Bartol - Forensic Psychology 2004 Pgs 1 - 29

Forensic Psychology

Introduction and Overview

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W hen the space shuttle Columbiadisintegrated upon reentry into theEarth’s atmosphere on February 1,

2003, “forensic investigators” from various fed-eral agencies were immediately sent to the crashsites in an effort to identify the causes of the acci-dent. They were forensic scientists trained touncover evidence that may or may not eventuallyend up in a court of law. The term forensic thusrefers to anything pertaining or potentially per-taining to law, both civil and criminal. Forensicinvestigations were undertaken after Columbia’sdisintegration in the event that human factors—for example, terrorism, sabotage, or negligence—might have caused the tragedy. Investigations ofthis sort almost invariably occur whenever thereare unexpected and unexplained events that arenot obvious natural disasters.

Forensic science has become an all-encompassing professional activity and a popularcareer choice among students. Nearly every con-ceivable profession, including psychology, has aforensic specialization. Many people are con-fused about the various “forensic” areas and

assume that professionals within these fields dolargely the same thing. It will become clear, how-ever, that they do not. Although forensic psy-chology is the exclusive subject of this text, it ishelpful to begin with illustrations of other forensicsciences for comparison purposes. In other words,it is important for readers to know at the outsetwhat forensic psychology is not.

Examples of the forensic professions, inaddition to forensic psychology, include forensicengineering, forensic linguistics, forensic medi-cine, forensic computer investigation, forensicpathology, forensic anthropology, forensicarchaeology, forensic psychiatry, forensic socialwork, and forensic accounting. The focus of eachdiscipline is evident from the terms. Forensiclinguistics, for example, is concerned with the in-depth evaluation of language-related characteris-tics of text, such as grammar, syntax, spelling,vocabulary, and phraseology, either to profile anoffender or to determine whether specific writingsamples are from the same author (Black, 1990).Forensic anthropology refers to the identifica-tion of skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise

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unidentified human remains using the science ofphysical anthropology. Forensic pathology is thatbranch of medicine concerned with diseases anddisorders of the body that relate to questions thatmight come before the court. The forensicpathologist—popularized in television showssuch as CSI and in the novels of PatriciaCornwell—examines the bodies of crime victimsfor clues about the victim’s demise. Forensicanthropologists and forensic pathologists oftenwork in conjunction with homicide investigators

to identify a decedent, discover evidence of foulplay, and help establish the age, sex, height,ancestry, and other unique features of a decedentfrom skeletal remains.

Forensic laboratories are usually maintainedor sponsored by governmental agencies specifi-cally to examine physical evidence in criminaland civil matters. The scientists working in theselaboratories are expected to prepare reports andprovide courtroom testimony on the physical evi-dence if needed (see Box 1.1). Alternately, private

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BOX 1.1 Examples of Employment Ads for Forensic Scientists

Forensic Scientist—Level 1

Qualifications

Master’s degree in chemistry, biology, physics, or forensic science from a regionally accreditedcollege or university, including or supplemented by 20 credits in chemistry and 3 years of satis-factory experience performing forensic laboratory analyses in the specialty area or baccalaureatedegree with a major in chemistry, biology, physics, or forensic science from a regionally accred-ited college or university, including or supplemented by 20 credits in chemistry and 4 years ofsatisfactory experience performing forensic laboratory analyses.

Responsibilities

Include the analysis of evidence in one of the following forensic science specialties: forensicchemistry, criminalistics, questioned document examination, or firearms or toolmark examina-tion; the preparation of written reports; and testifying in court. Perform other duties as related.

Forensic Scientist—Level 2

Minimum Qualifications

Shall have a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in the natural or physical sciences. Have aminimum of 18 months’ experience performing the duties of a Forensic Scientist 1–QuestionedDocuments or its equivalent in another laboratory. If applicable, have gained experience in testimonyas an expert witness and have established his or her credentials as an expert in various courts of record.

Responsibilities

Will be proficient in all of the duties of a Forensic Scientist 1–Questioned Documents. Will beexpected to perform appropriate analysis on case work that is technically of limited complexityusing standard established procedures. Will plan and execute analyses, including proper qualitycontrol procedures, using instrumentation and techniques as necessary. Results will be inter-preted and findings reported for court purposes. Will be expected to maintain and enhance his orher expertise and maintain technical proficiency in the field of forensic questioned documents.


laboratories provide services to governmentagencies on a contract basis. Scientists fromboth public and private laboratories may beasked to examine and testify about latent finger-prints, hair fibers, firearms and ballistics, explo-sives and fire debris, toxic material, and otherpertinent evidence found at or near a crimescene or tragic accident. Some forensic labs arebetter at investigating certain types of evidencethan others. For example, the U.S. Fish andWildlife Services Forensic Laboratory is oftensummoned to help law enforcement officersinvestigate possible law violations when evi-dence includes animal parts or carcasses. TheFood and Drug Administration (FDA) ForensicCenter in Cincinnati is better equipped for, andexperienced in, ultratrace elemental analysis(Stehlin, 1995). The lab’s chemists can find con-taminants in microscopic amounts, such as partsper trillion.

The FDA lab was instrumental in investigatinga major product-tampering case that occurred inthe United States in 1982. Seven persons in theChicago area collapsed and died soon after takingTylenol capsules. The capsules had been pur-chased in six different stores, and victimsincluded a 12-year-old girl, a woman who hadjust returned from the hospital after giving birth,and three members of one family. Chemicalinvestigation revealed that the capsules had beenlaced with cyanide. FDA chemists developedfingerprinting-like techniques that allowedauthorities to trace the cyanide back to the spe-cific manufacturer and distributor (Stehlin,1995). The cyanide compound was identified aspotassium cyanide with a purity of 90%. Thecompound is usually used in industries involvedin metal electroplating, metal extraction, andboth photographic and cinematographic filmprocessing. Unfortunately, despite the fact thatthe poison was identified and the source wastraced, the perpetrator was never found.

A wave of similar product tamperings tookplace soon after the Tylenol incident, involvingLipton’s Cup-A-Soup (1986), Excedrin (1986),Tylenol (again in 1986), Sudafed (1991), andGoody’s Headache Powder (1992). Cyanide was

also discovered in grapes from Chile in 1989. TheFDA lab continues to apply the “fingerprinting”techniques to identify the cyanide origins, andsince 1980, FDA chemists have developed tech-niques to screen for more than 250 of the mosttoxic poisons commonly available to the public(Stehlin, 1995).

Since the increased threat of terrorism inrecent years and events such as the anthrax scarethat followed the September 11, 2001 terroristattacks in New York and Washington, D.C., quickforensic chemical detection methods such asthose described above have become especiallycritical. Also critical, though, are forensic tech-niques that can address more common crimes,such as drug trafficking, computer crimes, and awide variety of white-collar offenses that involvefraudulent documents. We highlight a few ofthese techniques below.

Example of ForensicScience: Forensic Entomology

Forensic laboratories often employ scientistswho specialize in forensic entomology, which isthe study of insects as it relates to legal issues.This specialty is becoming increasingly impor-tant in criminal and civil investigations. Forexample, entomological investigations of termiteinfestation may be used to support civil litigationdealing with real estate, pest control, or landlord-tenant disputes. In another context, forensicentomology may be useful in investigations offood contamination. Scientists try to determinewhere an infestation occurred (e.g., which plantor store), when it occurred, and whether it wasaccidental or the possible result of human tam-pering. (Whether there actually was negligenceor evil intent, though, is left to the courts todecide.)

In criminal investigations, forensic entomol-ogy is used to determine the time since death(postmortem interval), the location of the death,placement or movement of the body, and mannerof death. For instance, because insects will feedfirst on soft-tissue areas of the head, such as the

Forensic Psychology——5


eyes and nasal passages, and any open wounds,they often will neglect undamaged flesh that willbe left intact to harden. Consequently, the feed-ing patterns of insects often provide invaluableclues about the nature of death.

Forensic entomology can also be applied toinvestigations of drug trafficking. Insects aresometimes found in drugs, and the identity ofthese insects can help in pinpointing where thedrugs were produced or packed.

Another Example:Questioned Documents

Still another science represented in forensiclaboratories is forensic document examination.This science analyzes handwriting, print fonts,the authenticity of signatures, alterations indocuments, charred or water-damaged paper, thesignificance of inks and papers, photocopyingprocesses, writing instruments, sequence of writ-ing, and other elements of a document to estab-lish authorship and authenticity. The process isoften called questioned document examinationor analysis. The questioned document may be acheck, a threatening letter, a hold-up note, acredit application or receipt, a will, an invest-ment record, a tax form, or a medical record(Morris, 2000). Questioned document analysiscan be applied to many types of investigations,including fraud, homicide, suicide, sexualoffenses, blackmail, bombings, and arson.Questioned handwriting analysis, for example,may include the forensic examination of a signa-ture, handwritten letter, entries on a form, oreven graffiti on a wall (Morris, 2000). A forensicdocument examiner (FDE) may be asked toexamine and render opinions on the authorshipof writing on building walls, recover engraved orobliterated writing on different types of surfaces,or determine the brand or model of typewriters,printers, embossers, inks, and printing processes(Morris, 2000).

An intriguing example of forensic documentexamination can be found in the search for Jack

the Ripper, the serial killer who brutally murderedfive prostitutes in separate incidents in London’sEast End in 1888. The case was never solved,although many professional and amateur investi-gators have tried to identify the killer for years.Recently, crime writer Patricia Cornwell (2002)carried on an extensive investigation of themurders and wrote a book on her findings, Portraitof a Killer: Jack the Ripper—Case Closed. Cornwellbelieves that Jack the Ripper was Walter Sickert(1860–1942), a renowned impressionist painterwho walked the East London streets during thesame time period as Jack the Ripper.

