormal or replacement.

cType of load

vpower (active/reactive, installed/drawn);

voperating characteristics (commissioning,sensitivity to disturbances);

vphase unbalance;

v

harmonic loads;vpriorities of different loads for the process(normal / essential / vital).

cNetwork diagram

vvoltage levels;

vstructure (radial, loop, double/single supplies,double/single busbars);

vconfiguration (normal/back-up, redundant);

vsystem earthing arrangements (SEA);

vline lengths;

vpower-factor correction;

vtypes of switching devices;

vmaintenance requirements.

cStandards, regulations and local work habits

Analysis of the above parameters determinesthe types of studies capable of providing

quantitative solutions for the problems at hand.

2.4 Necessary calculations

The purpose of the calculations is to analyse andforesee system responses to various situations.The results impact on network architecture,selection of device and equipment characteristics,and operating rules.

The following sections cover:

cdependability;csteady-state conditions;

cshort-circuits;

cprotection;

cstability;

charmonics;

covervoltages;

celectromagnetic compatibility (EMC);cmeasurements for evaluations and audits.


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2.5 Summary table

The table ( Figure 2 ) presents along a doublescale (time and frequency) the informationdiscussed above:

vclasses of phenomena;

velectrical events;

vnetwork types and operation;

vtypes of calculation.

Class of phenomenonDiscontinuous

Slow

Fast

Stable

Conducted electromagnetic

Radiated electromagnetic

Time

Frequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 s

Time

Frequency 0.1 Hz 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

10 s 1 s 0.1 s 10 ms 1 ms 0.1 ms 0.01 ms 1 s

Electrical eventsInterruptions and breaks in supply

Voltage sags and

variations

Transient currents

Electromechanical oscillations

Harmonics, flicker

Short-circuits

Overvoltages caused by switching,

arcs and recovery transients

Overvoltages caused

by lightning

Coupling between power and control currents

Network type and operationReliability of system and componentsRegulation of system voltage

and frequency

Load operation

Overload protection, load shedding

Monitoring of rotating machines(speed and voltage)

Short-circuit protection

Power-electronics assemblies

Switchgear operation

Type of calculationDependability

Dynamic stability

Load flow

Harmonics

Short-circuit, protection, SEA

Switching transients

Atmospheric transients

EMC

Fig. 2: Summary of electrical-network operation.


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model. The main variable can be space, time orfrequency. Simulation on a computer requirescalculation software.

cQuantitative predictionThe simulations cover the possible situations

and relevant parameters. Processing andformatting of the results produces the desiredprediction.

cExperience, measurements and validationThis step checks that quantification was correctlycarried out, i.e. that the models and digitalprocessing produced significant results.Comparison of the prediction with measurementsis a validation technique that justifies the selectedmethod. It may be requested to guarantee theannounced results.

Digital means

Digital calculation is now widely used andcomprises a number of elements.

cHardwareThe calculation device is a computer, generally aPC, which now offers sufficient memory andcalculating speed.

cSoftwareAll system equations are processed by a specialprogram. The user-machine interface (UMI) canbe used to add data to the models, start the

calculation and present the results in the form ofvalues, tables and curves (see Fig. 4 ).

The table in appendix 2 lists the softwaresuitable for the different calculations.

cData bank

Each electrotechnical element is described by themodels and the characteristic physical values. Allof this data is stored in a data bank. Appendix 3list the main data required for calculations.

The investment consists essentially of thesoftware and its maintenance because the costof hardware has become negligible due towidespread use of PCs.

Most software programs are available on themarket, supplied by utilities, equipmentmanufacturers, electrical consulting firms,schools and universities.

Evaluation

This method is the means to confirm andquantify the phenomena foreseen by the theory.Under certain circumstances, it also revealspoorly identified phenomena.

A particularly difficult aspect is the experimentalvalidation of the results which requires experienceand know-how. For example, the necessarymeasures depend on the type of study anddisturbance monitoring (with interpretation of theresults) may be required.

Fig 4: UMI screen for data entry and the display of the results (source - Schneider Electric).


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3.2 Role of the expert

The above method has been proven by manyyears of practical experience.

But though it provides reliable results for the

purpose to which it is put, correct resultsnonetheless require the knowledge, know-howand experience of specialised engineers.

These experts are in a position to:

csift through all the available data and retainonly the relevant information;

crecognise the orders of magnitude and detectany inconsistencies;

cevaluate the tools and models to select the

most suitable;cmake the necessary approximations to simplifythe calculations without altering the results;

ccheck and interpret the results to proposeeffective solutions.


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4 Electrical-network calculations

This Cahier Technique publication covers allelectrical networks and consequently allapplications:

con public, industrial, commercial andresidential networks;

cfrom low to high voltages.

This section describes the studies listed above,systematically taking into account the followingpoints:

cthe purpose of the study;

cthe concerned electrical phenomena and theirorigin;

ctheir effects and the proposed solutions;

cthe contribution of the study and itsdeliverables;

can example of an application drawn from realstudies carried out by Schneider Electric.

The overall goal is simply to briefly inform thereader and the scope of each example istherefore necessarily limited. For more detailedtechnical information, consult the bibliographyand particularly the Cahier Techniquepublications addressing the various points.

The risks run by users and the answers providedby the studies are then summarised in the

following section.

4.1 Dependability

Over the course of the years, dependability is aneed that has spread to all processes that arevulnerable to energy outages.

The notion of dependability is defined by thevalues for:

cenergy availability;

cthe annual rate of outages;

cmaintainability.

Goals

The purpose of an operating-dependability studyon network behaviour is to:

cdesign the optimum network architecture inview of meeting the energy needs of the loads inthe installation, as defined by the continuity ofservice requirements imposed by the process,through:

vbetter control over the risks caused byoutages;

venhancement of the decision-aid criteria in

order to make a selection between a number ofsolutions;

cplan for downgraded operating situations,quantify their probability and define a level ofconfidence attributed to the supply of electricalenergy.

Phenomena and origins

The presence of electrical energy is generallycharacterised by:

creliability for a time interval DT, expressed asthe mean time between failures (MTBF) or themean time to (the first) failure (MTTF);

cavailability at time T;cthe mean time to repair (MTTR) a failure.

The supply of electrical energy dependsessentially on:

cthe topological structure of the electricalnetwork for all the possible operating modes andduring their changes in status condition (normal,downgraded and safe modes);

cnormal operation of the system when the

various operating scenarios run correctly;cthe organisation of maintenance;

cforecasts concerning accidental disturbances.

Effects and solutions

Electrically speaking, operating failures in anetwork manifest themselves in the mannerspresented below.

cEnergy outages of the utility. The distributionnetworks themselves fail or are disturbed (devicefailure, atmospheric disturbances, etc.). Theresults are voltage sags and more or less longoutages for the incoming substations. Depending

on the network topology and the meansimplemented, these disturbances may bepropagated down to the load level.

cInsulation faults. The resulting short-circuitsprovoke for the loads voltage sags or outagesthat depend on:

vthe protection devices installed and their levelof discrimination;

vthe "electrical" distance between the load andthe fault;

vthe network topology which may offer themeans to reconfigure the system through activeor passive redundancy.

cNuisance tripping which provokes a break inthe supply of power to the downstream loads.


