Battle of Lepanto

This article is about Battle of Lepanto in 1571. For otheruses, see Battle of Lepanto (disambiguation).

The Battle of Lepanto took place on 7 October 1571when a eet of the Holy League, a coalition of south-ern European Catholic maritime states, led by Spain de-cisively defeated the eet of the Ottoman Empire on thenorthern edge of the Gulf of Corinth, o western Greece.The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their navalstation in Lepanto (Turkish: nebaht; Greek: - orNaupaktos orpahtos) met theHolyLeague forces, which came from Messina, Sicily, wherethey had previously gathered.The victory of the Holy League prevented the OttomanEmpire from expanding further along the European sideof the Mediterranean. Lepanto was the last majornaval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely betweengalleys and has been assigned great symbolic and histori-cal importance by several historians.[9][10][11]

1 Background

Depictions of the Ottoman Navy during the battle of Lepanto

The Christian coalition had been promoted by Pope PiusV to rescue the Venetian colony of Famagusta, on the is-land of Cyprus, which was being besieged by the Turksin early 1571 subsequent to the fall of Nicosia and otherVenetian possessions in Cyprus in the course of 1570.The banner for the eet, blessed by the pope, reached theKingdom of Naples (then ruled by the King of Spain) on14 August 1571. There, in the Basilica of Santa Chiara,it was solemnly consigned to John of Austria, who hadbeen named leader of the coalition after long discussionsbetween the allies. The eet moved to Sicily and leavingMessina reached (after several stops) the port of Viscardoin Cephalonia, where news arrived of the fall of Fam-agusta and of the torture inicted by the Turks on theVenetian commander of the fortress, Marco Antonio Bra-gadin.On 1 August, the Venetians had surrendered after beingreassured that they could leave Cyprus freely. However,the Ottoman commander, Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, whohad lost some 52,000 men in the siege (including his son),broke his word, imprisoning the Venetians. On 17 Au-gust, Bragadin was ayed alive and his corpse hung onMustafas galley together with the heads of the Venetiancommanders, Astorre Baglioni, Alvise Martinengo andGianantonio Querini.Despite bad weather, the Christian ships sailed south and,on 6 October, they reached the port of Sami, Cephalonia(then also called Val d'Alessandria), where they remainedfor a while. On 7 October, they sailed toward the Gulf ofPatras, where they encountered the Ottoman eet. Whileneither eet had immediate strategic resources or objec-tives in the gulf, both chose to engage. The Ottoman eethad an express order from the Sultan to ght, and John ofAustria found it necessary to attack in order to maintainthe integrity of the expedition in the face of personal andpolitical disagreements within the Holy League.[12]

2 ForcesSee Battle of Lepanto order of battle for a de-tailed list of ships and commanders involved inthe battle.

The members of the Holy League were Spain (includingthe Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sicily and theKingdom of Sardinia as part of the Spanish possessions),the Republic of Venice, the Papal States, the Republic ofGenoa, the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Urbino, the

1

2 3 DEPLOYMENT

Knights Hospitaller and others. Its eet consisted of 206galleys and 6 galleasses (large new galleys, invented bythe Venetians, which carried substantial artillery) and wascommanded by Don John of Austria, the illegitimate sonof the Holy Roman Emperor Charles I of Spain and Vof the Holy Roman Empire, and half-brother of PhilipII of Spain, supported by the Spanish commanders DonLuis de Requesens andDonlvaro de Bazn, andGenoancommander Gianandrea Doria.Vessels had been contributed by the various Christianstates: the Spanish Empire was the largest contributorof money, ships and men to the League, and Philip IIsadmiral and brother, Don Juan of Austria, subsequentlyled their forces.[13] The Spanish Empire provided to theeet 81 galleys and 20 sailing ships (30 galleys from theKingdom of Naples, 14 galleys from Spain, 10 galleysfrom the Kingdom of Sicily and the remaining from pri-vate contractors).[14] Spain also provided 40 frigates andbrigantines.[15] 109 galleys and 6 galleasses came fromthe Republic of Venice, 27 galleys from the Republicof Genoa (partly nanced by Spain), 7 galleys from thePope, 5 galleys of the Order of Saint Stephen from theGrand Duchy of Tuscany, 3 galleys each from the Duchyof Savoy and the Knights of Malta, and some privatelyowned galleys in Spanish service.[16][17] All membersof the alliance viewed the Ottoman navy as a signi-cant threat, both to the security of maritime trade in theMediterranean Sea and to the security of continental Eu-rope itself. Spain was the largest nancial contributor,though the Spaniards preferred to preserve most of theirgalleys for Spains own wars against the nearby sultanatesof the Barbary Coast rather than expend its naval strengthfor the benet of Venice.[17] The various Christian contin-gents met the main force, that of Venice (under Venier),in July and August 1571 at Messina, Sicily. John of Aus-tria arrived on 23 August.This eet of the Christian alliance was manned by 40,000sailors and oarsmen. In addition, it carried almost28,000 ghting troops: 10,000 Spanish regular infantryof excellent quality,[17] 7,000 Germans and Croatiansand 5,000 Italian mercenaries in Spanish pay,[18] and5,000 Venetian soldiers.[19] Also, Venetian oarsmen weremainly free citizens and were able to bear arms adding tothe ghting power of their ship, whereas convicts wereused to row many of the galleys in other Holy Leaguesquadrons.[20]

