PART II: SYNTAX THE SIMPLE SENTENCE Definition Classification Parts of the Sentence The Main Parts of the Sentence The Subject The Predicate Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject The Secondary Parts of the Sentence The Object The Attribute The Adverbial Modifier. Detached Parts of the Sentence The independent Elements of the Sentence Sentences with Homogeneous Parts WORD ORDER SYNTAX THE SIMPLE SENTENCE The Main Parts of the Sentence The Subject The Predicate Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject The Secondary Parts of the Sentence The Object The Attribute The Adverbial Modifier. Detached Parts of the Sentence The independent Elements of the Sentence Sentences with Homogeneous Parts WORD ORDER THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The Compound Sentence The Complex Sentence THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES THE INDIRECT SPEECH General remarks Inverted order of words Position of the object Position of the attribute Position of the adverbial modifiers THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The Compound Sentence General Notion Types of Coordination The Complex Sentence General Notion. Types of clauses. THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES THE INDIRECT SPEECH

PART II: SYNTAXTHE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Types sentence

of Characteristics

Examples

the declarative sentence the interrogative sentence:

States a fact in the affirmative or He was born in 1962. negative form a) general questions: b) special questions: c) alternative questions: d) disjunctive questions: Do you like art? Where do you live? Do you live in town or in the country? You speak English, dont you?

the imperative sentence the exclamatory sentence two-member sentence

Induces a person to do something, so it Stop talking! expresses a command, a request, an invitation, etc. Expresses some kind of emotion or What a lovely day it is! feeling

1 it has two members: a subject and a predicate (if one of them is missing it is easily understood from the context). It can be: a) complete when it has a subject and a predicate: b) incomplete: (when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context they are called: elliptical):1 it has only one member which is neither the subject, nor the predicate 2 it is generally used in descriptions and emotional speech 3 the main part is often expressed

She had established immediate contact with an architect. I met her yesterday. Who does it for you? James, of course. Where were you yesterday? At the cinema. Dusk of a summer night. To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price.

a one membersentence:

unextended

by: 1) noun (sometimes modified by attributes) 2) infinitive 1 consists only of the principal parts:

She is a student. Winter!

extended

2 consists of the subject, predicate They visited me yesterday. and one or more secondary parts:

QUESTIONSTypes of questions General Characteristics 1 require the answer yes or no. Examples Do you have classes on Saturday? Are you well today? Who is Cher? How do people communicate? Do you have English on Monday or on Tuesday? You are Jenny, arent you? It isnt a very nice day, is it?

Special

2 begin with an interrogative word.

Alternati ve Disjuncti ve

3 indicate choice. 4 require the answers yes or no and consist of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. 5 we repeat the auxiliary verb in the question.

You havent been here before, have you? NB. If theres no auxiliary we use: do, She bought this book, didnt she? does, did. You can speak French, 1 If we have modal verbs, we repeat cant you? Youre coming, arent them in the question. 2 Notice the meaning of yes and no in you? Yes. (I am coming.) answer to question tags. No. (Im not coming.)

THE MAIN PARTS OF THE SENTENCETHE SUBJECT Ways of expressing the subject: Examples

1 a noun in the common (or occasionally The teacher brought a map. possessive) case Adas is a noble heart. 2 a pronoun (personal, demonstrative, That set me thinking of my plan of action. All were happy. indefinite, possessive, interrogative) Hers is not a very successful plan called me. 3 a substantivized adjective or participle 4 a numeral (cardinal or ordinal) The wounded were taken good care of. The two were quite unable to do anything. The fist stood in front of him.

5 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or To live is to work. construction To be a rich man is not always roses and beauty. 6 a gerund, a construction gerundial phrase or Lying doesnt go well with me. Winning the war is what counts. On is a preposition.

7 any part of speech used as a quotation

8 a group of words which is one part of The needle and thread is lost. (here the the sentence, i.e. a syntactically subject represents one person). Their friend and defender is darkly indivisible group. groping towards the solution.

It as the subject of the sentence

Type of subjec t notion al

Characteristics

Examples

it represents a living being or a thing and has the following characteristics: 1 stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea the personal it: 2 points out a person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding

The door opened. It was opened by a young girl. It is John. It was a large room with a great window.

statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning the demonstrative it: formal it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish: a) the impersonal it, which is used to denote: 1 natural phenomena or that which characterizes the environment. 2 to denote time and distance: b) the introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject: c) the emphatic it is used for emphasis:

Dick came home late, it provoked his father.

It is cold in winter. It is delightfully quiet in the night. It is morning already. It was curious to observe that child. It was he who had brought the book.

THE PREDICATE

Type of predica te The simple predica te

Expressed by:/ characteristics 1 a finite verb in a simple or compound tense form

Examples Yesterday, Ann arrived home late. My dear I have been looking for you everywhere.

2 a phraseological unit: to get rid, to take care, to pay attention, to lose sight, to make fun, to take care, to take part, to have a swim, to have a run, to give a laugh, to give a push, to take a look, etc. a) a finite verb which lost its concrete meaning + a noun mostly Burton gave a kindly little chuckle. used with the indefinite article b) a finite verb + abstract noun without article

Then we got rid of such NB. The characteristic feature of this inconveniences.predicate is that the finite verb has lost its concrete meaning to a certain extent and forms one unit with the noun, consequently the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb. It is impossible to put a question to the second component. C o m p a r e: My friend gave me an interesting book to read. The man gave a violent start.

The 1 consists of two parts: compou a) a finite verb + b) some other

nd predica te The compou nd nomina l predica te The compou nd verbal predica te The compou nd verbal modal predica te

part of speech: a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal, etc. 2 link verb + predicative. 3 it denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject. He grew more cheerful.

It is of two types: 1. the compound verbal modal predicate 2. the compound verbal aspect predicate shows whether the action is possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. It consists of: You can prove everything and nothing. 1 a modal verb and an infinitive. The operation was to take 2 modal expressions: to be + place in the capital of the city. Infinitive, to have + infinitive. I have to work for my living. 3 a verb with a modal meaning ( to to throw hope, to expect, to intend, to He wanted attempt, to try, to endeavor, to long, himself into the whirlpool of to wish, to want, to desire, etc.) and Paris. He tried to open the tin an infinitive or a gerund. with a pocket knife. I am going to leave Paris.

4 modal expressions ( to be able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going) and an infinitive. The 1 consists of such verbs as: to begin, compou to start, to commence to fall, to set nd about, to go on, to keep on, to verbal proceed, to continue, to stop, to give aspect up, to finish, to cease, to come and predica an infinitive or gerund. te 2 Would and used + Infinitive, which express a repeated action in the past, also belong here. Mixed types of predica 1 the compound modal nominal predicate. 2 the compound aspect nominal

His bones ceased to ache.

I used to write poetry myself when I was his age.

He greatly longed to be the next heir himself. I continued to be glad for that.

te:

predicate. 3 the compound modal aspect predicate. I had to begin living all over again.

NB. The link verbs and their characteristics Examples The nightmare of my life had come true. (link verb) Giles and Beatrice were coming for the night. (verb of complete prediction) The poor man sat amazed. Tome went home miserable.

1 have partly lost their original concrete meaning: to appear, to get, to grow, to continue, to feel, to keep, to look, to turn, to hold, to prove, to turn out, to loom, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to smell, to taste, to fall, to stand, to go, to work. Many of these verbs can be used both as verbs of complete predication fully preserving their concrete meaning and as link verbs: to be, to grow, to look, to feel, to come, to go. 2 There are some verbs which, though fully preserving their concrete meaning, perform the function of link verbs: to lie, to sit, to die, to marry, to return, to leave, to come, to stand, to fall, to go, etc. They are used with a predicative. According to their meaning link verbs can be divided into two large groups: a) link verbs of being and remaining: to be, to remain, to keep, to continue, to look, to smell, to stand, to sit, to lie, to shine, to seem, to prove, to appear, etc. b) link verbs of becoming: to become, to get, to grow, to come, to go, to leave, to run, to turn, to make, etc.

He was a nice-looking man of thirty perhaps... ... he grew handsomer and more interesting.

The predicative is expressed by: 1 a noun in the common case, occasionally by a noun in the possessive case. 2 an adjective 3 a pronoun personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, reflexive, indefinite, defining. 4 a word of the category of state: 5 a numeral, cardinal or ordinal.

Examples She is a pretty child. Hes awfully dear and unselfish. It was he. What is he? You are nobody.

He was aware of the state in which he was. Im only 46. He was the first to break the dead silence. The things were outside her experience. Junes first thought was to go away.

6 a prepositional phrase: 7 an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an

infinitive construction.

His first act was to bolt the door on the inside. The best thing is for you to move in with me. My favorite sport is swimming. The topic of their conversation was their going on an expedition.

8 a gerund, gerundial phrase, or gerundial construction.

9 Participle II or very seldom Participle I; the He was surprised at the sound of his voice. latter is generally adjectivized. The moment was soothing to his sore spirit. 10an adverb. It was enough the way she said it.

AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 1 a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb: 2 Collective nouns may be followed either by a singular verb or a plural one. When such a noun is regarded as a whole it takes a singular verb: But when it is thought of as a group of individuals, it takes a plural verb: However, such collective nouns as: cattle, clergy, people, police, public are always followed by a plural verb. 3 Two singular subjects connected by either... or; neither ... nor; not only ... but also; no less than ... ; and not are followed by a singular verb: But when one subject is singular and the other one plural, the rule of proximity must be observed: 4 Two or more subjects connected by and take a plural verb: However, when the two subjects are regarded as a whole, a single idea, they are followed by a singular verb: This girl speaks English. These girls speak English. My family is called Smith.

My family are at home. The cattle were gazing in the field. The police are investigating the case. Either the boy or the girl knows the answer.

Neither the teacher nor the pupils are in the classroom. Neither the pupils nor the teacher is in the classroom. The dog and the cat are under the table. Fish and chips is a traditional English food. Whisky and soda is Tims favourite drink. My neighbour and friend comes here every day.(one person)

My neighbour and my friend come here every day.(two different persons) 5 Nouns denoting units of measurement Fifty pounds is a lot of money. take a singular verb when they are Five years is a long time. (= period) Twenty miles is a long distance. preceded by a numeral: 6 A singular noun proceeded by each, Each boy tells us a joke. either, ever, or neither takes a Either book is interesting. Every student knows this answer. singular verb. Neither solution was good. 7 When a plural noun is preceded by Neither of the girls lives/live in this neither of, it can be followed either by house. a singular or a plural verb: 1 The nouns body, heart, life, mind, soul are used in the plural whenever they refer to more than one person: 1 When the formal subject of a sentence is there, the predicate must agree with the real subject: 2 The noun number takes a singular verb when it is preceded by the definite article the and a plural verb when it is preceded by a: 3 When the pronoun it is used in identifying or emphatic constructions, it is followed by a singular verb: 4 Singularia Tantum nouns (advice; information; furniture; damage; luggage; knowledge; machinery, etc.) are followed by a singular verb: 5 Pluralia Tantum nouns will be followed either by plural verbs: a) when they name things made of two parts (glasses; scissors; trousers) b) when they are one of these: chemicals; contents; ashes; surroundings, etc. or by singular verbs: a) when they name diseases: measles; mumps b) games: billiards; draughts c) when they are one of these: news; works, etc. either by singular or by plural verbs after names of sciences, subjects or after such nouns as: Many people lost their lives in World War II. Theres a book on the table. There are many trees in the garden. The number of mistakes is very large. A number of people were waiting for me. It is these boys who broke my window. Your information is very interesting. Kerrys luggage was very heavy.

His trousers are very smart.

Mumps is a very common illness with children. Her news is extremely interesting. Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. The acoustics of this room are very good.

means; series; species. 6 The words hundred, thousand, million etc., take the plural verb:

Three hundred men were coming to the meeting.

7 The fractions -their verb depends Half the land is hilly. Half of the puppies were black. on the noun determined by them: Nine-tenths of English speech is idiomatic. Two thirds of the flowers were faded. A great deal of time and pains is necessary for the study of English. A great many of the children were 9 A great (good) many the plural present. verb. 8 A great (good) deal takes the singular verb: 1 Fish. Fruit. (pesti, fructe) take the plural Are the fish fresh? The fruit were green.

2 A + noun + or two very often takes A word or two is sufficient to convince him. the plural verb:

THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCETHE OBJECT Ways of expressing the object: 1 a noun in the common case Examples: We ought to give him a present, too.

2 a pronoun ( personal in the objective You ought to know all about statues case, possessive, defining, reflexive, and things. demonstrative, indefinite) 3 a substantivized adjective or participle 4 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction Jane Forsyte always championed the unfortunate. The sergeant ordered his men to stop.

5 a gerund, a gerundial phrase, or a gerundial construction 6 any part of speech used as a quotation 7 a prepositional phrase with a noun or a gerund 8 a group of words which is one part of the sentence, i.e. a syntactically indivisible group

Could they prevent flying in war-time? He called hsst several times. Do you object to my going away for a month. He found a number of persons in that room.

Kinds of object s Chara cteristi cs

The direct object 9 is a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case that completes the meaning of a transitive verb 10is used after transitive verbs 11is used without any preposition

The indirect object

The complex o

12denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed 13sometimes it also denotes a thing 1. of the first type, which expresses the addressee of the action. 1 is used with transitive verbs which take a direct object, so it hardly ever stands alone. E.g. She gave him an interesting book to read.NB. As a rule the indirect object comes before the direct object. In this case it is used without a preposition. E.g. Without hope she sent Soames the telegram. When the direct object precedes the indirect object, the latter is used chiefly with the preposition to and sometimes for. E.g. He was giving an interview to the correspondents. But when the direct object is a pronoun and the indirect object a noun, the indirect object follows the direct object. E.g. I sent him to his mother. When the direct object is expressed by the pronoun it, it always precedes the indirect object. E.g. Give it to him. There are a number of verbs after which the indirect object is used with the preposition to even when it comes before the direct object. These are: to explain, to dedicate, to suggest, to relate, to announce, to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to introduce, to submit, to repeat, to dedicate, to disclose, to interpret, to point out. E.g. I shall dictate to you the names of books.

1 consists components 2 it can be pre and non-prep 3 the first com a noun in the case or possessive personal pr the objective possessive pr 4 the second c is an infi participle, a seldom a adjective, denoting sta prepositional

E.g. She think very clever. He could see and Great talking toget

Thus these tw with impatience three years to

2. of the second type (prepositional indirect object), 2 which is more frequently used with intransitive verbs 3 does not always express the addressee of the action. 4 it can be used with any preposition 5 is used with verbs, adjectives, words denoting state, and nouns of verbal origin. E.g. She was not aware of his being there. THE ATTRIBUTE 1is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character 2can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies Ways of expressing the attribute: 1 an adjective Examples The big girl is very lazy.

2 a pronoun (possessive, defining, I looked at her from that moment. demonstrative, interrogative, relative) In his final examinations he won six 3 a numeral (cardinal or ordinal) distinctions. 4 a noun in the common or possessive case I recognized him as Todd, the village painter and carpenter. Her fathers nerves would never stand the disclosure. The letter from her sister reassured her. The room above is large and light. I was dazzled by the snow glittering on the tree tops. Sally hated the idea of borrowing and living on credit. All right, go back to your office; youve got work to do. I dont like dont-talk-to-me air.

5 a prepositional phrase 6 an adverb 7 Participle I and II or a participial phrase 8 a prepositional phrase or a prepositional construction with a gerund 9 an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction 10quotation group

The apposition1is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun (with or without accompanying words) which characterizes or explains the word modified by giving the person or thing another name Types of Characteristics: appositi on the 2 is not separated by commas and close stands in close connection with the appositi word modified (usually it is a proper on noun). It denotes: a) a title, rank, or profession, or relationship Examples:

the loose or detache d appositi on

b) or a geographical name: NB. Sometimes the apposition consists of the preposition of + noun. 3 it is not so closely connected with the Dr. Smith, my predecessor, noun was a classmate of my fathers. 4 it is always separated by commas and has a stress of its own.

Professor Brown, Captain Marryat, Aunt Polly, etc The River Thames, Mount Everest, etc. the city of London

THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER 1it is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 2according to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers:

The adverbial modifiers: 1 of time 2 of frequency 3 of place and direction 4 of manner 5 of attendant circumstances

Examples: We shall try it tomorrow. They had often bothered him. Gains had spies everywhere. Their conversations were conducted with icy formality. Now I can go to bed at last without dreading

tomorrow. 6 of degree and measure 7 of cause 8 of result (consequence) 9 of condition 10of comparison 11 of concession. (it is very rare) 12 of purpose It is rather good. It weighs a pound. The men were weary, having run behind the beasts all day. She is too fond of the child to leave it. In case of your absence I shall leave you a note. Judice is as white as mud. Though frightened he carried it off very well. They opened the way for her to come to him.

Ways of expressing the adverbial modifier: 13 an adverb

Examples Rachel turned instinctively t prevent a misfortune. Next days the hours seemed to pass very slowly. I walked straight up the lane. Mary swims better than her sister. While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove. When questioned, she explained everything very carefully. He stopped and turned about, his eyes brightly proud. His father looked up without speaking. They rose to go into the drawing-room

14a noun with or without accompanying words 15a prepositional phrase 16a noun, pronoun, adjective, infinitive, participle, or prepositional phrase with a subordinating conjunction 17a participle or a participial phrase 18absolute constructions 19a prepositional phrase or construction with a gerund 20an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or an infinitive construction.

REMARKS It is not always easy to discriminate between different parts of the sentence expressed by prepositional phrases. The following parts of the sentence are not to be

confused: 1. a prepositional indirect object and an adverbial modifier. 2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place. 1. a) Kate removed her eyes from the window and gazed directly at Papa. b) Decimus had been born in Rome.

In (a) at Papa is a prepositional indirect object as the noun denotes a living being. In (b) in Rome adverbial modifier, as the noun denotes an inanimate object and the question is: where had he been born? When the noun in the prepositional phrase denotes an inanimate object, very often 2 ways of analysis are possible. E.g. His wife was sitting before a very little fire. Before a very little fire can be treated either as an adverbial modifier or an object. 2. an attribute and an adverbial modifier of place. a) I thought you were going to a party at the club. b) The party will take place at the club. In (a) at the club is an attribute as it modifies a noun. It answers the question: What party? In (b) the same prepositional phrase modifies a verbal group; consequently it is an adverbial modifier of place.