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cSwitching faults when the switchgear does notcarry out the expected change in status(requested opening or closing of a circuit). Thesefailures are generally not a direct cause ofdisturbances for the loads. However, they areoften not detected and subsequently causenetwork malfunctions when other phenomenaoccur such as:

vloss of protection and/or discrimination;

vloss of reconfiguration or backup means.

The effects of voltage sags or outages dependon the sensitivity of the load.

Certain loads, such as computer equipment, aresensitive to voltage sags and very short outages(a few dozen milliseconds), whereas otherdevices can handle longer outages withoutdisturbing the process.

It is therefore important to characterise devices

by their degree of sensitivity.What is more, the actual down time of a load or aprocess does not depend necessarily on theduration of the outage. In certain cases, thereturn to normal operation can depend on muchmore than the simple return of electrical energy(e.g. preparation of clean rooms, set-up ofmachine tools, chemical processes, etc.).

From it above, it is clear that it is necessary todetermine the criticality of loads based on theconsequences of a shutdown.

The traditional means implemented to preventthese disturbances are:

c

autonomous sources (gensets, gas turbines,etc.);

cmultiple incomers from the distributionnetwork, as independent as possible;

cinstallation of power interfaces (UPSs, no-breakpower supplies, etc.);

csystems used to resupply loads via eithernetwork reconfiguration (source-changeoversystems, loops, etc.) or an alternate source

located as close as possible to the load;cinstallation of devices to detect failures as fastas possible (short intervals between preventivemaintenance work, automatic tests, etc.).

The contribution of a study

An operating-dependability study is the means tomanage the risks of negative events duringdesign of the network architecture by:

cdetermining the criticality of loads and,depending on their degree of sensitivity, thepossible negative events for the electricalinstallation. The goal is to identify the criticalpoints in the network and to determine their

performance criteria in terms of dependability;crunning quantitative analysis of one or morebasic architectures according to dependabilityfactors;

cfinally, justifying the decisions madeconcerning backup and/or interface systems,redundancy, preventive maintenance, given thecustomer's needs.

Example

This case is drawn from a study to improve theelectrical network of an automobile factory(see Fig. 5 ). The goal was to reduce thenumber and duration of outages due to failures

and maintenance activities.cPurpose of the calculationsImplement criticality analysis, quantify theexisting system, then propose improvements.

Fig. 5: Recommended modifications (in green) carried out on the electrical network of an automobile factory, diagram and results

(source Schneider Electric).

Fault-tree analysis

Parameter Current Future Gain

Non-availability of electrical

energy in hours per year 6.9 0.7 90 %

5.5 kV/380 Vtransformers

5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars 5.5 kV - 2000 A busbars

Backuptransformer

Backup switches

Workshops' feeders

5.5 kV substations supplied by open loop

Diagram of HV/LV distribution loop

2500 A LVcircuit breakers


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cResults of the calculationsThe calculations provided the data required todetermine modifications in the topology thatproduced the desired increase in dependability(see the diagram in Figure 5).

Annual lack of energy availability of less thanone hour was obtained and the maintenance ofelectrical equipment no longer results ininterrupting the supply of power to the process.

4.2 Steady-state conditions

Correct operation of an electrical network duringnormal, stable operating conditions results fromgood overall design of the system.The notion of steady-state conditions is definedin the installation and supply standards by:

cthe rated frequency of the electrical signals,called the power frequency;

cthe amplitude and phase of the voltage andcurrent waves, and their changes over time;

cthe active and reactive power levels (supplied,drawn, lost) and the corresponding energy.

Goals

The purpose of studying the behaviour understeady-state conditions is to:

cdesign networks (basic sizing of installationsand equipment, system control andmanagement);

ctake into account risk situations caused byinstallation malfunctions or problems inherent inthe electrical devices (wear, ageing).

Phenomena and originsThe phenomena requiring analysis are all thenormal exchanges of active and reactive energyat power frequencies between the sources andloads, via electrical connectors, under theforeseeable operating conditions of the suppliedprocess and the electrical system:

cflow of currents;

cdistribution of voltages;

ccorresponding active and reactive power.

Correct operation of networks under steady-stateconditions depends on:

cnormal use of the system, a consequence ofthe operation and requirements of the processand the network, i.e. the sources and loads inuse, variations in supply voltages, downgradedand emergency modes;

cthe structure of the electrical network for thevarious operating modes, in terms of topology,length of lines, voltage levels).


Electrically speaking, malfunctions occur in oneof the three forms presented below.

cSupply voltages outside tolerances

The voltage of supply networks is standardised.For example, standard EN50160 authorises

tolerances of 10% above and below the ratedvoltage. The entire network is subjected to the

consequences of these variations (within 10%).

Calculation of steady-state conditions musttherefore take into account the combinations of

extreme voltage and consumption values.

cVoltage drops on lines or transformers

Drops are due to the currents and depend on the

active (P) and reactive (Q) power levels, and the

impedance, resistive (R) and inductive (X),according to the law on relative variation

U/U = (R P + X Q)/U2.

A voltage drop produces various disturbances:

vvoltage variations within the 10% limits of the

rated value, depending on the changes in the

connected loads and sources;

vvoltage fluctuations, due to voltage variationsat frequencies that cause lights to flicker. These

fluctuations are provoked by certain typical high-

power variable loads, such as welding machines

or arc furnaces;

va voltage unbalance in the three-phase system

due to large single-phase or two-phase loads.

Voltage drops provoke:

vadditional temperature rise in electric circuitsand thus greater losses;

vtripping of circuit breakers and slowing of

machines;

vmalfunctions of sensitive loads and protectiondevices;

vbothersome flicker effect in lighting.

Voltage drops can be limited in a number ofmanners.

vReduction of R and X, by modifying the short-

circuit voltage of transformers, the size of lines ortheir length (layout of loads).

vIncrease of the rated voltage with a

corresponding reduction of current, which

provokes a significant reduction in losses

(quadratic law).

cInstantaneous propagation throughout the

network of the source voltage level and ofvoltage drops.

This effect impacts on each element to adifferent degree (quantitatively), depending onthe system topology.

Calculation of the steady-state conditions is themeans to foresee the distribution of voltages and


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to propose solutions in view of limiting

propagation by:

vincreasing the short-circuit power of thesources;

vusing regulators for the transformers (load and

no-load conditions);vpower-factor correction equipment, whichcorresponds to a negative voltage drop(capacitors, electromechanical conditioners inthe form of synchronous machines or staticsystems such as static Var compensators);

vrebalancing of the single-phase loads on thethree phases.


The purpose of this study is to ensure correctdesign of the electrical installation, taking intoaccount future changes and all processoperating modes through:

cthoughtful evaluation of the basic decisions;ccalculation of the power sums of the steady-state conditions;

ctaking into account the different operatingconfigurations of the electrical network,

including the emergency and backupstructures;

ceconomic optimisation (balance betweeninvestment and energy losses).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofa commercial site, using the dedicated ECODIALsoftware program developed by SchneiderElectric, in compliance with the UTE 15-500guide.

cPurpose of the calculationsOnly the first step in this study is presented here.It deals with the power sum of the installation,required to size the supply sources.