Many of the galleys in the Ottoman eet were also rowedby slaves, often Christians who had been captured in pre-vious conquests and engagements.[20] Free oarsmen weregenerally acknowledged to be superior by all combatants,but were gradually replaced in all galley eets (includ-ing those of Venice from 1549) during the 16th centuryby cheaper slaves, convicts and prisoners-of-war owing torapidly rising costs.[21]

The Ottoman galleys were manned by 13,000 experi-enced sailorsgenerally drawn from the maritime na-

tions of the Ottoman Empire, namely Berbers, Greeks,Syrians, and Egyptiansand 34,000 soldiers.[22] AliPasha, the Ottoman admiral (Kapudan-i Derya), sup-ported by the corsairs Mehmed Siroco (natively Mehmeduluk) of Alexandria and Ulu Ali, commanded an Ot-toman force of 222 war galleys, 56 galliots, and somesmaller vessels. The Turks had skilled and experiencedcrews of sailors but were signicantly decient in theirelite corps of Janissaries. The number of oarsmen wasabout 37,000, virtually all of them slaves.[23]

An advantage for the Christians was their numerical su-periority in guns and cannon aboard their ships, as well asthe superior quality of the Spanish infantry.[17] It is esti-mated that the Christians had 1,815 guns, while the Turkshad only 750 with insucient ammunition.[6] The Chris-tians embarked with their much improved arquebusierand musketeer forces, while the Ottomans trusted in theirgreatly feared composite bowmen.[24]

3 Deployment

Formation of the eets just before contact.

The Christian eet formed up in four divisions in a north-south line. At the northern end, closest to the coast, wasthe Left Division of 53 galleys, mainly Venetian, led byAgostino Barbarigo (admiral), with Marco Querini andAntonio da Canale in support. The Centre Division con-sisted of 62 galleys under John of Austria himself in hisReal, along with Sebastiano Venier, later Doge of Venice,Mathurin Romegas and Marcantonio Colonna.The Right Division to the south consisted of another 53galleys under the Genoese Giovanni Andrea Doria, great-nephew of admiral Andrea Doria. Two galleasses, which

3had side-mounted cannon, were positioned in front ofeach main division, for the purpose, according to Miguelde Cervantes (who served on the galley Marquesa dur-ing the battle), of preventing the Turks from sneakingin small boats and sapping, sabotaging or boarding theChristian vessels. A Reserve Division was stationed be-hind (that is, to the west of) the main eet, to lend supportwherever it might be needed.This reserve division consisted of 38 galleys - 30 behindthe Centre Division commanded by lvaro de Bazn, andfour behind each wing. A scouting group was formed,from two Right Wing and six Reserve Division galleys.As the Christian eet was slowly turning around PointScropha, Dorias Right Division, at the o-shore side, wasdelayed at the start of the battle and the Rights galleassesdid not get into position.TheOttoman eet consisted of 57 galleys and 2 galliots onits Right underMehmed Siroco, 61 galleys and 32 galliotsin the Centre under Ali Pasha in the Sultana, and about63 galleys and 30 galliots in the South o-shore underUlu Ali. A small reserve existed of 8 galleys, 22 gal-liots and 64 fustas, behind the Centre body. Ali Pashais supposed to have told his Christian galley-slaves: IfI win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the dayis yours, then God has given it to you. John of Austria,more laconically, warned his crew: There is no paradisefor cowards.[25]

4 The battle

A sinking Ottoman Navy vessel, painting by Pieter Brnniche,1762.

