Blood and the Lymphatic System

Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.All rights reserved.

Unlocking Medical Terminology, Second EditionBruce Wingerd

CHAPTERCHAPTER

Unlocking Medical TerminologySecond Edition

Blood and the Lymphatic System

11



Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

– Define and spell the word parts used to create medical terms for blood and the lymphatic system

– Identify the organs of blood and the lymphatic system and describe their structure and function



Learning Objectives (cont.)

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

– Define common medical terms used for blood and the lymphatic system

– Break down and define common medical terms used for symptoms, diseases, disorders, procedures, treatments, and devices for blood and the lymphatic system



Blood and the Lymphatics

• Blood is normally found only in the cardiovascular system, and its primary function is transport

• Another type of fluid, known as lymph, also transports substances throughout the body and is found in the lymphatic vessels



Blood and the Lymphatics (cont.)

• The two fluids are intertwined because lymph is formed from blood and because blood and lymph both carry white blood cells



Prefixes

• ana- = up, toward, apart• homo- = same• iso- = equal• macro- = large• micro- = small• pro- = before



Combining Forms

• aden/o = gland• aut/o = self• bacteri/o = bacteria• blast/o = germ, bud, developing cell• chromat/o = color



Combining Forms (cont.)

• erythr/o = red• fung/o = fungus• hem/o, hemat/o = blood• immun/o = exempt; immunity




• leuk/o = white• lymph/o = clear water, fluid• mon/o = one• myel/o = bone marrow (also means spinal

cord, medulla, myelin)• nucle/o = kernel, nucleus




• path/o = disease• plas/o = change• poikil/o = irregular• septic/o = putrefying• splen/o = spleen




• staphyl/o = grape-like clusters; Staphylococcus

• strept/o = twisted or gnarled; Streptococcus

• therm/o = heat




• thromb/o = clot• thym/o = wart-like; thymus gland• tox/o, toxic/o = poison• vir/o = virus



Suffixes

• -crit = to separate• -cyte = cell• -emia, -hemia = condition of blood• -globin = globe-like protein• -lysis = to dissolve, loosen• -osis = condition of



Suffixes (cont.)

• -penia = abnormal reduction in number, deficiency

• -pexy = surgical fixation, suspension• -phil, -philia = loving, affinity for



Suffixes (cont.)

• -phylaxis = protection• -poiesis = formation• -stasis = standing still• -therapy = treatment



Anatomy and Physiology

• Some of the circulating blood does not return to the bloodstream but returns to the lymphatic vessels instead

• The lymphatic vessels channel the fluid, known as lymph, back into the cardiovascular system

• Before the lymph reaches the cardiovascular system it passes through numerous lymphatic organs



Anatomy and Physiology (cont.)

• The lymphatic organs contain millions of white blood cells that filter the lymph by removing bacteria and other unwanted materials

• The white blood cells are the functional components of the immune response that serve to defend against viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and nonliving substances that may cause disease



Blood

• The blood transports materials throughout the body via the cardiovascular system

• It consists of a watery fluid and a combination of several types of formed elements that are suspended in the fluid

• The fluid part of the blood is called plasma



Figure 11.1 A blood smear



Blood (cont.)

• Plasma is slightly thicker than water and is thickened by the presence of dissolved proteins

• These proteins give plasma a yellow color• One of these proteins, fibrinogen, begins

the blood clotting process• The removal of fibrinogen from a blood

sample produces serum



Blood (cont.)

• The formed elements that are carried along in the plasma current include three types– Red blood cells (RBCs)– White blood cells (WBCs)– Platelets



Red Blood Cells

• Also called erythrocytes• The most abundant cells, numbering about

4,200,000 to 6,200,000 per cc in adults• Are produced from precursor cells, called

stem cells, in the red bone marrow during the process known as hematopoiesis



Red Blood Cells (cont.)

• Each cell is filled with the protein hemoglobin– Contains iron



Figure 11.2 Hematopoiesis



Figure 11.3 Red blood cells



Platelets

• Platelets or thrombocytes are the second most abundant formed elements in blood

• Smaller than RBCs, they range between 150,000 and 360,000 cells per cc of blood

• Prevent fluid loss that would otherwise follow an injury by releasing proteins in a process, known as coagulation, which results in the formation of blood clots



Figure 11.4 Saturated red blood cells Source: Custom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.