DETACHED PARTS OF THE SENTENCE 1These are secondary parts which assume a certain grammatical and semantic independence. This phenomenon is due to their loose connection with the words they modify. Detached parts of the sentence The detached adverbial modifier Characteristics Examples

2 Any part of speech used in the function of an adverbial modifier may be detached, which accounts for the comma that separates it from the rest of the sentence. 3 An adverbial modifier expressed by any absolute construction is generally detached.

One summer during a brief vacation at Knocke, his visit has come to the notice of Brande. The train coming in a minute later, the two brothers entered their respective compartments.

4 Of all kinds of adverbial modifiers, that of attendant circumstances is He took farewell tired with waiting. most apt to become detached.

The detached attribute

1 can modify not only a common noun as an ordinary attribute does but also a proper noun and a pronoun.

Stout, middle aged, full of energy, she bustled backwards and forwards from the kitchen to her room.

The detached object

2 The prepositional indirect object is She does not change except her hair. often detached. A silver tray was brought, with German plums (stafide).

THE INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE They are words and word groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence as:

The Independent Sentence

Elements

of

the

Examples Oh, if I only knew what a dreadful thing it is to be clean, Id never come. Good morning, sweet child!

1) Interjections: ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens etc. 2) Direct address: 3) Parenthesis. Characteristics: 3 shows the speakers attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence. 4 or connects a given sentence with another one 5 or summarizes what is said in the sentence. 6 is connected with the rest of the sentence rather semantically than grammatically. 7 no question can be put to it. 8 very often it is detached from the rest of the sentence and consequently it is often separated from it by commas or dashes.

To be sure, Morris had treated her badly. Unfortunately, it will be you who will have to explain that to him.

1 indeed, certainly, assuredly, decidedly, in fact, truly, naturally, A parenthesis can be expressed by: surely, actually, possibly, perhaps, 1 Modal words: evidently, obviously, maybe, luckily. 2 firstly, secondly, finally, thus, 1 Adverbs wich to a certain extent serve consequently, then, anyway, as connectives, such as: moreover, besides, still, yet,

2 Prepositional phrases: 3 Infinitive and participial phrases:

nevertheless, otherwise, notwithstanding, therefore etc. 3 in a word, in truth, in my opinion, in short, by the by, on the one hand, on the contrary, at least, etc. 4 to be sure, to tell the truth, to begin with, generally speaking, strictly speaking etc.

SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS PARTS two ore more parts of the sentence having the same function and referring to the same part of the sentence. They are linked either by means of: coordinating conjunctions or asyndetically. Homogeneous parts Examples

1) two or more homogeneous subjects From the edge of the bed came a ripple to one predicate. and whisper. 2) two or more homogeneous predicates to one subject: That gentleman started, retreated, 1 simple predicates: rubbed his eyes, stared again and finally 2 a compound verbal predicate with shouted: Stop, stop! These sheets must be printed, dried, homogeneous parts within it. 3 a compound verbal aspect predicate cut. with homogeneous parts within it. 4 a compound nominal predicate with First he began to understand and then to speak English. several predicatives within it. The sky was clear, remove, and empty. 3) two or more attributes, objects, or The unlighted, unused room seemed to adverbial modifiers to one part of the absorb the moods of the house. sentence.

W ORD ORDER S subject P predicate O object A. - attribute Cog. O cognate object Comp. O complex object

DO direct object Prep. O prepositional object IO indirect object Ad. M. adverbial modifier 1) direct word order in the English declarative sentence: S + P + Os + Ad. Ms. 2) inverted order of words: P + S. Inverted order of words is used in: A) 1 interrogative sentences: 2 sentences introduced by there: 3 compound sentences, their second part beginning with so or neither: 4 simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish: Examples Where did they find her? There is nothing marvelous in this. Their parents escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons. Be it so!

B) The inverted word order is widely used when a word or a group of words is put in a prominent position. In this case inversion is due to the authors wish to produce a certain stylistic effect. Thus inversion occurs when: 1 adverbial modifier opens the sentence: a) Ad. Ms. expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, and the subject often has a lengthy modifier: In an open barouche stood a stout old gentleman.

Never before and never since, b) an Ad. M. with a negative meaning opens the have I known such peace, such sentence. Here belong such adverbial modifiers as: happiness. in vain, never, little, etc. In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. Now was the moment to act. c) Ad. Ms. expressed by such adverbs as so, thus, now, then, etc. placed at the head of the Thus he thought and sank down sentence, if the subject is expressed by a noun.NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place. upon the wet earth.

Silently did the doctor bear all this.

d) Ad. Ms. of M. may or may not cause inversion. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. 2 only, hardly, scarcely, (correlated with the Scarcely was one long task conjunction when), no sooner (correlated with completed when a guard unlocked our door. the conjunction than), nor open the sentence.

3 the sentence begins with the word here which Here is my card, Sir. is not an adverbial modifier of place but has some demonstrative force.NB. If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun,

the word order is direct.

4 postpositions denoting direction open the Out went Mr. Smiths head sentence and the subject is expressed by a again. noun. Here belong such words as: in, out, down, away, up, etc.NB. If the subject is a pronoun, inversion does not take place.

5 an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a word-group with not a..., or many a... opens the sentence. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb. 6 a predicative expressed by an adjective or by a noun modified by an adjective or by the pronoun such opens the sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite pronoun). 7 the predicate, which introduces conditional clause, is expressed by was, were, had, could, or should.

Not a soul did I meet with in all my drive.

Sweet was that evening. Such is life. Even were they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to enrich herself

Position of the object a) in declarative sentences: 8 P. + O. (usually) 9 O. + S. + P. ( the purpose of A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. emphasis)NB. As a rule this prominent position of the object causes no inversion except when the object is expressed by word groups with not a ..., or many a...

1 S + P + Ad. M / Prep. I. O + D.O ( it occurs when the object has an attribute) 2 I. O + S. + P. (very rare) b) in exclamatory sentences we may have: What wonderfully blue eyes you have! 1 O + S + P:NB. This position of the object usually causes inversion only in poetry, high prose, and negative exclamatory sentences. Passage after passage did he explore!

Position of the attribute It has 2 positions: a) pre-position The usual way of the attribute is before What extraordinary ideas you have! the word it modifies. b) post-position

2 Most adjectives in able, -ible are sufferings unspeakable, the only person generally placed after the noun, visible, etc. especially when the noun is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective in the superlative degree: from times immemorial, a poet laureate, 3 in some stock phrases: court martial, etc. 4 the adjective proper and present are We shant find anything about sculpture in this book, it deals with architecture placed after the noun. proper. (propriu-zis) All the people present ( prezeni) welcomed Paul enthusiastically. NB. This is not a proper (correct) answer to5 attributes

expressed by numbers: 6 adjectives stand after indefinite and negative pronouns. 7 attributes expressed by prepositional phrases follow the noun modified. 8 to emphasize:

the question. Our present (actual) task is to cardinal preserve peace in the world.

page ten, room two. Id like to read something very interesting. Theres nothing extraordinary in her dress. As a gesture of proud defiance he had named his son Francis Nicholas. He gave Annette a look furtive and searching.

Position of the adverbial modifier 1 S. + Ad. M + P.: 2 S. + P. + D. O. + Ad. M.: Helen patiently heard me to the end. Helen heard me patiently to the end.

3 S + P. + Ad. M. + D.O. (when the She knew instinctively the principles of kiting. object has an attribute).

1. The adverbial modifier of time (Ad. M. T.) 4 Ad. M. T. + S + P...: 5 or S. + P. + ... Ad. M.: On Tuesday night the new laundrymen arrived. We shall try tomorrow.

6 Now and then can be placed in nearly She then remembered that there would any position: have been time for this. 7 The hour is generally mentioned At nine in the evening Mr. White opened the door. before a day, night, evening...

2. The adverbial modifier of place (Ad. M. Pl.) 8 Ad. M. Pl. + S. + P. + ...: 9 S. + P. + O. +... Ad. M. Pl.: Down in the mill yard a little girl was playing. A library was a common place for her, and he might see her there.

10 Sometimes: S. + P. + Ad. M. Pl. He emerged from the theatre with the + Prep. O. first of the crowd. 11 S. + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. Im going to the country tomorrow. M. T. 12 S + P. + ... + Ad. M. Pl. + Ad. M. Sybil had gone to town to buy a new carpet. Purp.

3. Adverbial modifier of frequency (Ad. M. F.) 13 S. + Ad. M. F. + P.: (very often) 14 but S + to be/ modal verbs + A. M. F.:N.B. but to emphasize: S + Ad. F. + P.:

She seldom comes on time. She is seldom on time.You always are good with her.