Note that for a low-voltage installation, theapparent-power values, after weighting byapplication of the load and diversity factors, aresummed algebraically, conductor losses are

neglected and the nodes are at the ratedvoltage.

cResults of the calculationsFigure 6shows the analysed single-line diagramwith the screen for the data and the results (the

Fig. 6: Design of a commercial site using the dedicated ECODIAL software, showing the single-line diagram and the power-sum screen

(source Merlin Gerin - Schneider Electric).

B1 MLVSRA

RB

Q1

C1TRA GE

T1

B5 T Workshop

Q5

C5

L5

x2

Offices

Q2

C2

G2

G

Q6

C6

L6

x4

Machine

R3

Q3

C3CAP

Q4

C4Workshop

Q7

C7

D7

E7

x4

Lighting

Lighting

Q8

C8.1

V8

M8M

x5

Var Speed Mot

C8.2

Var Speed Mot

Q9

K9

M9 M

x2

C9Motor


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characteristics of individual loads may beaccessed for each switchboard), where thecalculated total power for the source is 275 kVA.

This power sum is used to select the correctpower ratings for the source transformer and the

backup genset.

The values of the currents in lines are stored inmemory for later use in sizing the devices.

4.3 Short-circuit

Operation of an electrical network may result infaults in the form of high short-circuit currentsproducing serious consequences that must bemanaged as best possible.

A short-circuit is an accidental contact betweenconductors, determined by:

c its type, which indicates the elementsinvolved, i.e. single-phase (between a phase and

earth or neutral), three-phase (between threephases), phase-to-phase clear of earth (betweentwo phases), two-phase-to-earth (between twophases and earth),

cits initiation characteristics, i.e. the waveformof the current over time,

cits amperage (minimum and maximum values),

cits duration which is variable because the faultcan be transient or continuous,

cits origin, internal (within a device) or external(between connectors).

Goals

The purpose of studying a network subjected toa short-circuit is to:

cidentify risk situations that can possibly cause:

vdanger for persons,

vdestruction of devices due to electrodynamicforces, excessive temperature rise andovervoltages,

vmalfunctions that can result in total loss of thenetwork due to voltage sags and outages,

cassist in making basic design decisions to limitthe effects of faults, concerning:

v

system earthing arrangements (SEA),vsuitable sizing of devices,

vprotection settings, determined on the basis ofthe fault-current calculations.


The phenomenon requiring analysis is a suddenunbalance in the initial steady-state conditions:

cdue to the appearance of high currents andvoltage drops at the fault points,

cextension of the unbalance to the entirenetwork,

cresulting in a new balance rendering thesystem unusable in part or whole, morevulnerable and disturbed.

The origins of short-circuits in networks areaccidental disturbances caused by undesiredcontacts between conductors, dielectricbreakdown of insulation due to overvoltages,mechanical events (breaking of cable, falling

tree, animal) or human errors. The effectsdepend on the structure of the network, includingthe SEA, distant sources (distribution network) ornear sources (nearby genset).


Electrically speaking, short-circuits produce adirect effect in the form of an overcurrent and anindirect effect in the form of voltage variations.

cThe direct effect is produced on the installationcomponents according to the successive phasesof the initiation of the current:

vpeak value of the first half period, which is the

maximum instantaneous peak,vrms value of the AC component,

vvalue of the non-periodic (DC) component,which depends on when the fault occurs and thenetwork characteristics. If the value is equal tozero, the operating mode is said to besymmetrical, otherwise it is asymmetrical.The DC component adds to the AC component.

The effects impacting on equipment are:

vthe electrodynamic forces exerted on thebusbars and along cables,

vthe temperature rise due to the flow of currentin lines and switchgear,

vthe operating capability (C+O) of a device on ashorted circuit.

These effects are managed by selectingsufficiently sized devices and equipment:

velectrodynamic withstand of lines, whichcharacterises their mechanical strength,

vthe current vs. permissible durationcharacteristics, which represent the thermalwithstand capacity,

vthe short-circuit breaking and makingcapacities which define the capacity of circuitbreakers to handle the forces brought into play.


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cThe indirect effect is produced by voltage sags

or outages and by the increased potential of theexposed conductive parts (ECP), with as aresult:

vmalfunctions of sensitive devices, opening of

contacts, locking of variable-speed drives,vdisturbances in the transient behaviour ofrotating machines (see section 4.5),

vdielectric destruction of devices (see section 4.5),

vtouch voltages for persons.

These effects are countered by controlling:

vthe transient conditions (see section 4.5),

vovervoltages (see section 4.7),

vclearing of faults by implementing a suitableprotection system (see section 4.4).


The purpose of this study is to foresee the

constraints inherent in faults:

ccalculation of currents and voltages,

cfor the various types of faults,

cand for the operating configurations, providing

minimum and maximum values.

These results are then used to design the

electrical lines (e.g. the size of busbars and their

fixing system).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design of

a power station, where it was necessary to size

the devices in the substation.

cPurpose of the calculations

Check that the protection circuit breaker has the

capacity to break the short-circuit current

produced by a fault close to the generator, for

example on the substation busbars. The problem

lies in determining the most unfavourable current

initiation conditions (moment of the initial zero

crossing time).

cResults of the calculations

Them three-phase current is asymmetrical

(see Fig. 7 ) with the superposition of a damped

Fig. 7: Study on the substation of a power station, simulation of the asymmetrical three-phase short-circuit current

produced by a fault near the generator.

-10

0

Total current

Peak current Breaking current Steady state current

406020

80100

120140

160180

200220

240260

280300

320340

360380

400420

440460

480500

-5

0

5

10

15

20

DC component


19/40


4.4 Protection

An electrical network that malfunctions must not

endanger life and property.

Network protection is a set of devices that detect

abnormal situations and react in a reliable,

discriminate and rapid manner.

The main malfunctions were described in the

previous sections.

Goals

The purpose of calculating the protection system

is to:

cidentify abnormal operating situations that mayresult in accidents for humans, destruction of

devices or the loss of supply for consumers,

cdetermine the necessary measures to ensure

the protection of life and property, and the

availability of electrical energy. These measuresresult in the following necessary operations:

vdefinition of the protection system,

vselection, installation and combination of the

breaking and protection devices,

vdetermining the settings of protection devices.


The electrical phenomena that must be studiedare those present:

cduring operation at power frequency, when

operating malfunctions occur affecting the rated

values, e.g. power (overload), current, voltage,

frequency, etc.,

cduring faults, short-circuits and overvoltages.

Protection devices must be suited to:

cnormal system operation which may drift

toward abnormal conditions (overloads, voltage

sags, etc.),

cforeseeable accidental disturbances, including

short-circuits, human errors,

cnetwork architecture (radial, open or closed

loop).


A faulty protection system is manifested,

electrically speaking, by voltage drops

throughout the network, overvoltages, overloads,

short-circuit currents, where the main effects are:

caccidents for persons,

cdestruction of devices and equipment,

cmalfunctions of the electrical network and,

consequently, of the process.

