Bar on Anti RealismandSpeakerKnowledge

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DORIT BAR-ON

A N T I - R E A L I S M A N D S P E A K E R K N O W L E D G E

ABSTRACT. Dumrnettian anti-realism repudiates the realist 's notion of 'verification-

transcendent' truth. Perhaps the m ost crucial element in the D umm ettian attack on realist

truth is the critique o f so-called realist seman tics , wh ich assigns verification-transcend ent

truth-conditions as the meanings o f (some) sentences. The Dum mettian critique charges

that realist semantics cannot serve as an adeq uate theory o f meaning for a natural language,

and that, consequently, the realist conception of troth m ust be rejected as well. In arguing

for this, Dum mett and h is followers have appealed to a certain conception of linguistic

knowledge. T his paper examines closely the appeal to speakers' k nowledge of linguistic

meaning, its force and limitations.

1. INTRODUCTION

D u m m e t t i a n a n t i - r e a li s m i s f ir s t a n d f o r e m o s t a n e g a t i v e p o s i t i o n . I t i s a

r e p u d i a t i o n o f t h e r e a l is t 's n o t i o n o f v e r i f i c a t io n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t ru t h , t r u t h

t h a t li e s b e y o n d a l l p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s c e r t ai n i n g . 1 A c r u c i a l - p e r h a p s t h e

m o s t c r u c i a l - e l e m e n t i n th e D u m m e t t i a n a t t a c k o n r e a li s t t r u t h is t h e

c r i ti q u e o f s o - c a l le d r e a l is t s e m a n t i c s , w h i c h p u r p o r t s to s p e c i f y t h e

m e a n i n g s o f (a t l e a s t s o m e ) s e n t e n c e s i n t e r m s o f v e r i f i c a t io n - t r a n s c e n d e n t

t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s . T h e D u m m e t t i a n c ri t iq u e c h a r g e s t h a t r e a li s t s e m a n t i c s

c a n n o t s e r v e a s a n a d e q u a t e t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g f o r a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e , a n d

t h a t , c o n s e q u e n t l y , th e r e a l is t c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u t h m u s t b e r e j e c t e d a s w e l l .

I n a r g u i n g f o r th i s , D u m m e t t a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s h a v e a p p e a l e d t o a c er t a in

c o n c e p t i o n o f l in g u i s t i c k n o w l e d g e . I b e l i e v e t h e a p p e a l i s q u e s t io n a b l e ,

b u t d e s e r v i n g o f c lo s e e x a m i n a t i o n . T h e a p p e a l to s p e a k e r s ' k n o w l e d g e o f

l i n g u i s t i c m e a n i n g , i ts f o r c e a n d l i m i t a t i o n s , a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s p a p e r .

H o w e v e r , I b e g i n w i t h a b it o f s e l ec t i v e r e c e n t h i s t o r y o f id e a s g o i n g b a c k

t o lo g i c a l p o s i t iv i s m . T h i s , b y w a y o f b a c k g r o u n d t o th e D u m m e t t i a n m o v e

f r o m a r e j e c t io n o f re a l is t s e m a n t i c s t o a r e j e c ti o n o f r e a li s t m e t a p h y s i c s .

T h e f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n i s f r o m M o r i t z S c h li ck :

Here then we find a definite contrast between the philosophic method, which has for its

object the discovery of meaning, and the m ethods of the sciences, which have for their

object the d iscovery of truth . . . I believe Science should be defined as the pursuit of

truth ,

and P hilosophy as the

pursuit of meaning .

(cf. RoW , 1967, p. 48)

Synthese

106: 139-166, 1996.

@ 1996 Klu we rAc ade mie Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.



1 4 0 D O RIT B A R O N

M ean in g , Sch l i ck c l a im ed , i s f o u n d b y m er e r e fl ec tio n ab o u t p o ss ib l e

c i r cu m s tan ces in t h e wo r ld , wh e r eas t ru th i s d ec id ed b y r ea l ly d i sco v -

e r in g th e ex i s t en ce o r n o n - ex i s t en ce o f th o se c i r cu m s tan ces ( o p. c i t. , p .

4 9 ) . Th i s sep a r a t io n o f m ean in g an d t r u th a l lo wed th e p o s i ti v is t s t o k eep

th em se lv es em p lo y ed , ev en a f t er h av in g d en o u n ced a ll d i sc ip l in e s wh o se

asse r ti o n s co u ld n o t b e d e t e r m in ed to b e t r u e o r f a l se b y ex am in in g wo r ld -

ly c i r cu m s tan ces , m o s t n o tab ly m e tap h y s i c s . Use c o u ld s t i ll b e f o u n d f o r

p h i lo so p h e r s , t o t h e ex ten t th a t t h ey k ep t t o t h e b u s in ess o f an a ly z in g l an -

g u ag e , an d u n co v e r in g m ean in g . Th e p o s i ti v i st s t h u s to o k a l i n g u i s ti c

tu rn (c f. Ror ty , 1967 , p . 8 ), charac te r ized by a new , an t i -me taphysica l

' fi rs t p h i lo so p h y ' .

Th e n e w f ir st p h i lo so p h y o f f e red to r ep lace a l l m e tap h y s i ca l q u es t io n s

about the s t ruc tu re and con ten t o f ex t ra - l ingu is t ic rea l i ty by ques t ions

r eg a r d in g th e s t ru c tu re an d co n ten t o f l an g u ag e . An d th ese l a tt e r q u es t io n s

su p p o se d ly h ad d e t e r m in a te , ab so lu t e an swer s . Th e l i n g u is t ic sy s t em s w e

em plo y in our sc ien t i f ic pursu i t o f t ru th , the pos i t iv is t s though t , them selves

p o sse ssed a f i x ed s t r u c tu r e , an d th e i r e lem en t s h ad d e t e r m in a te m ean in g s ,

w h i c h s y s t e m a t ic priori phi losop hica l re f lec t ion w as ap t to d iscover . Such

an a ly t i c r e fl ec t io n ab o u t t h e s t r u ctu r e o f l i n g u i st i c sy s tem s was su p p o sed

to be e p is tem olog ica l ly p r io r to any sc ien t if ic pursu i t . The syn tac t ic and

sem an t i c f act s ab o u t t h e l i n g u i s ti c sy s t em s wer e th em se lv es su p p o sed to b e

k n o w ab le p r io r t o em p i r ica l i n v es t ig a t io n , an d im m u n e f r o m th e r e l a t iv i ty

to lan gua ge wh ich in fec te d a l l o ther (emp ir ica l ) fac ts . The re is then a sense

in wh ich , f o r t h e p o s i t i v i s t s , t h e l an g u ag e we em p lo y in d esc r ib in g th e

w o r l d w a s i t s e l f n o t o f t h is w o r l d .2

Alo n g cam e Qu in e wh o , p e r h ap s sen s in g a ce r t a in m easu r e o f p h i lo -

so p h ica l d i s in g e n u i ty in t h e p o s i t iv i s t s ' co n cep t io n , u r g ed th a t l an g u ag e ,

to o , m u s t b e s tu d ied em p i r i ca lly , a s p a r t o f t h e n a tu r a l wo r ld . Th e r e i s , h e

ins is ted , rea l ly no f ir st p h i lo so p h y - n o t ev en a l i n g u i s ti c o n e . Re f lec t in g o n

th e ap p l i ca t io n o f t h e em p i r ica l ap p r o ach to th e s tu d y o f l an g u ag e , Qu in e

has pu t fo r th a skep t ica l thes is regard ing fac ts o f mean ing : h is famous

th es i s o f t h e in d e te r m in acy o f tr an s la t io n . Th e th e s i s h as a s a co n seq u en ce

tha t , bey on d a v ery l im i ted range , 3 there a re no sem ant ic fac ts , a t leas t no t

o f t h e so r t we a r e i n tu i t iv e ly in c l in ed to th in k th e r e

are 4

Qu in e h as a r g u ed

for the thes is tha t there

re

n o f ac ts o f ' i n tu i t i v e sem an t i c s ' b y a r g u in g , i n

ef fec t , tha t there i s no w ay to determine u n iq u e ly wh a t t h o se a l l eg ed f act s

a r e .

I t can be a rgued tha t wha t sanc t ions fo r Quine the b la tan t ly ver if ica t ion-

i s t m o v e ju s t m en t io n e d i s th e im p l i c i t i d ea th a t o u r ep i s t em ic r e l a t io n to

t h e f ac ts o f ' i n t u i t i v e s e m a n t ic s ' - / f t h e r e w e r e s u c h f ac ts - w o u l d h a v e t o

be d i f fe ren t f rom o ur re la t ion to o ther empir ica l fac ts ( see my 1992b). W e



ANTI REALISM AND SPEAKER KNOWLEDGE

141

c a n n o w t r a c e t h i s i d e a b a c k t o t h e l o g i c a l p o s it iv i s ts . U n l i k e t h e p o s i t iv i s ts ,

h o w e v e r , Q u i n e r e f u s e d t o m a k e r o o m f o r s e m a n t i c fa c ts t ha t a r e k n o w a b l e

a pr ior i

o r a r e s o m e h o w ' o u t s id e t h e w o r l d ' . S i n c e h e w a s u n a b l e t o f in d

a n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e

in

t h e w o r l d f o r s u c h p e c u l i a r f a c t s , h e g a v e u p o n

t h e m .

N o w , t h e r e a r e m a n y p h i lo s o p h e r s w h o f o l l o w Q u i n e i n s u b sc r ib i n g

t o n a t u r a li s m a b o u t m e a n i n g , b u t w h o d o n o t b e l i e v e th i s l an d s t h e m i n

t h e a b y s s o f s e m a n t i c i n d e te r m i n a c y . T h e y d i v i d e b r o a d l y i n to t w o g r o u ps .

T h e r e a r e t h o s e w h o i n e f f e c t r e j e c t t h e i n t u i t io n th a t s e e m s to d r i v e Q u i n e ' s

i n d e t e r m i n a c y , n a m e l y , t h a t s e m a n t i c f a c ts ( i f t h e re w e r e s u c h ) w o u l d

h a v e t o b e t r e a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m o t h e r f a c ts . A n d t h e r e a r e t h o s e - t h e

' s e p a r a t i o n i s t s ' , a s w e m i g h t c a l l t h e m - w h o a c c e p t th e i n t u i ti o n b u t s t il l

t h i n k w e c a n r e s e r v e a s a f e , i f u n i q u e , p l a c e f o r th e f a c t s o f ( i n tu i t iv e )

s e m a n t i c s i n t h e e m p i r i c a l w o r l d , c o n t r a r y t o t h e i n d e t e r m i n a c y t h e si s .

O n e m i g h t f i n d s o m e s u p p o r t f o r t h e s e p a r a t i o n is t i n t u it i o n i n t h e f a c t

t h a t, w h i l e it s e e m s p e r f e c t l y p o s s i b l e th a t w e h a v e a ll b e e n w r o n g a b o u t

t h e n a t u r e o f s o m e c h e m i c a l s u b st a n c e in o u r e n v i r o n m e n t o r s o m e d e t ai l

o f o u r o w n h u m a n a n a t o m y , i t d o e s n o t s e e m e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e t ha t , sa y , a l l

E n g l i s h s p e a k e r s h a v e a l l a n d a l w a y s b e e n w r o n g a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f

s o m e e x p r e s s i o n . A s e p a r a t io n i s t m i g h t g o e v e n f u r t h e r a n d a r g u e th a t , i f t h e

s p e a k e r s o f s o m e l a n g u a g e a l l th ink ( o r c o m e to t h i n k ) t h a t a n e x p r e s s i o n

m e a n s s o m e t h i n g o r i s t o b e u s e d i n a c e r t a i n w a y , t h e n t h e r e s e e m s t o

b e n o r o o m f o r t h e d i s c o v e r y th a t t h e y a r e a ll w r o n g a b o u t i t. In t h is w a y ,

f a c ts a b o u t w h a t l i n g u i s ti c e x p r e s s i o n s m e a n a p p e a r t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n is t t o

d e p e n d o n l a n g u a g e s p e a k er s i n a m a n n e r t h a t, s a y , c h e m i c a l o r a n a to m i c a l

f ac t s d o n o t .

N o w , t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s s e n s e in w h i c h t h e f a c ts o f a n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e

d e p e n d o n h o w n a t i v e s p e a k e r s o f t h e l a n g u a g e u s e l in g u i st ic e x p r e s si o n s.

I t a l s o s e e m s p l a u s i b l e t o r e g a r d l i n g u i s t i c f a c t s a s d e p e n d e n t i n s o m e

g e n e r a l w a y o n t h e b e l i e fs , i n t e n ti o n s , e t c. o f l a n g u a g e s p e a k e r s . H o w e v e r ,

t h e s e p a r a t i o n i s t i d e a i s t h a t l in g u i s t ic f a c t s d e p e n d n o t o n l y o n t h e p r a c t i c e s

a n d p s y c h o l o g y o f s p e ak e r s, b u t a l s o o n t h e i r l inguis t ic udgments .

A l i n g u i s t ic s e p a r a t i o n is t m i g h t e x p r e s s t h e d e p e n d e n c e i n q u e s t i o n b y

c l a i m i n g th a t t h e f a c ts a b o u t w h a t e x p r e s s i o n s m e a n m u s t b e i n p r i n c i p l e

access ible to o r discoverable by s p e a k er s o f t h e l a n g u a g e. ( F o r t h o s e w h o

t h i n k i n t e r m s o f r u l e s g o v e r n i n g t h e u s e o f l i n g u i st i c e x p r e s s i o n s , t h e c l a i m

w o u l d b e t h a t s p e a k e r s m u s t b e i n a p o s i t io n t o k n o w t h e s e l i n g u i s t i c ru l e s . )

I f w e u n d e r s t o o d ' a c c e s s i b l e ' o r ' d is c o v e r a b l e ' o r ' k n o w a b l e ' t o m e a n

i n s o m e s e n s e

verifiable

w e c o u l d d u b t h e v i e w j u s t st a te d s e m a n t i c

v e r i f i c a t i o n i s m . B u t w e s h o u l d t a k e c a r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h i s v i e w f r o m

t h e v e r i f ic a t io n t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g . T h e v e r if i c at io n t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g



14 2 DORIT BAR-ON

is a p a r t ic u l a r t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h t h e m e a n i n g o f

a n a s s e r t o ri c s e n t e n c e c o n s i s ts i n t h e m e t h o d o f v e r i f y i n g / f a l s i f y i n g i t.

S e m a n t i c v e r i f i c a t io n i s m , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e q u i r e s t h a t s e m a n t i c t r u t h s

- t ru ths a b o u t m e a n i n g s , s p ec i f i ca l l y - b e v e r i f i ab l e b y s p eak e r s o f t h e

l a n g u a g e . T h u s i t is n o t a t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g , b u t r a t h e r p e r h a p s a c o n s t r a i n t

o n t h e o r i e s o f m e a n i n g .

