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Concordant Aspects of So lasst mich scheinen in Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf

Chelsea Brinda

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Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, and Hugo Wolf are known as pioneers of

German Lieder even though their compositional styles are very different. However, in

Goethe’s So lasst mich scheinen, which focuses on the character, Mignon, and her

torment, these three composers give reason to think that despite obvious surface

differences, every setting shares common formal and tonal elements, perhaps due to

the demands of the text.

Literature Review -

Though the works of all three composers have been heavily analyzed, So lasst

mich scheinen, in particular, has not been heavily studied. However, there are several

sources that offer insight into the techniques of Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf that are

applicable to all or most of the settings. For instance, Fox Strangways does not

specifically talk about So lasst mich scheinen, but states that Wolf’s work is very formal

and his words are set in the way of ordinary speech, as compared to Schubert, whose

work is more episodic and relays the inflection of the poetry.1 Carol Kimball’s book,

Song: A Guide to Style and Literature, is a collection of biographical information and

song information for songs of different time periods. Schubert, she says “had an intuitive

melodic gift and how he had the ability to gauge the essence of a poem and transform it

melodically.” Moreover, she states that Schubert, specifically with his piano

accompaniments, was influenced by Beethoven and then Schubert went on to influence

other composers such as Schumann, Brahms, Mendelssohn, and Wolf. Schumann

wrote many piano pieces before he ventured into Lied, but evidence of his piano

expressiveness appeared in his vocal pieces. Moreover, his accompaniments are given

melodic material that interacts with the voice on an equal level. Kimball states how well

1 A. H. Fox Strangways, “Schubert and Wolf,” Music & Letters, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Ap. 1942): 126-134.

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he understood poetry and how that reflected in his pieces: “His songs demand

considerable elegance of phrasing, and a rubato that must remain within the frame of

the rhythmic pulse.” She mentions how the songs of Mignon are so psychologically

compelling because they include a sense of grief, secrecy, and a longing to return

home, and how Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf composed the most dramatic and

captivating pieces out of all the known settings. Kimball expressed how Wolf’s songs

have been “characterized as the ‘caviar of lieder literature’ because they exhibit a highly

refined sense of style and intellectual concentration.” Moreover she specifically

classifies his work as the ultimate synthesis of poem and music, a complete fusion of

music and text.2 Holländer specifically focuses on Schubert and his multiple settings of

same song texts. He states that the reasoning for this is because Schubert wants to get

a better understanding of the original construction and to “musically compress the

mood-content of the text.”3

Only a few authors have analyzed any of the settings of So lasst mich scheinen.

Lorraine Byrne devotes a lot of effort to an in-depth analysis of the text, how it relates to

the pieces Schubert composed, and then she gives an analysis of each Schubert

setting. Byrne also talks about how Schubert set the same text multiple times and

attributes this to the fact that the composer was “unable to capture the import of the

lyrics in musical forms.” She mentions frequently how significant the characters

emotions are and how Schubert not only used it to his advantage, but that he used it to

create a personal statement. She talks several times about the folk-like mood of both

D727 and D877 and how it accompanies the dark, troubling tale of Mignon. Specifically,

2 Carol Kimball, Song: A Guide to Style and Literature, (Redmond: Pst…Inc., 1996), 63-125 3 Hans Holländer and Frederick H. Martens, “Franz Schubert’s Repeated Settings of the Same Song-Texts,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 4 (October 1928): 563-574.

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she discusses how in D727, the folk-like simplicity and the consonant harmonies evoke

Mignon’s desire for serenity and an ethereal state. Moreover, the use of parallel keys

symbolizes Mignon’s fight between remaining on Earth and dying, as she wishes. D877

seems to have some striking similarities to the previous setting, as Byrne mentions.

Both settings have some sort of B major/minor parallelism and an emphasis on the

mediant. Lastly, she states how “Schubert’s melodies are varied according to the

meaning of the text, and the harmonic richness which underlines the text captures

Goethe’s import in musical form.”4

Richard Miller takes a different perspective and compares pieces based on the

character’s maturity. Schubert portrays Mignon as a young maiden while Schumann

and Wolf portray her as a mature woman, Miller states. He describes Schumann’s

composition as torturous, as it expresses attempted self-control and turmoil.5 Eric

Sams, by contrast, declares that Schumann’s setting only reflects the composers’ own

mental state, not that of Mignon. He states that the rhythms seem to shift endlessly and

that other rhythms appear and disappear, which makes the piece incoherent and

confusing.6 On the other hand, Sams praises Wolf’s setting as the epitome of a flawless

text setting.7 The text was clearly rich enough that Wolf’s complex compositional

techniques proved to be ideal.