These effects can be avoided by:

cfirst, fundamental decisions concerning:

vthe SEA: isolated (IT), earthed (TT or TN),

impedant, compensated,

vthe breaking devices: circuit breaker, fuse,

disconnector-fuse, disconnector,

vthe discrimination system: current, time,

energy, ZSI, directional, differential,

cthen, by coordinating the protection devicesbased on the results of the short-circuit study(settings of relays and trip units, cascading

between LV circuit breakers).

Practically speaking, this means:

vde-energising the faulty section of the network

as fast as possible,

vmaintaining energised the non-faulty sections

and, if possible,

vbackup protection by the upstream device,

where the general idea behind the protection

settings is to trip for the smallest fault current

and not to trip for the highest normal current.


The purpose of this study is to ensure correct

operation of the electrical installation, where the

major parameters are:

cfaults on the distribution network (phase faults,

earth leakage and faults, overloads),

cfaults in the machines operating on the site

(rotating machines, computer equipment, etc.),

cthe operating configurations, i.e. the sources,

loads, emergency modes, future extensions,

cthe devices in the protection system: sensors,

relays/trip units, breaking devices,

cthe protection plan and the settings of theprotection devices.

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design ofthe network for a petrochemical site.


Select the protection functions for one of the HV/

LV transformers in the installation and determinethe settings for a maximum three-phase short-

circuit on the LV side.

sinusoidal and a non-periodic current, hence the

characteristic currents (peak, interrupted,continuous).

The maximum constraints exerted on the

installation are used to select the circuit breakerin compliance with standard IEC 62271-100.


20/40


cResults of the calculations

The part of the installation in question is shownwith its protection system and the table lists the

recommended settings for the protection

functions (see Fig. 8 ). The time/LV current

curves in Figure 9show that discrimination isensured between the sections upstream and

downstream of the transformer.

Relay ANSI Type Setting Delay

code

A1 49 Thermal 120% 105 min

A2 50/51 Overcurrent 1400 A 0.5 s

Definite time

A2 50/51 Overcurrent 3300 A 0.1 s

Definite time

B 50/51 Overcurrent 12000 A 0.25 s

Definite time

C 50/51 Overcurrent 3200 A 0.04 s

Definite time

Fig. 8: Discrimination study for a petrochemical site, diagram and types of protection relays selected for a HV/LV

transformer.

Fig. 9: Discrimination diagram for protection devices placed upstream and downstream of the transformer.

400 V

6 kV

M

B 50/51

C 50/51

A1

A2

49

50/51

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1000

t (s)

1 1

3

4

2

0

0

1000 10000 1e+005 1e+006

I(A)

(O): Fault current on LV outgoer: maximum three-phase

A1(1): thermal, A2(2): overcurrent, B(3): overcurrent, C(4): overcurrent on LV outgoer


21/40


4.5 Stability

such as load variations, start of large motors,load switching and busbar management, etc.

cStructure of the electrical network

This category includes the topology, sourceregulations (generators and transformers) andthe protection and automation systems in theelectrical network.


Instability is manifested, electrically speaking, bythe main types of malfunctions listed below.

cFrequency variationsAn unbalance in the active power between theproduction centre and the loads results in afrequency variation throughout the system. Thevariation may exceed the permissible limits (e.g.2%) beyond which the production centres are

disconnected from the network. This situationcan degenerate to the point where the entiresystem fails.

This problem can be avoided by automaticallyand gradually shedding loads, as well as bycalling on reserve power (genset startup andregulation at maximum power).

cVoltage variationsVoltage drops are due to power flows (primarilyreactive) in lines and transformers, or to veryhigh currents.

This cumulative phenomenon (a drop in voltageproduces an increase in the current and vice

versa) can result in system failure ormalfunctions.

This risk is limited by making available sufficientand well distributed reactive power (regulation ofsource reactive power, compensation capacitors,transformer load regulators, position of reactivesources), by load shedding and changes inmotor start modes.

cCascading overloadsThe elimination of circuits due to temperaturerise or damage results in load transfers to othercircuits, again with the risk of a cumulative effect.

That is why systems are normally designed to

accept the loss of a line (N-1 operating situation)by modifying the network operating topology orthe overload protection devices, or by starting upnew sources.

cLoss of synchronisationShort-circuits result in desynchronisationbetween generators, which may make itnecessary to disconnect certain machines. Theresulting current and voltage oscillations in thenetwork and the loss of elements (loads orsources) disconnected by their protectionsystems can lead to the failure of the entirenetwork.

Stability concerns essentially high-powernetworks, with high voltages and generally awide-area and complex topological structure,possibly with one or more energy-productionsites.Correct operation of an AC electrical network isthe result of continuous adjustments in thebalance (hence stability) between energyproduction and consumption over time andspace.

The notion of network stability is characterisedby:

csteady-state stability (minor changes) wherethe system returns to its initial status following anormal, low-amplitude disturbance,

ctransient stability/instability, where the systemshifts from one stable state to another, ordiverges, following a sudden disturbance (loss ofload or source, start of a high-power motor),

cdynamic stability, where system operation iscontrolled by limiting the negative effects ofdisturbances (e.g. protection of vital loads) usingappropriate solutions (e.g. load shedding).

Goals

The purpose of studying the dynamic behaviourof a network is to identify risk situations that mayresult in transient instability and to determine thenecessary counter-measures in view ofmaintaining dynamic stability. These measures

deal with:cclearing electrical faults within acceptable timelimits, by the protection system,

coptimising operating modes,

csuitable sizing of the installation.


Instability phenomena occur throughout thenetwork in the form of:

celectromechanical oscillations of machinesaround their position of synchronous balance,resulting in variations in speed and the ratedpower frequency (50 or 60 Hz),

coscillations in current flows in the linesbetween sources and/or loads, producingexchanges of active and reactive power andresulting in voltage drops.

Instability has three possible origins.

cAccidental disturbancesThis category includes short-circuits, voltagesags, outages and failure of sources, nuisancetripping, device failure, human errors, etc.

cNormal network operationThis category includes the consequences ofoperation and the requirements of processes


22/40


This situation is avoided by correct monitoring ofgenerator settings, an effective protection planand a well thought out load-shedding plan.


A study systematically covers the mainphenomena presenting a risk and adapts to theparticular aspects of each situation requiringanalysis by taking into account the responses ofthe process:

cthree-phase short-circuit (two-phase or single-phase where applicable),

closs of lines, sources or loads,

cmotor start-up,

csharing, shedding and connection of loads,

csource electromechanical regulation modesand coupling (public networks, turbines andgenerators).

To be complete, the study must include:

ccontingency analysis taking into accountstandard operating problems (e.g. the N+1 rule,short-circuits at different voltage levels, etc.) andeven exceptional problems,

csimulation of the operation of protection devicesand automation systems (actions and chronology),

canalysis of sensitivity to the decisive parameters(e.g. fault clearing time, motor characteristics,setting coefficients for generator regulators, etc.).

Example

This case is drawn from design study for aheavy-industry production site.

The installation comprises a number of sourcessupplying the loads (motors and passive loads)via two sets of busbars (priority and non-priority)(see Fig. 10 ).