I t is n o t m y c o n c e r n h e r e t o d e f e n d s e m a n t i c v e r i f ic a t i o n is m . 5 Rather ,

I w a n t t o u n d e r m i n e a c e r t ai n l in e o f r e a s o n i n g w h i c h a t te m p t s t o d r a w

f r o m i t s o m e f a r - r e a c h i n g m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s . I t h i n k t h i s l i n e o f

r e a s o n i n g c a n b e p l a u s i b l y a t t r i b u t e d t o M i c h a e l D u m m e t t ( a s w e l l a s

C r i s p i n W r i g h t) . L e t m e r e v i e w i t b r ie f ly .

F o r D u m m e t t , t a k i n g th e ' li n g u is t ic t u r n ' m e a n s a p p r o a c h i n g m e t a p h y s -

i c al q u e s t i o n s o n l y i n d i r e c t ly , b y r e s o l v i n g f i rs t is s u e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y

o f l a n g u a g e . P u t a b s tr a c tl y , h is i d e a s e e m s t o b e t h a t t h e o n l y i n t e l l e c t u -

a l p u r c h a s e w e h a v e o n t h e n a t u re o f th e w o r l d is v i a o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f s t a t e m e n t s d e s c r i b i n g i t. H e n c e w e m u s t p r o b e i n t o m e a n i n g s o f s t at e -

m e n t s a n d o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a ll o u r t h e o r iz i n g.

N o t i c e t h a t t h i s is , in o n e w ay , i n k eep i n g wi t h t h e p o s i t i v i s t i n t u i t i o n t h a t

t h e f a c t s o f l a n g u a g e s e t th e l i m i t s o f o u r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s ti g a t io n s o f t h e

w o r l d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e is t ha t D u m m e t t d o e s n o t s e e m t o th i n k o f th e s t u d y

o f l a n g u a g e a s a p u r e l y a p r io r i s t ud y . In a W i t tg e n s t e i n i a n (a n d Q u i n e a n )

s p ir it , h e p r o p o s e s t h a t, i n s t u d y i n g l a n g u a g e ( m e a n i n g , i n p a r ti c u la r ) , w e

a t t e n d t o t h e a c t u a l w o r k i n g s o f l a n g u a g e , a s w e l l a s t o t h e a c t u a l a b i li ti e s

o f l a n g u a g e s p e ak e r s.

D u m m e t t ' s f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t i f w e d o s o a t te n d , w e w i l l

b e l e d t o re j e c t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l v i e w c a l l e d r e a l is m . T h e h a l l m a r k

o f r e a l i s m ( a t le a s t a s D u m m e t t u n d e r s t a n d s i t ) is t h e i d e a t h a t t h e re

m a y b e t ru t hs w h i c h a r e e v e n i n p r in c i p le b e y o n d t h e re a c h o f a ll o u r

m e t h o d s o f v er i fi c a ti o n . S t a t e m e n t s e x p r e s s i n g s u c h tr u t h s w o u l d h a v e t o

h a v e , a s D u m m e t t p u t s i t, ' v e r i f ic a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t

t ru th -co nd i t ions . A

r e a l is t s e m a n t i c s w o u l d d e s i g n a t e s u c h v e r i f i c a t io n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h -

c o n d i t i o n s a s t h e m e a n i n g s o f t h o s e s t a te m e n t s . H o w e v e r , s t a t e m e n t s w i t h

v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i ti o n s , D u m m e t t a r g u e s , c o u l d n o t b e

u n d e r s t o o d b y u s . H e n c e , h e u r g e s t h a t w e r e j e c t re a l is t s e m a n t i c s , an d , a s

a r e s u l t , a l s o r e j ec t r ea l i s m a s a m e t ap h y s i ca l v i ew . 6

D u m m e t t ' s a r g u m e n t re l ie s c r u c i a l ly o n h i s b e l i e f t h at a t h e o r y o f m e a n -

i n g m u s t b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t s e m a n t i c f a c ts d e p e n d e s s e n t i a l l y

o n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n a l c a p a c i t ie s o f s p e a k er s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t re l ie s o n a

v e r s i o n o f w h a t w e h a v e d u b b e d s e m a n t i c ve r if ic a t io n i sm . I n e f f e c t, D u m -

m e t t p u r p o r t s t o s h o w t h a t i f yo u a r e a ve r i f ica t i o n i s t a b o u t s em a n t i c s ,



ANTI REALISM AND SPEAKER KNOWLEDGE 143

you must become a wholesale verificationist and hence a metaphysical

anti-realist]

W e c a n s e p a ra t e tw o m a i n m o v e s i n D u m m e t t s a t ta c k a g a in s t r e a li s m :

( a ) f r o m t h e c l a i m t h a t t r u th s about m e a n i n g m u s t b e i n p r i n c i p l e v e r if i a b le ,

t o t h e c l a i m t h a t

no

s t a te m e n t ( a n d n o t j u s t s t a te m e n t s a b o u t m e a n i n g )

c a n h a v e v e r i f i c a t i o n - t ra n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s as its meaning

( b ) f r o m t h e c l a i m t h a t v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s c a n n o t

s e r v e a s m e a n i n g s t o t h e c l a i m t h a t tr u t h is v e r i f i c a t i o n - b o u n d - t h a t n o

s t a t e m e n t c a n b e t r ue or false i n a v e r i f ic a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t w a y ( a n d

t h u s t h a t r ea l i s m i s f a ls e ) .

I n s h o rt , th e f i r st m o v e i s f r o m s e m a n t i c v e r i fi c a t i o n i s m t o t h e r e j e c t i o n o f

s o - c a l l e d r e a li s t s e m a n t i c s ; a n d t h e s e c o n d m o v e i s f r o m t h e r e j e c t io n o f

s o - c a l l e d r e a l is t s e m a n t i c s t o t h e r e j e c t i o n o f re a l i st m e t a p h y s i c s . I b e l i e v e

b o t h o f th e s e m o v e s c a n b e c h a l l e n g e d. B u t m y a i m i n th is p a p e r i s to c h i p

a w a y a t t h e p l a u s i b i l it y o f t h e f i r st m o v e o n l y . 8

T o a v o i d c e r t a i n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t I d o n o t

a d d r e s s i n t hi s p a p e r t h o s e a s p e c ts o f D u m m e t t s a t t a c k o n r e a li s m w h i c h

a r e b a s e d o n a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e P r i n c ip l e o f B i v a l e n c e . T o th e e x t e n t t h a t

t h e s e a r g u m e n t s c a n b y p a s s a l t o g e t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g s p e a k -

e r s s e m a n t ic k n o w l e d g e , t h e y m a y w e l l b e i m m u n e to t h e ar g u m e n t o f

t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r . M y c o n c e r n , t o r e p e a t , is t o u n d e r m i n e t h e fi rs t s ta g e i n

t h e D u m m e t t i a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t he m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a li st s v e r if ic a t io n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - t h e s t a g e w h i c h p u r p o r t s t o s h o w t h a t v e r i f ic a t i o n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t truth-conditions c o u l d n o t b e k n o w a b l e m e a n i n g s , s o t h a t

r ea l i s t semantics m u s t fa i l. A s s u c h , m y p a p e r d o e s n o t p u r p o r t t o u n d e r -

m i n e ( a t l e a s t n o t d i r e c t l y ) D u m m e t t s a n t i - re a l i s m a s a m e t a p h y s i c a l p o s i -

t i o n , o r a s a p o s i t i o n i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f lo g i c a n d m a t h e m a t i c s .

A l s o , l e t m e e m p h a s i z e t h a t m y c o n c e r n w i l l b e t o c h a l l e n g e s p e c i f i -

c a l l y t h e i m p l i c i t r e l i a n c e o f t h e D u m m e t t i a n c r i t i q u e o f r e a l i st s e m a n t i c s

o n s e m a n t i c v e r i f i c a ti o n i s m . R e a d e r s o f D u m m e t t w i l l n o d o u b t r e c a ll th a t

h e a d v a n c e s t w o e x p l i c i t (a n d r e l a t e d ) a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t r e a l is t s e m a n t i c s :

t h e A c q u i s i t i o n A r g u m e n t ( t h a t s p e a k e r s a r e n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o a c q u i r e

k n o w l e d g e o f v e r i fi c a t io n - t r a n sc e n d e n t t r u th - c o n d i ti o n s ) a n d t h e M a n i f e s -

t a t io n A r g u m e n t (t h a t s p e a k e r s c o u l d n o t m a n i f e s t m a s t e r y o f v e r if i c a ti o n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s ) . 9 T h e p r e s e n t p a p e r d o e s n o t a d d r e s s t h e s e

a r g u m e n t s d i r e c t l y , a l t h o u g h t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n d o e s t o u c h o n t h e m . R a t h e r ,

i t e x a m i n e s t h e a p p e a l D u m m e t t i a n a n t i -r e a l is t s m a k e to t h e s p e c i a l e p i s-

t e m i c a c c e s s s p e a k e r s m u s t h a v e t o s e m a n t i c f a c t s a n d a r g u e s t h a t t h i s

a p p e a l , w h i l e p e r h a p s w e l l - m o t i v a t e d , c a n n o t d o f o r t h e a n t i- r e a li s t w h a t

i t is d e s i g n e d to d o .



144 DORIT BAR-ON

I n S e c t i o n I I, I e x p o u n d t h e r o le s p e a k e r s k n o w l e d g e p l a y s in t h e D u m -

m e t t i an c r it i q u e o f r ea li s t s eman t i c s an d p ro v i d e w h a t I t ak e t o b e i n t u i t iv e

- a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i ly D u m m e t t i a n - r e a s o n s f o r t h e a p p ea l to s p e a k e r s

k n o w l e d g e . S e c t i o n II I d i s c u s s e s th e s p e c i a l n a tu r e o f t h e s e m a n t i c k n o w l -

e d g e w i t h w h i c h s p e a k e rs c a n b e p l a u s i b l y c r ed i te d . S e c t io n I V a r g u e s

t h at , o n c e t h e s p e c ia l n a t u r e o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e i s a p p r e c ia t e d , th e

a n t i- r e a li s t s a p p e a l t o s p e a k e r s k n o w l e d g e l o se s i t s f o r c e a s a w e a p o n

ag a i n s t rea l i s t s eman t i c s . T h i s w i l l co n f i rm w h a t h a s b een s u s p ec t ed b y

s ev e ra l au t h o r s : t h a t t h e b a t t le b e t w een r ea l i s ts a n d an t i- r ea li s ts r eg a rd i n g

t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f v e r i f ic a t io n - t ra n s c e n d e n t t r u th m u s t b e f o u g h t o n g r o u n d s

o t h e r t h a n t h e s e m a n t i c c o m p e t e n c e o f s p e a k e rs .

2 .

THE ANTI-REALIST S APPEAL TO SPEAKERS KNOWLEDGE

A c e n t ra l t a s k f o r t h e t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g f o r a p a r t ic u l a r n a t u ra l l a n g u a g e

is o f t e n t h o u g h t to b e s p e c i f y i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f a n y a r b it ra r y e x p r e s s i o n

o f t h e l a n g u a g e . W e c a n c o n c e i v e o f t h i s t a s k p u r e l y f o r m a l ly , as t h e

t a s k o f s y s t e m a t i z i n g th e f a ct s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g s o f e x p r e s s io n s i n t h e

l a n g u a g e . T h e i n te r e s t p h i l o s o p h e r s o f l a n g u a g e a n d l in g u i s ts h a v e t a k e n

i n t h e o r ie s o f m e a n i n g f o r n a tu r a l l a n g u a g e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s l a r g e ly

a t tr ib u t a b le t o t h e ir c o n c e i v i n g o f t h e t a s k m o r e e m p i r ic a l ly , a s s o m e h o w

co n t r i b u t i n g to t h e d es c r i p t i o n an d ex p l an a t i o n o f t h e l i n g u i s t ic ab il i ti e s

o f ac t u a l s p eak e r s . 1° T h e D u m m et t i a n c r it ic o f r ea l i s t s em an t i c s s t a rt s

w i t h t h is m o r e e m p i r i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e t a s k o f a th e o r y o f m e a n i n g ,

a n d r e q u i re s a n e m p i r ic a l th e o r y o f m e a n i n g t o b e a theory o f speakers

understanding o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e . I f ( f o l l o w i n g W i tt g e n s te i n ) w e i d e n t if y

s p e a k e r s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n e x p r e s s i o n w i t h t h e ir a b i li ty to u s e t h e

e x p r e s s i o n c o r r e c tl y in a n u n l i m i t e d v a r i e ty o f c o n t e x t s, t h e n w e w o u l d

b e l e d t o t h e a n t i- r e a li s t s r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g p r o v i d e

a c h a r a c t e ri z a ti o n o f t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h s p e a k e r s h a v e o f c o n d i ti o n s o f

correct use (cf . Wright , 1987, p . 16ft . ) .

A n a c c e p t a b le t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g a s e n v i s a g e d b y t h e a n ti -r e al is t, t h e n ,

m u s t b e ab o u t - an d t ru l y d es c r i b e - a ce r t a i n d i s t i n c t iv e l i n g u i s t ic ab i l it y

p o s s e s s e d b y s p e a k e r s . B u t s o f a r w e h a v e n o c l u e a s t o w h a t t y p e o f

t h e o r ie s w o u l d b e r u l e d i n o r o u t. A n a c c e p t a b le t h e o r y o f t h e h u m a n

d i g e s t iv e s y s t e m m u s t t r u l y d e s c ri b e t h e a c t u a l d i g e s t iv e c a p a c i ty o f h u m a n

b e i n g s . T h i s d o e s n o t y e t t e ll u s a n y t h i n g a b o u t w h a t s h a p e t h e th e o r y m u s t

t a ke , m u c h l e ss a b o u t t h e r a n g e o r t y p e o f th e o r e ti c a l c o n c e p ts o f w h i c h

t h e t h e o ry m ay av a i l i ts e lf . I n p a r t icu l a r, i t s eem s a s t h o u g h , i f w e r e s t r i c t

o u r a t t en t i o n ( a t l e a s t in i t ia l l y ) t o t h e c o g n i t i v e m ean i n g s o f d ec l a r a ti v e

s en t en ces , truth-conditional semantics c o u l d c l a i m t o p r o v i d e j u s t w h a t




145

t h e an t i -r ea l is t req u i r e s . Fo r , w e co u l d t h i n k o f t h e t ru t h -co n d i t i o n s o f

a d ec l a r a t iv e s en t en ce a s p ro v i d i n g t h e co n d i t i o n s fo r i t s ( sem an t i ca l ly )

c o r r e c t u s e . A n d w e c o u l d t h i n k o f a t h e o r y w h i c h g a v e a r e c u r s iv e f i ni te

a x i o m a t i z a ti o n o f t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e s e n t e n ce s o f a l a n g u a g e a s

t e l li n g u s p r e c i s e l y w h a t i t is s p e a k e r s g r as p w h e n t h e y h a v e k n o w l e d g e

o f m e a n i n g . I n s o f a r a s t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s a r e t h o u g h t o f a s v e r i f ic a t io n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t , it w o u l d s e e m a s t h o u g h s o -c a l le d ' r e a li s t s e m a n t i c s ' w o u l d

s t il l b e i n t h e g a m e .