So lasst mich scheinen -

Goethe’s novel, Wilhelm Meister’s Lehrjarhe centers on the trials and tribulations

of the main character, Wilhelm, who tries to become free of the restraints built by

4 Lorraine Byrne, Schubert’s Goethe Settings. (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003), 246-283 5 Richard Miller, Singing Schumann: An Interpretive Guide for Performers, (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1999), 193. 6 Eric Sams, The Songs of Robert Schumann (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 2008), 226 7 Eric Sams, The Songs of Hugo Wolf (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 2008), 187

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society. He meets a mysterious young child, Mignon, who dresses in male clothes and

avoids any inquiry about her identity. Wilhelm later discovers that Mignon was taken

from her parents by a company of acrobats to perform in the circus. Although Mignon

made a promise to never reveal her past, she divulges the secret of her parents’

incestuous nature.8 Later in the novel, Mignon attends a birthday party and dresses as

an angel. After her entrance, she is instructed to change her clothes, but wishing to be

an angel, she refuses to take off the gown.9 In So lasst mich scheinen, Mignon

expresses the sorrow in her life and how she wishes to rid herself of sadness and

judgment. She knows that in heaven, nobody will question whether she is a man or a

woman, even unclothed. This piece is her lament and her declamation of a desire to die.

A word-by-word translation and a poetic translation follow:

So lasst mich scheinen, bis ich werde, zieht mir das weisse Kleis nicht aus! Ich eile von der schönen Erde hinab in jenes feste (dunkle) Haus. Dort ruh’ ich eine kleine Stille, dann öffnet sich der frische Blick, ich lasse dann die reine Hülle, den Gürtle und den Kranz zurück. Und jene himmlischen Gestalten, sie fragen nicht nach Mann und Weib, und keine Kleider, keine Falten umgeben den verklärten Leib. Zwar lebt’ ich ohne Sorg’ und Mühe, doch fühlt’ ich tiefen Schmerz genung; vor Kummer altert’ ich zu frühe, macht mich auf ewig wieder jung.

So let me appear, till I become, take from me the white dress not off! I hurry from the beautiful earth down into that firm (dark) house. There rest I a little quiet (time), then opens itself the fresh gaze, I leave then the pure covering, the girdle and the wreath behind. And those heavenly forms, they ask not after man and woman, and no clothes, no folds surround the transfigured body. To be sure lived I without care and trouble, but felt I deep pain enough; for sorrow aged I too early, make me for ever again young.10

8 Lorraine Byrne, Schubert’s Goethe Settings (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003), 246-247. 9 A. H. Fox Strangways, “The Songs in ‘Wilhelm Meister’,” Music & Letters, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Oct. 1942): 290-297. 10 Beaumont Glass, Schumann’s Complete Song Texts (Geneseo: Leyerle Publications, 2002), 204-205.

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“Such let me seem until I become such: do not make me take off this white dress!

I shall soon leave this beautiful earth and go down into that secure house below.

There I shall rest for a quiet little time; then my refreshed eyes will open,

then I shall leave behind this pure white dress, the girdle, and the wreath.

And those heavenly beings will not ask who is a man, who is a woman;

and no clothes, no draperies will enclose the transfigured body.

True, I lived without care and trouble; but I nevertheless felt deep pain often enough;

through sorrow I became old too early; make me young again forever.”11

Form -

The form of each piece reveals how each composer divides and interprets each

section of the poem. The majority of the settings follow the same form: modified

strophic, seen in both the different key areas and the motives that are present.

Schumann’s piece is an outlier, and appears to be through-composed. With a lack of

motivic material and strikingly different key areas, we can unequivocally say that while

the song seems to flow effortlessly, there is no clear structural relationship between

sections.