She has never been asked about this. 15 S. + 1st aux. + Ad. M. F. + 2nd aux. + V.: 16 S. + sometimes/generally + P. or For he sometimes thought that... And I got so lonely here sometimes. S. + P. + sometimes/generally: 17 Sometimes Ad. M. F + S. + P.: Occasionally preachers. they followed the

4. Adverbial modifier of manner (Ad. M. M.) 18 S. + intrans. verbs + Ad. M. M.: 19 S. + transitive verbs + D.O. + Ad. M. M. 20 O.: 21 S. + P. + Ad. M. M. + Prep. I. S. + Ad. M. M. + P.: Dont worry, Louise said stoutly. Ann shakes Soames. hands effusively with

She leaned lightly against his shoulder. I slowly descended. These ladies were deferentially received by Miss Temple.

22 S. + aux. verb + Ad. M. M. + verb...:

5. Adverbial modifier of degree. ( Ad. M. D.)

23

always S + Ad. M. D. + P.:

I entirely agree with you. He is clever enough. ( in case of an adjective ) I have time enough to do it. I have enough time to do it.

24 S. + P. + Ad. M. D. ( enough):25 S. + P. + noun + enough...:

26 or S. + P. + enough + noun +...:

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCE THE COMPOUND SENTENCE( Fraza prin coordonare) 1it consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other 2a clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own. 3the clause may be connected in two ways:

1) syndetically: a) The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted. b) He knew there were excuses, yet he felt sick at heart. 2) asyndetically: The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. The types of coordination: The types of coordination: copulative coordination ( connects the ideas) Expressed by: 1 and, nor, neither...nor, not only...but (also). Examples Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily. Either our union must be consecrated and sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I wept.

disjunctive coordination ( indicates choice)

2 or, else, or else, either...or, otherwise.

adversative coordination ( shows opposition)

3 but, while, whereas, nevertheless, still, yet.

causative consecutive coordination

4 for, so, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.NB. For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. So, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence introduces coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.

There was something strange with him, for he was strangely grave and looked ill.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCECharacteristics

( Fraza prin subordonare) Examples

5 it consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 6 The clauses may be linked in two ways: 1) syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives:2) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

More and more she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (conjunction) All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (connective) His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel.

7 it may contain two or more homogenous clauses coordinated with each other.

They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she had made some great self- interested success in marrying Mr. Gowan.

8 it may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause.

Types of subordinate clauses Types of subordina te clauses Definition/ Characteristics Examples

The subject clause

Performs the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. It is connected with the principal clause in the following ways: 1 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether. 2 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when, how, why. 3 asyndetically. It appears before or after: 4 the verbs: seem, chance, appear, turn out. 5 such adjectives as: likely, certain, possible, clear, true, important, alarming, etc. 6 some transitive verbs expressing mood: alarm, trouble, amaze, attract, confuse, relieve, discourage, embarrass, scare, etc. Performs the function of a predicative. The link verb together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. It is connected with the principal clause in the following ways: 1 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether, as if. 2 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, where, when, how, why. 3 asyndetically

What I want to do is to save us both. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. Its a grand thing when you see the working class in action. It seemed that he was wrong. Its important that the students have fulfilled the tasks earlier. That she hasnt written yet amazes me.

The predicativ e clause

I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet.

The direct Performs the function of direct object to the object predicate-verb of the principal clause. clause 1 The affirmative and interrogative sentences transformed into direct speech are also direct object clauses. It is connected with the principal clause in the following ways: 2 by means of the conjunctions: that, if, whether. 3 by means of the connectives: who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when, how, why. 4 asyndetically The Performs the function of indirect prepositio prepositional object to the predicate-verb of nal the principal clause. indirect 1 It is introduced by wh elements both

We asked him whether he had understood the instructions.

Remember that we have to leave by 11.00 a.m.

Look at who has come. Look where he is going.

object Attributiv e clauses (relative)

with and without prepositions: They are divided into: 1) attributive relative restrictive clauses 2 restrict the meaning of the antecedents. 3 they cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence 4 they are not separated by a comma from the principal clause 5 they are introduced by: a) relative pronouns: who, whose, which, etc. b) relative adverbs: where, when, etc. c) asyndetically 2) attributive relative non-restrictive (descriptive) clauses 1 do not restrict the meaning of the antecedents; it gives some additional information about them 2 can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence 3 they are often separated by commas 3) attributive appositive clauses 1 disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun (opinion, reason, idea, problem, impression, doubt, excuse, question, fact). 2 are not separated by the principal clause by a comma 3 are usually introduced by: when, where, why, how, that, whether. Shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. 1 it is introduced by: when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that.

The bus that goes to the station stops at this corner.

I liked the film we saw yesterday.

Your desk mate, whose name I can never remember, has just phoned.

I dont know the reason why he left so quickly.

The adverbial clause of time The adverbial clause of place The adverbial clause of

I hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in London.

Shows the place of the action expressed in Deronda placed himself the principal clause. where he could see her. 2 it is introduced by: where, wherever. Shows the cause of the action expressed in As he had a liking for the the principal clause. spot, he seldom let a week 3 it is introduced by: as, because, since,

cause The adverbial clause of condition The adverbial clause of purpose The adverbial clause of concessio n The adverbial clause of result

for fear that, on the ground that, for the reason that, etc. States the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. 4 it is introduced by: if, provided ( that), so long as, suppose, in case, unless, etc. States the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. 5 it is introduced by: that, in order that, so that, lest, in case, for fear that. Denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause. 6 It is introduced by: though, although, as, no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever, notwithstanding that, in spite of the fact that. Denotes the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. 7 It is introduced by: so that, that.

pass without paying it a visit. I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided (dac) it lies in my power. I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen.

I enjoyed that day though it was cold and rainy. Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted. It was so hot that we opened all the windows. Joe left the house as he had entered it. We were going up the road as fast as we could.

The adverbial clause of manner The adverbial clause of comparis on

Characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. 8 It is introduced by: ( exactly) as, (just) as. Denotes an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. 9 It is introduced by: than, as, as...as, not so...as, as if, as though.

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

DIRECT OJECT CLAUSES A) Main / Regent ClausePRESENT

Subordinate Clause Examples Any tense required by he meaning of the Mary explains/has explained/will explain that she goes/will go/has

PRESENT PERFECT FUTURE

clause

gone/went/had gone to London.

B) a) He said he had seen that film. b) I thought they were at film. c) They promised they would write that exercise again. However, there are some exceptions to the rules of sequence of tenses in direct object clauses: a) The verbs to ask, to demand, to insist, to She demands/requires/insists/etc. order, to recommend, to require, to urge, that you should arrive in time. etc. in the main clause are followed by the Analytical Subjunctive) b) Expressing 1 general (universal) truths (those The pupil said that five and five is ten. statements that are either generally It was proved that water boils at 100 C. accepted or can be scientifically proved) 2 lasting (irreversible) truths are statements whose validity exceeds the I knew that she is a widow. (her moment of speaking: condition of being a widow was The Past Tense forms of the verbs to know, irreversible at that moment) to believe, to realize may be followed by You realized that the boy is right. Present Tense since, in themselves, they imply the veridicity of the direct object.

TIME CLAUSES A basic rule is that no Future Tense can occur in a time clause. In its stead, the following tenses are used: Main/Regent Clause a) FUTURE Subordinate Clause PRESENT TENSE ( for simultaneous actions) b) FUTURE PRESENT PERFFCT (for anterior / prior actions) Examples Margaret will tell us the truth when she knows it The boy will translate the lesson after he has learnt the new words.

PAST TENSE (for simultaneous actions)

Mary visited us whenever she was free. I promised mother I would buy that book when I saw it. The children went to bed after they had done their lessons. We understood that they would come home after they had finished their work.

PAST PERFECT (for anterior/prior action)

NB. In the other types of subordinate clauses, there will usually occur those tenses that will be logically required, with no constraint: Types of clauses Attributive clauses Adverbial clause of manner Adverbial clause of comparison Adverbial clause of reason Examples Yesterday I bought a book which is very interesting/I will read this week/I have been looking for since April. Jack played tennis that day as he will never be able to play again Last year Mary spoke English better than her sister does now. My brother finished his work in the morning because he will go to a party this evening.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH A) USE In Direct Speech we give the exact words of the speaker, while in Indirect Speech we explain/report what the speaker has said. A) Reporting Statements When changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, there take place some changes. Generally speaking, words expressing nearness in Direct Speech become words expressing remoteness in Indirect Speech. Direct Speech I we My our This/ these here Indirect Speech he/she they his/her their That/ those there

now today tonight tomorrow yesterday ago next the day after tomorrow the day before yesterday

then that day that night the next day / the following day the day before / the previous day before the next in two days time two days before

As for the tenses used in Indirect Speech it must be shown that, when the reporting verb is in the Present Tense or in the Present Perfect, no tense change occurs in Indirect Speech: I shall buy this book tomorrow, Jane says. (Direct Speech) - Jane says that she will buy this book tomorrow. (Indirect Speech) But, when the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, the following change of tenses takes place: Direct Speech Present Indirect Speech Past Tense Examples I live in this house now, the girl explained. The girt explained that she lived in that house then. Past Tense Present Perfect Past Perfect We saw this film yesterday, the children told me. The children told me that they had seen that film the day before. I have not visited New York yet the tourist said. The tourist said that he had not visited New York yet. Future Future-in-thePast We shall not be late, my friends promised. My friends promised that they would not be late.