H o w e v e r , t h e an t i - r ea li s t w a n t s t o a rg u e t h a t sp eak e r s can n o t b e p l au -

s i b ly s a i d t o p o s s e s s t h e k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e w i t h w h i c h a r e a l is t s e m a n -

t i c s w o u l d h a v e t o c r e d i t t h e m . T h e a l l e g e d p r o b l e m w i t h v e r i f i c a t i o n -

t r an s ce n d en t t r u t h -co n d i t i o n s i s th a t t h ey a r e , o f t h e i r n a t u re , b ey o n d t h e

e p i s t e m i c r e a c h o f o r d i n a ry s p e a k e rs , s i n c e s u p p o s e d l y n o s p e a k e r c o u l d

b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e c o g n i z e w h e t h e r t h e y o b t a i n o r n o t. S o t h e y c o u l d n o t

s e rv e a s c o n d i t i o n s fo r co r r ec t u s e t h a t a r e k n o w a b l e b y s p eak e r s.

T h e a n t i -r ea l is t m a i n t a i n s th a t , to b e accep t ab l e , a t h eo ry o f m ean i n g

m u s t n o t m a k e i m p o s s i b l e d e m a n d s o n t h e e p i s te m i c c a p a c i ti e s o f s p ea k e rs .

T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t m a y p r o v i d e a w e a p o n f o r a t t a c k in g s p e c if ic p r o p o s a ls f o r

a t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g . U s i n g i t, w e m i g h t p u t f o r t h o n t h e a n t i -r e a li s t' s b e h a l f

what I sha l l ca l l the S e m a n t i c K n o w l e d g e C o n s t r a i n t ( t h e SK -Co n s t r a i n t,

fo r shor t ) , to w i t :

A n e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s m u s t d e l i v e r a s t r u th s a b o u t th e m e a n -

i n g s o f e x p r e s s i o n s o n l y p r o p o s i ti o n s w h i c h c o m p e t e n t s p ea k e r s

o f t h e l a n g u a g e m a y b e p r o p e r l y sa i d to k n o w .

W h a t k i n d s o f t r u th s w o u l d a n e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s de l iv e r ? L e t u s

a c c e p t t h a t, b e i n g e m p i r i c a l, a t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g m u s t p r o v i d e a r e c u r s iv e ,

f i n i te l y ax i o m a t i zed s p ec i f ica t i o n o f m ean i n g s , s i n ce t h i s i s n o t i n d i s p u t e in

t h e r ea l i s t /an t i - rea l i s t d eb a t e . 11 A s s u ch , a t h eo ry o f m ean i n g w i l l d e l i v e r

a t l e a s t t w o k i n d s o f tr u th s : t ru t h s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g s o f f i n i te l y m a n y

b a s ic v o c a b u l a r y it e m s l ik e n a m e s ( ' J o h n ' , ' M a r y ' ) a n d p r e d ic a t e s ( 'r e d ' ,

' b o o k ' , ' g i v e ' ) ; a n d t r u th s a b o u t th e m e a n i n g s o f w h o l e s e n t e n c e s th a t a re

c o m p o s e d o u t o f t h e b a s ic v o c a b u l a r y i t e m s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s y n t a c ti c r u l e s

o f t h e l a n g u a g e . T h e f o r m e r w i l l c o m p r i s e t h e ( f in i te l y m a n y ) a x i o m s o f

t h e t h eo ry ; t h e l a t t e r a r e t h e ( i n f in i t e ly m an y ) m ea n i n g - t h eo r em s d e r i v ab l e

w i t h i n t h e t h e or y . ( G i v e n t h e s e n te n c e J o h n g a v e a r e d b o o k to M a r y , t h e

t h e o r y w o u l d e n a b l e u s t o d e ri v e a t h e o r e m o f t h e fo r m ' J o h n g a v e a r e d

b o o k t o M a r y m e a n s t h a t p , w h e r e ' p ' i s a s e m a n t i c r e p r e s e n ta t i o n o f t h e

s en t en ce i n s o m e can o n i ca l i d i o m . ) A t l e a s t f o r n o w , I s h a ll t ak e t h e SK -

Co n s t r a i n t to r eq u i r e t h a t b o t h t h e a x i o m s a n d t h e t h e o r e m s o f a n e m p i r ic a l

s e m a n t i c s re p r e s e n t p r o p o s i t io n s w h i c h s p e a k e r s o f t h e l a n g u a g e k n o w ,



146 DORIT BAR-ON

t h o u g h l a t e r w e s h al l s e e r e a so n t o s e p a ra t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t h e o r e m s

f r o m k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a x i o m s . 12

I s t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t j u s t i fi e d ? F i r st , w e s h o u l d n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e i s n o

a n a l o g u e t o t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t i n t h e c a s e o f o r d i n a r y e m p i r i c a l t h e o r ie s .

O b v i o u s l y , th e r e i s n o e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t h u m a n s u b j e c t s b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o

k n o w t h e t ru t h s o f p h y s i c s o r c h e m i s t ry . E v e n a t h e o r y w h i c h c o n c e r n s

s p e c i f i c a l ly h u m a n m a t t e r s , s u c h a s, s a y , a t h e o r y o f t h e h u m a n d i g e s t i v e

s y s t e m is n o t r e q u i r e d to c o n s i s t o n l y o f t ru t hs k n o w n t o h u m a n s u b je c t s a n y

m o r e t h a n a c h e m i c a l t h e o r y i s r e q u i r e d to d o s o. T h e r e is n o D i g e s t i v e

K n o w l e d g e C o n s t r a in t r e s tr i ct in g t h e c o n te n t s o f t h e th e o r y o f h u m a n

d i g e s t i o n , s i n c e t h e t h e o r y d o e s n o t i n t h e f ir s t p l a c e p u r p o r t t o d e s c r i b e

s o m e t h i n g h u m a n s k n o w i n a n y s e ns e, n o t e ve n s o m e t h in g h u m a n s k n o w

h o w t o d o.

B y c o n t r a s t , a t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g c o n c e r n s a c e r t a in c o g n i t i v e a b i l i ty

o f it s s u b j e c ts : t h e i r a b i l it y to u n d e r s t a n d a n y a r b i t ra r y e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r

l a n g u a g e . B u t w h a t i s th e a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d e x p r e s s i o n s i f n o t knowl

edge o f t h e i r m e a n i n g s ? I t w o u l d s e e m t o f o l l o w , a l m o s t tr i v ia l ly , t h a t a n

e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s p a r t l y a i m s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e , o r r e p r e s e n t , s o m e t h i n g

c o m p e t e n t s p e a k e r s o f th e r e l e v a n t la n g u a g e a l r e a d y k n o w . H e n c e t h e p r e -

s u m p t i o n th a t c o m p e t e n t s p e a k e r s k n o w - i n a s e n s e y e t t o b e s p e c if i e d

t h e s e m a n t i c s o f th e i r la n g u a g e , w h i c h i s w h a t a n e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s

a t t e m p t s t o u n c o v e r . T h i s p r e s u m p t i o n h a s n o a n a l o g u e i n t h e c a s e o f

o r d i n a r y e m p i r i c a l t h e o r ie s .

T h e c o n t r a s t s e e m s g e n u i n e . 13 B u t w e m u s t t r e a d v e r y c a r e f u l l y h e r e .

S o f a r , w e h a v e p o i n t e d o u t a s p e c i a l f e a t u r e o f e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s : it

( p a rt ly ) c o n c e r n s m a t te r s o f w h i c h c o m p e t e n t s p e a ke r s h a v e k n o w l e d g e .

T o t h i n k t h a t t h i s f e a t u r e j u s t if i e s im p o s i n g t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t i s to m o v e

d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e c l a i m t h a t a n e m p i r i c a l s e m a n t i c s c h a r a c t e r iz e s s o m e t h i n g

s p e a k e r s k n o w t o t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s k n o w t h e t r u th s o f t h e t h e o r y .

T h i s m o v e w o u l d o n l y s e e m j u st if ie d i f w e t o o k th e s e m a n ti c k n o w l e d g e

c o m p e t e n t s p e a ke r s p o s s e ss t o b e

straight forward proposi tional know ledge

- k n o w l e d g e that s o - a n d - s o i s t h e c a s e , f o r a n y s o - a n d - s o o n w h i c h t h e

s e m a n t i c t h e o r y p r o n o u n c e s . B u t n e e d w e c o n s t r u e s e m a n t ic k n o w l e d g e

a s p r o p o s i t i o n a l ?

3.

ON THE NATURE OF SPEAKERS SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE

3.1. Prop osi t ional Know ledge an d Prac t ical Abi li ti es

P e r h a p s t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h u n d e r l i e s o u r s e m a n t i c a b i l i t i e s i s s o m e

k i n d o f ' k n o w l e d g e h o w ' . 14 O f t e n , w h e r e a n a b i l it y to d o s o m e t h i n g i s

t h o u g h t o f a s a k i n d o f k n o w - h o w , th e r e i s l it tl e t e m p t a t i o n to r e g a r d a




1 4 7

t h e o r y c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a n d e x p l a i n i n g th e a b i l i ty a s c o m m i t t e d to a s c r ib i n g

t o i ts s u b j e c ts k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t h e o r y s c l a im s . I n d e e d , p r o p o s i t io n a l

k n o w l e d g e - k n o w l e d g e t h a t s u c h - a n d - s u c h i s t h e c a s e - is t y p i c a l ly

c o n t ra s t ed w i th k n o w i n g h o w .

T h e c a s e o f h u m a n d i g e s ti o n m e n t i o n e d e a rl ie r s e e m s s i m p l e e n o u g h :

s t r ic t l y s p e a k i n g , d i g e s t i o n ( l ik e n o r m a l b r e a t h i n g ) i s n o t e v e n s o m e t h i n g

w e d o a t a ll ; it i s s i m p l y s o m e t h i n g t h a t t a k e s p l a c e i n o u r b o d i e s ( p e r h a p s

y o u c o u l d s a y i t is s o m e t h i n g o u r

bodies

d o ) . S o t h e r e i s n o r o o m f o r t a k i n g

a t h e o r y o f h u m a n d i g e s t i o n t o in v o l v e c h a r a c t e ri z in g s o m e t h i n g p e o p l e

k n o w h o w to d o . A n d w h i l e w a lk i n g

is

s o m e t h i n g h u m a n s d o ( j us t as f ly i n g

i s s o m e t h i n g b i r d s d o ) , 15 t h e q u e s t i o n o f a s c r ib i n g t o s u b j e c t s k n o w l e d g e

o f t h e t r u t h s o f th e r e l e v a n t t h e o r y d o e s n o t a r i s e h e r e e i t he r . I n f a ct , it

s e e m s p e c u l i a r e v e n t o ta l k o f k n o w l e d g e ( as w e l l a s o f le a r n in g ) i n th e s e

ca se s. 16

C o n s i d e r n e x t t h e f a m i l i a r c a s e o f r id i n g a b i c y c l e ( or s w i m m i n g ) .

C y c l i n g i s n o t o n l y s o m e t h i n g h u m a n s s o m e t i m e s d o , b u t i t i s a l so a n

a c q u i r e d s k il l. H e r e i t s e e m s e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t a l k o f k n o w l e d g e , a s

w e l l a s o f l e a r n in g . A t h e o r y a i m i n g t o d e s c r i b e t h e a c t u a l c y c l i n g a b i li ti e s

o f h u m a n s w o u l d b e c o m m i t te d to r e p r e s e n ti n g s o m e t h i n g it s s u b j ec ts

k n o w . A n d t h e s e s e e m t o b e p a r a d i g m c a s e s o f

pr ctic l

a b i l i ti e s - o f

k n o w i n g h o w t o d o s o m e t h i n g . B u t a r g ua b ly , th is k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e - h o w

d o e s n o t c o n s i s t i n - a n d i s n o t e v e n b a c k e d u p b y - k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

v e r y p r o p o s i t i o n s t h e t h e o r y o f c y c l i n g u s e s t o c h a r a c t e ri z e a n d e x p l a i n t h e

a b i l i t y i n q u e s t i o n .1 7

B y w a y o f c o n tr a s t, c o n s i d e r a n o t h e r g ro u p o f c a s e s o f k n o w - h o w :

k n o w i n g h o w t o b a k e a c a k e, h o w t o b u i ld a c a n o e , o r h o w t o f i x a

c a r bu r e to r , a n d a l so k n o w i n g h o w t o p l a y ( t h o u g h n o t n e c e s sa r i ly w i n )

v a r i o u s r u l e - g o v e r n e d g a m e s , s u c h a s c h e s s . K n o w l e d g e i n t h e s e c a s e s

c a n b e t h o u g h t o f o n t h e m o d e l o f i n te r n a l iz i n g a re c i p e o r a m a n u a l ; a n d

m a n i f e s t i n g t h e r e l e v a n t a b i l it y c a n o f t e n i n v o l v e f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t e r n a li z e d

i n s tr u c t io n s c o n s c i o u s l y . T h i s k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e - h o w i s p e r h a p s r e d u c i b l e

t o - o r a t l e as t b a c k e d u p b y - s o m e k i n d o f p r o p o s i t io n a l k n o w l e d g e :

k n o w l e d g e - w h a t - t o - d o a t t h e v a r io u s s t ag e s o f e x e c u t i n g t h e t a s k a t h a n d .

K n o w l e d g e - w h a t - t o -d o c a n b e f u ll y im p a r t e d t o n o v ic e s b y p r o v i d i n g t h e m

w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t i n s t r u c t io n s . I f o n e h a s l e a r n e d w h a t t o d o a t e a c h s t e p i n

b u i l d i n g a c a n o e , o r b a k i n g a n a p p l e p ie , t h e n o n e h a s ipsof c to a c q u i r e d

t h e p r a c ti c a l a b i l it y to d o t h o s e t h i n g s ( t h o u g h o n e m a y s u b s e q u e n t l y d o

t h e m o n l y p o o r l y ) . 18 W h e r e a s o n e c a n k n o w w h a t t o d o a t e a c h s t ep o f

c y c l in g , w i t h o u t th e r e b y k n o w i n g h o w t o c y c l e ( n o t e v e n ju s t b a d l y ). A n d ,

f o r m a n y l e a r n e rs o f c y c l in g ( o r s w i m m i n g ) t h e p r o c e s s o f i n s t ru c t i o n

i n v o l v e s v e r y l it tl e i m p a r t i n g o f k n o w l e d g e w h a t - to - d o - n e x t .