The left and centre galleasses had been towed half a mileahead of the Christian line. When the battle started, theTurks mistook the galleasses for merchant supply vesselsand set out to attack them. This proved to be disastrous;with their many guns, the galleasses alone were said tohave sunk up to 70 Ottoman galleys before the Ottomaneet left them behind. Their attacks also disrupted theOttoman formations.As the battle started, Doria found that Ulu Alis galleys

extended further to the south than his own, and so headedsouth to avoid being outanked, instead of holding theChristian line. After the battle Doria was accused of hav-ing maneuvered his eet away from the bulk of the battleto avoid taking damage and casualties. Regardless, heended up being outmaneuvered by Ulu Ali, who turnedback and attacked the southern end of the Centre Divi-sion, taking advantage of the big gap that Doria had left.In the north, Mehmed Siroco hadmanaged to get betweenthe shore and the Christian North Division, with six gal-leys in an outanking move, and initially the Christianeet suered. Commander Barbarigo was killed by anarrow, but the Venetians, turning to face the threat, heldtheir line. The return of a galleass saved the ChristianNorth Division. The Christian Centre also held the linewith the help of the Reserve, after taking a great deal ofdamage, and caused great damage to the Muslim Cen-tre. In the south, o-shore side, Doria was engaged in amelee with Ulu Alis ships, taking the worse part. Mean-while Ulu Ali himself commanded 16 galleys in a fast at-tack on the Christian Centre, taking six galleysamongstthem the Maltese Capitana, killing all but three men onboard. Its commander, Pietro Giustiniani, Prior to theOrder of St. John, was severely wounded by ve arrows,but was found alive in his cabin. The intervention of theSpaniards lvaro de Bazn and Juan de Cardona with thereserve turned the battle, both in the Centre and in DoriasSouth Wing.Ulu Ali was forced to ee with 16 galleys and 24 gal-liots, abandoning all but one of his captures. Duringthe course of the battle, the Ottoman Commanders shipwas boarded and the Spanish tercios from 3 galleys andthe Ottoman Janissaries from seven galleys fought on thedeck of the Sultana.[26] Twice the Spanish were repelledwith heavy casualties, but at the third attempt, with rein-forcements from lvaro de Bazns galley, they took theship. Mezzinzade Ali Pasha was killed and beheaded,against the wishes of Don Juan. However, when his sev-ered head was displayed on a pike from the Spanish ag-ship, it contributed greatly to the destruction of Turkishmorale. Even after the battle had clearly turned againstthe Turks, groups of Janissaries still kept ghting with allthey had. It is said that at some point the Janissaries ranout of weapons and started throwing oranges and lemonsat their Christian adversaries, leading to awkward scenesof laughter among the general misery of battle.[6]

The battle concluded around 4 pm. The Ottoman eetsuered the loss of about 210 shipsof which 117 gal-leys, 10 galliots and three fustas were captured and ingood enough condition for the Christians to keep. Onthe Christian side 20 galleys were destroyed and 30 weredamaged so seriously that they had to be scuttled. OneVenetian galley was the only prize kept by the Turks; allothers were abandoned by them and recaptured.Ulu Ali, who had captured the agship of the MalteseKnights, succeeded in extricating most of his ships from

4 5 AFTERMATH

the battle when defeat was certain. Although he had cutthe tow on the Maltese agship in order to get away,he sailed to Constantinople, gathering up other Ottomanships along the way and nally arriving there with 87 ves-sels. He presented the huge Maltese ag to Sultan SelimII who thereupon bestowed upon him the honorary titleof kl" (Sword); Ulu thus became known as Kl AliPasha.The Holy League had suered around 7,500 soldiers,sailors and rowers dead, but freed about as many Chris-tian prisoners. Ottoman casualties were around 15,000,and at least 3,500 were captured.

5 Aftermath

The Victors of Lepanto (from left: John of Austria, MarcantonioColonna, Sebastiano Venier).

The engagement was a signicant defeat for the Ot-tomans, who had not lost a major naval battle since the f-teenth century. The defeat wasmourned by them as an actof Divine Will, contemporary chronicles recording thatthe Imperial Fleet encountered the eet of the wretchedindels and the will of God turned another way. [27]To half of Christendom, this event encouraged hope forthe downfall of "the Turk", the Satan-like personica-tion of the Ottoman Empire,[28] who was regarded as the"Sempiternal Enemy of the Christian. Indeed, the Em-pire lost all but 30 of its ships and as many as 30,000men,[24] and some Western historians have held it to bethe most decisive naval battle anywhere on the globe sincethe Battle of Actium of 31 BC.Despite the decisive defeat, the Ottoman Empire rebuiltits navy with a massive eort, by largely imitating thesuccessful Venetian galeasses, in a very short time. By1572, about six months after the defeat, more than 150galleys and 8 galleasses, in total 250 ships had been built,including eight of the largest capital ships ever seen inthe Mediterranean.[29] With this new eet the OttomanEmpire was able to reassert its supremacy in the EasternMediterranean.[30] On 7 March 1573 the Venetians thus

recognized by treaty the Ottoman possession of Cyprus,whose last Venetian possession, Famagosta, had fallen tothe Turks under Piyale Pasha on 3 August 1571, just twomonths before Lepanto, and remained Turkish for thenext three centuries, and that summer the Ottoman Navyattacked the geographically vulnerable coasts of Sicilyand southern Italy. Sultan Selim IIs Chief Minister, theGrand Vizier Mehmed Sokullu, argued to the VenetianemissaryMarcantonio Barbaro that the Christian triumphat Lepanto caused no lasting harm to the Ottoman Em-pire, while the capture of Cyprus by the Ottomans in thesame year was a signicant blow, saying that:

You come to see how we bear our misfor-tune. But I would have you know the dier-ence between your loss and ours. In wrestingCyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm;in defeating our eet, you have only shaved ourbeard. An armwhen cut o cannot grow again;but a shorn beard will grow all the better for therazor.[31]

Numerous historians pointed out the historical impor-tance of the battle and how it served as a turning pointin history. For instance, it is argued that while the shipswere relatively easily replaced,[24] it proved much harderto man them, since so many experienced sailors, oars-men and soldiers had been lost. The loss of so many ofits experienced sailors at Lepanto sapped the ghting ef-fectiveness of the Ottoman navy, a fact emphasized by itsavoidance of major confrontations with Christian naviesin the years following the battle. Other historians havesuggested that the reason for the Turks being containedat the time had less to do with the battle of Lepanto thanthe fact that they had to contend with a series of wars withPersia, a strong military power at the time.After 1580, the discouraged Ottomans left the eet to rotin the waters of the Golden Horn.[32] Especially criticalwas the loss of most of the caliphates composite bow-men, which, far beyond ship rams and early rearms,were the Ottomans main embarked weapon. US his-torian John F. Guilmartin noted that the losses in thishighly specialized class of warrior were irreplaceable in ageneration.[33] Paul K. Davis has also stated that:

This Turkish defeat stopped Ottomans ex-pansion into the Mediterranean, thus maintain-ing western dominance, and condence grewin the west that Turks, previously unstoppable,could be beaten.[34]

The victory for the Holy League was historically impor-tant not only because the Turks lost over 200 ships and30,000 men killed (not including 12,000 Christian galleyslaves who were freed), but because the victory heraldedthe end of Turkish supremacy in the Mediterranean.[24]

However, in 1574, the Ottomans retook the strategiccity of Tunis from the Spanish-supported Hafsid dynasty,

5which had been re-installed after John of Austrias forcesreconquered the city from the Ottomans the year before.Thanks to the long-standing Franco-Ottoman alliance,the Ottomans were able to resume naval activity in thewestern Mediterranean. In 1576, the Ottomans assistedin Abdul Maliks capture of Fez this reinforced the Ot-toman indirect conquests in Morocco that had begun un-der Sleyman the Magnicent. The establishment of Ot-toman suzerainty over the area placed the entire southerncoast of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltarto Greece under Ottoman authority, with the exceptionsof the Spanish-controlled trading city of Oran and strate-gic settlements such as Melilla and Ceuta.

6 Religious signicanceThe Holy League credited the victory to the Virgin Mary,whose intercession with God they had implored for vic-tory through the use of the Rosary. Andrea Doria hadkept a copy of the miraculous image of Our Lady ofGuadalupe given to him by King Philip II of Spain inhis ships state room.[35] Pope Pius V instituted a newCatholic feast day of Our Lady of Victory to commem-orate the battle, which is now celebrated by the CatholicChurch as the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary.[36][37]

7 Descriptions in art and culture

Battle of Lepanto, part of a 19th-century tapestry in a museumin Gennep, Netherlands.

The signicance of Lepanto has inspired artists in variouselds. One piece of commemorative music composedafter the victory is the motet Canticum Moysis (Song ofMoses Exodus 15) Pro victoria navali contra Turcas bythe Spanish composer based in Rome Fernando de lasInfantas.[38] The other piece of music is Jacobus de KerleCantio octo vocum de sacro foedere contra Turcas1572 (Song in Eight Voices on the Holy League Againstthe Turks), described as an exuberantly militaristic piece

celebrating victory over the Turks.[39] There were cel-ebrations and festivities with triumphs and pageants atRome and Venice with Turkish slaves in chains.[40]

There are many pictorial representations of the battle, in-cluding one in the Doges Palace in Venice, by AndreaVicentino on the walls of the Sala dello Scrutinio, whichreplaced Tintoretto'sVictory of Lepanto, destroyed by rein 1577. A painting by Paolo Veronese is in the collec-tion of the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice and Titian'sAllegory of the Battle of Lepanto, using the battle as abackground, hangs in the Prado in Madrid. A paintingby Filipino painter Juan Luna depicting the Battle of Lep-anto is also displayed at the Spanish Senate in Madrid.