Schubert D727:

Schubert D877:

11 Ibid

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Schumann:

Wolf:

The form of Schubert’s D727 is articulated by abrupt B major chords that

separate the B minor A section and the B major B section. As in typical strophic form,

this piece is essentially just ||:A||B:|| with different verses, but Schubert wrote out each

section because of the introduction and codetta. His later setting D877, follows the

same general structure. The only exception occurs in his second B section, which

contains one striking difference:

Example 1a, D. 877, mm. 17-19

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Example 1b, D. 877, mm. 37-39 e

Example 1 shows the kind of abrupt and striking tonicizations and modulations that

appear in both of Schubert’s settings. The modal changes between 1a and 1b are

perhaps due to the text, discussed below.

As mentioned previously, Schumann takes a different formal approach. His

material varies so greatly that it does not even follow a definite formal structure and the

piece is best described as through-composed due to the lack of similar melodic figures,

similar rhythmic figures, stable key areas, and perfect authentic cadences.

Wolf’s form is similar to Schubert’s. Although less tonally stable than both

Schubert’s and Schumann settings, Wolf’s has very distinct sections that have similar

melodic ideas in both the voice and piano accompaniment. Moreover, the piece

explores attention-grabbing key areas – some of which are similar in both A sections

and both B sections.

Although all of the pieces have slightly different forms, the forms are all easily

defined by the placement of each verse: Even Schumann, who was less formal, decided

to break up the piece into easily discernable sections based on key areas, discussed

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below.

Tonality and Modality -

While text might be important for determining the form, key areas and cadences

are critical. The key areas in each setting are not predictable; all pieces have little to no

emphasis on the dominant. While this may be typical for a Romantic period

composition, it still provides interesting insight into the composers approaches to the

text.

Schubert’s D727 emphasizes parallel keys, but not before the mediant is

explored. The piece clearly begins in B minor with preparation from the accompaniment.

However, by the end of the first period, after two half cadences, we do not get a perfect

authentic cadence in B minor, but rather in the mediant D major. After two measures,

Schubert finally gives the listener the satisfaction of a perfect authentic cadence in B

minor. The figure repeats, emphasizing D major again, but settles back in B minor. One

beat later, and moving into the B section, the mode changes to major. This section is by

far the most stable in the piece because of the consistent perfect authentic cadences in

the tonic key. As in the A section, the text is repeated at measure 29 with a hint of B

minor, but it returns to the tonic key until the end of the section.

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Example 2, Schubert D. 727, mm. 29-32

Just as abruptly as the mode changed to B major, it changes back to B minor with the

return of the A section. Because the piece is strophic, the key areas for the second A

and B section are predictable; we expect to hear the same music and same key areas,

and Schubert gives us exactly that.

Schubert’s D877 contains similar key areas and cadences, but the tonic key is

much more pronounced and stable. Most of the A section is accompanied by a

dominant F-sharp pedal even though there are both tonic and dominant chords present.

Unlike the previous Schubert setting, this setting contains several perfect authentic

cadences in the piano at the ends of short phrases; however, at the end of the period,

which marks the end of the A section, the voice ends on scale degree 3. The

accompaniment extends the phrase and ultimately ends on a perfect authentic cadence.

The B section in this piece is marked by an unexpected, but well-prepared perfect

authentic cadence in the mediant, D major. The next phrase transitions back to B major,

but not before accented B minor chords. This section ends with a satisfying perfect

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authentic cadence in the tonic. The next A section follows the exact harmonic structure

as the previous A section. The second B section contains the striking modal difference,

shown above in Example 1. The perfect authentic cadence in D minor signifies one of

the most powerful moments of the whole piece. This section once again transitions

through B minor to return to the tonic and a final cadence.

Schumann’s key areas, like his form, are far more unusual. Each defined section

of the piece contains its own key area, but the harmonies in between cadences are

somewhat ambiguous. The first section of the piece begins in G major, but explores the

area of E minor through secondary dominants and deceptive cadences. Measure 12

finally delivers a cadence in G major, although it is imperfect and inconclusive. One beat

after the cadence, the harmony changes to a surprising G minor in preparation for the

emphasis of the flat submediant, E-flat major. The B section quickly transitions back to

G major with another imperfect authentic cadence. Like the previous sections, the C

section explores areas other than the tonic, such as the dominant and the supertonic,

before ending with a cadence to the subdominant. Three measures of piano

accompaniment then provide a smooth transition back to G major, although that, too is

soon thwarted. In the final section, G major soon becomes the dominant chord, though

Schumann never resolves the seventh or has it cadence anywhere; he just moves on

without adding any satisfaction, as seen in Example 3.