14 8 DORIT BAR-ON

W e s e e , th e n , t h a t th e r e i s a v a r i e t y o f t y p e s o f p ra c t ic a l a b i li ti e s , s o m e o f

w h i c h c a n b e p l a u s i b l y th o u g h t t o i n v o l v e p r o p o si ti o n a l k n o w l e d g e . T h i s

s u g g e s t s t h a t w e m u s t n o t a d o p t a s i m p l e - m i n d e d p r a c t i c a l / p r o p o s i t i o n a l

k n o w l e d g e d i c h o t o m y . 19 W h i l e s o m e e x a m p l e s o f p r a c ti c a l a b i l it ie s a r e

c a s e s o f p u r e k n o w - h o w , o t h e rs m a y b e b a c k e d u p b y e x p l ic i t k n o w l e d g e

o f p r o p o s i ti o n s .

3 .2 . S e m a n t i c A b i l i t i e s

I n a c e l e b r a t e d a r t ic l e ( ' W h a t I s a T h e o r y o f M e a n i n g , ( I I) ') , D u m m e t t

s ay s :

A theory of m eaning will, then, represent the practical ability possessed by a speaker as

consisting in his gra sp of a set of propositions. [But] [t]he know ledgeof the se propositions

that is attributed to a spea ker can on ly be an im plicit know ledge. In gen eral, it can not be

demanded of someonewho has any given practical ability hat he have m ore than an implicit

knowledge o f those propositions b y means o f which w e give a theoretical representation of

that a bility. (Dum mett, 1976, p. 70, m y em phasis)

D u m m e t t h e r e s e e m s to o f f e r a g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r iz a t i o n o f p ra c t ic a l a b i l -

i t ie s a s a . in v o l v i n g k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s b. i m p l i c i t a n d i s c. o f t h e v e r y

p r o p o s i t i o n s u s e d b y t h e r e l e v a n t t h e o r y t o r e p r e s e n t t h e a b i li ty . T h e e x a m -

p l e s o f w a l k i n g ( in h u m a n s ) a n d f l y i n g (i n b i rd s ) s u g g e s t t h at p r a c ti c a l

a b i l i t i e s - a b i li ti e s t o d o c e rt a in t h i n g s - n e e d n o t i n v o l v e k n o w l e d g e a t a ll

( s o t h e y l a c k f e a t u r e a . as w e l l a s c . ). T h e e x a m p l e s o f b a k i n g a p i e , b u i ld -

i n g a c a n o e , e tc . s u g g e s t th a t p ra c t ic a l a b i li ti e s n e e d n o t i n v o l v e m e r e l y

i m p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e . T h e e x a m p l e o f c y c l i n g s u g g e s t t h a t p r a c t ic a l a b i l it ie s

n e e d n o t a l w a y s i n v o l v e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s p r o p o s it io n a l . 2° W h a t w e

h a v e n o t y e t s e e n i s an e x a m p l e o f a ty p e o f k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s p r ac t ic a l

y e t b o t h im p l i c it a n d p r o p o s i t io n a l . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s s e e m s

t o p u t a s t ra i n o n o u r o r d i n a r y n o t i o n s .

I n a r ecen t p u b l i ca t i o n , 21 D u m m et t q u a l i f i e s h is e a r l i e r ch a r ac t e r i za t i o n

o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e a s a p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y . H e i s s t i l l w e d d e d t o t h e

v i e w th a t s o m e o n e ' s u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f a w o r d m u s t

i s s u e

i n an ab i l i t y to

u s e i t c o r r e c t l y b u t h e t h in k s i t w o u l d ' t r a v e s t y t h e f a c t s ' i f ' w e r e g a r d

t h i s u n d e r s t an d i n g p u r e l y a s a p r ac t i ca l ab i l i t y ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 9 3 ) . P a r t l y

f o r r e a s o n s w e b r o u g h t o u t a b o v e , D u m m e t t c o n c l u d e s t h at w e m u s t s e e

k n o w l e d g e o f l a n g u a g e a s l y in g b e t w e e n t w o e x t re m e s . A t th e o n e e x t r e m e

l i e s

e x p l ic i t t h eo r e ti c al k n o w l e d g e

k n o w l e d g e c o n s i s t in g i n t h e c a p a c i t y

t o f o r m u l a t e t h e r e l e v a n t p r o p o s i t i o n s , t o p r e s e n t t h e m i n a c o n n e c t e d

m a n n e r . . , a n d to a n s w e r q u e s t io n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e m ( ib id .) . A t t h e o t h er

e x t r e m e l ie s s i m p l e p r a ct ic a l k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t o do s o m e t h i n g w h i c h

h a s t o b e le a r n e d ( ib i d. ). T h i s t y p e o f k n o w l e d g e c o n s i s t s i n th e a b i li t y

t o p e r f o r m i n p r a c ti c e a ta s k - o r e n g a g e i n a n a c t i v i t y - w h i c h o n e c a n



A N T I R E A L IS M A N D S P E A K E R K N O W L E D G E 1 4 9

i d e n t i f y e v e n b e f o r e o n e i s a b l e t o p e r f o r m t h e t a s k o r e n g a g e i n t h e

a c ti v it y . ( D u m m e t t ha s i n m i n d h e r e t he e x a m p l e s o f c y c l in g , s w i m m i n g ,

t y i n g o n e ' s s h o e - l a c e s , e t c. )

K n o w l e d g e o f l a n g u a g e , D u m m e t t t h i n k s, f a ll s u n d e r n e i th e r o f t h e s e

h e a d s . E x p l i c i t t h e o re t ic a l k n o w l e d g e p r e s u p p o s e s m a s t e r y o f s o m e l a n-

g u a g e ; i t r e q u i re s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n s u s e d i n t h e s t a te m e n t o f

t h a t w h i c h i s s a id to b e k n o w n . W h e n i t c o m e ~ t o l in g u i s ti c k n o w l e d g e ,

a q u e s t i o n w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y a ri se c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s u p p o s e d l in g u i s t i c

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t se l f. I f i t i s a l s o t a k e n t o r e p r e s e n t a n i n s t a n c e o f e x p l i c i t

t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e , w e a r e l a n d e d i n a r e g r e s s. F o r t h is r e a s o n , k n o w l -

e d g e o f la n g u a g e c o u l d n o t b e exh a u s t ed b y e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t ic a l k n o w l e d g e ;

i t m u s t ' b o t t o m o u t ' i n s o m e o t h e r k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e . 22

B u t D u m m e t t t h in k s l i n g u is t ic k n o w l e d g e c a n a l so n o t b e e x h a u s t e d

b y s i m p l e p r a c ti c a l k n o w l e d g e . C l e ar p a r a d i g m c a s e s o f s i m p l e p ra c t ic a l

k n o w l e d g e - e .g ., ri d in g a b i cy c le , ty i n g s ho e - l ac e s , a n d s o o n - p r e s e n t u s

w i t h f o r m s o f b e h a v i o r o r a c t iv i ti e s w h i c h c a n b e i d e n t if ie d b y a c o m p l e t e

n o v i c e i n a d v a n c e o f le a r n i n g h o w t o e n g a g e i n t h e m . B u t l e a r n in g a

l a n g u a g e s e e m s d i f fe r e n t . I n l e a r n i n g a l a n g u a g e , o n e l e a rn s t o e n g a g e i n

a p r a c ti c e o f s u c h a k i n d t h a t o n e c a n n o t k n o w w h a t e n g a g i n g i n i t c o n s i s ts

i n u n t i l o n e h a s a c q u i r e d th e a b i l it y t o d o s o ( 1 9 9 1 , p. 94 ) . A c o m p l e t e

n o v i c e , a f i r s t- l a n g u a g e l e a rn e r , i s n o t in a p o s i t i o n to r e c o g n i z e o r i d e n t i f y

a c e r t a i n k i n d o f a c t iv i t y - s p e a k i n g a l a n g u a g e , o r m o r e s p e c if ic a l ly ,

a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s , r e fe r r i n g t o o b je c t s , m a k i n g s t a t e m e n t s , e tc . - s o as t o

a t t e m p t t o p a r t a k e i n it , o r b e c o m e a m a s t e r o f it . 23 O n l y t h e m o s t s u p e r f ic i a l

a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y l e as t i n te r e s t i n g a s p e c ts o f li n g u is t ic k n o w l e d g e - e . g . ,

k n o w l e d g e o f p r o n u n c i a t i o n - a re p u r e l y p ra c t i c a l, i n th e s e n s e o f r e q u i r in g

o n l y k n o w l e d g e h o w t o p e r f o r m a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y r e c o gn i z ab l e t as k. M o s t

o f w h a t w e l e a r n i n le a r n i n g la n g u a g e c o n c e r n s w h a t t o d o , n o t s i m p l y h o w

t o d o s o m e t h i n g w e c a n a l r e a d y i d e n t i f y p r i o r t o h a v i n g t h e a b il it y . 24 A n d

D u m m e t t c o n c u r s w i th o u r e a rl ie r o b s e r v a ti o n r e g a rd i n g k n o w l e d g e w h a t

t o d o : L e a r n i n g w h a t t o d o i s a c q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g e a s s u b s t a n t ia l a s a n y

e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 9 5 ).

3 3 S e m a n t ic K n o w l e d g e

I t i s i n te r e s t in g t o n o t e th a t b o t h D u m m e t t a n d C r is p i n W r i g h t - a c h i e f

e x p o n e n t o f D u m m e t t i a n a n t i - re a l is m - i d e n t i fy p r e c i s e ly t h e f a c t t h a t

s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e i s l o c a t e d s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n e x p l ic i t t h e o re t ic a l

k n o w l e d g e , o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d p u r e p ra c t ic a l k n o w l e d g e , o n t h e o th e r

a n d c a n b e e x h a u s t e d b y n e i t h e r - a s th e s o u r c e o f t r o u b l e f o r r e a l is t

s e m a n t i c s . T h e y c l e a rl y s u g g e s t t ha t , i f s e m a n t ic k n o w l e d g e h a d b e e n

e i t h e r

m u c h m o r e l ik e ( o r f u l l y e x h a u s ti b le b y ) e x p l ic i t t h e o re t ic a l k n o w l e d g e



15 0 DORIT BAR-ON

o r m u c h m o r e l ik e ( o r f u l l y e x h a u s ti b l e b y ) p u r e k n o w - h o w , t h e n r e a li st

s em an t i c s co u l d p e rh ap s p as s mu s t e r. 25 T h i s a s p e c t o f t h e ir v i ew d es e rv es

a c l o s e r l o o k , a s i t b ea r s d i r ec t l y o n t h e q u es t i o n w h e t h e r t h e Seman t i c

K n o w l e d g e C o n s t r a i n t i s j u s ti f ie d .

Reca l l t h a t t h e SK -Co n s t r a i n t p u rp o r t s t o ru l e o u t r ea l i s t s eman t i c s

o n g r o u n d s t h a t s p e a k e r s c a n n o t b e p l a u s i b l y c r e d i t e d w i t h k n o w l e d g e

o f i ts tr u t h s. B u t n o w i f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e w e r e m e r e l y an i n s t a n c e o f

p u r e k n o w - h o w , t h e q u e s t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e o f t h e o r e t i c a l c l a i m s w o u l d

n o t ev en a r i s e an d t h e SK -Co n s t r a i n t w o u l d b e en t i r e l y i n ap p ro p r i a t e .

A s i n t h e c a s e o f c y c l i n g , t h e t h e o r y w o u l d h a v e t o b e d e s c r i p t i v e o f

t h e a b i l it y in q u e s t i o n b u t n o m o r e . I t h i n k t h is m a y b e t h e r e a s o n w h y

D u m m e t t h a s g o n e t o s o m e l e n g th s to a r g u e th a t s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e g o es

b e y o n d p u r e l y p r a ct ic a l a b il it ie s . B u t w h a t i f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e w e r e

p e r i m p o s s i b i l e ) e x h a u s t e d b y e x p l ic i t t h e o r et ic a l k n o w l e d g e ? C o n s i d e r

t h e ex p l i c i t k n o w l ed g e a p h y s i c i s t h a s o f t h e t h eo ry o f s p ec i a l r e l a ti v it y .

A t h e o r y o f w h a t t h e p h y s i c i s t k n o w s n e e d s d o n o t h i n g m o r e th a n s p e c i f y

t h e t r u t h s t h a t t h e s c i en t i s t

knows 26

S i m i l a r l y , i f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e

c o u l d b e e v e r y w h e r e f u l l y e x pl ic i t, a n d d i d n o t h a v e t o p r e s u p p o s e a n y

p rac t ica l ab i l it ie s , th en t h e o n l y i n t e r e s t in g o b fo r a s eman t i c t h eo ry w o u l d

b e t o s p e l l o u t t h e co n t en t s t o w h i ch s p e ak e r s a r e ep i s t em i ca l l y r e l a t ed

i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e ir l a n g u a g e . T h e r e w o u l d b e n o r o o m t o r e q u ir e , a s

D u m m e t t d o e s , t h a t t h e t h e o r y t e ll u s in w h a t s p e a k e r s ' s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e

c o n s i s t s , i n ad d i t i o n to w h a t i t i s that the y kn o w (cf . 1991, p . 104).

D u m m e t t i s q u i t e e m p h a t i c t h a t t h e r e a s o n w e c a n n e v e r g iv e a c o m -

p l e te c h a r a c t e r is a t io n o f a p i e c e o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s k n o w l e d g e s i m p l y b y

s t a t in g t h e c o n t e n t o f th a t k n o w l e d g e i s i n g o o d pa r t b e c a u s e t h e re i s a

c o n s i d e r a b l e g a p b e t w e e n t h e s y s t e m a t ic r e p r e s e n ta t i o n o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l -

e d g e a n d t h e i n e x p l ic i t a n d u n o r g a n i z e d c h a ra c t er o f a n a c t ua l s p e a k e r ' s

k n o w l ed g e ( ib i d .; an d s ee a l s o W r i g h t ( 1 9 8 7 : 5 2 ff .) ). D u e t o th a t g ap , a

s em an t i c t h eo ry i s u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n t o t e ll u s i n w h a t t h e ep i s t emi c re l a -

t i o n s h i p b i n d i n g s p eak e r s t o t h e co n t en t s o f a s e m an t i c t h eo ry co n s i s t s .

A n d t h e an t i - r ea li s t' s co m p l a i n t is th a t a r ea l is t s em an t i c s can n o t p ro v i d e

an ad eq u a t e acc o u n t o f t h a t r e la t i o n s h i p .