1000

0

2000

Tripping in less than 300 ms Tripping in 350 ms

V

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The voltage returns to normal.

The process is correctly resupplied.

fault

B1

C

Utility

G1O

C

non-priority priority

O

G2

1000

0

2000

3000

V

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The voltage does not return to normal.

The process is not correctly resupplied.

fault

0.85

0.800

0.90

0.95

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The pump reaccelerates. The process continues.

fault

0.85

0.800

0.90

0.95

1

1 2 3 4 5 6

sec

The pump stalls. The process shuts down.

fault

Fig. 10: Stability study on a heavy-industry production site. Diagram and significant curves following tripping.


23/40


The following was noted during a short-circuit on

the secondary of a transformer connected to thepublic utility:

va voltage drop that provoked, among other

problems, a slowing of the motors,

vwhen the fault was cleared, the current drawnby the motors rose to the in-rush level, producing

considerable voltage drops and insufficient

reacceleration torques for certain motors that

stalled or crawled.

The motors can reaccelerate only if the fault is

sufficiently short.

cPurpose of the study

The short-circuit is normally cleared by the

transformer protection devices (opening of the

upstream and downstream circuit breakers). The

goal is to determine the maximum clearing time

that ensures the dynamic stability of the network.cResults of the study

The voltage and speed curves show that networkstability is ensured, for a three-phase short-

circuit on the secondary of the transformer, when

the protection devices are set to less than300 ms.

4.6 Harmonics

Harmonics concern essentially electrical

networks supplying non-linear loadsrepresenting a high power level with respect to

the source and capacitors.

All AC networks encounter some distortion of the

current and voltage sinusoidal waveforms due to

the types of loads and/or the sources.

Harmonic pollution of a network is quantified by

the signal distortion transformed into a spectrum

(amplitude and phase) with the fundamental (50

or 60 Hz) and the harmonic orders (successive

whole number orders), from which it is possible

to deduce:

cthe total harmonic distortion (THD) of the

current and voltage, which measures the rmsvalue of the distortion with respect to thefundamental,

cthe laws governing the combination of

harmonic values with respect to the amplitude

and phase.

Goals

The purpose of studying the response of anetwork to harmonics is to:

cidentify risk situations which may causemalfunctions or temperature rise in certaindevices, premature ageing, electromagnetic ormechanical disturbances,

cthen determine the precautions required tocontrol the situations, maintaining pollution atacceptable levels with respect to standards(devices, installation, supply).

These precautions cover:

cidentification of the polluting loads,

cestimation of filtering solutions,

csuitable sizing of installations,

coptimisation of operating architectures.


The different electrical phenomena relatedto the presence of harmonics occur

throughout the network, via interdependentmechanisms:

cgeneration of harmonic current or voltage

sources by the polluting loads,

ceffects of the pollution in the immediate vicinity

of the polluting sources,

cpropagation of the harmonics to the entire

network with effects produced on all loads,

ccomposition of the pollution at all points in the

network at each instant,

cpossible amplification of the pollution throughresonance (plug circuit) when capacitors are

present (long lines, power-factor correction).

Harmonics have a number of causes:

cnormal operation of the network, due to

process operation and requirements, including

operation of polluting loads at different speeds,

starting or stopping of other loads,

cthe structure of the electrical network, including

the voltage levels, separation of polluting and

vulnerable loads, the relative power of sources,

polluting loads and capacitors.


This pollution is manifested, electrically

speaking, by the main types of malfunctions

listed below.

cDirect sources of pollution

The loads distorting the current represent the

vast majority of the devices causing harmonics.

They are said to be "non linear" because the

current drawn does not have the same waveform

as the supply voltage. Each type of load has a

specific harmonic spectrum.


24/40


There are passive loads (welding machines, arcfurnaces, lamps) and power-electronic loads thatare increasingly used (variable-speed drives,rectifiers and dimmers, UPSs and devices withswitch-mode power supplies).

The voltage and power ranges of these devicesare very wide, ranging from small household

appliances (LV, a few dozen Watts) up to large

industrial loads (HV, dozens of MW).

Voltage pollution is due to the design of coils and

magnetic circuits of devices (rotating machines,

transformers).

The limitation of harmonics caused by loads is

possible, to a certain extent, by 12-pulse bridges,

converters drawing a sinusoidal signal,

smoothing inductors and built-in filters.

cDirect effects of pollution on loads

v

Harmonic currents cause stray powerphenomena resulting in additional temperature

rise and energy losses.

This can be avoided by oversizing devices

according to derating coefficients defined by

equipment standards.

vVoltage distortion caused by harmonics

disturbs operation of electronic devices (e.g. shift

in zero crossing time of the reference wave).

vHarmonics also product mechanical (noise,

vibrations) and electromagnetic (low currentsaffected by high currents) effects

(electromagnetic compatibility - EMC).

cTransmission results in harmonic propagation,amplification and addition.

vThe loads drawing harmonic currents inject the

disturbances into the entire network, as a

function of the impedances encountered. The

result is voltage distortion supplied to the loads

throughout the network.

vIn addition, the presence of capacitors can

amplify the pollution due to resonance (plug

circuit) made up of the capacitor in parallel with

the network inductors).

vIn its own immediate vicinity, each polluting

load suffers the negative effects of its ownharmonics.

Finally, at each point in the network, the vector

composition of the various harmonics also

produces its effect at all times. Practicallyspeaking, the harmonics are summed using a

standardised method that takes into account a

non-simultaneity factor (IEC 60871).

cThe risk criteria are quantified by standards

and regulations based on the distortion levels.

Generally speaking, a situation is considered

serious when the THDU reaches 5% anddifficulties are certain to occur above 10%. That

is why utilities contractually undertake to supply

voltage under a given level of THD and users

must limit the harmonic currents injected.Practically speaking, risk situations are

evaluated according to power criteria applied to

polluting loads and capacitors.

cA number of methods exist to limit risks:

vincrease the short-circuit power of sources,

vseparate sensitive loads from polluters,

vinstall antiharmonic inductors (capacitors areprotected against harmonic overloads),

vinstall passive filters (harmonics are trapped in

circuits with a low inductance),

vinstall active filters (harmonics are neutralised

by harmonic injection in phase opposition).


The purpose of this study is to ensure correct

operation of the installation when the harmonic

loads are turned on, by:

ccalculation of distortion, taking into account the

spectrum of the polluters (amplitudes and

phases, laws governing composition and

propagation),

coptimum calculation of filtering,

ccalculation of device oversizing (steady-state

and transient harmonic constraints),

canalysis of network operating diagrams in thevarious operating modes (normal and

downgraded for connection of sources, polluters

and loads),

canalysis of sensitivity to important parameters

(e.g. variation in the values of electrical elements

in the network as a function of the accuracy,

temperature, etc.).

Example

This case is drawn from a study on the design of

a steel mill with a DC arc furnace and a capacitor

bank for power-factor correction (see Fig. 11 ).

The furnace draws whole-number harmonics(rectifier) superimposed on a DC spectrum(unstable arc).


The capacitor bank forms a plug circuit with the

system inductors (antiresonant, third order),

resulting in a prohibitively high level of THD(18.5%). It is necessary to calculate the filtering

required to reduce the THD to an acceptablelevel.