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Example 3, Schumann, mm. 36-40

The final section concludes with the only perfect authentic cadence in the whole piece,

followed by a piano codetta that ends with an imperfect authentic cadence that

emphasizes the instability that is present in the whole piece. In addition to the lack of

perfect authentic cadences, the piece is littered with inverted chords. Whether

Schumann chose to do this for smooth voice leading purposes or not, it adds to the air

of instability.

Wolf, not surprisingly, is even more tonally daring in approach than Schumann.

As in Schumann’s setting, the sections are defined by their own key areas; however, the

key areas are even more ambiguous. Most of Wolf’s piece is scattered with pedal

points, adding to the ambiguity. The piece opens in A minor and contains functional

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harmony (i – iv – V – i), even though it appears over an A pedal. However, during the

third phrase, all rules of tonality and harmonic progression are ignored. A7 becomes

prominent in addition to B-flat major. Chromatic passing tones come into play, and

through a series of multiple non-functional chords the phrase arrives at a “half cadence”

on G-sharp. Whether Wolf settles on C-sharp major or C-sharp minor is questionable

until the start of the B section. He once again turns the tonic chord into the dominant

chord by adding the seventh. Unlike in the previous example, Wolf resolves the

seventh, but not necessarily in a meaningful way because of a C-sharp pedal.

Example 4, Wolf, mm. 10-11

Moving forward to the next section, Wolf transitions from sharp keys to B-flat

major. Much like Schumann, Wolf uses care to ensure that there is smooth voice

leading in the bass line. However, that causes chords to be inverted and therefore

unstable. While this part of the B section is definitely in B-flat major, we do not get a root

position B-flat major chord. A cadence on E7 closes the final phrase of the B section,

bringing the piece back to tonic. The following A section follows the same harmonic

progression until the end, where it “half cadences” on an A-sharp major chord. The

upcoming B section remains full of ambiguous chords that do not cadence or function

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harmonically. However, once again, they eventually lead to B-flat major. The voice ends

on the fifth of not A minor, but A major in second-inversion. The piano closes out the

piece with the same motive as the beginning in A minor, but ending on an imperfect

authentic cadence.

Third Relations -

Despite a number of surface-level differences, all four settings do share a

common factor: emphasis on the mediant, through the presence of third relations, and

the use of chromatic mediants. A reductive analysis shows evidence of the prolongation

of scale degree 3 in nearly all of the settings.

In the first Schubert setting, there is certainly evidence of emphasis of scale

degree 3 due to perfect authentic cadences during the tonicization of the mediant in the

B minor sections. Furthermore, in the B major sections, the melody gives considerable

weight to scale degree 3 and returns to that scale degree many times. Even though the

presence of perfect authentic cadences outweighs the presence of imperfect authentic

cadences, the emphasis of scale degree 3 is undeniable.

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Example 5, Schubert D727, mm. 5-60

The second Schubert setting follows a similar pattern. The first strong cadence,

an imperfect authentic cadence, lands on scale degree 3. Additionally, the tonicization

of the mediant, the scalar passage, and the consequent perfect authentic cadence gives

even more importance to that scale degree. Like in the previous setting, there are a

multitude of perfect authentic cadences in comparison to imperfect authentic cadences,

but the tonicizations provide striking features, which are it is impossible to ignore.

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In Schumann’s setting, the prolongation is especially evident because the voice

constantly cadences on scale degree 3, even in tonicized keys. As seen in the example,

there are constant neighbor tones and double neighbor tones that resolve to scale

degree 3 in G major and in C major.

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Example 5, Schumann mm. 1-47

Text Setting -

Also important to the study of these four pieces is their text. Each composer

explored and set these texts in very different ways. Differences can be seen even

between Schubert’s two settings. However, there are certainly some similarities in

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climactic words and phrases that show that perhaps each composer had similar

understanding of the poetic material.

As Fox Strangways mentioned, Schubert’s work seems to reflect poetic inflection

rather than conversational inflection.12 The lack of complexity in his rhythms and his

predictability could be evidence of this. However, his interpretation of the meaningful

words and phrases is clear from other evidence. Right from the beginning of D727,

Schubert captures the depressed state of Mignon. The vocal line of the first phrase

gives a sense of sighing because there are two notes, usually stepwise, per syllable.