W h y c a n r e a li st s e m a n t i c s n o t c a p t u r e a d e q u a t e l y t h e e p i s t e m i c r el a-

t i o n s h i p i n q u es t i o n ? I f , w i t h t h e r ea l is t , w e i n s i s t t h a t t h e t r u t h - co n d i t i o n s

o f s en t en ces mi g h t b e v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r an s cen d en t , t h e ep i s t emi c r e l a t i o n -

s h i p o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t c o n s i s t i n t h e a b i l i t y t o

r e c o g n i z e

w h e t h e r t h e

t ru t h - co n d i t i o n s o b t a i n o r n o t . S en t en ces w i t h v e r i f i c a t i o n - t ran s cen d e n t

t r u t h - c o n d i t io n s a re , b y h y p o t h e s i s , s u c h t h a t w e a r e s u p p o s e d l y a b le t o

u n d e r s t a n d t h e m , e v e n t h o u g h w e a re n o t ( a n d m a y n e v e r b e ) i n a p o s i t i o n




t o r e c o g n i z e w h e t h e r t h e i r t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n o r n o t . I n w h a t o t h e r

a b i l it ie s , t h o u g h , c o u l d i t c o n s i s t ?

S i n ce s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e is n o t - i n d e e d c n n o t b e - e x h a u s te d b y f u ll y

e x p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i c p r o p o s i t i o n s , t h e e p i s t e m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p

i n q u e s t i o n c a n n o t b e t h e u s u a l o n e o f b e l i e f i n th e i r tr u t h . I f i t w e r e ,

t h e re w o u l d b e n o s p e c ia l p r o b l e m r e g a r d i n g h o w s p e a k e rs

m n i f e s t

t h e i r

s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e . A s D u m m e t t s a ys , [ e ]x p l ic i t t h e o re t ic a l k n o w l e d g e

c o n s i s t s i n th e c a p a c i t y t o f o r m u l a t e t h e re l e v a n t p r o p o s i t i o n s , t o p r e s e n t

t h e m i n a c o n n e c t e d m a n n e r w h e n t h e re a r e c o n n e c t io n s b e tw e e n t h e m , a n d

t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e m , e t c . ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 9 4 ) . O n c e a g a i n , i f

s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e c o u l d ( a s i t c a n n o t n o t) b e e v e r y w h e r e f u l ly e x p li c it ,

t h e q u e s t i o n w h a t i t c o n s i s t e d i n w o u l d h a v e a tr iv i a l a n s w e r : a s p e a k e r ' s

s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e w o u l d c o n s i s t i n h e r s t a n d i n g i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

j u s t i f i e d t r u e b e l i e f t o t h e s p e c i f i e d t r u t h s . 27

N o w , t o m a k e D u m m e t t ' s c a se l e s s d e p e n d e n t o n th e d e n ia l th a t s e m a n -

t ic k n o w l e d g e c o u l d b e e x h u a s t i b l y e x p l i c it , o n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t th e t r i v ia l

a n s w e r j u s t p r o p o s e d w o u l d n o t d o . A n y e x p l ic i t p r o p o s i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e ,

i t m i g h t b e a r g u e d , m u s t u l t i m a t e l y r es t o n a s e t o f p r a c ti c a l a b i l it ie s .

S i m p l y b e i n g a b l e t o s t a t e o r a s s e rt a tr u t h - a n y t r u t h - d o e s n o t a t t e s t

t o s o m e o n e ' s g e n u i n e k n o w l e d g e o f i t . T o k n o w a p r o p o s i t i o n , o n e h a s

t o b e a b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e v a r i o u s ( n o n - l i n g u i s t i c ) c a p a c i t ie s i n v o l v i n g t h e

r e l e v a n t c o n c e p t s ; o t h e r w i s e o n e i s n o t v e r y d i f fe r e n t f r o m s o m e o n e w h o

m e r e l y p a r r o t s a s e n t e n c e w h i c h e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o p o s i t i o n . A l t e r n a t i v e ly ,

o n e c o u l d a l so a r g u e t h a t a s p e a k e r ' s b e i n g a b l e to p r o v i d e ( o r a s s e n t t o)

s t a te m e n t s o f t h e f o r m S i s t ru e i f f p w o u l d n o t i n a n d o f i ts e l f s h o w t ha t

t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f S c o n s i s t e d i n g r a s p o f t h e r e a li s t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s

o f S . T h e c o n c e p t e x p r e s s e d b y i s t r u e m a y i ts e l f b e p r o p e r l y r e n d e r e d

o n l y b y a n a n t i- r e a li s t c o n c e p t i o n o f t r u th . B u t b o t h t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s 28

w o u l d r e q u i r e i n d e p e n d e n t a rg u m e n t s , a n d w o u l d f l y i n th e f a c e o f tr y i n g t o

p r o v i d e a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t re a l is t tr u t h b a s e d o n s p e c i f ic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

a b o u t w h a t s p e a k e r s c a n b e s a id t o k no w .

T h e D u m m e t t i a n a r g u m e n t f r o m s p e a k e r k n o w l e d g e , th e n , r e li e s o n t h e

o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t l i ngu i s t i c k n o w l e d g e is i n e v it a b l y m o r e i n d ir e c t t h a n ( a n d

i s n o t e x h a u s t i b l e b y ) e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e ; i t m u s t b e a t l e a s t

p a r t ly ' g r o u n d e d ' i n s o m e m o r e p r a c t i c a l a b il it ie s w i t h w h i c h s p e a k e rs

c a n b e p r o p e r l y c r e d i t e d . A n d t h e a n t i - r e a l i s t c h a r g e i s t h a t i t i s n o t a t a l l

c l e a r w h a t a b i l i t i e s t h e r e a l i s t c o u l d c i t e w h i c h w o u l d i m p l i c a t e g r a s p o f

v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s (s e e W r i g h t , 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 6 ft .) . I

t h i n k t h i s g o e s s o m e w a y t o w a r d c l a r i fy i n g t h e s t r u c t u re o f t h e a n ti - re a l is t

a t t a c k o n r e a l is t s e m a n t i c s .



152 DORIT BAR-ON

H o w ev e r , i f t h e a t t ack i s t o h av e an y fo r ce , t h e an t i - r ea l i s t mu s t t e l l

u s m or e a b o u t l in g u i s t ic k n o w l e d g e t h a n t h a t i t is e x h a u s t e d n e i t h e r b y

f u l l y e x p l ic i t p r o p o s i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e n o r b y p u r e l y p r a c ti c a l k n o w - h o w .

T h i s is b ecau s e , w h i l e i t i s ag reed o n a l l h an d s t h a t li n g u i s t i c k n o w l ed g e

(a t le a s t i n g o o d p a rt ) i s fa r f ro m b e i n g e v e ry w h ere ex p l i c i t p ro p o s i t i o n a l

k n o w l e d g e , t h e r e i s w i d e d i s a g r e e m e n t a b o u t e x a c t ly h o w f a r f r o m i t i t

i s. Bu t t h e f a r t h e r i t is , th e w eak e r t h e ep i s t emi c r e l a ti o n s h i p w e n eed t o

p o s t u l a t e b e t w e e n s p e a k e rs a n d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s u s e d t o c h a r ac t er iz e a n d

ex p l a i n t h e i r s em an t i c ab i li ti e s . A n d t h e w eak e r t h a t r e l a t io n s h i p i s, t h e l e s s

p l au s i b l e i t is t o u s e t h e SK -Co n s t r a i n t t o ex c l u d e v e r i f i c a ti o n - t r an s cen d en t

t ru t h - co n d i t i o n s . I w i l l b e a rg u i n g n ex t t h a t t h e mo re p o s i t i v e ch a rac te r iza -

t io n s o f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e D u m m e t t a n d h i s f o ll o w e rs t h e m s e l v e s o ff e r

o p en t h e d o o r t o r ea l is t s em an t i c s i n p r ec i s e l y t h i s w ay .

B e f o r e w e t u r n t o th e a r g u m e n t , a b r i e f s u m m a r y is i n o rd e r. S u p p o s -

e d l y, re a l is t s e m a n t i c s m i g h t b e a c c e p ta b l e i f s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e w e r e

( e x h a u s t ib l y ) p u r e p r a c ti c a l k n o w - h o w , b e c a u s e t h e n t h e r e w o u l d b e n o

q u e s t io n o f a n epis temic r e l a t i o n o f s p eak e r s t o t h eo re t i ca l proposi t ions .

W h e r e p u r e p r a c t i c a l k n o w - h o w i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t i s n o t

ev en ap p ro p r i a t e ( s ee t h e ca s e s o f cy c l i n g d i s cu s s ed ea r li e r) . O n t h e o t h -

e r h an d , i f s em an t i c k n o w l ed g e w e re ( ex h u a s t ib l y ) ex p li c i t, t h eo re t ica l

k n o w l e d g e , th e r e w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e no spec ial prob lem wi th the epis

temic re lat ionship

o f s p eak e r s t o t h e p ro p o s i t i o n s o f a s eman t i c t h eo ry .

T h e r e w o u l d b e n o n e e d t o r e q u ir e o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y t h a t i t g r o u n d

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n s o m e m an i f e s t ab l e (n o n - l i n g u i s t i c ) p r ac t ica l ab i l i ti e s o f

s p e a k e rs . B u t s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e is n e it h er . H e n c e t h e t h o u g h t t h a t th e

SK -Co n s t r a i n t s p e l l s t r o u b l e fo r t h e r ea l i st .

4 .

REALIST SEMANTICS AND SPEAKERS KNOWLEDGE

4 .1 . H ow lmpl i c i t l s Semant i c Know ledge?

W e h a v e a l r ea d y e n c o u n t e r e d o n e p o s i t iv e s u g g e s t i o n r e g a r d in g t h e n a t u r e

o f l in g u i s t ic k n o w l e d g e : D u m m e t t s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t w e t h i n k o f i t a s

implici t p r o p o s i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e . T h e n o t i o n o f i m p l i c it s e m a n t i c k n o w l -

ed g e n o w d es e rv es a c l o s e r l o o k , e s p ec i a l l y si n ce , as w e s h a ll s ee s h o r tl y ,

D u m m e t t h i m s e l f h a s c o m e t o d o u b t its u s e f ul n e ss .

W e h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i d e a th a t a c o m p e t e n t s p e a k e r s u n d e r -

s t an d i n g o f t h e s en t en ces o f h e r l an g u ag e c o n s i s t s (a t l ea s t p a rt l y ) i n h e r

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m e a n i n g s w h i c h a s e m a n t ic t h e o ry w o u l d a s s ig n to t h o s e

s e n t e n ce s . I n o u r p r e v i o u s j a r g o n , i t c o n s i st s ( p ar tl y ) i n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

t h e o r y s theorems. B u t t h e v a s t m a j o r i ty o f th e t h e o r e m s o f a s e m a n t i c

t h e o r y c o n c e r n s e n t e n c e s a n o r d i n a r y s p e a k e r h a s n o t e v e n s o m u c h a s




153

c o n s i d e r e d . S o i t m a y s e e m i n a p p r o p r i a t e to c r e d i t t h e s p e a k e r w i t h f u l l y

e x p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e t h e o r e m s , s i n c e i t i s i n a p p r o p r i a te t o c r e d i t h e r

w i t h f u l l y e x p l i c i t b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e r e l e v a n t s e n t e n c e s . W e m a y s i g n a l th i s

b y s a y i n g t h a t s p e a k e rs c a n h a v e o n l y

implicit

b e l ie f s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g s

o f s e n t e n c e s t h e y h a v e n o t e n c o u n t e r e d .

Im p l i c i t l i n g u i s t i c b e l i e f s i n this s e n s e s e e m o n t h e i r f a c e n o m o r e

p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n a l l s o r ts o f o t h e r u n e n t e r t a i n e d b e l i e f s t h a t w e a r e w i l l i n g

t o a t tr i b u t e to p e o p l e l ik e th e b e l i e f t h a t y o u w e i g h l e ss t h a n a t h o u s a n d

p o u n d s , o r t h e b e l i e f t h a t 1 1 ,5 6 7 i s le s s t h an 1 2 ,8 6 0 , o r th a t t h e co lo r

o f r a i n i n I s r ae l i s n o t p u rp l e , e t c .) .29 C o n f r o n t e d w i t h s e n t e n c e s t h e y

h a v e n o t p r e v i o u s l y e n c o u n t e r e d , s p e ak e r s c a n d i s p l a y th e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e m , a n d d o s o q u it e e x p l i c i t ly a t l e a s t p u t t i n g a s id e m e m o r y a n d

o t h e r p r o c e s s in g l im i t a ti o n s) . T h e y c a n a n s w e r q u e s t io n s a b o u t w h a t t h e

s e n t e n c e s m e a n , r e p o r t t h e i r c o n t e n ts , o f f e r a n d a s s e s s p a r a p h r a s e s o f t h e m ,

a n d s o o n . 3° S o w h i l e i t is t r u e t h a t I d o n o t h a v e i n m y c u r r e n t r e p e r t o ir e

b e l ie f s a b o u t th e m e a n i n g s o f m a n y s e n t e n c e s o f m y l a n g u a g e i n fa c t,

a b o u t i n f in i t el y m a n y o f t h e m ) , i t s e e m s I c a n b e s a id to k n o w t h e m i n a

f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s e n s e .