25/40


cResults of the study

Mounting of the capacitors in three damped

resonant filters (tuned to orders 3, 5, 7) modifies

the network impedance spectrum and reducesthe voltage THD to an acceptable value of 3%.

Fig. 11: Study on harmonics for a steel mill (diagram and spectra).

225 kV network

Pscn = 6000 MVA

Psc min = 4800 MVA

63 kV cable

L = 1000 m

S = 1000 mm2

140 MVA

arc furnace

225 kV/63 kV

s = 170 MVA

Usc = 12.5 %

63 kV busbars

Harmonic filters

50

100

150 Without filter

Dampened filter

Impedance as seen by the load

Impedance spectrum as seen from the 63 kV busbars.Current spectrum of the furnace.

Ohm

2 4 6 8

10

20

30

Amp

5 10 Harmonicorder

Harmonicorder

4.7 Overvoltages

Overvoltages concern all electrical networks,which however differ in vulnerability according totheir topology, voltage level, types of devicesemployed and operating modes.

Operation of AC networks is always subject tovoltage disturbances in the form of peak voltagesbeyond the limits stipulated by standards orspecifications.

Overvoltages in a network are quantified by theamplitude and shape of the waveform and by theduration of the disturbance:

covervoltage coefficient, ratio between the peakamplitude of the voltage and the rms value of theoperating voltage,

ccontinuous sinusoidal overvoltage (at powerfrequency) for a long duration (over one hour),


26/40


ctemporary sinusoidal overvoltage (near powerfrequency), for a relatively long duration(between 1.5 times the power frequency and onehour),ctransient overvoltage (oscillating or not),generally rapidly damped, very short (less thanthe power frequency). This category includesovervoltages with a slow front (e.g. switchingimpulses), a fast front (lightning strikes) and avery fast front.

Goals

The purpose of a network study on overvoltagesis to:

cidentify risk situations that may result in:

vdestruction of devices and equipment bydielectric breakdown, electrodynamic constraintsand ageing,

vmalfunction of electronic devices,

cdetermine the measures required to limit theireffects to a minimum, thus ensuring effectivewithstand of network devices and equipment.

These measures cover:

cinstallation design (SEA),

cestimation of protection devices (type, locationand rating),

ccorrect sizing of devices and equipment,

coperating advice.


The observed phenomena are dampedoscillating exchanges of energy between circuits(inductors, capacitors, resistors) occurring

instantaneously by local status changes (e.g.

device switching). Depending on the type ofovervoltage, they are manifested by:

ctheir formation at the point of change,

ctheir propagation to the rest of the network,

according to the laws of reflection, refraction andoverlaying of the transmitted waves, with

attenuation that is a function of the frequencies

involved (the higher the frequency, the faster the

damping),

cthe possible combination of different types of

overvoltage, likely to increase the constraints.

Overvoltages affecting networks have a number

of origins:

cnormal network operation, including load

switching, switching on or off of inductive orcapacitive circuits (cables, lines, capacitors,

transformers, motors), the specific operation ofprotection devices,

cthe structure of the electrical network, including

the SEA, voltage levels, the length of lines,

caccidental disturbances, including faults and

the measures to clear them, nuisance tripping,lightning strikes.

Electrically speaking, these overvoltages are

grouped according to their main types

(see Fig. 12 ):

cat power frequency, which may have different

causes such as insulation faults, load unbalance,

overcorrection of the power factor, etc.,

cswitching impulses, due to connection or

disconnection (common events during normal

Overvoltage Low frequency Transient

class Permanent Temporary Slow front Fast front Very fast front

Shape

Shape range f = 50 or 60 Hz 10 < f < 500 Hz 5.000 > Tp > 20 s 20 > T1 > 0,1 s 100 > Tf > 3 ns

(frequency, rising Tt u3.600 s 3.600 uTt u0.03 s 20 msuT2 300 s uT2 0.3 > f1 > 100 MHzfront, term) 30 > f2 > 300 kHz

3 ms uTt

Standardised shape f = 50 or 60 Hz 48 if i62 Hz Tp = 250 s T1 = 1.2 s (*)

Tt (*) Tt = 60 s T2 = 2.500 s T2 = 50 s

Standardised (*) Short duration Switching Lightning (*)

withstand test power frequency impulse test impulse test

test

(*) to be specified by the relevant product Committee

Tt TtT2

Tp T2T1 Tf Tt

Fig. 12: The different types of overvoltage.


27/40


operation of the network) of a device, such as atransformer, motor, reactor, capacitor or cable/line,

cresulting from faults or their clearing. The faultis considered an involuntary or inevitable

switching operation, followed by a secondoperation when it is cleared,

clightning impulses, following a lightning strikewhich is a sudden discharge of current that canreach several thousand amperes.


Depending on their type, overvoltages producedifferent effects and the solutions to avoid themmust be suited to each type.

cPower frequency

vAn insulation fault in a network causes anovervoltage with a theoretical coefficient of up to

1.7 (single-phase fault with an isolated neutral).

Similarly, breaking of the neutral conductorcauses overvoltages by displacing the neutralpoint.

vA load unbalance in a three-phase network canunbalance the system to the point of saturatingthe transformers and disturbing operation ofmotors.

vOvercorrection of the power factor due to shuntcapacitors raises the voltage if the load level islow.

vA line carrying no load behaves like a series ofLC circuits with a gain greater than one (Ferrantieffect), resulting in a continuous overvoltage atthe end of the line with a non-negligibleamplitude for distances greater than 300 km(factor of 1.05). This effect is even greater whena load is disconnected at the end of a long line.

vFerro-resonance, a non-linear oscillationbetween a capacitor and a saturable inductor,may result in overvoltages in some situations,e.g. a voltage transformer in series with an opencircuit breaker or between a phase and theneutral in an IT system, etc.

All these risks can be limited by design andoperating precautions. For example, correctly

balanced loads, checks on initial energisation ofcapacitors, installation of voltage relays onincomers.

cSwitching impulsesThe resulting overvoltages depend on the loadconditions (load or no load), with or without aresidual load, according to a certain periodicityand taking into account the actual physicalbehaviour of the switching device in terms ofpre-arcing, withstand to the transient recoveryvoltage (restrike/re-ignition) and current pinch-off.

vWhen a capacitor is switched in at themaximum network voltage, the overvoltagecoefficient can reach 2 and for disconnection thecoefficient can reach 3.

vDuring switching of a transformer or motor, the

overvoltage coefficient can reach 2, in additionthe steep front of the transients producesparticularly high constraints on the initial spiresof the windings of the devices.

vDuring line switching, the overvoltagecoefficient can reach 3. This is the case forreconnection of a long line with a trappedresidual charge (capacitive load).

Switching overvoltages can cause dielectricbreakdown in devices and system malfunction.

The recommended protection devices act bylimiting and damping the energy oscillationsbetween the circuits, through insertion resistors

in circuit breakers and contactors, checks at thetime of switching by a synchroniser, RC surgearrestor or even lightning arrestors.

cImpulses during faults (appearance andclearing).