Example 8, Schubert D. 727, mm. 5-11

12 A. H. Fox Strangways, “Schubert and Wolf,” Music & Letters, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Ap. 1942): 126-134.

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This sighing figure reaches a G5 in measure 9 on the word zieht, making it the climax of

the phrase. Sigh figures are historically characterized by descending motions, as with

an actual physical sigh. However, we get an inversion of this sigh figure as well. This

collection of sigh figures clearly stresses the desperation of Mignon. The upcoming

phrase is in D major and is characterized by more motion with the addition of eighth

notes. The phrase, “I hurry from the beautiful Earth down into that firm house,” is

repeated, accentuating Mignon’s desire to die and go to Heaven. The B major section

becomes more syllabic than the previous A section and is articulated with stepwise

motion and arpeggiations of the tonic chord. As in the A section, Schubert repeats the

final phrase, which in this case describes what Mignon intends to leave behind.

Moreover, he emphasizes exactly what she’ll leave behind in his text, as pictured above

in Example 2. The second A section contains the same structure and phrasing as the

first A section, but this time, the climax occurs on fragen, as Mignon knows she will not

be asked whether she is a man or woman once she is in Heaven. The final section is

Mignon’s last lament, wishing to go to Heaven and be forever young. The compelling

conversions from B minor to B major express a polarity between Mignon’s male and

female classification, as Byrne notes, and greatly accentuates her sorrow and

transformation.13

Schubert’s second setting once again reflects a poetic inflection, but is even

more melodic than the previous setting. However, both settings still have some similar

elements. Glass argues that this setting gives too much weight to unimportant words

13 Lorraine Byrne, Schubert’s Goethe Settings. (Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003), 281-282

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like eine, und, and den.14 While this appears to be true, it does not necessarily detract

from the overall mood of the piece. In fact, Schubert makes some decisions about the

text that portray the mood better than in his previous setting. Some examples of this

appear in the D major and minor tonicizations, as pictured in Example 1a and 1b. The

phrases “frische blick” and “Schmerz genung” are powerfully intensified by a scale in

octaves and a perfect authentic cadence. The D minor tonicization symbolizes the deep,

extraordinary pain that Mignon experiences as she awaits death. In addition to these

captivating moments, Schubert makes other fascinating musical decisions. For

example, he makes a subtle, but intriguing change, a literal transfiguration, in one

motive in the second A section on “verklärten Leib.” This figure of transfiguration

symbolizes Mignon’s own transfiguration and the conflict concerning whether she is a

man or woman.

Example 9a, Schubert D877, mm. 12-13

14 Beaumont Glass, Schubert’s Complete Song Texts, Volume II (Geneseo: Leyerle Publications, 2002), 857

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Example 9b, Schubert D877, mm. 32-33

The last distinct textual pronouncement determines the climax of the whole piece.

Although the piece is littered with F-sharps, which is the peak note, there is a definitive

moment where this certain F-sharp garners more weight and importance than any other

note in the piece. This note is highlighted with a chromatic rise on the words “macht

mich auf ewig” and is then repeated immediately after to end the piece as Mignon’s final

cry for liberation.

Example 10, Schubert D877, mm.41-44

Schumann, although his composition differs greatly from both of Schubert’s,

makes some similar decisions regarding the text. However, unlike Schubert’s setting,

where the text is either conversational or poetic, Schumann produces a combination of

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the two. He is able to achieve this through rhythmic choices and melodic contour. In the

first section of the piece, there is no strong climax, just moments of repose at cadential

moments. The second section brings some major moments that occur within the

tonicization of E-flat. The arpeggiation in the voice could signify the opening up of

Mignon’s eyes when she arrives in Heaven.

Example 11, Schumann, mm. 15-19

As in the previous Schubert examples, Schumann puts subtle, but significant emphasis

on “heavenly forms” and “man and woman.” The end of the section is marked with the

expected imperfect authentic cadence, but in the subdominant. This tonicization could

be symbolic of the transfiguration, similar to what Schubert presented in D877.