Apparently, letters confirmed as having beenwritten by the Ripper are kept in the PublicRecord Office in London. The British govern-ment gave Cornwell permission to view theseletters and about 500 others letters claiming to befrom the notorious serial killer. During her inves-tigation, Cornwell was also able to obtain twopieces of Sickert’s own stationary. Althoughextensive handwriting analysis has not provedsuccessful—the Ripper probably disguised hishandwriting—a watermark and other character-istics of the paper were far more revealing.According to Cornwell, the stationery was onGurney Ivory Laid and was produced exclusivelyby a small manufacturer for personal use.Typically during production, the sheets wereguillotined to size and then folded into quires of24 sheets. The sheets were then given a final“bim,” a distinguishing mark because each bim isslightly different from the other. The matchbetween the short-edge cuts on the 4 identifiedsheets (2 from the Ripper and 2 from Sickert’sstationery) indicates they came from the samequire of paper. According to Cornwell, this evi-dence is the strongest so far to implicate Sickertas the infamous Ripper.

Closely related to forensic document analysisis forensic ink analysis, a little-known crime-fighting tool that is sometimes used to show thatcertain documents have been backdated oraltered. Most of the ink analysis today is done bythe U.S. Secret Service’s Forensic ServicesDivision, “which maintains the world’s largest

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library of ink samples with more than 7,000entries” (Maremont, 2003, p. A4). There is also asmall group of private forensic experts who doink analysis, primarily for medical malpracticesuits, patent battles, or cases involving disputedwills. The ink analysis is especially effective inexamining the ink of ballpoint pens which containa variety of different dyes and drying properties.Ink analysis played a role in the 1973 convictionof mass murder Juan Corona, who hacked todeath 25 migrant workers near Yuba City,California (Maremont, 2003). Usually, however,ink analysis is used in investigations of businessfraud or, in rare cases, by the Internal RevenueService for income tax cases.

Computer Evidence Recovery

Computer evidence recovery, also called foren-sic data recovery, involves e-mail and Internetanalysis, along with sophisticated hard drive anddiskette recovery techniques of orphaned, frag-mented, and erased data. A computer evidencerecovery specialist has the training to search, seize,and analyze magnetic media originating from avariety of operating systems pursuant to theexecution of a search warrant or subpoena. Themajor goal of the specialist or investigator is torecover the data without modifying the originalmedia or the image of the media. Without special-ized training, a law enforcement officer armedwith a search warrant would not be advised toopen computer files from the office of a personsuspected of Internet fraud or one suspected ofdistributing child pornography.

Katy Clark (2002) points out that “forensicdata recovery is a field that is swiftly becoming animportant, as well as lucrative, industry” (p. 36).Quoting Kevin Ripa, president of a forensic datarecovery company in Canada, Clark writes, “Datarecovery is a necessary and vital investigativetool. It is the wave of the future for lawyers” (p. 26).In divorce cases, for example, lawyers maysubpoena spouses’ personal computers to obtainevidence of an extramarital affair or other

malfeasance. Computer evidence recovery is usedin a wide variety of investigations, such as finan-cial fraud, embezzlement, sexual harassment,child pornography, program vandalism, identitytheft, document forgery, software piracy, nar-cotics trafficking, and money laundering. Thedata evidence recovery process involves an analy-sis of the computer make and capacity, thecomputer’s time and date settings, hard drivepartitions, data and operating system integrity,computer virus evaluation, files, and software.The analysis will also usually involve careful eval-uation of shadow data, which is the informationthat remains on a disk even after the data areostensibly erased, damaged, or lost. Many peopleengaging in various forms of illegal activity thinkthey are safe by making deletions or using softwaredesigned to cover their tracks, not realizing that awell-trained computer data recovery expert canaccess almost any information sent or received.

Forensic data recovery also may be a power-ful tool to clear a person of wrongdoing. Forexample, Clark describes a case of a successfulbusinessman living in an upscale neighborhood,happily married with two children, who wasaccused of accessing and distributing childpornography. One evening, police appeared athis door to execute a search warrant. They seizedhis computer, took him into custody, andcharged him with distribution of child porno-graphy, though he strongly denied the allegations.His attorney contacted a computer evidencerecovery service, which was able to demonstratethat the pornography was stored in his computeron dates the man wasn’t even in town. Apparently,he had unknowingly downloaded a “TrojanHorse,” enabling the computer cracker to haveaccess to his computer. (A computer cracker issomeone who maliciously breaks into computersfor the purpose of damaging data or sending outviruses, whereas a hacker tries to get throughholes in computer codes to prove a point or playa joke.) The computer specialist was able to provethat someone else had been storing the porno-graphy on the individual’s computer without hisknowledge.



Thus far, we have discussed forensic scienceswhile barely mentioning forensic psychology.Today, television, movies, and popular novelsprovide numerous graphic examples of forensicexaminations of evidence such as humanhair, DNA, semen traces, carpet fibers, gunshotwounds, ballistics, and explosives. The scientistsdepicted typically have access to state-of-the-artequipment, and they are often glamorous and/orhave complex emotional lives. Many studentsexpress a keen interest in the forensic sciencesand seriously consider pursuing a career in thefield without fully understanding what it is orwhat is required to reach their goal. As is appar-ent from the above illustrations, forensic investi-gations usually require expertise in chemistry,biology, physics, and/or other sciences, includingthe science of computer technology. The field offorensic psychology requires a very different typeof preparation and is significantly different incontent, as we will now demonstrate.

Forensic Psychology:An Overview

Forensic psychology—like many specialties inpsychology—is difficult to define precisely. AsJohn Brigham (1999) writes, if you ask a group ofpsychologists who interact with the legal systemin some capacity, “Are you a forensic psycholo-gist?” many will say yes, some will say no, and amajority will probably admit they really do notknow. Referring to his own testimony in court,Brigham notes that, when asked the question, hismost accurate current response would be, “Well,it depends.” As Brigham points out, the profes-sional literature on the subject adopts one oftwo prominent definitions. Some of the literaturedefines forensic psychology broadly as theresearch and application of psychological know-ledge to the legal system, whereas some of itprefers a more narrow definition, limiting foren-sic psychology to the application and practice ofpsychology as it pertains to the legal system.

We (Bartol & Bartol, 1987) offered thefollowing definition: “We view forensic psychologybroadly, as both (1) the research endeavor thatexamines aspects of human behavior directlyrelated to the legal process . . . and (2) the profes-sional practice of psychology within, or in con-sultation with, a legal system that embraces bothcivil and criminal law” (p. 3). Ronald Roesch(cited in Brigham, 1999, p. 279) suggests anarrow definition: “Most psychologists define thearea more narrowly to refer to clinical psycholo-gists who are engaged in clinical practice withinthe legal system.” This definition may be toorestrictive because it seems to imply a specialtycalled “forensic clinical psychology.” The broaddefinition, on the other hand, includes not onlyclinicians (also called practitioners) but alsosocial, developmental, counseling, cognitive,experimental, industrial-organizational, andschool psychologists—some but not all of whomare clinicians. The common link is their contri-bution to the legal system.

In this text, we will continue to adopt a broaddefinition of forensic psychology but will focusprimarily on forensic practice and what psychol-ogists working in the field actually do. That is, weemphasize the professional application of psycho-logical knowledge, concepts, and principles tocivil and criminal justice systems. It should beunderstood, however, that this application mustbe based on solid research; thus, the researchprong of our original definition (Bartol & Bartol,1987) has not disappeared. The practice of foren-sic psychology, as it will be treated here, includesinvestigations, studies, evaluations, advice toattorneys, advisory opinions, and depositionsand/or testimony to assist in the resolution of dis-putes relating to life or property in cases beforethe courts or other lawful tribunals. It can—anddoes—encompass situations before they reach thecourt as well as those situations following thecourt decision. It includes activities as varied asthe following: courtroom testimony, child cus-tody evaluations, screening and selection of lawenforcement candidates, and clinical services to

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offenders and staff in correctional facilities. It alsoincludes research and theory building in crimi-nology; the design and implementation of inter-vention, prevention, and treatment for youthoffenders; and counseling of victims of crime.

Over the past 25 years, forensic psychologyhas grown rapidly. As noted by Tucillo,DeFilippis, Denny, and Dsurney (2002),

A growing number of clinicians provideexpert witness testimony addressing a vari-ety of issues, such as competency to standtrial, criminal responsibility, child custody,personal injury or handicap, and suitabilityto work in law enforcement. In addition to

this major trend in clinical psychologyand neuropsychology, developmental andexperimental psychologists have come intodemand for their expert opinions on suchmatters as the reliability of eyewitness testi-mony and lie detection. (p. 377)

This growth is also reflected in the developmentof professional organizations devoted to researchand practice in the field, significant increases in thenumber of books and periodicals focusing on thetopic, and the establishment of standards for prac-titioners working in the discipline (Otto &Heilbrun, 2002). (See Box 1.2 for important histor-ical benchmarks in forensic psychology.)


BOX 1.2 Historical Benchmarks in Forensic Psychology

1893—First psychological experiment on the psychology of testimony, conducted by J. McKeenCattell of Columbia University.

1903—Louis William Stern of Germany established a periodical dealing with the psychology oftestimony (Betrage zur Psychollogie der Aussage).

1908—Publication of Hugo Münsterberg’s On the Witness Stand, arguably one of the firstprofessional books on forensic psychology. The book launched Münsterberg’s career in forensicpsychology, and some scholars consider Münsterberg, a Harvard professor of psychology, thefather of forensic psychology.