Depiction of the tactical array from the Vatican Library

The battle has also appeared in literature and poetry.Spanish poet Fernando de Herrera wrote the poem Can-cin en alabanza de la divina majestad por la victoriadel Seor Don Juan in 1572. The English author G.K. Chesterton wrote a poem Lepanto, rst published in1911 and republished many times since. It provides a se-ries of poetic visions of the major characters in the battle,particularly the leader of the Christian forces, Don Juanof Austria (John of Austria). It closes with verses link-ing Miguel de Cervantes, who fought in the battle, withthe lean and foolish knight he would later immortalizein Don Quixote. Miguel de Cervantes lost the use of anarm in this battle and therefore he is known as el mancode Lepanto (the one-armed man of Lepanto) in the His-panic world. Emilio Salgari devoted two of his histor-ical novels, Captain Storm and The Lion of Damas-cus, to the siege of Famagusta and Lepanto and theyserved as basis for three movies, two in Italian and onein Spanish.[41][42][43][44][45]

8 See also Battle of Preveza (1538) Battle of Djerba (1560) Siege of Malta (1565)

6 9 NOTES

Battle of Navarino (1827)

9 Notes[1] Drane, Augusta Theodosia (1858). The Knights of st.

John: with The battle of Lepanto and Siege of Vienna.London.

[2] Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Great-est Naval Battle Of The Renaissance. United Kingdom:Osprey Publishing. pp. 2023. ISBN 1-84176-409-4.Retrieved August 29, 2012.

[3] George Ripley and Charles A. Dana (1867). The newAmerican cyclopaedia: Volume 10. New York.

[4] Setton, Kenneth Meyer (1984). The Papacy and the Lev-ant, 1204-1571, Volume 161. Philadelphia.

[5] Rodgers, William Ledyard (1939). Naval Warfare UnderOars, 4th to 16th Centuries: A Study of Strategy, Tacticsand Ship Design. United States: Naval Institute Press. p.175. ISBN 9780870214875.

[6] Georey Parker, The Military Revolution, pp. 8788

[7] Confrontation at Lepanto by T.C.F. Hopkins, intro

[8] Georey Parker, The Military Revolution, p. 88

[9] John L. Esposito (1999). The Islamic Threat: Myth orReality?. Oxford U.P. pp. 42, 85.

[10] Paul K. Davis (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From AncientTimes to the Present. Oxford U.P. p. 170.

[11] Jackson J. Spielvogel (2012). Western Civilization: A BriefHistory, Volume II: Since 1500, 8th ed. Cengage Learning.p. 343.

[12] Glete, Jan: Warfare at Sea, 1500-1650: Maritime Con-icts and the Transformation of Europe. Routledge.2000. pp. 105. Retrieved from Ebrary.

[13] Dandelet, Thomas James: The Renaissance of Empire inEarly Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2014. ISBN 9780521769938, p. 154

[14] Meyer Setton, Kenneth: The Papacy and the Levant,1204-1571, Vol. IV. Philadelphia: American Philosoph-ical Society, 1984. ISBN 9780871691620, p. 1047.

[15] Herrera, Fernando de: Relacion de la guerra de Cipre, ysucesso de la batella naval de Lepanto. Sevilla: AlonsoPicardo, 1572, p. 99.

[16] Konstam, Angus (2003). Lepanto 1571: The Great-est Naval Battle Of The Renaissance. United Kingdom:Osprey Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 1-84176-409-4. Re-trieved August 29, 2012.

[17] Stevens (1942), p. 6669

[18] Clissold (1966), p. 43.

[19] Konstan (2003), p. 20

[20] John F. Guilmartin (1974), pp. 222225

[21] The rst regularly sanctioned use of convicts as oarsmenon Venetian galleys did not occur until 1549. re Tenenti,Cristoforo da Canal, pp. 83, 85. See Tenenti, Piracy andthe Decline of Venice (Berkeley, 1967), pp. 124-25, forCristoforo da Canals comments on the tactical eective-ness of free oarsmen c. 1587 though he was mainly con-cerned with their higher cost. Ismail Uzuncarsili, OsmanliDevletenin Merkez ve Bahriye Teskilati (Ankara, 1948), p.482, cites a squadron of 41 Ottoman galleys in 1556 ofwhich the agship and two others were rowed by Azabs,salaried volunteer light infantrymen, three were rowed byslaves, and the remaining 36 were rowed by salaried mer-cenary Greek oarsmen.