Exceptions

Examples

1 When the subjects of the reporting I must do all these exercises today, my

verb and of the action in the direct son complained. object clause are identical, the verb My son complained that he must do all must may remain unchanged: those exercises that day. My son complained that he had to do However, even in this case, the more all those exercises that day. frequent form would be: 2 Conditional sentences of Type II remain unchanged, as well as the subjunctive after: wish, would rather, its (high) time: I would write to her if I knew her address, the boy explained. The boy explained that he would write to her if he knew her address. She said: I wish I were younger. She said she wished she were younger. 3 Had better, might, ought to, used to, You might be right, she said. could, should, neednt do not normally She said that he might be right. change in Indirect Speech: 4 When expressing repeated actions in We often walked on the beach when we were young, my grandparents told me. the past: My grandparents told me that they often walked on the beach when they were young.

B) Reporting Questions 1 General (Yes/No) questions will be Is your mother at home? aunt Maggie wanted to know. - Aunt Maggie wanted to introduced by if/whether: know if/whether mother was at home. Will you go to the mountains or will you 2 Whether usually expresses a spend this week-end in town? my friend doubt and a possible choice asked me. - My friend asked me whether I between two alternatives: would go to the mountains or would spend that week-end in town. 3 Special questions will maintain, in Indirect Speech, the interrogative word they begin with: Where do you live? the policeman wanted to know. The policeman wanted to know where I lived.

NB. The word order of questions changes to the word order specific to statements when these questions are turned into the Indirect Speech. C) Reporting Commands Direct Speech Affirmative Indirect Speech Long infinitives Examples Come in! she told me. - She told me

commands Negative commands Not + long infinitives

to come in. Dont run in the street! mother advised her son. Mother advised her son not to run in the street.

The Imperative with let, when turned into the Indirect Speech, is normally introduced by the verb to suggest: Lets hurry now, he said. He suggested that they should hurry then. D) Reporting Exclamations 4 Exclamations with What What a sunny day she said. She said that it a... , or How... are reported was a sunny day. by: 5 Exclamations such as: She gave an exclamation of surprise/disgust/etc. Heavens , Oh , etc. are or She exclaimed with surprise/disgust/etc. usually reported by: 6 Other Changes She said Good morning! - She greeted me/wished me a good morning. She said Thank you! - She thanked me. She said Merry Christmas! - She wished me a merry Christmas. She said Liar! - She called him a liar. He said Damn! - He swore. .

SYNTAXTHE SIMPLE SENTENCE KINDS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 1. Define the kinds of sentences according to the purpose of the utterance. A. Presently, looking along the road, she [Kezia] saw two little dots. Now she could see that they were, the Kelveys... Hello, she said to the passing Kelveys. You can come and see our dolls house if you want to . . .But at that Lil turned red and shook her head quickly. Why not? asked Kezia. Lil gasped, then she said, Your ma told our ma you wasnt to speak to us. Oh, well, said Kezia. She didnt know what to reply. It doesnt matter Come on. Nobodys looking. ... Dont you want to? asked Kezia... Kezia led the way. Like two little stray cats they followed across the courtyard to where the dolls house stood Ill open it for you, said Kezia kindly. She undid the hook and they looked inside. Theres the drawing-room and the dining-room and thats the Kezia! Oh, what a start they gave! It was Aunt Beryls voice. Run away, children, run away at once. (Mansfield).

B. Laura was terribly nervous. Tossing the velvet ribbon over her shoulder, she said to a woman standing by Is this Mrs. Scotts house? and the woman smiling queerly, said It is my lass. Oh, to be away from this! She actually said Help me God! as she walked up the tiny path and knocked. To be away from these staring eyes, or to be covered in anything, one of those womens shawls even! Ill just have the basket and go, she decided. I shan't even wait for it to be emptied. Then the door opened. A little woman in black showed in the gloom. Laura said, "Are you Mrs. Scott?" But to her horror the woman answered, Walk in, please, miss," and she was shut in the passage. "No," said Laura, "I don't want to come in. I only want to leave this basket." The little woman in the gloomy passage seemed not to hear her. "Step this way, please, miss," she said in an oily voice, and Laura followed her. 2. Point out one-member and two-member sentences. Say a) if they are extended or unextended, b) if the two-member sentences are complete or incomplete. A. 1. Ben closed his eyes to think clearly for a moment. 2. Two cups of coffee, please,... young Flynn timidly ordered. What else do you want? Jam turnover. (Coppard). 3. Why did you leave her [baby] in that mill? Out of the rain. In her pram? Naturally. Shes asleep. ...The mystery was awful and complete. Abandoned perambulator! Total disappearance of a baby! Horror! Martyrdom! Death! (Bennett). 4. Scene I A room in Harley Street furnished as the Superintendents Office in a Nursing Home. (Berkeley). B. 1. He stared amazed at the calmness of her answer. 2. We must go to meet the bus. Wouldn't do to miss it. 3. Obedient little trees, fulfilling their duty. 4. Lucretius knew very little about was going on in the world. Lived like a mole in a burrow. Lived on his own fat like a bear in winter. 5. He wants to write a play for me. One act. One man. Decides to commit suicide. 6. A beautiful day, quite warm. 7. What do you want? Bandages, stuff for wounded. 8. How did he look? Grey but otherwise much the same And the daughter? Pretty. 9. And the silence and the beauty of this camp at night. The stars. The mystic shadow water. The wonder and glory of all this. 10. Ill see nobody for half an hour, Macey, said the boss. Understand. Nobody at all. 11. Mother, a mans been killed. Not in the garden? interrupted her mother. Garden at the manor house. A flight of grey stone steps leads up to the house. The garden, an old fashioned one, full of roses. Time of year, July. Basket, chairs, and a table covered with books, are set under a large yew tree. C. Find in an English text 4 examples of a two-member sentence: a) complete, b) incomplete, c) extended, d) unextended: 2 examples of a one-member sentence: a) extended, b) unextended. KINDS OF QUESTIONS 3. Define the type of question. 1. Lady Bracknell: Where did the charitable gentleman . . . find you?

2. Gwendolen: How long do you remain in town? 3. Jack: What on earth are you so amused at? 4. Algernon: Do you really keep a diary? 5. Gwendolen: I may call you Cecily, may I not? Cecily: With pleasure! Gwendolen: And you will always call me Gwendolen, wont you?Cecily: If you wish. Gwendolen: Then that is quite settled, is it not? (Wilde). 6. Wont you sit down? said Josephine. (Mansfield). 7. Theres no point in my seeing your people, is there? (Berkeley). 8. Is the poem The Cloud written by Shelley or by Byron? 4. Make up sentences of different types (declarative, imperative, exclamatory, all kinds of interrogative sentences) using the given words. 1. of, have, the, map, a, at, look, England. 2. be seen, Englands, the, may, cliffs, mainland, white, from. 3. sea, far, London, from, is, the? 4. close, arent, the, Wales, are, they, mountains, sea, to, in, the, quite. 5. weather, how, the, beautiful, is, calm, in, sea! 6. ancient, this, lose, of, post-card, dont, picture, castle, an. 7. is, a, landscape, this, picturesque, what! 8. centuries, invaded, the, what, in, tribes, Britain, VVI? 9. the, did, the or, Anglo-Saxons, win, the, of, battle, Hastings, Normans? 10. survives, the, in, Celt, language, of, some, Scotland, parts, and, Ireland. 5. Ask questions to which the parts of the sentences or the whole of the sentences given in bold type are the answers. 1. The first settlers in Britain belonged to the Celtic tribes. 2. The actual conquest of Britain by Rome did not take place before the 1st century of our era. (general, disjunctive). 3. We do not know the details of the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. (general, disjunctive). 4. Numerous patients come to Bath to keep up health. 5. For those who seek a boisterous holiday Devonshire provides everything that could be wished for: golf, bathing, excursions, and trips. 6. Windsor Castle has been the home of English kings for nine hundred years. 7. The Castle stands upon a hill commanding the River Thames. 8. It is impossible to live anywhere in Britain far from the sea. (general, disjunctive). 9. In the month of August numerous yachting regattas may be seen near the Isle of White. 10. We shall see the highest tide if we come to the shore in full moon. 11. There are numerous kinds of strange seaweeds in the sea. (general, disjunctive). 12. Man has fished from earliest times. (general, disjunctive). 13. Although rather close to London, Epping Forest is the home of such wild creatures as foxes and deer. 14. The journey from London to the sea-shore does not take more than an hour. (general, disjunctive). 15. Hastings has a high