I f th i s is s o , t h e n t h e r e m a y b e n o s p e c i a l m y s t e r y a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f o u r

e p i s t e m i c r e la t io n s h i p to t h e t h e o r e m s o f a s e m a n t ic t h eo r y . W e m a y n o t

k n o w t h e th e o r e m s s t h e o r e m s o f a p a r t i cu l a r t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g ; r a t h er ,

w e k n o w t h e m i n a s m u c h a s w e k n o w i n a n e x p l ic i tl y m a n i f e st a bl e w a y

t h e m e a n i n g s o f s e n te n c e s , a n d i n a s m u c h a s t h e m e a n i n g s o f s e n t e n c e s a r e

w h a t t h e t h e o r e m s s p e ci fy .3 1 B u t t h e re i s s t i l l a q u es t i o n ab o u t h o w we

c a n c o m e t o h a v e t h e k n o w l e d g e i n q u e s ti o n . A n a n s w e r s u g g e st s it se lf ,

w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e C h o m s k i a n a n s w e r t o t h e a n a l o g o u s q u e s t i o n i n t h e

c a s e o f s y n t a x a n d p h o n o l o g y . I t is t h a t o u r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e m e a n i n g s

o f s e n t e n c e s , a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e t h e o r e m s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y , i s to b e

e x p l a i n e d a s a r e s u l t o f o u r i m p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e o f a f in i te b a s e o f t h e xioms

o f t h e t h e o r y w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r u l e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n , r e c u r s i v e l y

gener te

t h e t h eo rem s . 32

H o w e v e r , w e s h o u l d n o te t h a t t h e r e a s o n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e m a n t i c

a x i o m s i s s a i d to b e i m p l i c i t i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e a s o n f o r s p e a k -

i n g o f i m p l ic i t k n o w l e d g e o f s e n t e nt ia l m e a n i n g s . T h e r e a s o n h e r e i s

not

t h a t s p e a k e r s c a n n o t b e c r e d i t e d w i t h e n t e r t a i n i n g o c c u r r e n t b e l i e f s in t h e

co n t en t s o f t h e ax io m s . R a th e r , i t is th a t , a t l e a s t fo r t h e m o s t p a r t , o n e

could not e l i c i t s t a t e m e n t o f s u c h b e l i e f s f r o m s p e a k e r s , n o r c o u l d o n e

g e t o r d i n a r y s p e a k e r s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e a x i o m s a s d e s c r i b i n g t h e i r li n g u i s t ic

p r a c ti c e s. A t t r i b u ti n g ex p l ic i t k n o w l e d g e o f m o s t ) s e m a n t i c a x io m s s e e m s

c o m p l e t e l y o u t o f t h e q u e s t io n . S e e D u m m e t t , 1 9 9 1, p . 96 . )



15 4 DORIT BAR-ON

B u t i t i s a t le a s t q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r w e c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y c r e d i t s p e a k -

e rs w i t h e v e n i m p l i c i t p r o p o s i t io n a l k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i c a x i o m s . A f t e r

a l l, a s c r i b i n g t o s p e a k e r s i m p l i c i t p r o p o s i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e s t il l a m o u n t s to

a s c r i b i n g t o t h e m a t l e a s t u n c o n s c i o u s ( w h i c h i s n o t t o s a y

s u b co n s c i o u s

b e l i e f s in the re levan t propo s i t ions . 33 I t s e e m s a s t h o u g h b e l i e f i n a p r o p o -

s i t io n re q u i r e s a t le a s t i m p l i c i t m a s t e r y o f th e c o n c e p t s i n v o l v e d i n th e

p r o p o s i t i o n . Y e t l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r i e s m a k e u s e o f c o n c e p t s f o r t h e p o s s e s -

s i o n o f w h i c h t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e in p r a c t i t io n e r s ' p e r f o r m a n c e

a n d w h i c h m a y . . , b e s u ff ic ie n tl y a b tr u se to b e b e y o n d t he i r p o w e r s . . , o f

c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( W r i g ht , 1 9 87 , p . 2 1 9 ). A n e x a m p l e w o u l d b e th e n o t i o n

o f s a t i s fa c t io n b y i n fi n it e s e q u e n c e s e m p l o y e d b y T a r s k ia n s e m a n t i c s i n

t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f a x i o m s f o r th e u s e o f p r e d i c a t e s s u c h a s ' is r o u n d ' , o r

' w a l k s '

3 4

E v e n i m p l i c i t a p p r e h e n s i o n o f s u c h t h e o re t ic a l c o n c e p t s r e q u ir e s

s p e c ia l t r a in i n g a n d d o e s n o t s e e m t o c o m e a u t o m a t i c a ll y w i t h b e i n g a c o m -

p e t e n t s p e ak e r. F o r t h i s re a s o n , D u m m e t t n o w q u e s t i o n s t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f

t h e n o t i o n o f i m p l i c i t n e s s i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f l in g u i s t i c k n o w l e d g e . 35

W e s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e a g a i n t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r D u m m e t t ' s s u s t a in e d

i n t e r e s t in t h e n o t i o n o f i m p l i c i t l i n g u i s t ic k n o w l e d g e i s h is c o n c e r n t o f i n d

a ' m i d - w a y ' c h a r a c te r i za t io n o f li n g u is t ic k n o w l e d g e . A s e x p l a i n e d b ef o r e,

D u m m e t t t h in k s l i n gu i s t ic k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t b e e v e r y w h e r e e x p l i c i t ( e v e n

p o t e n t i a l l y e x p li c i t) , o n p a i n o f r e g r e ss . T h u s , a c h i l d - g e n i u s w h o s o m e -

h o w a c h i e v e d f u l ly e x p l ic i t m a s t e r y o f t h e s e m a n t i c a n a l y si s o f h e r n a t i v e

l a n g u a g e w o u l d s t il l h a v e t o f a ll b a c k o n ( a n d b e c r e d i t e d w i t h ) s o m e o t h e r

k i n d o f l in g u i s t i c k n o w l e d g e . Y e t D u m m e t t t h in k s i t w o u l d ' tr a v e s ty t h e

f a c t s ' t o c h a r a c t e r i z e l i n g u i s t i c k n o w l e d g e a s e v e r y w h e r e p u r e l y p ra c t i-

c a l . L i n g u i s t i c k n o w l e d g e l i e s s o m e w h e r e i n b e t w e e n t h e t w o t y p e s o f

k n o w l e d g e , e x h a u s t i b le b y n e it he r . H o w e v e r , w e ju s t s a w t h a t t h e n o t io n

o f i m p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e i s ( as D u m m e t t h i m s e l f n o w s e es t h in g s ) in a d e q u a t e

t o f it t h e b i ll o f p r o v i d i n g t h e d e s i r e d ' m i d - w a y ' c h a r a c t e r iz a t i o n , a t le a s t

s o f a r a s k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i c a x i o m s is c o n c e r n e d .

N o t i n g s e v e r a l c r u c i a l d i f f e re n c e s b e t w e e n s o - c a l l e d i m p l i c i t o r t a c -

i t l i n g u i s t ic b e l i e f s a n d o r d i n a r y b e l i e fs ( w h e t h e r o c c u r r e n t o r n o t ) , G a r e t h

E v a n s h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a s c r i p ti o n o f b e l ie f s c o n c d r n i n g s e m a n t i c

a x i o m s t o s p e a k e r s s h o u l d b e s e e n a s m o r e l ik e th e a s c r ip t io n o f th e b e l i e f

t h a t a c e r t a in f o o d i s p o i s o n o u s t o a r a t, b a s e d o n i t s b e h a v i o r a l d i s p o s i -

t i o n s , t h a n t o t h e a s c r i p t i o n o f t h a t s a m e b e l i e f to a p e r s o n ( 1 9 8 1 : 1 31 f f. ).

S u c h a n a s c r i p t i o n i s n o t r e a ll y p a r t o f a b o n a f i d e r a t i o n a l i s t i c e x p l a n a -

t i o n o f b e h a v i or . I n s t e a d o f c o n s t r u i n g t h e r e la t io n b e t w e e n s p e a k e r s a n d

t h e a x i o m s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y i n t h e i n t e n t i o n a l t e r m s o f b e l ie f s e t c .,

E v a n s s u g g e s t s th a t w e s h o u l d s e e th e a x i o m s a s s i m p l y d e s c r ib i n g c e r ta in

b e h a v i o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s h a d b y c o m p e t e n t s p e a k e r s . 36



ANTI REALISM AND SPEAKER KNOWLEDGE 15 5

T h i s s u g g e s t i o n o u g h t t o g i v e u s s o m e p a u s e . F o r , n o t e t h a t, o n E v a n s '

d i s p o s i t io n a l a c c o u n t , t h e e p i s t e m i c r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n s p e a k er s a n d t h e

a x i o m s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y w o u l d b e r a th e r w e a k . I f w e a c c e p t E v a n s '

a c c o u n t , a ll t h a t s e e m s t o b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a x i o m s o f a t h e o r y t o b e

w i t h i n t h e e p i s t e m i c re a c h o f s p e a k er s i s th a t t h e y b e d i s p o s e d to b e h a v e

a s / f t h e y h a d k n o w l e d g e o f th e a x i o m s . W e n e e d n o t c r e d it t h e m w i t h , e .g . ,

t h e co n ce p t o f s a t i s fac t i o n b y an i n f i n i te s eq u en ce ( s ee ab o v e , p . 1 5 4 ), o r

e v e n w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f r e f e re n c e o r d e n o t a t io n . B u t t h e n w e s h o u l d a sk :

W h y c o u l d s p e a k e r s n o t b e s a i d to b e d i s p o s e d t o b e h a v e a s i f t h ey kn ew

the ax ioms o f a rea l i s t semant ics?

R e c a l l t h a t D u m m e t t in s i st s t h a t " k n o w l e d g e o f l a n g u a g e i s n o t m e r e l y

a s p e c i e s o f p r a c ti c a l c o m p e t e n c e b u t is a l s o g e n u i n e k n o w l e d g e " w h i c h i s,

h o w ev e r , " i n ex p l i c i t an d u n o rg an i s ed " (1 9 9 1 , p . 1 03 ff.) . I n d eed , h e c i t e s

th is too ( N .B . ) a s t h e a n w e r t o t h e q u e s t io n " w h y n o t s i m p l y d e s c r ib e w h a t

i t i s th a t a co m p e t e n t s p eak e r h a s a ca p ac i t y t o d o ?" ( ib i d .) . T h e p re s en t

p o i n t i s th a t i f w e fo l l o w E v an s i n h i s d i s p o s i t i o n a l acco u n t o f i mp l i c i t li n -

g u i s ti c k n o w l e d g e , i t is n o l o n g e r c l ea r t o w h a t e x t e n t l in g u i s ti c k n o w l e d g e

i s n o t ' a s p ec i e s o f p r ac t ica l co m p e t e n c e ' i n t h e r e s p ec t s r e l ev an t to o u r

d i s c u s s io n . It i s t h e re f o r e n o l o n g e r c l e a r ' w h y n o t s i m p l y d e sc r ib e w h a t

i t i s a s p eak e r h a s a cap ac i t y t o d o ' . A n d t h e n i t i s u n c l ea r w h y a r ea l i s t

s e m a n t i c s c a n n o t d o j u s t t h at . 37 O n c e t h e p r e m i u m o n s e m a n t i c k n o w l -

ed g e i s l o w ered a s i t i s o n E v an s ' a cco u n t , s a t is fy i n g t h e SK -Co n s t r a i n t

( u n d e r s t o o d a s r e q u i r in g t h a t s p e a k e r s h a v e proposi t iona l k n o w l e d g e o f a

s e m a n t i c t h e o r y ' s d e l i v e r a n c es ) w o u l d s e e m m u c h l e s s to t h e p o i n t th a n

s eem ed a t fir st. A n d t h e n t h e q u es t i o n is w h e t h e r r ea l is t s ema n t i c s co u l d

b e ru l ed o u t u s i n g t h a t co n s t r a i n t .

4.2. Wright s Pr opo sal

T h i s q u e s t i o n a r is e s e v e n m o r e a c u t e ly w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h e a c c o u n t p r o f-

f e r r ed b y C r i s p i n W r i g h t ( 1 9 8 7 , p p . 2 0 4 --2 38 ) fo r ex p l a i n i n g t h e k n o w l ed g e

s p e a k e r s h a v e o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y ' s a x i o m a t i c c o n t e n t. A f t e r r e je c t in g

E v a n s ' d i s p o s i ti o n a l a c c o u n t o f s p e a k e r s ' k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i c a x i o m s ,

W r i g h t p r o p o s e s a n a l te r n a ti v e. H e s u g g e s t s t h a t w e c o m p a r e t h e p r o b l e m

o f ex p l a i n i n g l i n g u i s t i c c r ea t i v i t y (w h i ch i s w h a t g i v es r i s e t o q u es t i o n s

c o n c e r n i n g th e n a t u re o f t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a x i o m s ) to t h e p r o b l e m o f

e x p l a i n i n g t h e a b i l it y o f c e r t a in s p e c ie s o f b ir d s " t o f i n d t h e i r w a y h o m e

f ro m d i s t an t an d u n fami l i a r l o ca t i o n s " . T h e c ru c i a l p a r a l l e l i s t h a t "w e

d o n o t k n o w h o w t o a p p r o a c h t h e q u e s ti o n . . . u n l e ss w e a r e a l lo w e d

t o co n s t ru c t a t h eo ry w h i ch , l i k e a th eo ry o f me an i n g , s e rv es t o a r ti cu -

l a te p o s s i b l e m o d es o f i n fo rm a t i o n p ro c es s i n g " (o p . c it ., p . 2 3 5 ). W r i g h t

t h e n p r o p o s e s t h a t w e t h i n k o f th e s e m a n t i c p r o j e c t as t h a t o f " d e v i s i n g



15 6 DORIT BAR-ON

a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m t o s o l v e a n i n f o r m a t i o n - p r o c e s s i n g p r o b l e m . T h e

p r o b l e m i s h o w t o d e v i s e a t h e o r y w h i c h w i l l t a k e u s f r o m a d e s c ri p t io n o f

r e l e v a n t f e a t u r e s o f a n a rb i tr a r y u t t e r a n c e t o a t h e o r e m w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s

i t s m e a n i n g ( o p . c i t. , p . 2 3 6 ) . 38

I f w e t h i n k a b o u t t h e t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g i n t hi s w a y , W r i g h t p o i n t s o u t ,

w e n o l o n g e r t h i n k o f s p e a k e r s a s h a v i n g a n y intent ional s t a t e s i n v o l v i n g

t h e t h e o r y ' s a x i o m s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n th e a x i o m s

o f t h e t h e o r y a n d s p e a k e r s ' ( o r p i g e o n s ' ) d i s p o s i t i o n s i s l e s s d ir e c t t h a n

o n E v a n s ' a c c o u n t ( o p. ci t. , p . 2 3 6 ). W e t h i n k o f sp e a k e r s a s s o m e h o w

' e m b o d y i n g ' ( o r i n s ta n t ia t in g ) t h e p r o g r a m i n q u es t io n . B u t t h e re i s n o n e e d

t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e s t at e s w h i c h e m b o d y t h e v a r io u s i te m s o f i n f o r m a t i o n

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e a x i o m s o f t he p r o g r a m s h o u l d b e i n d i v i d u a t e d . . .

a s ( . . . ) d i s t i n c t d i s p o s i t i o n s ( o p . c i t. , p . 2 3 7 ) .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e e p i s t e m i c re l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n s p e a k e rs a n d t h e

a x i o m a t i c t r u th s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y is , o n W r i g h t ' s p r o p o s a l , e v e n w e a k e r

t h a n o n E v a n s ' a c c o u n t . I n d e e d , it c a n h a r d l y b e d e s c r i b e d a s epis temic a t

a l l . E c h o i n g o u r e a r l i e r q u e s t i o n , w e s h o u l d a s k : i f , a s W r i g h t p r o p o s e s ,

i n s ta n t ia t in g t h e r e l e v a n t c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s u ff ic e s f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f

c r e d i ti n g sp e a k e r s w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i c a x i o m s , w h y c o u l d w e n o t

c r e d it s p e a k e r s w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f th e a x i o m s o f re a l i st s e m a n t ic s ? I n o t h e r

w o r d s , w h a t r e a s o n i s th e r e t o s u p p o s e th a t s p e a k e r s c o u l d n o t in s t a n t i a te

a p r o g r a m w r i t t e n t o r e a li s t s p e c i f ic a t i o n s ?