[22] Stevens (1942), p. 63

[23] Konstan (2003), pp. 20-21

[24] A History of Warfare, Keegan, John, Vintage, 1993

[25] Stevens (1942), p. 64

[26] A ag taken at Lepanto by the Knights of the Order ofSaint Stephen, and traditionally said to be the standard ofthe Turkish commander, is still in display, together withother Turkish ags, in the Church of the seat of the Orderin Pisa. , (in Italian)

[27] Wheatcroft 2004, pp.33-34

[28] Department of History - Columbia University (PDF).Columbia.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-07.

[29] J. Norwich, A History of Venice, 490

[30] L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall ofthe Turkish Empire, 272

[31] Wheatcroft 2004, p. 34

[32] Roger Crowley, Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta,the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of theworld, publisher Random House, 2008, p287

[33] Guilmartin (1974)

[34] Davis, Paul K. 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Timesto the Present

[35] Badde, Paul. Maria von Guadalupe. Wie das Erscheinender Jungfrau Weltgeschichte schrieb. ISBN 3-548-60561-3.

[36] Butlers Lives Of The Saints (April) byAlban Butler (1999)ISBN 0-86012-253-0 page 222

[37] EWTN on Battle of Lepanto (1571)

[38] Stevenson, R. Chapter 'Other church masters section 14.'Infantas in Spanish Cathedral Music in the Golden Agepp316-318.

[39] Stephen Pettitt, 'Classical: New Releases: Jacobus DeKerle: Da Pacem Domine', Sunday Times, Jan 2006.

7[40] See Rick Scorzas article in The Slave in European Art:From Renaissance Trophy to Abolitionist Emblem, ed Eliz-abeth McGrath and Jean Michel Massing, London (TheWarburg Institute) and Turin 2012.

[41] Salgari, Emilio (June 19, 1905). Capitan Tempesta. Cre-ate Space. ISBN 978-1463637163. Retrieved 8 October2014.

[42] Salgari, Emilio (January 1, 1947). Il Leone Di Damasco.Milan: Fabbri. ASIN B005WW1Z5U. Retrieved 8 Octo-ber 2014.

[43] D'Errico, Corrado. Capitan Tempesta. http://www.imdb.com''. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 8 Octo-ber 2014.

[44] D'Errico, Corrado. Il Leone Di Damasco. http://www.imdb.com''. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 8 October2014.

[45] Navasqus, Carmen. El Len de Damasco. http://www.imdb.com''. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 8 October2014.

10 References Anderson, R. C. Naval Wars in the Levant 1559-

1853, (2006), ISBN 1-57898-538-2 Beeching, Jack. The Galleys at Lepanto, Hutchin-son, London, 1982; ISBN 0-09-147920-7

Bicheno, Hugh. Crescent and Cross: The Battle ofLepanto 1571, pbk., Phoenix, London, 2004, ISBN1-84212-753-5

Capponi, Niccol (2006). Victory of the West:TheGreat Christian-Muslim Clash at the Battle of Lep-anto. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81544-3.

Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean in the Ageof Philip II. (vol 2 1972), the classic history by theleader of the French Annales School; excerpt andtext search vol 2 pp 10881142

Chesterton, G. K. Lepanto with Explanatory Notesand Commentary, Dale Ahlquist, ed. (San Fran-cisco: Ignatius Press, 2003). ISBN 1-58617-030-9

Clissold, Stephen (1966). A short history of Yu-goslavia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-04676-9.

Cakir, brahim Etem, Lepanto War and Some In-formaton on the Reconstructon of The OttomanFleet, Turkish Studies -International Periodical ForThe Language Literature and History of Turkish orTurkic, Volume 4/3 Spring 2009, pp. 512531

Cook, M.A. (ed.), A History of the Ottoman Em-pire to 1730, Cambridge University Press, 1976;ISBN 0-521-20891-2

Crowley, Roger Empires of the Sea: The siege ofMalta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for thecenter of the world, Random House, 2008. ISBN978-1-4000-6624-7

Currey, E. Hamilton, Sea-Wolves of the Mediter-ranean, John Murrey, 1910

Guilmartin, John F. (1974) Gunpowder & Galleys:Changing Technology & Mediterranean Warfare atSea in the 16th Century. Cambridge UniversityPress, London. ISBN 0-521-20272-8.

Guilmartin, John F. (2003). Galleons and Galleys:Gunpowder and the Changing Face of Warfare atSea, 1300-1650. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35263-2.

Hanson, Victor D. Carnage and Culture: LandmarkBattles in the Rise of Western Power, Anchor Books,2001. Published in the UK as Why the West hasWon, Faber and Faber, 2001. ISBN 0-571-21640-4.Includes a chapter about the battle of Lepanto

Hess, Andrew C. The Battle of Lepanto and ItsPlace in Mediterranean History, Past and Present,No. 57. (Nov., 1972), pp. 5373

Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571: The Greatest NavalBattle of the Renaissance. Osprey Publishing, Ox-ford. 2003. ISBN 1-84176-409-4

Stevens, William Oliver and Allan Westcott (1942).A History of Sea Power. Doubleday.