Example 12, Schumann, mm.28-30

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The final section contains the most drama, exceeding even the second section. The

amount of suspensions and resolutions gives a sense of desperate question and

answer. Schumann finally reaches the true climax of the piece in the last two phrases

and ends on the only perfect authentic cadence in the piece.

Example 13, Schumann, mm. 42-47

Wolf, who also composed with a variety of rhythms and a smooth, but sometimes

intricate vocal line, also seems to capture the sorrowful spirit of Mignon. In addition,

because of the pedal points in the accompaniment, tension already exists in the piece.

Like Schumann, Wolf has a style that is not only poetic, but simultaneously

conversational. One of the ways Wolf accomplishes this is by including a multitude of

phrases that are heavily syncopated. Moreover, he commands attention by

incorporating non-chord tones that resolve in unexpected ways. For instance, he has

the voice complete a phrase on a leading tone, but never resolves it, or he resolves it by

a leap, not a step. Furthermore, the vocal line contains heavy chromaticism that is

accompanied by an intermixing of flat and sharp-keys. Within the first section, the

seemingly smooth vocal line becomes unstable as the Neapolitan key, B-flat, creeps in.

The mixture of the two keys distorts the beauty of the line except for on the word,

schönen. Tension rises in the second section due to the presence of dominant seventh

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chords, emphasized in the voice. As the Neapolitan key returns, the harmony becomes

more stabilized until the cadence on the dominant of the original key. The stabilization

represents Mignon’s realization of the judgment she will be leaving behind. The second

A section remains similar to the first A section, but more tension is added with tritone

leaps and another transfiguration of the harmony, similar to what Schumann composed.

Example 14, Wolf, mm. 22-25

Although Wolf explores a different key area in the second B section than the first, he

once again adds to the tension of the piece and begins the development that leads to

the climax of the piece. The key area returns to the stable Neapolitan, but the text is

anything but stable. Mignon’s declamatory final cry is exaggerated with a climb up the

scale to the climax, on ewig, similar to Schubert and Schumann’s settings.

Example 15, Wolf, mm-30-33

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By examining the way each composer set the text, there is no question that each

thought similarly in terms of the text, the character, and the treatment of the mood that

Goethe envisioned. Each composer captured the sorrow and dread that Mignon

experienced and gave her a sense of hope, freedom, and liberation during her final

declamation.

Conclusion -

Despite the fact that Schubert, Schumann, and Wolf – each with their own

distinct compositional styles – composed four different pieces on the surface, there are

some connections deep inside each setting. Relationships that may not have been

discernable become clear with an analysis that looks below the surface. Formal

structures, third relationships, and textual and musical climaxes are among the most

remarkable features that link these settings together. Through these features, it is clear

that each composer shared a similar understanding of all aspects of the text.

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Byrne, Lorraine. Schubert’s Goethe Settings. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003.

Fox Strangways, A. H. “Schubert and Wolf.” Music & Letters, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Ap. 1942): 126-134. Accessed July 7, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/728241

Fox Strangways, A.H. “The Songs in ‘Wilhelm Meister’.” Music & Letters, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Oct. 1942): 290-297. Accessed July 7, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/727507

Glass, Beaumont. Schubert’s Complete Song Texts, Volume II. Geneseo: Leyerle Publications, 1996.

Glass, Beaumont. Schumann’s Complete Song Texts. Geneseo: Leyerle Publications, 2002.

Glass, Beaumont. Hugo Wolf’s Complete Song Texts. Geneseo: Leyerle Publications, 2000.

Holländer, Hans and Frederick H. Martens. “Franz Schubert’s Repeated Settings of the Same Song-Texts.” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 4 (October 1928): 563-574. Accessed July 7, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/738520

Kimball, Carol. Song: A Guide to Style and Literature. Redmond: Pst…Inc., 1996.

Kramer, Lawrence. “Decadence and Desire: The ‘Wilhelm Meister’ Songs of Wolf and Schubert.” 19th-Century Music, Vol. 10, No. 3, Special Issue: Resolutions I (Spring, 1987): 229-242. Accessed July 8, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/746437

Miller, Richard. Singing Schumann: An Interpretive Guide for Performers. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1999.

Sams, Eric. The Songs of Robert Schumann. London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 2008.

Sams, Eric. The Songs of Hugo Wolf. London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 2008.