reputation in the world of music by reason of its annual Festival. 6. Change the following declarative sentences into disjunctive questions. Model: He is not ill. He is not ill, is he? 1. She is a talented singer. 2. Youll tell us about it. 3. He can swim. 4. Theyve come. 5. You saw him last night. 6. There is some time left. 7. It snowed hard yesterday. 8. Youll have to write to him at once. 9. He must have a good rest. 10. She was greatly astonished. 11. He doesnt speak French. 12. They havent come yet. 13. He didnt ring you up yesterday. 14. They werent at home. 15. She wasnt long. 16. They are not here. 17. She isnt clever. 18. There isnt much time left. 19. Im not good at algebra. 20. We shant go to the concert. 21. She bought a new hat. 22. They live at the corner of our street. 23. We hadnt been interested in it. 24. They didnt listen in last night.25. This photo was taken long ago. 26. She couldnt recollect your address. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE THE SUBJECT 7. Point out the subject. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences into Romanian. 1. Mary brought in the fruit on a tray ... (Mansfield). 2. Thinking wont help. (Mansfield). 3. From five to six is my real working time. (Shaw). 4. Captain Shotover: You frequent picture palaces. Mangan: Perhaps I do. Who told you? (Shaw). 5. Nobodys well in this world. (Coppard). 6. The wind blew down from the headland ... (Du Maurier). 7. Finding you has not made any difference, has it? (D Maurier). 8. The boat has been there, all these months. No one has moved anything. (Du Maurier). 9. ...Someone must have been talking ... You cant stop these people (Du Maurier). 10. Two is company, three is none. 11. The rhododendrons were upon us ... Already they looked a little over-blown, a little laded.(Du Maurier). 12. One of the second-class passengers has a room in the house... (Maugham). 13. Those are your clerks initials, arent they? (Berke ley). 14. Unfortunately the innocent are always involved in any conflict. (Greene). 15. One never knows another human being. (Greene). 16. All is well, said that sleeping lace ... But all the same you had to cry . .. (Mansfield). 17. The three reached the Museum Hotel after one oclock. (Cronin). 19. The sick do not ask if the hand that smooths their pillow is pure. 8. State with what meaning the pronouns one, we, you, they are used in the function of the subject. Translate the sentences. 1. One must spare other peoples feelings. 2. You cannot do different kind of work at a time. 3. We often see other peoples faults without seeing our own. 4. They say the weather will change soon. 5. We rather say Its me, not Its I 6. One should be careful when swimming in an unknown river.

9. State the nature of it. Translate the sentences. 1. It was a rare tonic to see Con again ... (Cronin). 2. It was possible to see the henhouse from the window of her bedroom ... (Bates). 3. I looked at my watch. It had gone eleven. (Greene). 4. You heard the news? Yes. Its a terrible thing, he said, terrible. (Greene). 5. It was dark in the hall. (Mansfield). 6. It was she who had stopped the car ... (Galsworthy). 7. Mr. DArcy, she said, what is the name of that song you were singing? Its called The Lass of Aughrim, said Mr. DArcy ... (Joyce). 8. It cast a gloom over the boat, there being no mustard. (Jerome). 9. The telephone rang. I went to answer. It was Joe Bjornson. (Scheurweghs). 10. How far is it from your house to the river? 11. Who is there? Its only me and my friends. (Scheurweghs). 12 ... it was the steppe that seemed unreal. (Lessing). 13. It was the dignity that checked my tongue. (Lessing). 14. This was the Old Chiefs country, he said. It stretched from those mountains over there way back to the river (Lessing). 10. Insert it or there. Comment on their use. Translate the sentences. 1. In the evening of that day __________ rained heavily. I went to the post office, and as I stood on the steps, umbrellaless ... a little, hesitating voice seemed to come from under my elbow. I looked down___________ was the First of the Barons with the black bag and an umbrella. He was asking me to share the latter. Now, __________is something peculiarly intimate in sharing an umbrella. is apt to put one on the same footing as brushing a mans coat for him. When we arrived at the pension ____________was very nearly an open riot ___________ was very friendly of the Herr Oberlehrer to have sent me a bouquet that evening. 2. ____________ s such a mistake, sighed Airs. Spears. To be weak with children when they are little ____________ is nothing like handing them over to their father. Then you dont whip them yourself? Never, I dont think ___________s the mothers place to whip the children, __________s the duty of the father. 3. ___________had been a bad day at the office. He was hot, dusty, tired out. In the corner of the drawing room _________was a picture, and on the top shelf stood a brown bear with a painted tongue. __________ seemed in the shadow to be grinning at Dickys father ___________ was nearly dark in the garden. (Mansfield). 4. The weather seemed to break this afternoon. ___________s the last of the heat waves for this summer. __________was hot in London, I said. The stars raced across the sky. _________were threads of cloud too ... _________ were woods about me, ___________was no Happy Valley. _________were nettles in the garden ... 5. ____________ is the middle of July. _________ is hot. ___________ is 30 degrees above zero. _________ is no wind. ___________ are no waves on the sea. ___________ is so pleasant to bask in the sun. ____________ are many people on the beach. __________ is on such hot days that I like to bathe most of all. 6. Look! _________ is a nest over your window! I know ___________is a swallows nest. __________ came in spring and built a nest here. Now ________ are some little swallows in it. ___________ is interesting to watch them. _____________ is the swallow that I like most of all the birds. 7. ___________ is late. ____________is 12 oclock at night. ____________ is very bad to go to bed so late. I can never go to bed in time: ____________is so much work to do. THE PREDICATE 11. State the kind of the predicate. 1. Are you a Devonshire girl? (Galsworthy). 2. That night he slept like a top ...

(Galsworthy). 3. The little boy was silent. (Galsworthy). 4. 1 can skin rabbits. (Galsworthy). 5. ... I went on holding his cold hands. (Du Maurier). 6. The mast began to shiver, began to crack. (Du Maurier). 7. It seems so odd to us (Du Maurier). 8. ... I couldnt help walking with my shoulders bent. (Greene). 9. The two guards looked at me ... (Greene). 10. 1 had a drink of brandy. (Greene). 11. His father might be dead. 12. On the first of October he was able to tell her to refurnish the house. (Cronin). 13. You werent allowed to retreat. (Aldington). 14. The signal officer made a face. (Aldington). 15. We dont have the same trouble.. 16. Gerald: I dont understand you now. (Wilde). B. Find in an English text sentences containing different kinds of the predicate. 12. Point out the simple and the compound predicate. 1. We shall be very pleased. (Galsworthy). 2. They would never have found her there. (Du Maurier). 3. Within ten minutes he had been awakened by his servant. (Aldington). 4. Ive gone lame. (Galsworthy). 5. She was moaning and crying. (Maugharn). 6. The doctor was feeling wan and nervous. (Maugham). 7. By this time to-morrow shell be gone. (Maugham). 8. The gramophone which had been silent for so long was playing ... (Maugham). 9. It wouldnt have been very nice for the Davidsons to have to mix with all that rough lot in the smoking-room. (Maugham). 10. My memory comes to the surface again ... at Malta, where I am being rushed by an Orient liner ... (Shaw). 11. Ive been trying to get in touch with you all afternoon ... (Cronin). 12. Everything seemed new and clear ... 13. He had been polite enough to the Macphails during the journey. (Maugham). 14. The sick man had been brought ashore ... (Maugham 13. Point out the link-verb of the compound nominal predicate. Translate the sentences. 1. He looked pale and tired. ( Mauriec). 2. He smokes one hundred and fifty pipes every day. That sounds a lot. (Greene). 3. What is Diolaction? I said. It sounds like condensed milk. (Greene). 4. He looked puzzled and suspicious. (Greene). 5. Please, keep quiet. 6. Arguments proved useless the old man was impla cab ... (Cronin). 7. It was growing twilight. (Bates). 8. Davidson looked scared, and his yellow drawn face went paler. (Aldington). 9. That peaceful sky hung arched over a desperate death- struggle of the nations. 10. This excess of caution seemed positively lunatic to troops coming straight from the front line ... Aldington). 11. Her mind was really getting muddled. (OCasey). 12 Her lips quivered as she sat silent. (OCasey). 13. He felt very conscious now ... 14. With this effort from his neck he passed out again, and this time into the furious black pain that seemed to last too long, although he remained half aware of it. 15. The blanched skin was slowly turning pink. 14. Insert the appropriate link-verbs (to look, to feel to be, to go, to stand, to break, to get, to seem, to grow to become) 1. I ___________ very lonely myself sometimes. 2. He landed perfectly and while the hound ___________ baffled flung him self at his hind-quarters... 3. The he was frightened: she __________ so pale. 4. Her short, red-brown hair had wildly loose. 5. Something horrible might happen ... and the money be snatched from her very lingers.