1911—J. Varendonck was one of the earliest psychologists to testify in a criminal trial heldin Belgium.

1913—First time that psychological services were offered within a U.S. correctional facility(a women’s reformatory in the state of New York).

1917—William Marston developed the first modern polygraph.

1917—Louis Terman was the first American psychologist to use psychological tests in thescreening of law enforcement personnel.

1918—First inmate classification system developed by psychologists was established by theNew Jersey Department of Corrections. New Jersey also became the first state to hire full-timecorrectional psychologists on a regular basis.

1921—First time an American psychologist testified in a courtroom as an expert witness(State v. Driver, 1921).

(Continued)


For our purposes, forensic psychology willbe divided into five subspecialties: (1) policepsychology, (2) psychology of crime and delin-quency, (3) victimology and victim services,(4) legal psychology, and (5) correctionalpsychology. Police psychology and correctionalpsychology tend to be the more applied branchesof forensic psychology, whereas the psychologyof crime and delinquency and legal psychologytend to be more research focused. Nevertheless,legal psychology in particular can also be veryapplied. Victimology and victim services also

represent a mixture of both, with victimologybeing the research and victim services the appli-cation component. However, we must be carefulnot to apply an exclusive focus to any one of thefive subspecialty areas, because each one hasboth research and applied aspects. Furthermore,psychologists conducting research in one areaof forensic psychology may consult with ortrain practitioners in other areas. Likewise, theclinical experience of applied psychologistshelps to inform theory development and suggesthypotheses to research psychologists. Finally,

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BOX 1.2 (Continued)

1922—Karl Marbe, a psychology professor at the University of Wurzburg, Germany, became thefirst psychologist to testify at a civil trial.

1922—Psychologist-lawyer William Marston became the first to receive a faculty appointmentin forensic psychology, an appointment as “professor of legal psychology” at AmericanUniversity. Marston also conducted the first empirical research on the jury system.

1931—Howard Burtt’s Legal Psychology was published—the first textbook in the forensic areawritten by a psychologist.

1961—Hans Toch edited one of the first texts on the psychology of crime, Legal and CriminalPsychology.

1964—Hans J. Eysenck formulated the first comprehensive and testable theory on criminalbehavior advanced by a psychologist and published it in the book Crime and Personality.

1968—Martin Reiser became the first full-time police psychologist in the United States. Hewas hired by the Los Angeles Police Department and became instrumental in establishing policepsychology as a profession.

1972—Under the guidance and leadership of the American Association for CorrectionalPsychology (AACP), Stanley Brodsky, Robert Lewinson, and Asher Pacht, correctional psychologybecame recognized as a professional career.

1974—The first successful interdisciplinary psychology and law program was developed at theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincoln.

1978—The American Board of Forensic Psychology began professional certification of diplomatesin forensic psychology.

1991—American Academy of Forensic Psychology and American Psychology Law Societypublished The Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists.

2001—American Psychological Association recognized forensic psychology as a specialty.


many practitioners do engage in research,although a very common complaint amongthem is the lack of time and resources fordoing that.

Specific examples of some of the things thatforensic psychologists (depending on their spe-cialty) may be asked to do include the following:

Police Psychology

• assist police departments in determiningoptimal shift schedules for their employees,

• assist police in developing psychologicalprofiles of serial offenders,

• establish reliable and valid screeningprocedures for law enforcement officerpositions at various police and sheriffdepartments,

• train police officers on how to deal withmentally ill citizens,

• provide counseling services to officers aftera shooting incident.

Psychology of Crime and Delinquency

• evaluate the effectiveness of preschoolintervention strategies designed to preventviolent behavior during adolescence,

• conduct research on the development ofpsychopathy,

• consult with legislators and governmentalagencies as a research policy adviser on theprevention of stalking,

• consult with school personnel on identify-ing troubled youth who are potentiallydangerous,

• develop a psychological test for assessingrisk among the mentally ill.

Victimology and Victim Services

• evaluate and treat persons who are thevictims of crime or witnesses of crime;

• conduct psychological assessments forpersonal injury matters having to do withsuch things as auto accidents, product

liability, sexual harassment and discrimina-tion, and medical negligence or workers’compensation;

• educate and train victim service providerson psychological reactions to criminalvictimization, such as posttraumatic stressdisorder;

• assess, support, and counsel those whoprovide death notification services;

• educate service providers on the impact ofmulticulturalism when victims seek mentalhealth and support services.

Legal Psychology

• conduct child custody evaluations, visita-tion risk assessments, and child abuseevaluations;

• assist attorneys in jury selection throughcommunity surveys and other researchmethods;

• perform evaluations of a defendant’scompetency to stand trial;

• consult with attorneys and the courtsconcerning custody decisions, conflictresolution, and the validity of assessmentprocedures used in the evaluation of variouspsychological conditions;

• conduct competency evaluations for thecivil court.

Correctional Psychology

• establish reliable and valid screeningprocedures for correctional officer positionsat correctional facilities;

• evaluate the effectiveness of a variety ofexisting programs (a process called programevaluation) for juvenile and adult offenders,such as victim-offender reconciliationprograms, teen courts, or health educationprograms;

• develop a stress management program forcorrectional personnel;

• assess the development of a system forclassifying prison inmates for placementwithin a correctional facility.



It should be noted that the above list wouldbe shortened considerably if we were to adopt amore narrow definition of forensic psychology.The work settings in which forensic psycholo-gists are found include, but are not limited to, thefollowing:

• Private practice• Family courts, drug courts, and mental

health courts• Child protection agencies• Victim services• Domestic violence courts and programs• Forensic mental health units (govern-

mental or private)• Sex offender treatment programs• Correctional institutions (including research

programs)• Law enforcement agencies (federal, state,

or local)• Research organizations (governmental or

private)• Colleges and universities (teaching and/or

research)• Juvenile delinquency treatment programs• Legal advocacy centers (e.g., for the mentally

ill and developmentally disabled)

Forensic Psychology Comparedto Forensic Psychiatry

Psychologists, especially clinical, counseling,and forensic psychologists, are often confusedwith psychiatrists by the public and the media.Today, the lines of separation between the twoprofessions are becoming increasingly blurred.Clinical, counseling, and some forensic psy-chologists, along with psychiatrists, are trained toprovide direct treatment services to persons withemotional, cognitive, or behavioral problems.Psychiatrists are medical doctors (MDs) (or, insome cases, doctors of osteopathy [DOs]) whospecialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat-ment of mental, addictive, and emotional dis-orders. Psychologists do not hold a medical degree.

Another major distinction between the two hasbeen the license to prescribe drugs, includingpsychoactive drugs. Traditionally, psychologistshave not been permitted by law to prescribeany medication. Now, even that distinction isbeginning to disappear. On March 6, 2002, NewMexico became the first state in the United Statesto allow properly trained psychologists to prescribepsychoactive drugs, or drugs intended to treatmental disorders. At this writing, four other stateshave pending legislation on prescription privilegesfor psychologists: Georgia, Illinois, Hawaii, andTennessee. Psychologists in Guam gained pre-scription privileges in 1999.

Many psychiatrists, like psychologists, work ina variety of forensic settings, including the court,correctional facilities, and law enforcement.Psychiatrists who are closely associated with thelaw are often referred to as forensic psychiatrists.In some areas, such as issues relating to insanitydetermination by the courts, psychiatrists aremore visible—and sometimes more preferred—than psychologists. As we will discuss in a laterchapter, this reflects a greater comfort on the partof some judges with the medical model approachto mental disorder (Melton, Petrila, Poythress, &Slobogin, 1997). Law-related research, however,tends to be the bailiwick of psychologists, althoughsome psychiatrists are engaged in conductingand publishing such research also.

Careers in Psychology

Since the 1970s, there has been an enormousexpansion of the profession of psychology ingeneral (Reed, Levant, Stout, Murphy, & Phelps,2001). Psychology encompasses a wide spectrumof topics ranging from engineering designs(human factors) to animal behavior and has aplace in every imaginable setting. Psychologistscan be found in “personnel selection and train-ing, developing user-friendly computer software,the delivery of psychological services to victims ofnatural and man-made disasters, the profiling ofserial killers, the creation of effective commercials



that increase the sale of a product, and so on”(Ballie, 2001, p. 25). Currently, there are 155,000members of the American PsychologicalAssociation (APA) alone. The APA, based inWashington, D.C., is the largest association ofpsychologists worldwide. Another 12,000 psy-chologists from the United States and abroad andwhose specialties span the entire spectrum ofscientific, applied, and teaching specializations aremembers of the American Psychological Society(APS), the second largest psychological organiza-tion in the United States. It is estimated that thereare at least 300,000 practicing psychologistsworldwide who provide a wide range of services(Donn, Routh, & Lunt, 2000; Lunt & Poortinga,1996). In addition to the APA and APS, psycholo-gists belong to many other professional organiza-tions at the national, state, and local levels.

Education and Training

About 75,000 undergraduate psychologymajors graduate each year from the nation’scolleges and universities (American PsychologicalAssociation, 2003d; B. Murray, 2002b). Startingsalaries range from $18,000 to $45,000, depend-ing on the job type and location, with an averageof approximately $29,000. Psychology majors mostoften find employment in the areas of manage-ment, teaching, counseling, social work, andsales. As most psychology majors become quicklyaware, the bachelor’s degree does provide a basicfoundation in the field of psychology, but it doesnot adequately prepare a person to be a profes-sional psychologist. The minimum educationalrequirement for psychologists is the graduatedegree. In addition, specialization in psychologyusually begins at the graduate level, althoughmany undergraduate programs offer concentra-tions in certain areas, such as social psychology,education psychology, or human development.Graduate programs in psychology most oftenoffer graduate degrees in experimental, bio-psychology, developmental, cognitive, clinical,counseling, school, and industrial/organizational

psychology. The last four represent the moreapplied or practitioner’s side of psychology. Mostrecently, as we will see shortly, forensic psycho-logy has become a fifth applied branch in thefield, although the other four applied sectorshave historically made significant contributionsto various forensic topics and settings.