O f c o u rs e , th e r e m a y b e i ndependent r e a s o n s f o r r e j e c t i n g th e n o t i o n o f

v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u th , i n w h i c h c a s e , a s W r i g h t r e m a r k s ( i n c l o s -

i n g h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t ic a x i o m s ) , w e - t h e t h e o r is t s

- h a v e n o b u s i n e s s i n v o l v i n g t ha t ' n o t i o n ' i n a n y s o rt o f t h e or y , w h e t h e r

c o n c e i v e d a s d e s c r i p ti v e o f t h e c o n t e n t o f o b j e c t- l a n g u a g e s p e a k e r s ' u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o r n o t ( o p . c it ., p . 2 3 8 ). B u t w e m u s t n o t l o s e s i g h t o f th e g o a l o f

w h a t W r i g h t h i m s e l f d e s c r i b e s a s t h e m o s t i n f lu e n t i a l a n t i- r e a li s t c r i t iq u e

o f c l a s s i c a l s e m a n t i c s ( o p . c it ., p . 2 0 9 ) . I t i s t o s h o w t h a t v e r i fi c a t i o n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s a re s u s p e c t

as meanings

b e c a u s e w e c a n n o t

s e e s p e a k e r s a s s t a n d i n g i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e p i s t e m i c re l a t i o n s h i p to t h e m .

B a s e d o n o u r d i s c u s s i o n s o fa r, th e r e l a t io n s h i p s p e a k e r s c a n b e s a i d t o

h a v e t o t h e t r u th s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y is n o t o f u n i f o r m c h a ra c te r . C o m -

p e t e n t s p e a k e r s c a n b e s e e n t o s t a n d i n a f a i r ly s t r a i g h t fo r w a r d e p i s t e m i c

r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e o u t p u t s o f a s e m a n t i c t h e or y . A l t h o u g h t h e y d o n o t h a v e

o c c u r r e n t b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e s e o u t p u t s , 39 t h e y c a n e x p l i c i t l y m a n i f e s t p r o p o -

s i ti o n al k n o w l e d g e o f th e m e a n i n g t h e o r e m s b y f o r m u l a t i n g th e r e l e v a n t

p r o p o s i t i o n s , b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e i r a b il it y t o in t e r p r e t n o v e l s e n t e n c e s a n d

p a r a p h r a s e g i v e n s e n t e n c e s , o r b y r e c o g n i z i n g t h e t h e o r e m s a s s p e c i f y i n g

t h e m e a n i n g s o f s e n te n c e s . B u t , i f w e a c c e p t W r i g h t ' s a c c o u n t , s p e a k e r s




15 7

d o n o t s t a n d i n a n y i n t e n t i o n a l , o r g e n u i n e l y e p i s t e m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e

a x i o m s a n d r u l e s n e e d e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e t h e o r e m s . T h e a x i o m s s i m p l y

d e s c r i b e e l e m e n t s i n a p r o g r a m w h i c h t h e y a r e s a id t o e m b o d y , o r i n s ta n -

t ia t e . O n t h e p i c t u r e t h a t e m e r g e s , w e a r e t o r e g a r d o u r l i n g u is t i c s u b j e c t

a s a so p h i s ti c a te d s o rt o f m e c h a n i s m m e r e l y e m b o d y i n g t h e a x i o m a t i c

c o n t e n t s o f a s e m a n t i c p r o g r a m , y e t s o m e h o w a b l e, a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f

t h is e m b o d i m e n t , to c o n s t ru c t m e a n i n g s o f s e n t e n c e s o f t h e i r l a ng u a g e ,

a n d t h e r e b y c o m e t o h a v e g e n u i n e b e li e fs a b o u t t h e m . 4°

T h e a b o v e t w o - p a r t p i c t u r e i s f a r t o o c r u d e , b u t i f it is e v e n r o u g h l y

c o r r e c t , i t w o u l d g i v e some c r e d e n c e to D u m m e t t ' s i n s i st e n c e t h a t li n g u is t ic

k n o w l e d g e i s n e i t h e r f u l l y e x p l i c i t t h e o r e t i c a l k n o w l e d g e n o r p u r e l y a

m a t t e r o f k n o w - h o w . F or , th e p i c tu r e re p r e s e n ts s p e a k e r s ' k n o w l e d g e o f

t h e s e m a n t i c s o f t h e i r l a n g u a g e a s a m i x e d b a g . B u t I t h i n k i t i s u l t i m a t e l y

d a m a g i n g t o t h e a n t i - r e a li s t a r g u m e n t . T h i s is s o b e c a u s e t h e p i c t u r e w o u l d

s e e m t o e n a b l e th e r e a li st to c i r c u m v e n t t h e D u m m e t t i a n a r g u m e n t f r o m

s p e a k e r k n o w l e d g e . L e t m e e x p la i n .

R e c a l l t h a t D u m m e t t a n d W r i g ht a p p a r e n t l y t h i n k th a t t h e r e a s o n r e a li st

s e m a n t i c s i s i n tr o u b l e i s t h a t s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e is e x h a u s t e d b y n e i t h e r

f u l l y e x p l i c i t n o r p u r e l y p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e . 41 I f i t w e re fu l l y ex p l i c i t,

t h e r e w o u l d b e n o s p e c i a l p r o b l e m w i t h s p e a k e r s ' r e l a t io n s h i p to t h e t ru t h s

o f a s e m a n t i c t h e o r y , s o r e a li s t s e m a n t i c c o u l d s a t i s f y t h e S K - C o n s t r a in t .

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i f i t w e r e p u r e l y p r a c t ic a l , th e r e w o u l d b e n o r o o m t o s e e i t

a s p r o p o s i t i o n a l , a n d s o t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t w o u l d n o t b e a p p r o p r ia t e . T h e

a b o v e t w o - p a r t p ic t u r e c a n b e t a k e n t o r e p r e se n t a w a y i n w h i c h s e m a n t i c

k n o w l e d g e l i e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o e x t r e m e s . B u t o n t h a t p i c t u r e w e c a n ,

a s i t w e r e , s p li t th e d i f f e re n c e . K n o w l e d g e o f t h e t h e o r e m s c o m e s o u t a s

u n p r o b l e m a t i c . S p e a k e r s c a n b e s e e n a s h a v i n g t h e e p i s t e m i c r e l a ti o n s h i p o f

b e l i e f to t h e c o n t e n t s o f m e a n i n g - s t a ti n g th e o r e m s , w h e r e t h e i r s e m a n t i c

b e l i e f s c a n b e e n t e r t a i n e d o r u n e n t e r t a i n e d . S o r e a l i s t s e m a n t i c s c o u l d

s a t i s f y t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o m e a n i n g - s t a t i n g t h e o r e m s . O n

t h e o t h e r h a n d , k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a x i o m s i s n o t a p p r o p r i a te l y c h a ra c t e r iz e d

i n t e r m s o f a n e p i s t e m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p r o p o s it i o n s , s o t h e S K - C o n s t r a i n t

s h o u l d n o t b e r e a d a s a p p l y i n g to t h e m . W e h a v e t h u s l o s t t h e p r o b l e m w h i c h

s p e a k e r s ' s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e is s u p p o s e d t o c a u s e f o r re a l is t s e m a n t i c s .

4 .3 . oncluding Remarks

I t m ay b e f e l t t h a t a r ea l i s t s em an t i c i s t s t i l l h a s s o m e ex p l a i n i n g t o d o .

C o n s i d e r f i r s t t h e m e a n i n g t h e o r e m s . T a k e t h e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l i s t

s e m a n t i c s w o u l d a s s i g n a s e n t e n c e su c h a s T h e r e w e r e 1 2 ,8 7 6 t il e s i n

J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s b a t h . A s p e a k e r o f E n g l i s h c o u l d n o t b e i n a p o s i t i o n to

v e r i f y w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s o b t a i n o r n o t. O n t h e a b o v e p i c tu r e , t h e



15 8 DORIT BAR-ON

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s u c h s e n t e n c e s c o n s i s t s in m o r e o r le s s s tr a i g h tf o r w a r d

k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h o s e a r e th e t r u th - c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e s e n t e n c e i n q u e s -

t io n . B u t h o w - t h e a n ti -r e a li s t w o u l d a s k - c o u l d s p e a k e r s a c h i e v e t h is

k n o w l e d g e ?

T h e r e a li s t, I t h in k , s h o u l d a n s w e r t h a t t h is o n l y s e e m s p r o b l e m a t i c i f w e

i n si s t t h at s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e o f t h e o r e m s m u s t b e a t le a s t a c c o m p a n i e d

b y a n a b i l i ty to recognize ( o r d i s c o v e r ) w h e t h e r t h e t ru t h - c o n d i t io n s o b t a i n

o r n o t . B u t w h y s h o u l d w e s o i n s is t ? T h e t w o - p a r t p i c t u r e p r o v i d e s a n

a l t e rn a t i v e w a y o f t h in k i n g o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h o l e s e n t e n c e s . I t i s n o t -

n o r n e e d i t i n v o l v e o r i s s u e i n - a r e c o g n i t i o n a l a b i li ty , t o b e e x c e r c i s e d u p o n

c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h w o r l d l y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a s t h e a n t i - r e a l i s t w o u l d h a v e

i t . Rather , i t i s a

constructive

a b i l i t y - t he a b i li ty to c o n s t r u c t c o n d i ti o n s

o f tr u th b y p u t t in g t o g e t h e r s e m a n t i c c o m p o n e n t s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h r u le s

o f c o m p o s i t i o n . U s i n g t h e s e m a n t i c a x i o m s f o r t il e , f o r t h e e x is t e n ti a l

q u an t i f ie r , f o r p a s t t en s e , f o r J u l i u s C aes a r e t c . , w e co n s t r u c t t h e t r u th

c o n d i t i o n s o f T h e r e w e r e 1 2 , 8 76 ti le s i n J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s b a t h . W e a r e

a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t t h e s e t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s b e c a u s e w e e m b o d y a t h e o r e m -

g e n e r a t i n g a x i o m a t i c m e c h a n i s m . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i v e a b i li t y i s d i f fe r e n t f r o m

- a n d n e e d n o t i n v o l v e o r is s u e in - t h e a b i l it y t o

veri fy

( d i r ec t l y o r

i n d i r ec t l y ) o r

recognize

w h e t h e r t h e c o n s t r u c t e d c o n d i t io n s o b t a i n o r n o t .

O n e c o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t e v e n c r e a t u r e s a s ' r e c o g n i t i o n - b o u n d ' a s th e

m i g r a t i n g b i r d s a n d t h e d a n c i n g b e e s a r e a b l e t o r e p r e s e n t - a n d r e s p o n d

t o - m a t t e rs t h a t g o b e y o n d t h e ir h e r e -a n d - n o w . T h e y c a n r e p re s e n t f a r

a n d a w a y l o c a t i o n s , f o r in s t a n ce . O f c o u r s e , i n th e c a s e o f t h e b i rd s a n d

t h e b e e s t h e r e i s n o t e m p t a t i o n t o ta l k o f p r o p o s i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e , i n

t h e f ir st p la c e . B u t p e rh a p s w e w o u l d b e w e l l -a d v i s e d t o a b a n d o n t a lk o f

s p e a k e r s ' ( p r o p o s i t i o n a l )

kn o wled g e

o f t h e m e a n i n g t h e o r e m s a s w e l l , a t

l e a s t i n s o f a r a s it e n c o u r a g e s t h in k i n g o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m a s th e a b i l i t y

t o m a k e r e c o g n i ti o n a l j u d g m e n t s a b o u t t h e w o r l d l y c ir c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h

t h e th e o r e m s ' m a t c h w i t h ' s e n te n c e s . I n s te a d o f t h in k i ng o f th e th e o r e m s

o f a t r u t h - c o n d i ti o n a l s e m a n t i c s a s s p e c i f y i n g w h a t s p e a k e r s k n o w , th e n ,

w e m i g h t t h in k o f th e m a s s p e l li n g o u t w h a t c o n d i ti o n s s p e a k e r s l y d o wn

o r l e g i s l a t e a s h a v i n g t o o b t a i n f o r t h e s e n t e n c e s t o b e t r u e . T h o u g h t o f

i n t h i s w ay , t h e ab i l i t y i n q u es t i o n co u l d b e s een a s , i n a ce r t a i n s en s e ,

a p r a c t i c a l a b i l i t y - a n a b i l it y t o d o s o m e t h i n g . B u t i t w o u l d b e d ir e c t l y

m a n i f e s t a b l e a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e p r o p o s i t io n a l , i n t h a t i t w o u l d b e t h e

ab i l i t y to co n s t r u c t me an i n g - s t a t i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s . 42

T h e p o i n t a b o u t k n o w l e d g e o f th e m e a n i n g t h e o r e m s is n o t th a t it

m u s t

b e s e e n a s k n o w l e d g e o f t r u th - c o n d i ti o n s . W e a r e n o t h e r e t ry i n g t o e s t a b li s h

t h e n e c e s s i t y ( o r e v e n s u p e r i o r it y ) o f r e a l is t s e m a n t ic s . R a t h e r, t h e p o i n t

i s t h a t, i n s o f a r a s s p e a k e r s ' e p i s t e m i c c a p a c i t i e s ar e c o n c e m e d , w e

c n




s e e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s e n t e n ti a l m e a n i n g s a s k n o w l e d g e o f t h ei r tr u th -

c o n d i t i o n s , e v e n w h e n t h o s e a r e s u p p o s e d t o b e v e r i f i c a ti o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t .

W e c a n , t h a t is , a s l o n g a s w e a d o p t t h e ' c o n s t r u c t i v e ' c o n c e p t i o n o f th i s

u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o p o s e d a b o v e .

W h a t a b o u t k n o w l e d g e o f th e s e m a n t ic a x i o m s ? M u s t w e n o t c o n -

c e d e a t l e a s t t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f c o r r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n w h i c h t h e a x i o m s

s p e c i f y m a y n o t g o b e y o n d v e r i f i c a t i o n m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e t o s p e a k e r s ? 43

T w o b r i e f c o m m e n t s a r e i n o rd e r. F i rs t , w e h a v e j u s t s e e n t h a t, e v e n

u s i n g h u m b l e ( ' r e c o g n i t i o n - b o u n d ' ) a x i o m a t i c m a t e ri a ls , s p e a k e r s co u ld

c o n s t r u c t v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t tr u t h - c o n d i t i o n s . S o t h e a n t i - re a l i s t' s

o r i g i n a l c o m p l a i n t - t h a t v e r if i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u t h - c o n d i t i o n s co u ld

not s e r v e as k n o w a b l e m e a n i n g s - a l r e a d y se e m s u n w a r r a n t e d . S e c o n d ly ,

t o t h e e x t e n t th a t k n o w l e d g e o f th e a x i o m s o n t h e t w o - p a r t p i c tu r e a m o u n t s

m e r e l y to ' e m b o d i m e n t ' , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o r e q u ir e t ha t s p e a k er s b e a b l e

t o r e c o g n i z e w h e t h e r t h e c o r r e c t n e s s c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f ie d b y t h e a x i o m s

o b t a i n e i th e r . A l l t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s th a t t h e y b e a b l e to e m b o d y t h e a x i o m s .