Figure 11.5 A blood clot



White Blood Cells

• Also called leukocytes, they are the fewest cells in a normal sample of blood

• Role is to protect the body from infectious microorganisms and other foreign, unwanted materials



White Blood Cells (cont.)

• Several types of WBCs exist in the blood– Eosinophils– Basophils– Lymphocytes

T cells and B cells

– Neutrophils– Monocytes



The Lymphatic System

• Closely related to the blood and its circulation

• Plays a key role in protecting the body against infection

• Includes a series of vessels that carry a fluid through the body



The Lymphatic System (cont.)

• This fluid, known as lymph, flows in a one-way direction toward the heart, rather than in a circulatory loop

• Lymph originates when interstitial fluid finds its way into lymphatic capillaries

• The lymph then flows into larger lymphatic vessels which are similar in structure to veins and often course alongside them




• The lymphatic vessels deliver lymph into larger channels called lymphatic trunks

• The largest lymphatic trunk is known as the thoracic duct



Figure 11.6 Macrophage




• As lymph flows through the lymphatic vessels, it is channeled through small organs called lymph nodes

• The lymph nodes contain millions of WBCs that remove foreign materials from the lymph as it passes through them




• Other organs of the lymphatic system that protect against infection include the– Spleen, thymus gland, tonsils, and lymphatic

nodules



The Immune Response

• The human body is continuously exposed to harmful substances, such as– Pathogenic microorganisms, poisonous

molecules, foreign particles, and dying or diseased cells



The Immune Response (cont.)

• Pathogenic microorganisms, or pathogens, are disease-causing agents that include– Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, and

worm-like organisms



Figure 11.7 The lymphatic system



The Immune Response (cont.)

• Pathogens may cause harm by destroying cells or releasing poisonous substances that interfere with the cell function– These harmful substances are called toxins

• Pathogens, toxins, and other harmful particles can severely disrupt health if left unchecked by the body’s defenses

• An immunological disease resulting from a pathogen is called an infection



Word Roots

• bacteri = bacteria• cyt = cell• erythr = red• hem,hemat = blood• immun = exempt, immunity• lymph = clear water or fluid



Word Roots (cont.)

• path = disease• thromb = clot• thym = wart-like, thymus gland• tox = poison



Figure 11.8 Pathogens



Other Important Terms

• Antibody• Antigen• Basophil• B cell• Blood clot• Coagulation• Fibrinogen• Neutrophil

• Phagocytosis• Plasma• Platelets• Serum• Spleen• T cell• Thoracic duct• Tonsils



Medical Terms

• Hematology– The general field of medicine focusing on

blood-related disease

• Hematologist or hematopathologist– A physician specializing in the treatment of

diseases associated with the blood



Medical Terms (cont.)

• Immunology– The field of medicine that focuses on

immunological diseases– Sub-disciplines include virology, bacteriology,

and toxicology



Symptoms and Signs

• Anisocytosis– Presence of red blood cells of unequal size

• Bacteremia– Presence of bacteria in the bloodstream

• Erythropenia– Abnormally reduced number of red blood cells

• Hemolysis– Rupture of the red blood cell membrane



Symptoms and Signs (cont.)

• Hemorrhage– Loss of blood from the circulation

• Macrocytosis– Abnormally large-sized red blood cells

• Poikilocytosis– Large, irregularly-shaped red blood cells



Symptoms and Signs (cont.)

• Polycythemia– Abnormal increase in the number of

erythrocytes in the blood

• Splenomegaly– Abnormal enlargement of the spleen

• Toxemia– Presence of toxins in the bloodstream



Diseases and Disorders

• AIDS– The acronym for acquired immune deficiency

syndrome. AIDS is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which disables the immune response by destroying mainly helper T cells (needed for activation of B cells); the loss of immune function allows opportunistic infections to proliferate and eventually cause death



Figure 11.9 HIV



Diseases and Disorders (cont.)