The occurrence of a fault generally results in anovervoltage coefficient of less than 2 and it ismore the overcurrents that are a problem (seesection 4.3).

Fault clearing provokes an overvoltage with acoefficient of less than 2.5 (worst case of asingle-phase fault with an isolated neutral). Thetransient is overlaid on the temporary situation

caused by the fault.

cLightning strikes

The sudden current discharge can reach severalhundred kiloamperes, combined with a voltagethat is a function of the network impedances.This current can discharge:

vto a line or a metal structure. Duringpropagation, the resulting voltage waves cancause insulator flash-over and overvoltages,

vto earth causing an increase in the potential,which causes voltage increases in the earthelectrodes of installations.

Lightning currents produce thermal andmechanical effects (electrodynamic forces),whereas lightning voltages cause dielectricbreakdown of devices and system malfunctions.

Protection devices act in two manners:

v first, they avoid direct lightning impacts onelectrical systems and divert them to earth(lightning rods, lightning shields and earthelectrodes),

vsecondly, they direct the lightning currentsconducted in the network to earth to limitovervoltages and avoid dielectric breakdown


28/40


(spark gap units, lightning arrestors, varistors,

high-quality earth electrodes, etc. in LV/MV/HV).


A study intended to prevent the negative effects

of overvoltages in installations comprises thefollowing steps:

cqualitative evaluation of the risk phenomena,which depend on the studied network,

ccalculation of the generated overvoltages and

study of their transmission to the system,

canalysis of sensitivity to important parameters,

cdefinition of the protection devices,

cdetermination of device and equipment

insulation in compliance with the applicable

standards.

ExampleThe selected case is drawn from a study on the

design of a HV distribution substation that must

be securely protected against overvoltages

caused by lightning striking the incoming line.


The purpose is to size devices for lightning

overvoltages taking into account the

recommendations of standard IEC 60071-1 and

2 on insulation coordination, which quantifies the

risk. The mean time between two destructive

faults is between 250 and 1 000 years.

c

Results of the calculationsStatistic simulation of lightning impacts on theline using the electrogeometric model indicates

the distribution of the overvoltages propagated in

the substation and is used to deduce the

probability of the resulting risk (see table inFigure 13 ).

Optimum substation protection against lightning,

quantified as per the insulation-coordination

standard, consisted of lightning arrestors in thesubstation and the level of protection shown infigure 13.

Struck line

P1 lightning arrestor



GIS substation

Transformer

Cable

Risk for:

Installed Cable GIS Transformer

lighning substation

arrestors (LIWL* 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV) (LIWL 650 kV)

P1 1454 years 425 years 299 years

P1+ P3 2053 years 812 years 592 years

P1+ P2 + P3 10E 9 years 10E9 years 2.7 10E6 years(*) LIWL: lightning impulse withstand level.

Fig. 13: Study on lightning overvoltages for the design

of a HV distribution substation, diagram and risk

estimates.

4.8 Electromagnetic compatibility

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) concernsall electric and electronic devices, systems andinstallations. The notion is defined in theinternational standards as the capacity of adevice, system or installation to operate normallyin its electromagnetic environment without

causing disturbances.

Goals

The purpose of an EMC study is to:

cidentify the situations likely to provoke and/orbe subjected to system malfunctions duringoperation in view of evaluating the

consequences,

cprovide the suitable solutions based on the

standards and good professional practices to

limit the effects in installations.


Studies cover all electromagnetic disturbances:

cresulting from interaction between various

network elements, i.e. the source, coupling via

the transmitter and the victim for which normal

operation is disturbed,

cover a spectrum, depending on the waveform,ranging from continuous up to a GHz and higher,

ccharacterised by their amplitude and energy,


29/40


caccording to the conduction and/or radiation

modes.

Electromagnetic emissions have a number of

origins:

cnormal network operation, because voltages

and currents can be natural sources ofdisturbances,

cthe network structure and installation

implementation, which can facilitate the

transmission of disturbances.


Transmission of electromagnetic disturbancestakes place via different types of coupling:

ccapacitive (voltage) between nearbyconductors, e.g. closely laid cables, etc.,

cinductive (current) between conductors, e.g.cables with high and low currents, etc.,

cantenna effect (electromagnetic radiation), e.g.output cable of an electronic device with HFchopping, etc.,

cgalvanic due to the common impedance ofcircuits, e.g. a single conductor for the supply ofa data-acquisition device and measurementacquisition.

The noted effects concern essentially:

cthe malfunction of elements in the electricalsystem and the process controlled by sensitivedevices,

ctemperature rise and/or the destruction of

electronic, analogue or digital components.All these effects are managed by goodprofessional practices in view of:

creducing the level of disturbances emitted bythe sources,

creducing the coupling modes,

creducing the vulnerability of the victims(hardening), by adapting, for the concernedfrequency ranges:

vthe manner in which the SEA is taken into

account,vwiring, e.g. cable selection, separation andrunning of power cables and low-current (signal)cables,

vshielding, e.g. the types of screen (conductingor ferromagnetic), the connection mode ofterminals, management of earth loops,

vuse of electrical filters tuned to the signalsrequiring attenuation.


Correct design of an electrical installationrequires a study to:

c

identify the sources of disturbances, thecouplings and the victims,

cdefine the means required to obtain a systemcomplying with standards.

Example

This case is drawn from a study on an industrialsite where the measurement-acquisition andvideo systems were disturbed by operation ofthe process test facility.


Determine the action required for normaloperation of the metrology system.

cResults of the study

The SEAs of the test facility (TN-C) and theacquisition system (TN-C-S) are different(see Fig. 14 ). The 50 Hz leakage currents andthe harmonics caused by the variable-speed

Fig. 14: EMC study for measurement-acquisition and video systems installed near a test facility, diagram showing

the path of leakage currents and harmonics.

VSDDistribution (TN-C)

i 50 Hz + harmonics

i 50 Hz + harmonics

i 50 Hz + harmonics

PEN PEN

PEN

TN-C TN-S

N

PE

AC

DC

Motor

Test facil ity

Inverter

Acquisitionsystem

MLVS

AC

DC PhN


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drive in the test facility loop back to the supplyvia two possible paths, the test bench and theacquisition system, with current levelsproportional to the admittances.

The study recommended protecting theacquisition system from its environment usinggalvanic isolation for its lines, a practical,

effective and inexpensive solution.

4.9 Measurements for audits

This section fills out the previous sections by

highlighting the importance of measurements in

monitoring an electrical network and improving

its effectiveness.

Measurements are indispensable when an audit

of the network is necessary:

ceither during normal operation of the system,

at start-up of the installation or during major

modifications, to check that the network operates

as planned during the design stage,

cor following unexplained problems such as thedestruction of devices or the loss, in part or in

whole, of power.

Even a well designed network can suffer

problems or malfunctions that are difficult to

understand, in which case measurements are a

basic element in establishing a diagnosis.

Measurements for network audits

The purpose of measurements is to:

ccheck electrotechnical values following start-up

of an installation,

c

monitor consumption and energy quality,cidentify and explain major or reoccurring

problems in the system,

crecommend solutions for problems,

cvalidate the models used in network

simulations.