Oh, she would _________ mad then! 6. He _________ very short. 7. Looking round the restaurant she _____________ sure that no other woman there ... had as much as thirty pounds in her handbag. 8. Returning home in the afternoon she __________ conscious of her own betraying radiance. 9. Repton shrugged his shoulders, but he _________ happier. 10. She ___________ limp with her suppressed fear. 11. I _________ ten, replied the flustered boy. 15. Point out the predicative and state what it is expressed by. 1. ... Now the only thing to do is to admit the error. 2. My hand was hot, damp. (Du Maurier). 3. Hes a sticky sort of chap. (Pu Maurier). 4. The air was full of thunder. (Pu Manner). 5. I hope Dominguez is well? (Greene). 6. 1 was asleep at first, and then I didnt want to be disturbed. But I am disturbed, so come in, (Greene). 7. Phuong had probably only shown the letter as a kind of boast it wasnt a sign of mistrust. (Greene). 8. Shes no child. Shes tougher than youll ever be. (Greene). 9. Dont be an old stay-at-home (Cronin). 10. All morning he was in a mood of high satisfaction. 11. They were wider apart than before. (Cronin). 12. Thats all, he said. (Pu Manlier) 13. It was all gone; and he was forty-three. 14. He felt for a bunch of keys in his pocket. (Bates). 15. 1 felt physically sick. It was a long time since I had received a letter from my wife. I ... could feel her pain in every line. (Greene). 16. Comment on the use and the meaning of the given verb in the sentences of every group. Translate the sentences. to turn 1. M Macphail bent down ... and turned the body over. 2. The metallic blonde at the next table turned to her companion with a smile of amusement. 3. She wants to turn over a new leaf. 4. Andrew turned giddy. to give 1. Why didnt you give it [the telegram] to me? 2. The girl gave a little gasp. to cease 1. The dog has ceased barking. 2. The minis ceased. will 1. We cannot work, we cannot think, unless our stomach wills so. 2. She was so experienced in a boat. Yes, Frith ... But accidents will happen 3. Will you pass me the bread, please? 4. ... The jury will believe that at the inquest too. Phillips will tell them so. shall 1. I shall be of age next year. 2. Shall I write? Shall he help you? 3. Do have a short rest! You shall fall ill if you go on working like that. to fall 1. At last they the dogs fell on each other with terrible fury... 2. Dr. Macphail did not answer, and presently he fell asleep. 3. But soon he fell into a walk, then ran, and then walked again. 4. Ben fell back clumsily on to the two- inch coral edge of the water-line. to keep 1. I hid the paper under the cushion of the chair ... But I could not keep the morning editions from him. 2. He kept very still, and when he breathed out he kept the valve well into the coral behind him so that the air bubbles ... did not frighten them [sharks] off. 3. The perpetual harassing fire had kept him on the alert day and night. B) Find in an English text: 1) examples with the verb to be used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as an auxiliary verb, c) as a link-verb, d) with a modal meaning;

2) four examples with the verb to have used a) as a notional verb in the function of a simple predicate, b) as part of a phraseological unit, c) as an auxiliary verb, d) with a modal meaning; 3) four examples with the verb to do used a) as a notional verb, b) as an auxiliary verb, c) to emphasize the meaning of the notional verb; d) as a verb-substitute; 4) examples with the verbs to come, to turn, to get, to feel, to keep, to grow, to look, to sound. a) as notional verbs, b) as link-verbs. 17. Comment on the kind of the predicate as in the given model. Model: Ben ... took a quick look to see that Davy was not ill ... and went to sleep. took a quick look a simple predicate expressed by a phraseological unit; was ... ill a compound nominal predicate ex pressed by the link-verb was and its predicative, the adjective ill; went to sleep a compound verbal predicate of aspect containing the finite verb to go, which expresses the beginning of the action, and an infinitive. 1. When he came on deck next morning they were close to land. (Maugham). 2. In fancy he ... saw himself and her stealing forth at night ... till London swallowed them up, and the dreams of love came true. (Galsworthy). 3. Hello, Davison! You look hot. Have a cup of tea? (Aldington). 4. Youve been a little brick, Chris, the whole way through our bad times. (Cronin). 5. Father Brown made no answer. (Chesterton). 6. He had no impulse to explore the countryside. (Warner). 7. He was afraid of arriving home alone ... He began to loiter on purpose to be noticed ... (Greene). 8. He seemed scared about something. (Greene). 9. A table had been set up under a tree ... (Lawrence). AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT 18. Use the appropriate form of the verb. Translate. 1. There (was, were) many people in the hall. 2. My school-mate and my new fellow-student (has, have) met at my place lately. 3. a) Our old teacher and friend (is, are) dangerously ill. b) Our old teacher and our young friend (is, are) dangerously ill. 4. When (is, are) your grandson and your granddaughter coming to see you? 5. a) The family (was, were) sitting round the table. b) The family (was, were) numerous. 6. The newly married couple (was, were) warmly congratulated by all their friends. 7. A number of people (was, were) standing on the river bank. 8. The number of books in my library (has, have) increased. 9. The two Gentlemen of Verona (is, are) a comedy by Shakespeare. 10. Two young men (was, were) smoking in the corridor. 11. The red and green plaid (is, are) on the sofa.

12. The grey and the black puppy (was, were) sleeping on the rug. 13. A lecture and a report on this subject (is, are) to be delivered on Friday. 14. The cattle (was, were) grazing in the field. 15. Twenty dollars (is, are) not much for this nice coat. 16. All the things (is, are) packed up. 17. Everything (is, are) packed up. 18. If one (works, work) hard, one (makes, make) progress. 19. Gymnastics (strengthens, strengthen) ones health. 20. The wounded (was, were) transported to the hospital. 21. The works (consists of, consist of) different shops. 22. Another three metres (was, were) bought for the girls dress. 23. No news (is, are) good news. 19. Comment on the use of the predicate-verb in the singular or in the plural. 1.... His people in Oughterard were written to. (Joyce). 2. After all it was his own fifty pounds ... 3. Yes, the newspapers were right: snow was general all over Ireland. (Joyce). 4. There stand three young men ... (Shaw). 5. The fleet drops behind ... (Shaw). 6. We found that the band had arrived, and were standing about in the hall rather pink in the face. ... The band were to be our guests for the night, and after we had welcomed them ..., the band were borne off to their quarters ... (Du Maurier). 7. Mr. Murdstone and I were soon off. (Dickens). 8. Before Brodie could speak he added: How are all the family? (Cronin). 9. The Mungo Clothing Company have taken the, shop next door to your husband (Cronin). 10: Oh, you [the unemployed] werent to have been paid. The North East [Company] never pay their crowds. (Mansfield). THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE THE OBJECT 20. Comment on the kind of the object and say what it is expressed by. 1. You can leave your homework in the meantime. (Cronin). 2. Shes capable of deciding. (Greene). 3. Mr. Heng sent a polite verbal reply. (Greene). 4. She was leaning on the banisters, listening to something. (Joyce). 5. One must leave some goal for succeeding generations. (Berkeley). 6. And I shall go on lighting for the trust reposed in me by the dead. (Berkeley). 7. What would she think of him doing that, when everything ... depended on his not checking the foreman? (Galsworthy). 8. But the one revelation that always hurt her was his conception of his father as someone ... who knew wonderful things but didnt like to talk. (Wilson) 21. Oral exercise on the position of the indirect object. Place the direct object before the indirect object to make the latter more prominent. Use the preposition to or for.

Model: Give me the book. Give the book to me. 1. Show the children this wonderful picture book. 2. Tell somebody else this funny story. 3. Send her people a telegram. 4. Write his patents a letter of congratulation. 5. Cant you lend him a small sum of money? 6. Dont forget to buy your grandmother a new pair of spectacles in a leather case. 7. Bring us your family photos. 8. Dont give me back the money; it isnt mine. 9. Pass him the butter. 9. You neednt return him the book: it belongs to his sister. 11. Show her the snapshots, Ive seen them already. 12. Buy him a bicycle, his sister has got one. 22. A. Point out the object; define the kind of the object.

I. Read it! Read it to everybody! She used to read to rue while I was working. 2. Write this word! Write a few words to them! Write to him, he will be so glad to hear from you. 3. Sing a song! She sang some old Irish songs to the grateful listeners. Wont you sing to us? B. Insert the preposition to where necessary. 1. Explain ____ me how to do it. 2. My sister related ____ me all that had happened. 3. 1 often lend my dictionary ____ my friend. 4. He can prove this ____ everybody any moment. 5. He did not suggest ____ them that they should do it. 8. Describe ____ us all the details of the accident. 7. The author dedicated ____ the memory of his parents all the poems collected in the book. 8. These poems are ascribed ____ the pen of a young and gifted poet. 9. He introduced ____ his aunt all his young friends. 10. Can you lend ____ me your raincoat, please? 11. Has the doctor prescribed ____ you any new medicine? 12. We sent ____ her a basket of beautiful flowers. 13. Dont send the money ____ me, send it ____ your grandmother. 14. Give it ____ me. 23. A. Make up sentences with the verbs which may have two direct objects (to ask, to answer, to envy, to forgive, to strike, to excuse, to teach). B. Complete the following sentences (add a cognate object, using it with the attribute given in brackets). 1.The young man died ... (of a hero) 2.The old man sighed ... (deep). 3.He has lived ... (long and interesting). 4.After the excursion we all slept ... (sound). 5.Listening to the funny story he laughed ... (hearty). 6.Looking at the baby the mother smiled ... (happy). 7.He struck his enemy ... (deadly). 8.The troops won ... (glorious). 24. A. Make up sentences using the following words. 1. you, his, he, to, owes, success. 2. these, show, us, post-cards, to.