• Allergy– A response to an allergen, which is an antigen

that produces a hypersensitivity reaction that includes immediate inflammation but does not elicit other immune responses; allergies are of many types, the most common of which are allergic rhinitis (hay fever) that affects the mucous membranes of the nasal cavity and throat, and allergic dermatitis, which affects the skin where it has made contact with the allergen



Figure 11.10 Results from an allergy skin test




• Anaphylaxis– An immediate reaction to an antigen that

includes rapid inflammation and system-wide smooth muscle contractions




• Anemia– A reduced ability of red blood cells to deliver

oxygen to tissues; common forms of anemia include aplastic anemia, iron deficiency anemia, sickle cell anemia, and pernicious anemia




• Aplastic anemia– Anemia characterized by the failure of red

bone marrow to produce red blood cells

• Autoimmune disorder– Any one of several diseases that are caused

by a person’s own immune response attacking otherwise healthy tissues, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and multiple sclerosis




• Botulism– A form of poisoning caused by the ingestion of

food contaminated with the toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum

• Diphtheria– A disease caused by a bacterium and its toxin,

resulting in inflammation of mucous membranes primarily in the mouth and throat



Figure 11.11 Diphtheria




• Dyscrasia– a general term for an abnormal condition of

the blood




• Erythroblastosis fetalis– A blood disorder resulting from incompatibility

between a fetus with Rh positive blood and its mother with Rh negative blood, which causes the destruction of fetal red blood cells, and requires blood transfusions to save the fetus; also known as Rh mismatch or hemolytic disease of newborn




• Fungemia– A fungal infection distributed by way of the

bloodstream

• Gas gangrene– The infection of a wound caused by various

anaerobic bacteria that produces a fermentation gas, necrosis, and septicemia




• Hemochromatosis– Inherited disorder that results in an excessive

accumulation of iron deposits in the body

• Hemophilia– An inherited bleeding disorder that results from

defective clotting proteins involved in blood coagulation




• Hodgkin’s disease– Cancer of lymphatic tissue, characterized by the

progressive enlargement of lymph nodes, fatigue, and deficiency of the immune response

• Immunodeficiency– A condition resulting from a defective immune

response




• Immunosuppression– Reduction of an immune response caused by

disease or, in the case of organ transplants, by the use of chemical, pharmacologic, physical, or immunologic agents

• Infection– A multiplication of disease-causing

microorganisms




• Inflammation– A swelling of body tissue caused by the

movement of the plasma into the extracellular space to produce edema, or fluid accumulation in tissue; symptoms include swelling, redness, heat, and pain



Figure 11.12 Reaction against infection



Figure 11.13 Inflammation Source: Phototake NYC




• Influenza– A viral disease characterized by a temporary

inflammation of mucous membranes and fever; commonly called “the flu,” it is highly contagious and the virus is capable of mutating to escape detection by B and T memory cells




• Iron deficiency anemia– Anemia that is caused by a lack of iron, which

results in smaller red blood cells containing deficient levels of hemoglobin

• Leukemia– Cancer of the red bone marrow, which is the

blood-forming tissue



Figure 11.14 Leukemia Source: Getty Images, Inc./Stone Allstock




• Lymphadenitis– Inflammation of the lymph nodes

• Lymphadenopathy– Literally, disease of the lymph nodes; this

general term is often applied to a syndrome, lymphadenopathy syndrome (LAS), which is a persistent swelling of the lymph nodes that often precedes the onset of AIDS




• Lymphoma– A tumor originating in lymphatic tissue

• Malaria– A disease caused by a parasitic protozoan

that infects red blood cells, which is carried by anopheles mosquitoes; it is characterized by periodic fevers and fatigue



Figure 11.15 Malaria Source: Photo Researchers, Inc.