Phenomena studied

The phenomena studied, for which

measurements are required, span all the

elements discussed in the above sections.

The solutions decided in view of avoiding their

effects result from:

cobservations made during visits to the

installation,

cprocessing of the electrical measurements

made by permanent devices and devices

temporarily installed,

celectrotechnical calculations,

cchecks on compliance with standards and

good professional practices.

The contribution of an audit

The purpose of an audit is to maintain or improve

the operating conditions of an electrical network,

with different levels of complexity and

requirements, by:

ca general understanding of system based on

essentially qualitative checks concerning the

safety of life and property, the long-term operation

of devices, power sums, the protection plan and

the presence of the necessary instrumentation,

cachieving satisfactory system performance withrespect to defined qualitative criteria, e.g.dependability analysis, analysis of electrotechnical

risks, sizing of the network and of devices,

coverall optimisation of the system, e.g. energyquality, utility contract and consumption,

maintenance and replacement parts, and ranking

of the proposed action according to its importance,

ctaking into account the existing system and

any future changes.

Note. The development of data-exchangetechniques (IT) has opened new horizons with,

for example, disturbance monitoring (see Fig. 15

and 16) and remote diagnostics and monitoring

of electrical networks in various fields (industrial

and commercial) (see Fig. 17).

An audit example

This example is drawn from the audit on the

electrical network of a micro-electronics industry,

carried out to provide a general check-up after

many years of operation.

cPurpose of the audit

The purpose of the audit is to detect any weakpoints in the electrical installation that could

impact on the quality of the energy supply.cResults of the audit

The aspects specific to the electrical network

and its components made clear the need to

make improvements on the network architecture,the protection plan and to take into account the

ageing of the HV/LV transformers.

The table in figure 18(see page 30) sums up

the results of the audit.


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Fig. 15: SEPAM Series 40 digital protection relay

(Merlin Gerin brand - Schneider Electric).

Fig. 17: PM70 remote metering device (Merlin Gerin

brand - Schneider Electric).

Fig. 16: Oscillogram of a fault recorded by a SEPAM relay.


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Chapter Item Measurements Diagnostic Action required Priority

level

Network diagram Network architecture No In a number of substations, for a Run an availability study to Not urgent

fault on the LV busbars, no improve the architecture.

redundancy is available during

repairs.

Major fault No After a fault on a HV loop, resupply Check the operating mode of the Not urgent

of the substations requires manual UPSs.

operations. Study the need for LV gensets.

No LV gensets to supply critical

switchboards.

Earthing No The HV SEA is isolated to ensure Study the possibility of an Must be

good continuity of service, but the impedant SEA. studied

number of earth faults is on the rise

with network ageing.

Protection plan 130 kV protection No In certain configurations, Revise the protection plan Urgent

overcurrent protection can result in implementing differential and

the total failure of the HV network. directional functions.

Check the discrimination offered

by the protection devices between

the utility and the factory.

15 kV protection No Discrimination is partial in the Restudy the settings of the Urgent

cases listed below: protection devices for the HV

cinsufficient time delay between network, based on the calculation

upstream and downstream ends of of the short-circuit currents. Study

lines, the possibility of logic-based

cin part of the network, the time discrimination.

required to clear an LV fault can

reach several seconds.

Dielectric Lightning impulse No Transformers equipped with No action required.

characteristics of on HV side lightning arrestors.

HV/LV transformers

Lightning impulse No No lightning arrestors on the LV Study lightning protection for the Not urgent

on LV side loads. LV network.

Switching impulse No The setting for overcurrent No action required.

when HV CB opens protection accepts in-rush currents.

No risk of nuisance tripping.

Internal resonance Yes No HF overvoltages measured. No action required.

at HF

HV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.

LV harmonics Yes Negligible THD. No action required.

Switching impulse Yes Capacitor contactors are not Study the possibility of insertion Not urgent

when capacitor bank equipped with insertion resistors. resistors to reduce the in-rush

opens currents.

Thermal Overload and Yes No overloads. No action required.characteristics of harmonic currents Negligible harmonic values.

HV/LV transformers

Continuous Yes Negligible values. No action required.

overvoltage (HV)

HV harmonics Yes Negligible values. No action required.

DC current (LV) No Phenomenon not taken into account. Must be

checked

SEA: System earthing arrangement.

Fig. 18: Results of an audit on an electrical network in the micro-electronics industry


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5 Summary - Main risks for users -Answers provided by studies

Main risks for user Answers provided by studies

DependabilitySee section 4.1

Stmeady-state conditionsSee section 4.2

Short-circuitSee section 4.3

Protection

See section 4.4

Accidents involving persons.

Destruction of property.

Production shutdown.

Loss of information (computer systems, etc.).

Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement ofequipment, repairs, production shutdown (lostproduction and process restarts).

Quantify the frequency of problems.

Quantify the availability of electrical energy.

Determine the weak points in the solution which mustbe improved, if necessary.

Determine any unnecessary redundancies.

Compare different architectures.

Recommend preventive maintenance.

Recommend stocks of replacement parts.

Operating disturbances (damage to sensitive loads,variation in motor torques, mechanical vibrations andeven production shutdowns).

Visual disturbances (flicker).

Abnormal temperature rise in connections andmagnetic circuits, resulting in energy losses andpossible risk of fire and accelerated ageing.

Additional costs, e.g. possible replacement ofequipment (need to oversize), repairs, productionshutdown (lost production and process restarts).

A check on system sizing in compliance withstandards:

cselection of voltage levels in the network structure,

cshort-circuit power and voltage tolerances

clocation and distribution on power-factor correction,

cequipment: breaking devices, cable sizes,transformer and motor characteristics, etc.

Calculation of system steady-state conditions (load-flows) in different operating situations:

cdistribution of voltages at nodes and of currents inthe connectors, in amplitude and phase,

cvoltage drops,

cpower flows and the corresponding losses.

Optimisation of energy contracts.

Operating recommendations (selection of transformervoltage taps, load-shedding and reconnection plan,start-up of capacitors, etc.).

Updating of network data.

Dangerous touch voltages for persons.

Damage to electrical equipment due to overcurrents(temperature rise and fire).


Disturbances due to voltage sags (malfunction ofsensitive devices).

Additional costs, e.g. (repairs, production shutdown,etc.).

Short-circuit currents calculated in compliance with theinstallation standards (IEC 60909 and UTE C15105guide), required to calculate the protection devices.

Sizing of devices and equipment (circuit breakers,fuses, transformers, switchboards, sensors, cables,wiring systems, earthing circuits) taking into accountmaking and breaking capacities as well as short-circuitthermal and electrodynamic withstands.

Accidents involving persons.

Damage to electrical equipment and machines.

Shutdown of unaffected parts of the network.


Faulty sections of the network maintained in operation,

resulting in system instability.

Process malfunctions leading to production losses and

repair costs.

A general definition of the protection system and its

principles, e.g. SEA, protection and backup functions,selected discrimination, coordination between differentvoltage levels.

Sensor characteristics: location, ratio, accuracy class.

Breaking-device characteristics: type, location.

Protection-device characteristics: settings of trip units

and relays.

Curves or tables showing effective discrimination

between protection devices.


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