Harbottles Dictionary of Battles, third revision byGeorge Bruce, 1979

Parker, Georey (1996) The Military Revolution:Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800. (second edition) Cambridge University Press,Cambridge. ISBN ISBN 0-521-47426-4

Warner, Oliver Great Sea Battles (1968) has Lep-anto 1571 as its opening chapter. ISBN 0-89673-100-6

The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume I -The Renaissance 1493-1520, edited by G. R. Pot-ter, Cambridge University Press 1964

Wheatcroft, Andrew (2004). Indels: A History ofthe Conict between Christendom and Islam. Pen-guin Books.

11 External links Battle of Lepanto animated battle map by JonathanWebb

Chronicle of the battle of Lepanto by Luis Coloma,SJ

8 11 EXTERNAL LINKS

Lepanto cultural center The Battle that Saved the ChristianWest by Christo-pher Check

Overview of the battle Lepanto: The Battle that Saved Christendom? The Tactics of the Battle of Lepanto Claried: TheImpact of Social, Economic, and Political Factors onSixteenth Century Galley Warfare

Coordinates: 3812N 2118E / 38.200N 21.300E

912 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses12.1 Text

Battle of Lepanto Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lepanto?oldid=658970404 Contributors: AxelBoldt, BryanDerksen, Ed Poor, Rmhermen, Panairjdde~enwiki, Esteban Franz Tichy~enwiki, Stevertigo, Llywrch, Ahoerstemeier, GCarty, RodC,Adam Bishop, David Newton, Benwetmore, Tpbradbury, Joy, Raul654, Wetman, Shafei, She Who Must Be Obeyed, Huangdi, Dimadick,Robbot, Dale Arnett, The Phoenix, Kristof vt, Dukeofomnium, DocWatson42, Tom harrison, Average Earthman, Snowdog, Varlaam,DO'Neil, Per Honor et Gloria, Apoivre, Gugilymugily, Alexf, Gdr, Kjetil r, Quadell, Albrecht, Antandrus, Rdsmith4, Ruzulo, PFH-Lai, Neutrality, D6, Amys, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Fvdham, MeltBanana, David Schaich, Pavel Vozenilek, SpookyMulder,Bender235, Kross, Euyyn, CeeGee, Sasha Kopf, Kevin Myers, JW1805, La goutte de pluie, Physicistjedi, BCRCornet, Mu5ti, Canek,Cosal, Nuno Tavares, Kelly Martin, PatGallacher, Deeahbz, TheoClarke, JBellis, WadeSimMiser, Ardfern, Macaddct1984, SDC, Plrk,Ciroa, Rjwilmsi, Gryndor, BlueMoonlet, Himasaram, Peripatetic, Schaengel89~enwiki, SchuminWeb, DominikHomann, Chinfo, Kyr-iakos, A.Garnet, Gparker, Str1977, Malhonen, Yce, Chobot, Roeeyaron, Gwernol, Ravenswing, YurikBot, Oldwindybear, Anders.Warga,Kirill Lokshin, Grubber, Gaius Cornelius, The Ogre, Grafen, Jagatai, Mmccalpin, Rjensen, Thiseye, Retired username, Jpbowen, BOT-Superzerocool, .marc., Rob117, Nikkimaria, GraemeL, Barbatus, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kaicarver, That Guy, From That Show!, Attilios,SmackBot, Looper5920, PiCo, Herostratus, Wlerin, Menah the Great, Nudimmud, Kintetsubualo, Yopie, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Hon-bicot, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Bazonka, Alon, Arsonal, Modest Genius, Egsan Bacon,KG6YKN, Babur~enwiki, Cplakidas, Vanished User 0001, Kittybrewster, PiMaster3, Downwards, Andrei Stroe, Andreakkk, P.D.C.,Fremte, Arvand, A. Parrot, Jmypge, Neddyseagoon, Condem, Andrwsc, NEMT, Joseph Solis in Australia, Twas Now, Provocateur, Yosy,Adam sk, Nyarpy, WolfgangFaber, JForget, CmdrObot, Banedon, Ennerk, Conudrum~enwiki, ShelfSkewed, LCP, Yohanjohn, Cydebot,Arthurian Legend, Damifb, DBaba, Kozuch, Lysandros, Buistr, Scipio3000, Picus viridis, Freddiem, Liquid-aim-bot, Bogolov, Mdotley,Monkeyangst, Adeptitus, Ingolfson, DagosNavy, JAnDbot, Giovanni Giove, MarkTwainOnIce, Albany NY, Ipoellet, Dfranks77, Magio-laditis, Xn4, Ling.Nut, The Anomebot2, ConjurerDragon, KConWiki, Fabrictramp, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Edward321, Warchef, Baris-tarim, Patstuart, Gwern, Dr. Morbius, ColorOfSuering, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Zack Holly Venturi, Shup-piluliuma, Patar knight, Ulisse0, Dbiel, ANobody, Mathglot, Gabr-el, Wiki1609, Kansas Bear, Robertgreer, STBotD, Cfpops, Puma18, Xyl54, Hugo999, Pepsidr, TallNapoleon, AlnoktaBOT, Paxcoder, Andreas Kaganov, Greswik, Plazak, Daufer, Falcon8765, VanishedUser-ABC, Koalorka, Qghvz, SieBot, Flavius Belisarius, RB1956, Antzervos, Faradayplank, Lightmouse, Doncsecz~enwiki, Aemurphylover,CaptainLepton, Belligero, Cyfal, ClueBot, Dvl007, Stealthepiscopalian, Kalsby, Unbuttered Parsnip, Zburh, Alareiks, S.BULLET., Piled-higheranddeeper, Sik em dawgs, Alexbot, Yorkshirian, Phso2, Takabeg, SchreiberBike, Jtle515, Venera 7, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Dub-mill, Gingerbreadman4290, Emirkalyoncu, Surtsicna, Luwilt, Addbot, Manuel Trujillo Berges, IsaacMorrison, Mark.hamid, AkhtaBot,Ronhjones, Groundsquirrel13, Numbo3-bot, Valce1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Reenem, AnomieBOT, A More Perfect Onion,LlywelynII, Psuit, Citation bot, EuroHistoryTeacher, Enok, Xqbot, Milolekic, Cosialscastells, Ruedasox79, GrouchoBot, Iamgingersnap-per, Indianwhite, RibotBOT, Nedim Ardoa, Mattis, Kebeta, LucienBOT, Tobby72, Falco3030, Fasttin, BenzolBot, DrilBot, Edderso, Lit-tleWink, Jonesey95, Trk Svarisi, RedBot, Cihancagil, Tenthmonth, , Pierre81, The Catholic Knight, Predictor92, Ammod-ramus, Aikuchi, Shanker Pur, Aspencork, Terry Thorgaard, In ictu oculi, Washinq, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Olatei, RA0808, Wikipelli,ZroBot, Knight1993, History6969, SporkBot, MaryContrary, BrokenAnchorBot, KazekageTR, ChuispastonBot, Edhu9, , ClueBot NG, Riku Vihervirta, Alexander E Ross, Bazuz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Weymar Horren, Gob Lofa, BG19bot, Prodebug-ger, Silvrous, Xwejnusgozo, Mughal Lohar, Highground5, Glevum, Zovemse, YFdyh-bot, Raathert, Graphium, Trajanus22, Nimetapoeg,King Philip V of Spain, Grandpescator, Fortis est Veritas, Ginsuloft, Ithinkicahn, Pktlaurence, Sulayman the Magnicent, Janissarymd,Ekingicing, Yogurto, Damonikis and Anonymous: 349