• Mononucleosis– A viral disease characterized by enlarged

lymph nodes, an increase in number of mononuclear blood cells (monocytes and lymphocytes), sore throat, and fatigue



Figure 11.16 Mononucleosis




• Myelodysplasia– Bone marrow disorder characterized by the

proliferation of abnormal stem cells, which usually develops into a form of leukemia

• Nosocomial infections– A disorder, usually bacterial infections,

contracted during a hospital stay; often due to antibiotic-resistant strains of Staphylococcus




• Pernicious anemia– Anemia caused by an inadequate supply of

folic acid (vitamin B12), resulting in red blood cells that are large, varied in shape, and reduced in number




• Plague– Any infectious disease of wide prevalence or

excessive mortality; it also refers specifically to an acute infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, characterized by high fever, skin eruptions, internal hemorrhage, and pneumonia, also called bubonic plague




• Septicemia– A systemic disease caused by the presence of

bacteria and their toxins in the circulating blood; a person suffering from this is referred to as septic




• Rabies– A bacterial infection spread from the mouth of

an infected animal, usually by way of a bite; the bacterium produces a neurotoxin that acts on the central nervous system and is highly fatal




• Sickle cell anemia– An inherited, chronic anemia that is

characterized by defective hemoglobin that causes red blood cells to become misshapen (sickle-shaped), resulting in drowsiness, leg ulcerations, fever, joint and abdominal pain, and thrombosis



Figure 11.17 Sickle cell anemia



Figure 11.17(continued) Sickle cell anemia




• Staphylococcemia– The presence of Staphylococci bacteria in the

blood, which is the literal meaning of the term; commonly called a staph infection, it is a frequent complication to normal healing and also the most common cause of food poisoning, skin inflammation, osteomyelitus, and nosocomial infections




• Tetanus– A disease caused by a powerful neurotoxin

released by the common bacterium Clostridium tetani; the toxin acts upon the central nervous system to cause convulsions and paralysis

• Thymoma– A tumor originating in the thymus gland



HIV

• Viruses combine with a host cell using their receptor molecules as “landing gear” and inject virus RNA inside the host cell

• Once in the host cell, the viral RNA redirects cell functions to make copies of the virus

• Soon after new viruses are produced they leave the host cell and infect other cells



HIV (cont.)

• The host cell is then damaged or killed• HIV viral particles may lie dormant for

years and once they are activated they are capable of killing many types of cells

• HIV prefers helper T cells, although it attacks other cells



HIV (cont.)

• Helper T cells have a CD-4 receptor, which HIV is able to form a chemical bond with to gain entry into the cell

• When HIV enters the body, it usually infects helper T cells and causes flu-like symptoms

• The symptoms are caused by the body’s immune response effort to remove the virus



HIV (cont.)

• The body is usually not able to completely eliminate the virus

• The surviving HIV particles enter a period of dormancy in which there is no active reproduction of the virus for about 6 months, although the time may vary



HIV (cont.)

• Following the dormant phase, HIV begins its reproductive phase and invades primarily helper T cells and destroys them to produce new viruses

• HIV’s reproductive phase destroys 60-90% of the helper T cells in the body



HIV (cont.)

• The destruction of helper T cells results in a suppression of cell-mediated immunity, followed by the rise of opportunistic infections



HIV (cont.)

• There is a long list of opportunistic infections that arise; the most deadly are fungal lung infections caused by Pneumocystis carinii that produces pneumonia, a lymphoma of the brain, and tuberculosis



HIV (cont.)

• Other less deadly diseases that are nonetheless painful and difficult to treat include– A skin cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma– A protozoan infection called toxoplasmosis– Anorexia caused by bacterial infection of the

digestive tract



HIV (cont.)

• Other less deadly diseases that are nonetheless painful and difficult to treat include– Squamous cell carcinoma– Infection by Herpes viruses types 1 and 2– Candidiasis



Treatments, Procedures, and Devices

• Antibiotic– A therapeutic treatment in which a substance

with known toxicity to bacteria, which may be obtained from a mold or from other bacteria, is administered; it is effective only against bacteria, many types of which are capable of developing resistance, especially when antibiotics are not administered properly



Treatments, Procedures, and Devices (cont.)