Graduate Training: Master’s Level

At the master’s level, clinical, counseling, andschool psychology attract the most students(B. Murray, 2002b). In some states, graduatesof master’s degree programs in psychology—with the appropriate clinical training—maybe eligible for licensure as psychological associates(LPAs) or psychologist—master’s level (MacKain,Tedeschi, Durham, & Goldman, 2002). In otherstates, graduates with master’s degrees in psychol-ogy are not allowed to practice psychology (at leastnot use the label) and are instead licensed withnonpsychology titles, such as licensed mentalhealth counselor, marriage and family therapist,or psychotherapist (MacKain et al., 2002).

In a survey conducted in North Carolina, SallyJoy MacKain and her associates (2002) asked stateand private employers if they employed LPAs.Through this method, they were able to identify345 master’s-level psychologists working withinthe state. The researchers discovered that 158were employed at mental health centers, 108 werewith the state department of corrections, 54 wereworking at residential centers that serve the men-tally retarded and developmentally disabled, and25 were employed at state psychiatric hospitals.Employers indicated that LPAs were as marketableas other master’s-trained clinicians, such as socialworkers and counselors. Eighteen percent of theemployers stated they were more likely to hirepsychologists than other master’s-trained clini-cians, and 49% said they were “just as likely tohire them.” In fact, some employers reported dif-ficulty in finding enough LPAs for their positions.Salaries for LPAs ranged from $27,000 to $45,000with a median of $30,500, a range similar to thatof other master’s-level clinicians.



In addition to employers, MacKain et al. (2002)also surveyed 60 LPAs. More than half the gradu-ates interviewed (54%) stated they were definitelyplanning or were considering entering a doctoralprogram within the next 5 years, suggesting thatthe opportunities presented by the LPA alonemay be limited. Of the LPAs, 36% were employedin community mental health centers, 24% wereworking in state corrections or the courts, 16%were involved in private inpatient or outpatientfacilities, 10% were in university or college settings,and 8% were in nonprivate agencies.

Currently, there is no accreditation of master’sprograms in psychology through the APA.However, since 1995, applied master’s programshave been able to seek accreditation from theMaster’s Accreditation Council (MPAC) (Hays-Thomas, 2000). Approximately 14,500 master’sdegrees in psychology are awarded each year(American Psychological Association, 2003d).

Graduate Training: Doctoral Level

At the doctoral level, clinical psychologyattracts the largest number of students of allthe applied specialties and is considered theentry-level credential for the independentpractice of psychology (American PsychologicalAssociation, 1978; Hayes-Thomas, 2000). Everyyear, approximately 1,200 students earn PhDsand another 700 students earn PsyDs in clinicalpsychology (B. Murray, 2002a). The PhD degree(Doctor of Philosophy) requires a dissertationand is well accepted in the academic world asappropriate preparation for scientists and schol-ars in many fields across the globe (Donn et al.,2000). It is regarded primarily a researched-baseddegree. A dissertation refers to a substantialpaper based on the PhD candidate’s originalresearch, which should make a significant contri-bution to the research literature. The PsyD(Doctorate in Psychology) is a graduate degreedesigned primarily for students who wish tobecome practitioners rather than researchers.The first PsyD program was established in 1968by Donald R. Peterson at the University of

Illinois (Peterson, 1968). Although many PhDpsychologists have questioned the soundness ofthe PsyD since its early beginnings, especially inview of its limited research focus, the degree hasreceived increasing professional recognition inrecent years and has attracted the interest ofmany students. More than 50 institutions haveawarded 9,000 PsyDs during the past 30 years.Overall, approximately 4,300 doctoral degrees inpsychology are awarded each year (AmericanPsychological Association, 2003d).

Licensure

By 1977, every state in the United Statesrequired a license to practice psychology, and allCanadian provinces regulated the practice in1990 (Tucillo et al., 2002). In 1987, in an effortto encourage standardized licensing require-ments, the APA developed the Model Act forState Licensure of Psychologists (see AmericanPsychological Association, 1987) to serve as aprototype for drafting state legislation (Tucilloet al., 2002). One of the chief criteria to qualifyfor licensing is possession of the doctoral degree.Professional psychologists are also ethicallyobligated to comply with the standards pertain-ing to their practice, as outlined by the EthicalPrinciples of Psychologists and Code ofConduct—2002 (American PsychologicalAssociation, 2003a). Guidelines are also offeredin a number of areas associated with researchand clinical practice. A good example is the“Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psycholo-gists” (Committee on Ethical Guidelines forForensic Psychologists, 1991). Among otherthings, the “Specialty Guidelines” assert that“forensic psychologists are responsible for afundamental and reasonable level of knowledgeand understanding of the legal and professionalstandards that govern their participation asexperts in legal proceedings” (p. 658). An impor-tant distinction between standards and guidelinesshould be noted. Psychologists are expected tocomply with standards, and there is an enforce-ment mechanism in place in case they do not. For



example, a violation in the code of ethics couldresult in a complaint to the APA’s ProfessionalConduct Board and, ultimately, loss of one’slicense to practice psychology (although suchdrastic consequences are rare). By contrast, theguidelines are aspirational; psychologists arestrongly encouraged—but not required—toabide by them.

Employment

The most recent survey on where psycholo-gists with new doctorates find employment indi-cated that about three fourths are employed inhigher education or human service settings (suchas schools or hospitals) (D. Smith, 2002c). Therest were working in business, government, orprivate practice. About 25% of new doctoratesfind employment in academic positions at 4-yearcolleges and universities. Most of the graduateshave a strong foundation in research methodo-logy and analysis that allows them to work in avariety of occupations. “Rather than beingstereotyped as a professor or therapist, more andmore psychologists are being seen as appliedscientists” (Ballie, 2001, p. 25).

The Applied Specialties

Although the subspecialties of applied psy-chology may have distinct features, journals,associations, and interests, they also have manythings in common. The similarities betweencounseling psychology and clinical psychology,in particular, are far greater than the differences.The clinical psychologist typically experiences9 or 12 months of supervised internship in aclinical setting, where the theories and methodsacquired in graduate training can be applied tohuman behavior problems. The counseling psy-chologist has received much the same training asthe clinical psychologist, including the intern-ship. In the past, the major distinction betweenthe two was their focus. The counseling psycho-logist was trained to evaluate and treat (counsel)persons with adjustment problems, such as those

relating to education, job, and personal andmarital relationships. The clinical psychologistwas trained to evaluate and treat persons suffer-ing more serious behavior and mental problemsfound in mental hospitals or psychiatric clinics.This distinction is rapidly becoming blurred,however.

Both counseling and clinical psychologists areemployed in a wide assortment of settings,including college and university counselingcenters, university research and teaching positions,independent practice, health care settings, hospi-tals, and the legal-forensic system. About 40% ofthe doctoral-level practitioners are in private orindependent practice (Reed et al., 2001). Bothcounseling and clinical psychologists (at thedoctorate level) are licensed in all 50 states, usuallyunder the same designation of “licensed practic-ing psychologist.”

In clinical and counseling practice throughoutthe United States, psychologists are finding thattheir clients are often from cultural backgroundsdifferent from their own. “The majority ofservice providers are European Americans withmiddle-class values and orientation; a sizeableportion of the diverse client populations areAfrican-Americans and underserved with mixedvalues and orientations” (E. F. Morris, 2001,p. 563). In addition, psychologists are encounter-ing in their practices more persons of Latino,Asian, Native American, and Arabic heritage. It isextremely crucial for practicing psychologists tobe sensitive to the cultural values and norms heldby persons to whom they are providing service.This may be especially important for forensicpsychologists, who are often called on to assist inmaking decisions that may drastically affect thelife of someone they are evaluating or treating.Clinical and counseling psychologists who areservice providers to diverse populations should ata minimum be aware of their own assumptionsand biases regarding cultures that are differentfrom their own, understand their clients’ world-views, and use only culturally appropriate inter-ventions and techniques (Erickson & Al-Timini,2001; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). It



is interesting to note that only half of thedoctoral-level clinicians in one survey felt com-petent to provide services to African Americansdespite their training exposure and diverse clien-tele (Allison, Crawford, Echemendia, Robinson, &Kemp, 1994; E. F. Morris, 2001).

The APA has begun to take notice of thisimportant issue by publishing its “Guidelines forProviders of Psychological Services to Ethnic,Linguistic, and Culturally Diverse Populations”(American Psychological Association, 1993). Theguidelines emphasize, for example, that psycho-logists “consider the validity of a given instrumentor procedure and interpret resulting data, keep-ing in mind the cultural and linguistic character-istics of the person being assessed” (p. 46). Inaddition, the guidelines further recommend that“psychologists who do not possess knowledgeor training about an ethnic group seek consulta-tion with, and/or make referrals to, appropriateexperts as necessary” (p. 46). It should also berecognized by forensic psychologists that thelegal system they are working with might beunprepared to deal with many complex issuesnot only of culture, ethnicity, and race but alsoof sexual orientation. Same-sex marriages orunions, adoptions by gay and lesbian couples,custody evaluations when one party seekingcustody is gay or lesbian, and same-sex domesticviolence are examples.