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10 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: DsMurattalk

File:Flag_of_the_Papal_States_(pre_1808).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%28pre_1808%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Himasaram

File:Flag_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Sovereign_Military_Order_of_Malta.svg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Flag of the Sovereign Military Order ofMalta.svg Original artist: Zscout370

File:Lapanto_formation.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lapanto_formation.png License: Publicdomain Contributors: A History of Sea Power Project Gutenberg edition [1] Original artist: William Oliver Stevens and Allan Westcott

File:Lepanto_f1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Lepanto_f1.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl Original artist: Tommaso Dolabella

File:Lepantogennep.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Lepantogennep.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: LooiNL

File:Naval_Ensign_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Naval_Ensign_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: user:Dbl2010

File:Savoie_flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Savoie_flag.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Patricia.di

File:Seeschlacht_von_Lepanto_von_Pieter_Brnniche.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Seeschlacht_von_Lepanto_von_Pieter_Br%C3%BCnniche.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Kopenhagen, Dnemark Originalartist: Pieter Brnniche

File:Topcu_arma.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Topcu_arma.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transfer was stated to be made by User:Kenzhigaliyev. Original artist: Original uploader was Macukaliat en.wikipedia

File:Victors_of_Lepanto.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Victors_of_Lepanto.jpg License: Publicdomain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Anonym

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BackgroundForcesDeploymentThe battleAftermathReligious significanceDescriptions in art and cultureSee alsoNotesReferencesExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license