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Biotechnology
• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge, skills, materials, labor, and wealth for a practical purpose
• Biotechnology is application of biological principles, organisms, and products to practical purposes
Living
• Ability to reproduce
• Ability to extract energy from the environment
• Unit of Life: The Cell
• Cell: Interior (cytoplasm) surronded by a barrier called a cell membrane
Living Systems
• Cells
• Biological Molecules
• Chemical Reactions
Cells
• Prokaryotic Cells: Bacteria, single-celled organisms, primitive, single internal compartment
• Eukaryotic cells: Yeasts-Plants-Mammals, many internal compartments including a nucleus
Prokaryotic Cell
Cell Membrane
Membranes between Neurons
Plant Cell
Lily Parenchyma Cell
Animal Cell
Liver Cell
NucleusThe nucleus occurs only in eukaryotic cells, and is the location of the majority of different types of nucleic acids. All DNA is restricted to the nucleus. Ribonucleic acid, RNA, is formed in the nucleus by coding off of the DNA bases. RNA moves out into the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is an area of the nucleus (usually 2 nucleoli per nucleus) where ribosomes are constructed.
Liver cell nucleus and nucleolus
Structure of the nuclear envelope and nuclear pores.
Nucleus with Nuclear Pores
The Cytoskeleton
Actin and tubulin components of the cytoskeleton.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a mesh of interconnected membranes that serve a function involving protein synthesis and transport. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER) is so-named because of its rough appearance due to the numerous ribosomes that occur along theER. Rough ER connects to the nuclear envelope through which the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is the blueprint for proteins travels to the ribosomes. Smooth ER; lacks the ribosomes characteristic of Rough ER and is thought to be involved in transport and a variety ofother functions.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Golgi Complexes are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs. They function as a packaging plant, modifying vesicles from the Rough ER. New membrane material is assembled in various cisternae of the golgi.
Golgi Apparatus in a plant parenchyma cell
Mitochondrion
Mitochondria contain their own DNA (termed mDNA) and are thought to represent bacteria-like organisms incorporated into eukaryotic cells over 700 million years ago (perhaps even as far back as 1.5 billion years ago). They function as the sites of energy release(following glycolysis in the cytoplasm) and ATP formation (by chemiosmosis). The mitochondrion has been termed the powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes. The inner membrane folds into a series of cristae, which are the surfaces on which ATP is generated.
Muscle Cell Mitochondria
Biological Molecules
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic Acids
• Carbohydrates
Polymers
• A chain of small molecules, called monomers
• Chemically linked to form larger molecules
• Linear polymers able to be made in universal fashion
Polymers
Lipids
• Hydrophobic fat and oil molecules
• Micelles, Monolayer, Bilayered Vesicle
• Basic building block of membranes
• Semipermeable: allows some stuff in/out, not other (hydrophyllic toxins)
Proteins
• Transporters, Structural, Chemical Processors
• Polymer made from 20 monomers (amino acids)
• 300 monomers long - 20^300 possible proteins
• Chemical groups to link together, and side groups that uniquely identify monomer
• Side groups can interact to fold protein
• Units chemically active
• Primary Structure - sequence of amino acids
• Secondary Structure - Alpha helix
• Tertiary Structure - Folded Shape
Polymers
Nucleic Acids
• Storage and Transmission of biological information within the cell
• Linear Polymers built from nucleotides
• Two Kinds: RNA and DNA
• More Later
Carbohydrates
• Sugars and Starches
• Structural Elements
• Energy Source
Chemical Reactions
• Chemical Bonds
• Biological Thermodynamics
• Oxidation-Reduction
Chemical Bonds
• Forces that hold molecules together
• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen
Ionic Bonds
• From between an atom that easily gives up an electron and another that readily accepts an electron
• Doner becomes negative, Acceptor becomes positive
• Strong Interaction with water, forms hydration shell arount ionic materials
• Relatively weak, NaCl
Covalent Bonds
• Atoms share electrons
• Atom’s ability to attract electron is electronegativity
• Different -> Ionic
• Middle -> Covalent, Carbon
• Polar Covalent Bonds is partially ionic
Hydrogen Bond
• Water, O (negative), H (positive), shielding effect, slightly polar
• H to O or N, Hydrogen Bond
• Water surrounds everything in the cell
• Need to move water to interact
• Hydrogen Bonds are very weak
Hydrophobic Forces
• Interaction of biomolecules and water key force in shape of larger structures
• Lipids: Hydrophobic head, hydrophyllic tail
• Proteins: Hydrophobic Groups
• DNA: Helix formation and Base stacking
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation: Loss of electron, frequently accompanied by giving off energy
• Reduction: Gaining of Electrons
Activation Energy
• Energy to get chemical reaction started• Cells lower this energy through enzymatic
catalysis• Acitvation Energy is overhead to bring
reactants together• Catalyst assists the process, and lowers
activation energy• Catalyst not changed by reaction
Enzymes
• Almost always proteins
• Join reactants so that reactions become more favorable
• Anabolic: Building up reactions
• Catabolic: Breaking down reactions