School psychology is a specialty involved inthe evaluation, diagnosis, and reduction of social,emotional, and cognitive problems of school-agechildren. In many ways, the tasks of schoolpsychologists are very similar to those of childclinical psychologists, but school psychologiststend to be more focused on the school environ-ment and its influences on the child. They worknot only with children with problems but alsowith parents, teachers, and school adminis-trators. Many school psychologists do not havethe PhD or other doctorate degree, but manystates provide certification and licensing forschool psychologists who have the requisite mas-ter’s degree and an internship within a school

setting. Currently, there is a major shortage ofqualified school psychologists nationwide(Dittmann, 2002). Compounding this shortage isthe fact that approximately 45% of the studentsin public schools are from racial or ethnicminorities, often with very different linguisticexperiences (Sue, Bingham, Porché-Burke, &Vasquez, 1999). As we will see shortly, school psy-chologists are increasingly becoming involved inforensic settings.

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologistshelp develop strategies that build better organi-zations and improve the well-being of employ-ees. They work in a variety of areas within theorganization, including selection and placement,training and development, organizational devel-opment and change, performance measurementand evaluation, quality of work life, consumerpsychology, and human factors. The I/O psychol-ogist may assist in fashioning accommodationsfor the disabled, offer employee workshops onsexual harassment, or counsel employees whohave experienced workplace victimization. Thetraining for this specialty usually involves a heavyemphasis on research design, statistics, knowl-edge of the research literature as it relates to orga-nizations, and a 1-year internship within arelevant organization.

Forensic Psychologyas a New Specialty

In August 2001, the Council of Representativesof the American Psychological Association votedto recognize forensic psychology as anotherspecialty. Although this is an important stepforward, recall that other specialties also provideservices in forensic settings. It is too early to tellwhether these psychologists will change theiraffiliations or will identify with more than onespecialty. It should be noted that the counciladopted a narrow rather than broad definition offorensic psychology. “It was ultimately decidedthat the petition for specialization should define



forensic psychology narrowly, to include theprimarily clinical aspects of forensic assessment,treatment, and consultation” (Otto & Heilbrun,2002, p. 8). At this point, it is not clear whetherthe new specialty embraces the wide variety ofsettings discussed in this text. Although we followthe direction of the petition by focusing primar-ily on the clinical aspect of forensic psychology,we also interpret clinical broadly. It includes ser-vices provided across the five areas outlined ear-lier in the chapter: police psychology, psychologyof crime and delinquency, victimology andvictim services, legal psychology, and correctionalpsychology.

Educational and TrainingRequirements in Forensic Psychology

The growth in the field is demonstrated by therecent development of several graduate programsin forensic psychology (at both the master’s anddoctoral levels) throughout the world, particu-larly in Canada, the United States, the UnitedKingdom, and Australia. There has also beenconsiderable growth in training opportunitiesin forensic psychology at the predoctoral,internship, and postdoctoral levels (Otto &Heilbrun, 2002) (see Boxes 1.3 and 1.4). In recentyears, a discernible expansion has also occurred


BOX 1.3 Postdoctoral Fellowship in Forensic Psychology

The University of ________ is accepting applicants for postdoctoral fellowships beginningSeptember 1. The fellowship is a full-time, 1-year training program in forensic psychology thatdevelops skills in the application of clinical psychology to various legal issues. The programincludes specially designed seminars in criminal, civil, juvenile, family, personal injury, worker’scompensation, landmark mental health cases, legal regulation of psychology and law, correc-tional psychology, and special issues in forensic psychology. Interdisciplinary faculty. Intensivesupervision of clinical evaluations and experiences. Patients from wide variety of legal agencies.PhD in clinical psychology from an APA-accredited school required.

BOX 1.4 Description of Psychology Internship at a Metropolitan Detention Center

The training offered by the Metropolitan Detention Center (MDC) Psychology InternshipProgram is designed to provide well-rounded training experience leading to the development ofa clinical generalist. The primary goal of the program is to provide training as preparation forprofessional practice, consolidating the knowledge, skills, and abilities acquired through gradu-ate training. To accomplish this goal, the program stresses development of competence inpsychological assessment, intervention, and consultation. Interns are selected based on theirpreparation for more intensive work in these areas, their ability to provide psychologicalservices, and their capacity for professional growth.

The MDC internship is considered a full-time position and offers a stipend of approximately$30,000 for the year. It assumes 40 hours a week of direct clinical services, assessment, research,

(Continued)


in the number of doctoral programs in clinical andcounseling psychology that offer at least one ormore courses, practica, or internships in forensicpsychology. Many colleges and universities offercourses in forensic psychology, legal psychology, orpsychology and law at the undergraduate level.

Most of the graduate programs in the UnitedStates concentrate on either clinical or counsel-ing psychology as it relates to corrections or onsocial psychology as it relates to legal psychologyor psychology and law. Some universities offer acombined JD (law degree) and PhD as part of theacademic package, although, partly due to theacademic rigor and time involved, the “package”has become less popular to students in recentyears. Formal programs offering specific degreesin police psychology are virtually nonexistent inthe United States and Canada, although there areseveral programs called “investigative psychol-ogy” in the United Kingdom. Canada leads theworld in research in correctional psychology, andthe curricula in Canadian forensic programsreflect this strong research or empirical attention.Students graduating from any of the worldwidegraduate programs are expected to be able toanalyze, organize, apply, and transmit existingknowledge in the field of forensic psychology,broadly defined. We will return to the specificeducational and training requirements for eachof the five major areas in forensic psychologywhen we discuss the areas in more detail shortly.

Although there are few formal doctoralprograms in the discipline, the American Boardof Professional Psychology has awarded diplo-mate status in forensic psychology since the mid-1980s. A diplomate is a professional designationsignifying that a person has been certified as hav-ing advanced knowledge, skills, and competencein a particular specialty. Diplomate certificationin forensic psychology attests to the fact that anestablished organization of peers has examinedand accepted the psychologist as being at thehighest level of excellence in his or her field offorensic practice. The psychologist must belicensed to qualify for diplomate status.

Many other national and state certificationboards have emerged during the past 10 years,including the American Board of Psycho-logical Specialties (ABPS), which is affiliatedwith the American College and Board ofForensic Examiners. Criteria used by the vari-ous boards and organizations to grant creden-tials or titles vary widely (Otto & Heilbrun,2002). Note that certification usually requiresknowledge and competence in both the appliedand research components of the discipline, but itis largely for those psychologists who provideservices to the courts and possess doctorates inpsychology.

The American Academy of Forensic Psy-chology and the American Psychology Law Societypublished, in 1991, the Specialty Guidelines for


BOX 1.4 (Continued)

consultation, and supervision activities. Release time for attending dissertation defense, meetingsof the intern’s research committee, and professional conferences can be arranged with the directorof training and the chief psychologist.

The services provided by the Psychology Department at the MDC are primarily brief innature. They include psychological screenings of newly admitted inmates, brief treatmentof adjustment symptoms, crisis intervention, and suicide risk assessment and prevention. Thecenter also conducts forensic evaluations for the federal courts, psychological assessment forother referral questions, drug abuse treatment, and consultation with staff for inmate manage-ment concerns and personal issues. Some opportunities exist to provide brief and long-termtreatment in individual and group formats.


Forensic Psychologists (SGFP) referred to earlier(Committee on Ethical Guidelines for ForensicPsychologists, 1991). “The primary goal ofthe SGFP is to improve the quality of forensicpsychological services by providing guidance topsychologists delivering services to courts,members of the bar, litigants, and persons

housed in forensic, delinquency, or correctionalfacilities” (Otto & Heilbrun, 2002, p. 7). We nowturn to a discussion of the five major areas inthe practice of forensic psychology to be coveredthroughout the text. (See Box 1.5 for examplesof employment opportunities for forensicpsychologists.)


BOX 1.5 Examples of Forensic Psychology Employment Ads

Forensic Psychologist sought by Forensic Associates to join the multidisciplinary treatmentteam of the Forensic Unit, a 35-bed acute inpatient forensic psychiatric treatment facility.Experience conducting personality, cognitive, and forensic assessments, as well as group andindividual psychotherapy required. PhD in psychology and eligibility for state licensurerequired.

Forensic Neuropsychologist (Licensed or Licensed Eligible): Forensic Division at MedicalCenter has two positions available. Clinical duties include forensic evaluations of competencyto stand trial, criminal responsibility, and dangerousness. Expert witness testimony in districtcourts throughout the state is also expected. Experience in neuropsychological evaluation with-out forensic experience will be considered.

Forensic Psychologists (2 positions): Opportunity to join a growing forensic program with anew facility currently under construction. The forensic psychologist will provide assessment andpsychotherapy services to long-term adult clientele on medium-secure forensic and femaleunits. Seeking skilled clinicians with solid psychological testing skills. Experience with compe-tency/sanity evaluations, expert witness testimony, and forensic clientele preferred. Offering anexcellent salary and benefits package commensurate with experience.

Forensic Psychologist: The University Law School is inviting applicants for a forensicpsychologist at either the assistant or associate professor level, depending on experience andexpertise. The successful candidate will be involved in conducting forensic evaluations of bothadults and juveniles, conducting comprehensive training of forensic evaluators on contract fromthe Department of Mental Health, supervising clinical practicum and postdoctoral students,serving as the clinical adjunct in classes offered at the Law School, and conducting research ontopics of interest. To apply for this position, the applicant must have 3 to 5 years’ experienceconducting forensic evaluations, be eligible for licensure, and be interested in developingresearch interests in addition to carrying out clinical and teaching responsibilities.

Forensic Psychologist: The university is seeking applicants for assistant professor with forensicexpertise. The duties of this tenure track position include teaching graduate and undergraduatecourses in forensic psychology, clinical and research supervision of graduate students, main-taining an active program of research on forensic topics, and participation in the clinical andlaw-psychology programs. The successful applicant should be prepared to teach courses in legalpsychology, forensic assessment, and forensic research methodology. Qualifications includeaPhD in clinical or counseling psychology, clinical and research experience with forensic issues,a record of achievement in scholarship, and teaching and license eligibility. Experience withquantitative methods preferred.