3. to, write, people, a, his, letter. 4. boy, explain, difficult, to, sum, the, this. 5. dictionary, her, give, my. 6. secretary, the, your, to, application, hand in. 7. your, buy, this, for, teddy bear, girl, little, wonderful. 8. it, do not, him, about, tell. 9. children, the, read, to. 10. girl, parents, introduce, this, to, young, your, charming. 11. work, suggest, them, method, to, the, of, right. 12. valuable, whom, this, does, to, belong, thing? B. Find in an English text some sentences with a) a direct object, b) two direct objects, c) a direct and an indirect object, d) an indirect object (without a direct object). 25. Ask a question on the prepositional object and its attribute, if any, as in the model. Model: I am greatly interested in this problem. What are you interested in? What problem are you interested in? 1. A symphony usually consists of four parts. 2. This collection of stamps belongs to my friend. 3. My decision depends on the state of my health. 4. My parents objected to my buying a motorcycle. 5. The reporter referred to our professors works. 6. Everybody spoke of the talented pianist. 7. The newspapers commented upon the proceedings of the conference of physicists. 8. They agreed upon the terms of the contract. 9. The students listened with great interest to the lecture on the international situation. 10. We were waiting for the 5.30 train. 11. The dean sent for the monitor of our group. 12. I looked for my green bag everywhere. 26. Point out the complex object. State what components the complex object consists of. Translate the sentences. 1. Sun didnt mind people not noticing him much.. (Mansfield). 2. And then, as by a miracle, the pigmy chest, which his hands enclosed, gave a short convulsive heave ... it almost made him faint. (Cronin). 3. Weve dreamed of him succeeding old

Palmerston as the Head of the Governmentbrought to the highest position in the country by us. (Berkeley). 4. She heard him absolutely roaring. And do you expect me to pay for this gimcrack excursion of yours? 5. Buried. You two girls had me buried She heard his stick thumping. 6 He did not want anybody to know, 7. You know that she took offence at the poor dear boys ever being born. (Dickens). 8. I will not sit here and hear such comparisons made. With that she stalked out, and made the door bang after her. (Dickens). 9. I shant even wait for it to be emptied. (Mansfield). 10. I only say, he resumed, ... that I disapprove of your preferring such company as Mistress Peggotty. (Dickens). 27. A. Insert a verb suitable to be followed by a complex object (to insist, to make, to keep, find, to wait, to hear, to want, to expect, to see, to let, to get). 1. Nothing will ________ me believe it was true. 2. I ________ him laughing loudly. 3. The father ________ his son to be an educated man. 4. I shall never be able to ______ my packing done by myself. 5. I am not going _______ you go home alone so late at night. 6. We _______ them cross the bridge. 7. We ______ him to come soon. 8. The public were ________ for the curtain to rise 9. He ________ them walking along a shady alley. 10. I didnt intend to ______ you waiting. 11. They _______ on my writing another letter. B. Complete the sentences giving the second element of the complex object. 1. 1 must have my hair 2. Nobody expected you ... 3. We shall get your luggage... 4. He waited for us ... 5. You cant rely on his 6. She watched the swallows ... 7. I suppose it ... 8. She considered herself ... 9. We were surprised at your THE ATTRIBUTE 30. Point out the attribute and say what it is expressed by. 1. Perhaps one day you will have a reason for writing about it. (Greene). 2. Horn made him a sign to come on to the veranda. 3. We used to have a very good horse and trap at home, said Aunt Julia sadly The never- to- be -forgotten Johnny said Mary Jane, laughing (Joyce) 4. They were strangers; they couldnt be expected to understand that father was the very last person for such a thing to happen to. (Mansfield). 5. On another occasion ... the same dear baby ... was the innocent occasion of Miss Murdstones going into a passion. (Dickens). 6. ... he realised suddenly ... that it wasnt fear of being caught that worried Davy but fear of being left alone. 7. That night in the surgery there were three patients, two of whom paid him the three and six penny fee... He had, in his first days practice, earned the sum of ten and six, (Cronin). 8. She looked at me ... with the slightest possible content a fancy-not-recognising-that-at-the-first glance expression. (Mansfield). 9. And Bertha smiled with that little air of proprietorship that she always assumed while her women friends were new and mysterious. (Mansfield). 10. I think I come across the same idea in a little French review quite unknown in England. 11. She was a well made woman of about fifty ... She had the look of a woman well-fed, well-taken-care-of ... (Cronin). 14. Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great English humorist tells tales out of an artists sheer love of story telling. (Delmer). 15. Bennett was the first to realize that the grey-skied region, known as the Potteries, contained excellent copy for a series of novels. (Delmer). 16. They must have a roof to cover them, a house to shelter them ...

(Cronin). 31. Place the attributes in the proper order in relation to the noun they modify. Model: a hut, wooden, small a small wooden hut 1. A man handsome, grey-haired; 2. a building ancient, dilapidated; 3. a woman sick, old; 4. an alley shady, broad; 5. a girl little, thin, with big eyes; 6. a plant tropical, fragrant; 7. a cliff lonely, about 20 feet high; 8. baby two-year- old, charming, this; 9. cousins his, both; 10. a leaf faded, oak; 11. a plaid checked, Scotch, woollen; 12. music sweet, exquisite, but quite unfamiliar to the listeners; 13. the pianist talented, admired by the public; 14. a report made by our professor, interesting, on modern English writers; 15. photo taken about 10 years ago, my schoolfellows; 16. a ladyGerman, middle- aged, stout; 17. cap favourite, my, old; 18. spectaclesold, my, in an old leather case; 19. a doctor very experienced, wellknown; 20. a story told by a friend of mine, interesting. 32. Ask questions on the attributes in bold type. (The interrogative words for use: what, which, whose, what kind of, what sort of, how much, how many). 1. He is a conscientious student. 2. Bus number 2 will take you as far as the Opera House. 3. This is a book on architecture. 4. Cold winds blow from the North. 5. This is my brothers tennis racket. To play tennis we must have four balls. 6. He drinks very much milk. 7. Give me the book on the left. 8. He lives in that house at the corner of the street. 9. They live in a new house of modern construction. 10. There are ten students in our group. 11. The meeting will take place in room 32. 12. You mustnt lift heavy things. 13. I like salt biscuits. 14. Ill go by the 3.30 train. 15. My friend spent two years in the North. 16. He delivered an interesting lecture. 17. Your brother is a most amusing companion. 18. She had a tiny brown spaniel puppy in her arms. 19. An old orchard of apple-trees stretched down to a stream. 33. A. Point out the attribute. State what it is expressed by. Translate the sentences. 1. There was nothing to say. 2. She was the first to help me. 3. I have a lot of things to see to. 4. There is nothing more to be done. 5. I have no intention to follow them. 6. Scientists from different countries will be present at the conference shortly to open in our city. 7. I hope to attend all the lectures to be delivered on this subject. 8. There is not a second to be lost. B. Find in an English text sentences including an attribute expressed by 1) an adjective, 2) a pronoun, 3) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal), 4) a noun a) in the common case, b) in the genitive case, 5) a prepositional phrase, 6) an adverb, 7) Participle I or II or a participial phrase, 8) a prepositional gerundial phrase or a prepositional construction, 9) an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or an infinitive construction, 10) a quotation group.

34. A. Make up sentences with detached attributes using the given words. Model: dismal cave, dark and cold. We found ourselves in a dismal cave, dark and cold. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. big man, broad-shouldered and heavy. nice young girl, very graceful and elegantly dressed. unknown lane, long and narrow. modern building, built of glass and concrete. nice room, light and clean. small kitchen, cosy and tidy.

B. Make up sentences, using the following words and phrases as detached attributes. rather high-flown; terrified by the accident; sick and tired; greatly surprised, quite depressed; fresh and jolly usually so considerate (of) ...; engaged in his work. 35. A. Point out the close and the loose apposition. 1. Maidenhead, a river resort, is on one of the River Thames... 2. The town of Windsor is a typically English town. (Britain) 2. William Langland, the humanitarian poet of the 14th century, deeply felt the social evils he saw around him. 3. Side by side with Langland lived another great English reformer, John Wycliff, one of the intellectual forces of the 14th century. 3. The poet Pope was Shakespeares second editor. 4. Jerome K. Jerome set England laughing ... with a farcial but exceedingly well- written story Three Men in a Boat. 5. The well known personage Sam Weller was Mr. Pickwicks witty, light-hearted, shrewd and faithful servant, a kind of Cockney Sancho Panza. 6. That is his father, Sir Robert, a perfectly honest old cavalier. (Chesterton). THE ADVERBIAL MODIEIER 36. State the kind of the adverbial modifier. Say what the adverbial modifier is expressed by. 1. I heard him knocking, so I ran upstairs to let him in. (Greene). 2. All at once the sheep-dog leapt to its feet. (Bates). 3. Ben was too busy to hear him now ... 4. Gabriel tried to cover his agitation by taking part in the dance with great energy. (Joyce). 5. Im here; Im working, morning, noon and night. (Berkeley). 6. Sophie pulled out the dress without saying anything. (Huxley). 7. There was a road to Cairo which went west across the desert. 8. They went down the stairs side by side. (Maugham). 9. Sometimes it is a joy in the very heart of hell to tell the truth. (Chesterton). 10. I believe that I began to know that there was something about my aunt, notwithstanding her many eccentricities and odd humours, to be honoured and trusted

in. (Dickens). 11. Your hands are like snowdrops, Mary ... They are cool like snow itself. 12. She hung her head a little, conscious of her own deficiencies and the oddity of her up-bringing ... (Cronin). 13. Lord Darlington: ... Gogo out of this house, with head erect, with a smile upon your lips, with courage in your eyes. (Wilde). 14. Here Nessie burst into the room like a young foal ... (Cronin). 15. Then in a moment she looked up, as though seeing him for the first time. (Cr