• Anticoagulant– A chemical agent that reduces the clotting

process




• Antiretroviral therapy– Application of drugs to battle against a class of

viruses that tend to mutate quickly, known as retroviruses, of which HIV is a member; also known as combination therapy, the drugs form a cocktail that includes nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors, all of which block HIV replication by a variety of means




• Attenuation– A process in which pathogens are rendered

less virulent prior to their incorporation into a vaccine preparation

• Autologous transfusion– Transfusion of blood donated by a patient for

personal use; this is a common procedure before a surgery to avoid potential incompatibility or contamination




• Bacteriology– The field of science and medicine focused on

the study of bacteria and prevention of bacterial diseases; one who specializes in this field is a bacteriologist

• Blood chemistry– A test or series of tests on plasma to measure

the levels of particular components




• Blood culture– A test to determine infection in the blood by

placing a blood sample on a nutritive media in an effort to grow populations of bacteria for analysis




• Blood transfusion– Introduction of blood, blood products, or blood

substitute into a patient’s circulation to restore blood volume to normal levels; the two main types of blood transfusions are autologous transfusions and homologous transfusions



Figure 11.18 Blood transfusion Source: Getty Images Inc./Image Bank




• Coagulation time– A timed blood test to determine the time

required for a blood clot to form; one type of this test, called prothrombin time (PT), measures the time required for prothrombin, a precursor protein, to form thrombin. It is often used to monitor anticlotting therapy. Another type is partial thromboplastin time (PTT), which is used to evaluate clotting ability




• Complete blood count– A common laboratory blood test that provides

diagnostic information about a patient’s general health; abbreviated CBC, it includes several more specific tests, including hematrocrit, hemoglobin, red blood count, and white blood count




• Differential count– Microscopic count of the number of each type

of white blood cell using a stained blood smear




• Erythrocyte sedimentation rate– A timed test to measure the rate at which red

blood cells fall through a volume of plasma to provide information on their hemoglobin content; abbreviated ESR, it is commonly used to evaluate nonspecific systemic inflammation




• Hematocrit– A test that measures the percentage of red

blood cells in a volume of blood; abbreviated HCT or Hct, it is obtained from centrifuging a sample of blood to separate blood cells

• Hematology– The general field of medicine focusing on

blood-related disease; one who specializes in this field is a hematologist




• Hemoglobin– A test that measures the level of hemoglobin

in red blood cells; abbreviated HGB or Hgb

• Hemostasis– Stoppage of bleeding




• Homologous transfusion– Transfusion of blood that is voluntarily donated

by another person, it requires blood type matching, known as crossmatching, to prevent incompatibility

• Immunization– A procedure that provides immunity against a

particular antigen



Figure 11.19 Immunization with a vaccine Source: PhotoEdit




• Immunology– The study concerned with immunity and

allergy

• Immunotherapy– Used in the treatment of infectious disease, it

is the use of agents to activate or strengthen the immune response




• Lymph node dissection– Removal of lymph nodes for pathological

study to assist in a diagnosis; also known as lymph node biopsy

• Lymphadenectomy– Excision of a lymph node

• Lymphadenography– The process of x-ray photography of the lymph

nodes following injection of a contrast medium




• Lymphadenotomy– Incision into a lymph node

• Lymphangiography– The process of x-ray photography of lymphatic

vessels following injection of a contrast medium; it produces an x-ray recording called a lymphangiogram




• Pheresis– Removal of donor’s blood, which is then

separated into blood components, with one portion retained for use and the remainder returned to the donor




• Platelet count– Calculation of the number of platelets in the

blood

• Prophylaxis– Any treatment that tends to prevent the onset

of an infection or other type of disease

• Red blood count– Measures the number of red blood cells per

cubic centimeter (cc)




• Splenectomy– Excision of the spleen

• Splenopexy– Surgical fixation of the spleen

• Thrombolysis– The process of dissolving a blood clot

• Thymectomy– Excision of the thymus gland




• Toxicology– Focuses on the study and treatment of toxins

and the diseases they cause

• Vaccination– The inoculation of a culture that has reduced

virulence as a means of providing a cure or a prophylaxis




• Vaccine– Any preparation used to activate an immune

response

• Virology– Focuses on the study of viruses and the

diseases they cause

• White blood count– Measures the number of white blood cells per

cubic centimeter



Abbreviations

• AIDS• CBC • ESR • HCT, Hct • HGB, Hgb • HIV • INR



Abbreviations (cont.)

• LAS• PCP • PLT • PT • PTT • RBC• WBC

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Blood and the Lymphatic System