Police Psychology: An Overview

Police psychology is the research and applica-tion of psychological principles and clinical skillsto law enforcement and public safety (Bartol,1996). The term police psychology is somewhatimprecise because it appears to exclude other lawenforcement agents, such as deputy sheriffs, fishand wildlife agents, airport security, marshals,constables, and many types of other state andfederal agents. The term law enforcement is moreencompassing. However, critics of that term notethat enforcement of the law is only one of manytasks performed by police and that law is oftenenforced selectively. The real work of police ismaintaining order, providing service, keeping thepeace, or being coproducers—with citizens—ofpublic safety. Rather than adopt one or the otherviewpoint—each has its merits—we will use policeand law enforcement officers interchangeably andbroadly to include the wide variety of agentslisted above.

The relationship between psychology and lawenforcement has waxed and waned over theyears, with considerable forensic psychologyinvolvement followed by a period of overallquiet. Overall, though, as law enforcement agen-cies have become more professional, law enforce-ment supervisors and directors better educated,and the public more critical and concerned, therehas been a substantial increase in the need forservices provided by forensic psychologists. Theyperform preemployment psychological assess-ments, fitness-for-duty evaluations (FFDEs),special unit evaluations, hostage team negotia-tions, and deadly force incident evaluations.Special unit evaluations include the selection andtraining of special weapons and tactics teams(SWATs), tactical response teams (TRTs), andhostage negotiation teams (HNTs). Forensicpsychologists are also increasingly asked to doinvestigative-type activities, such as criminalprofiling, psychological autopsies, handwritinganalysis, and eyewitness (or earwitness) hypnosis.Larger police departments usually hire full-time, in-house police psychologists, whereas the

smaller departments usually use psychologicalconsultants.

In a survey of 152 police psychologists (Bartol,1996), 89% of the respondents said they had PhDdegrees, followed by EdD degrees (4.5%), master’sdegrees (3.6%), and PsyD degrees (2.7%). Most ofthe PhDs had obtained their degrees in clinicalpsychology (60.7%), counseling (17%), or indus-trial/organizational psychology (8%). Twenty-five percent of the respondents were women.Participants in the nationwide survey were alsoasked to indicate the type of services they providedto police during a typical month, as well as theamount of time they usually spent at each activity.Respondents said that preemployment screeningand assessment consumed the largest percentage(34.3%) of their time. A significant amount of timewas also spent in providing services to officers andtheir families (28.7%), followed by fitness-for-dutyevaluations (6.8%), training of personnel (6.9%),and administrative work (3.9%).

Currently, there are no formal graduate pro-grams in the United States specifically focusedon police psychology. It is best for studentsentering the field to earn a doctorate in psycho-logy (especially clinical, counseling, or indus-trial/organizational) and, while in the graduateprogram, work with a faculty member who isinvolved in those areas. It is also advisable tocomplete a doctoral or postdoctoral internship inan agency or organization that deals directly withpolice organizations. A few police departmentsdo offer pre- or posttraining in police psycho-logy, such as the Los Angeles Police Department(LAPD), the Los Angeles Sheriff ’s Department(LASD), the Metro-Dade Police Department inFlorida, and the New York Police Department(NYPD). There may be others at the larger policedepartments across the nation. An internshipusually involves a formal schedule of supervisionand training, as well as an opportunity for somedegree of police training, ranging from ride-alongs to attendance at a police academy. Regard-less of the career path taken, it is critical that aperson interested in police psychology becomehighly familiar with the nature of police work,



the policies and procedures, and an understandingof the police culture. Some practitioners estimatethat for police psychologists to be highly effective,the “police culture socialization process” maytake up to 3 years beyond the usually academicand clinical training (Finn & Tomz, 1997). Anaspiring police psychologist should also plan onbeing available 24 hours a day for the agency andbe willing to work in different locations (e.g., onthe street, at the academy, or in an officer’s home).It is not, however, necessary to become a policeofficer before accomplishing these goals; in fact,it may be a disadvantage. Many police officerswould prefer to talk to someone outside of theagency, especially when it comes to confidentiality(Finn & Tomz, 1997).

Psychology of Crime andDelinquency

The psychology of crime and delinquency isthe science of the behavioral and mentalprocesses of the adult and juvenile offender(Bartol, 2002). It is primarily concerned withhow criminal behavior is acquired, evoked,maintained, and modified. Recent research hasfocused on the offender’s cognitive versions ofthe world, especially his or her thoughts, beliefs,and values and how they can be changed. Itassumes that various criminal behaviors areacquired by daily living experiences, in accor-dance with the principles of learning, and areperceived, coded, processed, and stored inmemory in a unique fashion for each individual.Criminal psychology examines and evaluatesprevention, intervention, and treatment strate-gies directed at reducing criminal behavior.

Research in crime and delinquency has discov-ered, for example, that chronic violence usuallydevelops when children do poorly in school, donot get along with peers, have abusive parents,and attend schools that cannot control disruptiveand violent behavior (Crawford, 2002). Researchhas also found that social rejection by peers andothers can lead to serious, violent offending.

“A great deal of psychological functioning ispredicated on belonging to the group and enjoy-ing the benefits, both direct and indirect, of thatbelongingness” (Benson, 2002, p. 25). When thissense of belongingness is removed or restricted, afeeling of isolation and social exclusion occursthat tends to produce significant changes in beha-vior, such as an increase in aggression, violence,and other maladaptive behaviors. Under these con-ditions, human behavior may become impulsive,chaotic, selfish, disorganized, and even destructive.School shooters, for example, frequently express asense of social isolation and rejection.

Researchers have also found, however, thatwell-designed and carefully executed preventionprograms can prevent violence and a lifelongcareer path of crime. For example, the Fast TrackPrevention Program, developed by researchers atDuke University, Pennsylvania State University,Vanderbilt University, and the University ofWashington, has shown highly promising resultsin reducing juvenile crime. We will discuss moresuch programs in the chapters on crime anddelinquency. Of late, applied psychologists work-ing in school settings have found an increasedneed for their services, as we noted above. Thishas led to a keen interest in a new subdivision ofschool psychology.

Forensic School Psychology

Educational programs are required in correc-tional and psychiatric facilities for young peoplethroughout the country, and some states haveestablished special school districts within thesefacilities (Crespi, 1990). The challenges for foren-sic school psychologists within these contexts areconsiderable. Although the primary focus of publicand private schools is obviously education, educa-tion in most correctional or psychiatric settingsis secondary to the reasons for confinement.Rehabilitation of the juveniles—which includesbut is not limited to education—is crucial.Consequently, assessment and counseling servicesare critical roles for the school psychologistwithin these settings. Although many forensic



school psychologists primarily work with mentallydisordered offenders and youth in correctionalfacilities, they also work with public and privateschools on issues that potentially relate to thelegal system.

Forensic school psychologists routinelyinteract with a multitude of legal issues:Local school concerns about discharge;possible placement into residential schoolprograms and its concomitant implicationsfor the youngster’s home school district; thelimitations of client privilege; tactics duringcontested special education cases; andexpectations of judges, attorneys, and facil-ity staff pertaining to mental status andthe client’s legal commitment. (Crespi, 1990,p. 84)

The need for additional consultation withschool psychologists within the public and pri-vate schools systems across the country took onchilling urgency in the late 1990s when a rash ofschool shootings made headlines. Communitiesacross the nation that had previously had a lowprofile—West Paducah, Kentucky; Jonesboro,Arkansas; Pearl, Mississippi; Springfield, Oregon—suddenly became well known. The most strikingcase was the mass murder of 12 students and oneteacher at Columbine High School in Littleton,Colorado, in April 1999. Twenty other studentswere injured, some seriously, during that inci-dent. The two teenage boys who were responsiblefor the shootings apparently committed suicidein the school library during the tragedy. To thepublic and news media, the shooters appeared tobe two ordinary boys from normal middle-classfamilies living in a suburb of Denver. Althoughthere had been a number of school shootingsprior to Columbine (there had been at least 10school shootings between 1996 and 1999), theColumbine shootings prompted a great deal ofalarm and concern from parents across theUnited States. In addition, the media and someexperts were quick to generalize about the “sky-rocketing school violence problem” anddemanded some kind of threat or risk assessment

to identify those youth who might have similarintentions. Such an assessment would occur,for example, when a student makes a spoken orwritten threat to harm classmates or teachers.Once a youth has been assessed, he or she maythen be counseled in the school setting or in thecommunity or may even be expelled from school.That assessment task often falls to the schoolpsychologist.

Despite the media attention directed toColumbine and the other school tragedies, it isimportant to keep school violence in perspective.The school shootings described occurred duringa time when juvenile violent crime was decreas-ing nationwide. Whenever the news mediahighlight certain events and dramatize theirsignificance, the events seem to be more wide-spread and frequent to people than they reallyare. This phenomenon is called the availabilityheuristic. Therefore, although the shootings wereterrible and tragic, they were not representa-tive of the juvenile crime picture as a whole.Furthermore, although the media understand-ably report incidents of children having guns onschool premises, there is no documentation thatthis is a widespread problem. Although it isimportant to be alert for possible dangers facingschool-age children and the adults who workwith them in the schools, the reality is that therisk of victimization in the school environment issmaller than in private homes or the communityat large (O’Tool, 2000).

Unfortunately, at present, there are very fewformal training programs specializing in forensicschool psychology. However, with the continualincrease of youth confined in correctional facilitiesacross the country in need of education and thepush to make our schools a safer place, this disci-pline would seem to have a very promising future.

Victimology and Victim Services

Victimology refers to the study of personswho have experienced either actual or threatenedphysical, psychological, social, and/or financialharm as the result of the commission or



attempted commission of crime against them.The harm may be direct or primary (againstthose who experience it and its consequencesfirsthand) or indirect or secondary (againstfamily members, relatives, survivors, or friendswho experience the harm because of their close-ness to the victim) (Karmen, 2001).

Violent victimization of children, such asterrifying abductions, school shootings, and sexualattacks, can disrupt the course of child develop-ment in very fundamental ways and can be asso-ciated with emotional and cognitive problemsover the course of the life span (Boney-McCoy &Finkelhor, 1995). In adults, there is strong evi-dence that the effects of criminal victimization—such as assault, robbery, and burglary—are bothpervasive and persistent (Norris & Kaniasty,1994). Until recently, psychological services werereceived by a very small fraction of crime victims(2%-7%) (Norris, Kaniasty, & Scheer, 1990). Infact, it has only been within the past 30 years thatcriminal victimology has become recognized as ascientific and professional field of study(Karmen, 2001). Increasingly, forensic psycholo-gists are beginning to play major roles in theresearch, evaluation, and treatment of crimevictims from diverse cultural contexts and agegroups. These activities will be covered in greaterdepth in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.

Students wishing to pursue a research careerin victimology probably should obtain a researchdoctorate in psychology, criminal justice, socialwork, or sociology. Those desiring careers aspractitioners in the field would be advised toobtain a PhD in clinical or counseling psycho-logy or an MSW in social work. There are othertraining opportunities and career paths, however.Over the past 25 years, for example, the field ofvictim services has become a rapidly growingprofession. Today, there is greater understandingof victims’ issues due to legislation enacted tosupport victims’ rights, increased funding forvictim services, the efforts of victim advocates,and active research in victimology. Victim ser-vices concentrating on victims of sexual assault,domestic violence, and partner, child, and elderabuse have especially grown in recent years. More

recent legislation will certainly broaden the scopeof understanding and services for victims acrossa wide spectrum. Examples of this recent legisla-tion are the Victims of Trafficking and ViolencePrevention Act of 2000 and the USA Patriot Actof 2001, which—among its least controversialprovisions—addresses the needs and concerns ofvictims of terrorist acts.

A small number of community colleges anduniversities are beginning to offer specific trainingdesigned for victim service providers. Beginningin 1989, the California State University–Fresno(CSUF) offered the first Victim Services Institutewith Victims’ Services Certification to graduatesof the institute. The program became so popularthat the university, in 1991, developed the firstvictimology major (BA) and, by 1992, the firstgraduate concentration in victimology (Walker &Kilpatrick, 2002). The University of New Havenoffers degree concentrations and certificateprograms at both graduate (MS) and under-graduate (BS) levels. Other colleges or universitiesoffering certification or degrees in crime victimor survivor services include Washburn University,Kansas City Community College, Red Rocks Com-munity College, and Sam Houston State University.In the very near future, many other colleges anduniversities will be offering academic credit anddegrees in this emerging area.

The National Victim Assistance Academy(NVAA), funded and sponsored by the U.S.Department of Justice’s Office of Victims ofCrime (OVC), has led the way in developingcurriculum standards to be used at the nationaland state levels. The NVAA currently offers twodistinct levels of training and education: (1) theFoundation Level Academy and (2) the AdvancedTopic Series. The Foundation Level Academy,which began in 1995, is a comprehensive, 40-hour,academic-based course of study in victimology,victims’ rights, and victim services for victimservices professionals and allied professionals. TheAdvanced Topic Series are workshops consistingof 20 to 24 hours of academic-based trainingin selected concentrations, such as programmanagement, specific training/education skills,and techniques.



Legal Psychology

Legal psychology is an umbrella term for thescientific study of a wide assortment of topicsreflecting the close relationship between psycho-logy and the courts. These topics include compe-tencies and criminal responsibility (insanitydefense), civil commitment, the psychology ofthe jury, the psychology of evidence, childcustody determinations, family law issues, eye-witness identification, and the effects of pretrialpublicity on jury decision making. As treatedhere, legal psychology includes both research andapplication of behavioral and social science tocriminal and civil courts.

A caveat is in order, however. It is not unusualto see the terms legal psychology, psychology andlaw, and forensic psychology used interchangeablyin academic and professional literature. Although

we use legal psychology here as a subarea of forensicpsychology, we recognize that this is not a univer-sal approach. We also recognize the considerableoverlap between legal psychology and the othersubareas we have carved out. The psychology ofevidence, for example, is of intense interest topolice psychologists, who might be advising thelaw enforcement community on facial compositesor the reliability of eyewitness testimony. The legalpsychologist is far more likely than the police psy-chologist to be conducting research in these areas,however. Likewise, legal psychology and victim-ology intersect when psychologists perform riskassessments and some custody evaluations. Thepoint here is to emphasize that the various subareasof forensic psychology are not mutually exclusive.(See Box 1.6 for an example of a specialization thatmay be valuable in several subareas of forensicpsychology.)


BOX 1.6 Forensic Neuropsychology

The term forensic neuropsychology refers to the application of knowledge from the neuropsycho-logical profession to legal matters. Neuropsychology is the study of the psychological effects ofbrain and neurological damage and dysfunction on human behavior. Clinical neuropsychologyis the applied branch of the field that focuses on the assessment and diagnosis of the neurolog-ical damage. Forensic neuropsychologists provide information in legal cases on such things asdementia, brain damage, and intellectual functioning. The neuropsychologist may be asked totestify on the extent of a person’s impairment and be expected to answer questions pertaining toemployment fitness, the need for a guardian or health care provider, chances of full recovery,and/or the extent of rehabilitation. Over the past two decades, the predominant application offorensic neuropsychology has been directed at civil cases involving disability determination,worker’s compensation, personal injury cases, and the mental ability of a person to make finan-cial, health, and general living decisions. Neuropsychology is also increasingly used in criminalcases, such as in the evaluation of a defendant’s competency to stand trial or for determiningwhether an insanity defense could be supported.

Neuropsychological assessment procedures and tests include measures that evaluate generalintelligence, language, memory, attention, thought processes, perceptual-motor functioning,and emotional status.

Forensic neuropsychology is a profession that is developing very rapidly and has a very brightand promising future. The best career route for a student interested in this field is to pursue aPhD in clinical psychology with a heavy emphasis on biopsychology and an internship focusingon clinical neuropsychology. Many neuropsychologists are certified by the American Board ofClinical Neuropsychology.


One of the numerous topics holdingconsiderable interest for legal psychologists is thepsychology of false confessions. Most people areaware that suspects—for a wide variety of rea-sons—sometimes confess to crimes they did notcommit. A suspect may be afraid, may want thenotoriety attached to confessing, may desire toprotect the real perpetrator, or simply maybelieve that no one will believe in his or her inno-cence. What surprises many people, however, isthe fact that some suspects who are truly inno-cent come to believe they are truly guilty. Currentresearch strongly suggests that skillful manipula-tion by law enforcement officers can lead tosuch false confessions (Kassin, 1997; Kassin,Goldstein, & Savitsky, 2003; Kassin & Kiechel,1996). Legal psychologists have been at the fore-front of studying this bizarre phenomenon.

Another topic of interest to legal psychologistsis the creation of facial composites from thememory of eyewitness. Composites are consid-ered indispensable aids to criminal investigationby most police agencies. Composites are recon-structions of faces through memory, and they arebuilt either with the help of an artist’s sketchingskills or by using the various commercial kitsavailable to law enforcement. In recent years, kitshave been replaced by computer-based systemswhere features are stored on disks and the face isput together on a video display unit. Research byforensic psychologists, however, has revealed thatcomputer systems are no more accurate in devel-oping accurate facial composites than kits orartists (Koehn & Fisher, 1997; Kovera, Penrod,Pappas, & Thill, 1997). So far, this research hasconsistently found that facial composites devel-oped from the memory of eyewitnesses are poormodels of the “real” face of the offender.

Family Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychologists are becoming increas-ingly involved in family law, and family forensicpsychologists are leading the way in dealing withthe many new and emerging issues in this area.For example, the 2000 census indicates that there

has been a baby boom in gay and lesbian familiesas well as a dramatic increase of cohabitating,single-parent, and grandparent-led families(Grossman & Okun, 2003).

These changes impact family formation,maintenance, and dissolution and chal-lenge traditional concepts of what a familyis and how families function. Family courtsare struggling with unprecedented issuesover visitation and custody with lesbian,gay, and cohabitating parents who split up;whether surrogate mothers or donors ofeggs or sperm have any parental rights; andthe implications of children who are doingwell living with a grandparent when aparent is released from jail and wants toreclaim these children. (Grossman & Okun,2003, p. 163)

In addition, family forensic psychologists areconcerned with

abuse; adoption; alternative families; childsupport; divorce, including custody, reloca-tion, and conflict resolution; elder law,including estate planning; family business;guardianship; juvenile justice; paternity;reproductive and genetic technologies; andother areas such as termination of parentalrights. Family forensic psychology isinvolved in civil and criminal cases whenthe understanding of family dynamics andfamily systems is essential, for example, incases involving visitation to prisons, releaseprograms, and impact of sentencing onfamily members. (Grossman & Okun, 2003,p. 166)

The best-known areas of family forensicpsychology involve child custody, family violence,and the assessment and treatment of juveniles,all topics that will be covered in some detail laterin the book. We will describe the other newertopics as we encounter them throughout varioussections of the text.



Correctional Psychology:An Overview

Correctional psychology is arguably thefastest growing branch of forensic psychology.The number of persons incarcerated in theUnited States is now over 2 million and growingdaily. Although only a portion (7%–10%) ofthese individuals qualify as “chronic offenders,” itis estimated that each chronic offender costssociety about $1.3 million over the course of theoffender’s lifetime (Crawford, 2002). In addition,more than 4 million persons are under correc-tional supervision in the community, such as onprobation or parole. Clearly, there is a great needfor the services of correctional psychologists.

Correctional psychologists are sometimesdistinguished from psychologists working incorrectional facilities or with correctional popu-lations in the community. The correctionalpsychologist typically has “specific academic and/or program training in correctional philosophy,systems, offender management, forensic reportwriting, treatment aimed at reducing recidivism,and outcome research” (Althouse, 2000, p. 436).Many—if not most—psychologists working incorrections do not have this specific background.Nevertheless, they offer valuable services to cor-rections. For our purposes, we will use the termsinterchangeably.

In 1974, psychologist Ned Megargeeremarked, “By and large, psychology as a scientificdiscipline has not made a substantial contributionto the applied area of corrections” (p. 44).Correctional psychology has changed dramati-cally since the 1970s, however. In recent years,correctional and research psychologists havemade substantial contributions to corrections,particularly pertaining to inmate classificationsystems, psychological assessments, program/treatment evaluation, crisis intervention strate-gies, and substance abuse treatment approaches.As the number of opportunities in correctionshas proliferated for psychologists, psychologistshave increasingly discovered that correctional

psychology is an exciting, rewarding, andchallenging field (Richardson, 2003).

The correctional psychologist’s major goal isto help in inmate rehabilitation, treatment, andreintegration into the community. Direct inmateservices may include crisis intervention, long-term and short-term therapy, group therapy, andsubstance abuse treatment. Psychologists inthese settings administer a wide variety of psy-chological assessment techniques (intellectual,personality, aptitude, vocational, and educa-tional), interpret results, and prepare compre-hensive reports. Their recommendations areconsidered in decisions to release prisoners,change their security levels, and/or assign themto a variety of programs. The above services alsoare offered to offenders who are serving theirsentences, or the end of their sentences, in thecommunity—specifically, those on probation orparole.

Correctional psychologists also offer consul-tative services relating to corrections staff, whichmay include screening and selection, employeeassistance counseling, and mental health consul-tation with hostage negotiation or crisis supportteams. Research opportunities are often avail-able, particularly—although not exclusively—inthe larger prison systems.

The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), anagency of the U.S. Department of Justice, employsdoctoral-level clinical or counseling psycholo-gists, licensed or license-eligible general staffpsychologists, and substance abuse specialists.The BOP currently supports a team of morethan 350 psychologists and 650 mental health/substance abuse treatment specialists in morethan 100 federal correctional institutions nation-wide. The BOP is organized nationally into sixregions and has its headquarters in Washington,D.C. It is one of the largest employers of psychol-ogists in the United States. Entry-level salariesrange from $41,000 to $80,000, commensuratewith experience. More experienced psychologistsgenerally receive salaries ranging from $70,457 to$91,589 (GS-14). Salaries at state correctional



facilities vary according to region but, in mostinstances, probably pay slightly less than theBOP.

Research psychologists often study the psycho-logical effects of correctional systems on prisonerbehavior. Topics include the general effect ofimprisonment on special populations of offenders,such as the mentally disordered or the elderly; theeffects of crowding; the effects of isolation; and theoutcome of various rehabilitative programs.Interestingly, psychologists in this setting are some-times criticized for aligning themselves with prisonadministrators or failing to acknowledge the detri-mental effects of incarceration. Nevertheless, manycorrectional psychologists find great personal andprofessional satisfaction working in these settings.In addition, as we will note in Chapter 12, there isample evidence to support the positive impact ofpsychology on the correctional system (see, gener-ally, APA’s Monitor on Psychology, 2003).

Boothby and Clements (2000) conducted anextensive survey of 830 psychologists workingin state and federal prisons (but not jails) acrossthe United States; 59% held a doctorate. All

psychologists in federal prisons held doctorates,whereas state prisons employed master’s- anddoctoral-level psychologists about equally.According to the survey, correctional psycholo-gists spend most of their time on administrativetasks (30%), followed by direct treatment ofinmates (26%) and psychological testing andassessment (18%). Very little time was devoted toresearch (6%). In the same survey, the psycholo-gists expressed a wish that they had more time tooffer direct treatment. An additional report basedon material obtained in this survey (Boothby &Clements, 2002) will be covered in Chapter 12.

Psychologists working in correctional facilitiesare guided by a series of recently updated stan-dards developed by the American Association forCorrectional Psychology (AACP) (StandardsCommittee, 2000). (See Box 1.7 for a descriptionof the AACP.) These standards provide the mini-mum acceptable levels for psychological servicesoffered to offenders, whether they are adults orjuveniles, held in local, state, or federal facilities,as well as in the community. They cover a widerange of principles as well as services, including


BOX 1.7 American Association for Correctional Psychology

The American Association for Correctional Psychology (AACP) is an organization ofbehavioral scientists and practitioners who are concerned with the delivery of high-qualitymental health services to criminal offenders and with promoting and disseminating researchon the etiology, assessment, and treatment of criminal behavior. Students interested incorrectional psychology are encouraged to become members of the organization. The goals ofAACP are:

• To promote the development of psychological practice in criminal justice and law enforce-ment settings

• To contribute toward appropriate teaching of the psychology of crime, delinquency, andcriminal justice

• To support the development and application of effective treatment approaches for indi-viduals in the care of the criminal justice system

• To stimulate research into the nature of criminal behavior, to exchange such scientificinformation, and to publish the reports of scholarly studies of criminal behavior

• To concern ourselves with relevant public, professional, and institutional issues that affector are affected by the practice of psychology in the criminal justice system


licensure, staffing requirements, confidentialityissues, duty to warn, professional development,informed consent, segregation, and a host ofother topics relating to this work.

Defining ForensicPsychology—A Recap

The foregoing sections indicate that the fieldof forensic psychology, as we define it broadly,provides ample opportunities for psychologistsinterested in interacting with some aspect of thelaw. We have devoted separate sections of thisbook to each of the five subareas defined above.It should be noted that those who favor a narrowdefinition of forensic psychology are referringprimarily to the clinical practice that falls underour subareas of legal psychology and correctionalpsychology.

Otto and Heilbrun (2002) posit that if foren-sic psychology (particularly legal psychology) isto continue to grow and develop as a viablediscipline, it has to become more mainstream.Currently, they note, a relatively small group offorensic specialists devote themselves full-time tothis field, whereas a much larger group of psy-chologists provide occasional forensic services orprovide such services only within a circumscribedarea, such as child custody evaluations. Theyargue that forensic psychology, as a field, mustacknowledge the fact that forensic practice isoccurring at a variety of levels and for differentreasons. The field must develop a plan to ensurethat forensic practice overall is well informed andcompetent. This plan is especially needed in thearea of forensic testing and assessment.

Otto and Heilbrun (2002) and Bersoff and hiscolleagues (1997) suggest that forensic psychol-ogy should recognize three levels of psychologistsor clinicians who provide services in the field. First,there would be the “legally informed clinician,”who has a basic education in law relevant toprofessional practice, “including informationabout confidentiality, privileged communication,and response to subpoenas for clinical records or

personal notes” (Otto & Heilbrun, 2002, p. 15).Second, there would be the “proficient clinician,”who has a midlevel expertise gained from acade-mic coursework, professional training, and asupervised experience in forensic psychology. Hisor her knowledge should consist of relevant law,procedures, and ethics applicable to the kinds offorensic practice in which the individual engages.The third group would be the “specialist clini-cian,” who would demonstrate the highest levelof expertise obtained through formal training inforensic psychology at the graduate and post-graduate levels. His or her training shouldinclude intensive and in-depth understanding ofthe relevant law and legal procedures as well asknowledge about a range of relevant psycholo-gical procedures and issues. Whether these threelevels of expertise eventually become recognizedremains to be seen.

Summary and Conclusions

As recently as 25 years ago, the term forensicpsychology had barely been introduced into psy-chological or legal literature. Today, as we haveseen, it is a commonly encountered term, but itstill defies definition. Although the consensusmight seem to favor a narrow definition limitingit to clinical practice, the contributions ofresearch psychologists may be undermined bysuch an approach. In addition, it is important toconsider the context in which forensic psychol-ogy is practiced. Limiting forensic psychology towork with civil and criminal courts and correc-tional systems—which seems to be the conse-quence of a narrow definition—does not recognizewell enough the law-related functions performedby psychologists working with law enforcementor victims. Finally, the many contributions ofpsychologists who study the psychology of crimeand delinquency deserve to be included in thisfield. The legal system surely can benefit, forexample, from research on the developmentalpaths to delinquency or research on the preven-tion and control of sex offending.



We have persisted, then, in advocating for abroad definition of forensic psychology, one thatcould divide it into the five subareas covered inthis chapter. In fact, in structuring this book, wecame very close to adding a sixth area, the forensicschool specialization discussed under crime anddelinquency. Given the rapid development andincreasing need for services within the educationalsystem, it may be only a matter of time before sucha subarea of forensic psychology is warranted.

Likewise, family forensic psychology, discussedunder legal psychology but having obvious rele-vance to other subspecialties, may be deserving ofthe same special attention. In each of the areas dis-cussed, numerous career opportunities exist. Bothundergraduate and graduate programs haverapidly seen the need for preparation for careers inforensic psychology, and professionals themselvesare regularly offered opportunities for licensing,certification, and continuing education.