T h e a n t i - r e a li s t m i g h t a r g u e t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t e l e m e n t s

c o u l d n o t b e e m b o d i e d . S o , f o r i n s ta n c e , t h e a x i o m f o r t h e te r m J u l i u s

C a e s a r c o u l d n o t i n v o l v e th e m a n J u li u s C a e sa r , a s a r e a l i st s e m a n t i c s

m i g h t w a n t t o h a v e i t, b e c a u s e i t i s h i g h l y im p l a u s i b l e t o s e e a n E n g l i s h

s p e a k e r a s e m b o d y i n g s u c h a n a x i o m h a v i n g n e v e r b e e n i n a n y c o n t a c t

w i t h t h e m a n h i m s e l f . P e n d i n g a t h e o r y o f w h a t c o n s t r a in s e m b o d i m e n t ,

t h i s c l a i m i s h a rd t o a s s e s s. B u t i t s eem s p r i m f c i e a t l e a s t t h a t , o n c e w e

n o l o n g e r s e e s p e a k e r s ' k n o w l e d g e o f , s ay , t h e a x i o m s f o r p r o p e r n a m e s a s

r e q u i r i n g t h e i r p o s s e s s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n a l m e a n s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e b e a r e r

o f t h e n a m e , t h e b y - n o w - f a m i l i a r a l te r n a ti v e s w o u l d s e e m o p e n f o r t h e

r e a l is t s e m a n t i c is t . W e m i g h t , f o r in s t a n c e , t a k e e m b o d i m e n t i n t h is c a s e t o

r e q u i r e o n l y b e i n g a s u i t a bl e l i n k i n a c a u s a l c h a i n l e a d i n g t o J u l iu s C a e s a r

t h e m a n .

T h e t w o - p a r t p i c t u r e s k e t c h e d a b o v e , t h o u g h c r u d e , m a k e s r o o m f o r

v e r i f i c a t i o n - t r a n s c e n d e n t t r u th - c o n d i t i o n s ( a l t h o u g h , a g a i n , b y i ts e lf , i t

e s ta b l is h e s n e i t h e r t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e m p l o y i n g s u c h c o n d i t io n s i n a t h e o r y

o f m e a n i n g , n o r t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f th e m e t a p h y s i c a l n o ti o n o f v e ri f ic a t io n -

t r a n s c e n d e n t tr u t h ) . T h e p r o p o s e d p i c t u r e t h u s r e s c u e s t h e r e a li s t s e m a n t i -

c i s t f ro m t h e an t i - r ea l i s t a t t a ck . Im p o r t an t l y , I b e l i ev e i t d o es s o i n a way

w h i c h i s c o n s is t e n t w i t h t h e v i e w I e a r l ie r c a l l e d s e m a n t i c v e r i fi c a t io n i s m

(s ee S ec t i o n I ) .

S e m a n t i c v e ri f ic a t i o n is m s a y s th a t s p e a k er s m u s t b e p r e s u m e d t o h a v e

d i s t i n c t iv e e p i s t e m i c a c c e s s t o t h e s e m a n t i c f a c t s o f t h e i r la n g u a g e . O u r

t w o - p a r t p i c t u r e s e e m s t o a l l o w u s t o a f f i rm t h is , b y i n t r o d u c i n g t h e i d e a

t h a t s p e a k e r s a r e e p i s t e m i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c ts a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g s o f



160 DORIT BAR-ON

sentenc es of their languag e in a special way: through the construction o f

the se ntenc es ' t ru th-con di t ions (as opposed to the discovery, or confronta-

t ional recogni t ion of those t ru th-condi t ions) . The idea that , as speakers ,

we mus t have ep i s temic acces s to s emant ic f act s would remain puzz l ing ,

I bel ieve, as long as we hang on to the concept ion of semant ic facts as

cons t i tu t ing an external , judgment- independent subject-mat ter . Replace-

men t o f the ep i s tem ology o f d i scovery / recogn i t ion /observa t ion wi th the

ep is tem ology o f cons t ruc t ion (o r ' l ay ing dow n ' , o r ' l eg i sla t ion ') i s o f a

piece with a re ject ion o f th is concept ion.44

We should a lso note that the two-par t p ic ture is dr iven by the idea

that a semant ic theory is u l t imately

responsible to

the semant ic judg-

ments speakers m ake abou t s en ten t ia l mean ings . These inc lude no t on ly

judgments abou t the t ru th -cond i t ions o f s en tences , bu t a l so judgments

expres sed by o f fe ring paraphrases , judgm ents o f s emant ic amb igu i ty and

semant ic anom aly , o f s ameness and d i f fe rence o f mean ing , e tc . Insofa r as

the axiom s and rules a semant ic theory pos tulates are des igned to sys tem -

at ize those judgments , the t ru ths of the theory wil t exhibi t the requis i te

dependence on speakers ' judgments . Th is dependence shou ld guaran tee

tha t the theory would no t i s sue in as s ignments o f mean ings tha t no com -

pe ten t speaker o f the l anguage cou ld be sa id to apprehend o r in mean ing

ass ignm ents that a ll speakers mig ht be said to misapprehend.

Semant ic ver i f i ca tion ism demands on ly tha t m ean ing-g iv ing sen tences

of the form S is t rue i f, and only i f, p (assum ing mea nings are specif ied

by t ru th-cond i t ions) mu st be in pr inciple ver if iable by speakers o f the

language. B ut i t does not require that every sentence, in par t icular, e very

sentence w hich ( l ike p) is used to specify tru th-condi t ions , be in pr inciple

ver i f iable . On the 'cons truct ive ' p ic ture proposed above, speakers can

indeed be in a pos i tion to kn ow th t a sen tenc e S is true if , and on ly if , p,

even w hen th ey a re in no pos i t ion (even ' in p r inc ip le ' ) to know w hether

the condi t ion s specif ied by 'p ' obtain or not .

I bel ieve w e can re ta in the poss ibi l i ty of inaccess ible t ru th even i f we

den y the poss ib i l i ty o f inaccess ib le mean ing . O n the p ic tu re I have d rawn,

th is combinat ion is obtained by ar t iculat ing how speakers chn be said to

k n o w wh t would h ve to be the c se for a g iven sentence to be t rue or

fa lse , even w hen they a re in no pos i t ion to de te rmine whether i t is true o r

fa lse . To know what w ould have to be the case i f a s en tence were to be

true or fa lse is to k no w the con di t ions for i ts t ru th/fa ls i ty . As speakers, we

can kn ow the se condi t ions because, in a cer ta in sense, we lay them down.

Wha t we canno t l ay down, i f r ea l ism i s t rue , is whe ther these cond i t ions

are fu lf i ll ed o r no t - tha t i s a mat te r to be t aken up by a wor ld indepen den t

o f us. 45 ¢



ANTI-REALISMAND SPEAKER KNOWLEDGE 6

NOTES

1 Throughout this paper, I shall make use of the notion of verifiction-transcendence, as

opposed to evidence-transcendence,since my concern is with Dummettian considerations

about meaning, as opposed to epistemology. On Dummett' s notion of methods of verifica-

tion, see e.g. his 'The Justification of Deduction' (in Dummett, 1978). For discussion of

verifiability and verification, see, e.g. Appiah, 1986, Part II.

2 I here borrow from Romanos, 1983, p. 32, who finds more than a slight Kantian flavor

.. . [in] the positivist program (op. cit., p. 23). He takes the positivists to have replaced

Kant' s inquiry into the 'conditions of the possibility of human knowledge' with an inquiry

into the 'conditions of the possibility of meaningful discourse' (ibid.).

3 Marked by observation sentences conceived holophrastically.

4 Like many el iminativists, Quine would presumably insist that he is not denying that there

are semantic facts - there are, after all, facts about the dispositions of speakers to verbal

(and other) behavior and, for him, this all there

is

to semantics. But his indeterminacy hesis

has as a consequence that (again, beyond a limited range) there are no determinate facts of

the matter of the form expression E (of language L) means that (or refers to) . . . - n o

facts of so-called 'intuit ive semantics'. For discussion, see my 1986, 1990, and 1992b.

5 I discuss semantic verificationisrn at greater length in 1992b and in 1993b.

6 On the posit ive side, Durnmett proposes a verificationist semantics, according to which

the meanings of assertoric sentences are given by verification (or assertion) conditions.

For this reason, Dummett's anti-realism is sometimes described as neo-positivist (or neo-

verificationist). This neo-verif icationismdiffers, however, from the positivist's verification-

ism in that it is not in the business of declaring a priori that only statements which possess

verification conditions can be meaningful. Dummettian verificationism is rather supposed

to be a consequence of placing language properly in the natural world, and acknowledging

its dependence on the capacities o factual speakers. Dummettian verification conditions are

supposed to fill the gap that would open once the realist 's verificat ion-transcendent ruth

conditions are duly rejected.

7 I should emphasize (following a comment from Michael Hand, in correspondence) that

the conditional claim here is not simply from semantic verificationism to the rejection of

bivalence (which is one way Durnmett sometimes characterizes anti-realism). The logical

positivists held a veri fcation theory of meaning, which would presumably (though I believe

not necessarily make them semantic verificationists; yet they also held bivalence. Howev-

er, they did not endorse verification-transcendent ruth. Since adherence to bivalence can

be separated in this way from belief in verification-transcendent ruth, I have throughout

the paper avoided formulations in terms of bivalence.

Incidentally, I believe - though I will not try to argue this here - that something like

the emphasized conditional (considered in its contrapositive form) may explain Putnam's

change of heart about Realism. (See Putnam, 1981 and 1987).

8 I think it is important to separate the two stages in order to avoid certain confusions of

which both Dummettians and their opponents may be guilty. I cannot defend the separation

here, however. Perhaps I can say just this, by way of clarification. Suppose one can argue

that what serves to specify the meaning of a statement must be in principle 'accessible to'

anyone who understands it, and that verification-transcendent ruth-conditionscould not be

accessible to speakers. This would show that truth-conditions could not serve as meanings

It takes, however, additional argument to show that statements do not nonetheless have

verification-transcendent ruth-conditions which serve to determine whether or not they are

true or false (regardless of what we understand by the statements). There may be something



16 2 DORIT BAR-ON

peculiar about this way o f separating meaning from truth, but so far as I can see there is

nothing incoherent about it. Relevant here is Devitt, 1991, p. 212ff.

9 For a good summary of these two arguments and for relevant references see Wright, 1987

pp. 13-23.

l0 On altemative conceptions of semantic theories see Davies, 1981, Section I.

11 See Wright, 1986, Fricker, 1983, and Davies, 1981.

12 We can take the constraint o require, further, that the derivations of the theory's theorems

somehow reflect the speakers ' own derivations of their understandingof complex sentences.

See Wright, 1986, p. 207, where he ascribes this requirement to Dummett. Also relevant

here is what Davies calls the Mirror Constraint on semantic theories; see Davies, 1981, p.

53ff. and 1987, 447. I take the intuition behind this 'meaty ' reading of the constraint to be

that a theory of the understanding possessed by actual speakers ought to outline for us the

workings of the faculty of understanding, even if it does not purport to be a psychological

theory of the actual mechanisms involved in understanding. But my sense is that, even

among authors who accept that a theory of meaning ought to be a theory of understanding,

there is a great deal of ambivalence, not to say confusion, regarding what such a theory is

under obligation to do. In what follows, I shall set aside this further requirement.

~3 I expound and develop the contrast in my 1993b.

~4 This is, for instance, the position taken by Michael Devitt, who uses the denial of the

propositional assumption as a major step in his rejection of Dummettian anti-realism. See

Devitt, 1981, Ch. 4 and 1991, Sec. 14.6.

is It seems relevant to the difference between digesting and breathing, on the one hand,

and walking or flying, on the other, that the latter do, while the former do not, constitute

purposive or goal-directed forms of behavior.

16 Human beings can and do walk, jus t as birds can and do fly. But do they kn ow- or learn

- how to walk?

I tend to agree with Paul Ziff (see his 1984) that becoming able to walk (or fly, in birds)

is only mistakenly characterized as learning. Interestingly enough, Noam Chomsky, who

has done so much to encourage talk of linguistic abilities as consisting in propositional

knowledge has argued that the process of language acquisition is more of a maturation

process, like the process of becoming able to walk, than an ordinary process of learning.

17 Cf. again Devitt, 1981, p. 105. My discussion here has several points of contact with

his, though I tend to disagree with his categorical classification of semantic knowledge as

purely non-propositionalknow-how. See below.

18 As for games, at least when games requiring only very minimal motoric skills, such

as board or card games, full propositional knowledge of the game rules will give one the

ability to play the game, though of course it will not automatically give one the ability to

win.

19 Interestingly, the examples of practical abilities which do involve propositional knowl-

edge seem to be ones where theorizing about the relevant knowledge is least called for.

While there is a lot of a theoretical nature that can be said about the baking of an apple pie, I

doubt that anyone would be very interested in theorizing about the ability - the knowledge

how-to bake an apple pie, or build a canoe, or fix a carburetor. There is a lot o f theoretical

in te re st - a branch of AI, no le ss- conceming the ability to win in chess, for instance. But

this is precisely because there seems to be so little mystery about the ability to play (or to

follow the rules of) chess.

2o It is plausible enough to regard the practical knowledge possessed by cyclists and swim-

mers as implicit, assuming 'implic it' contrasts with 'explici t' in the sense of 'articulable'.

In the standard case, they are no more able to articulate how they do what they do than



ANTI-REALISM AND SPEAKER KNOWL EDGE 63

m o s t o f u s a r e a b l e t o a r t ic u l a t e w h a t h a p p e n s i n o u r d ig e s t i v e s y s t e m o r h o w w e w a l k .

K n o w i n g h o w t o c y c l e i n v o l v e s , a m o n g o t h e r th i n g s , k n o w i n g h o w t o a d j u s t o n e ' s p o s i t i o n

i n re l a t i o n to t h e h a n d l e - b a r , h o w t o m o v e o n e ' s l e g s, w h e r e t o p l a c e o n e ' s a r m s , e tc . , a ll o f

w h i c h a r e ty p i c a l l y - o r a t l e a s t c a n b e - k n o w n o n l y i m p l i c it l y . O n e r a r e ly ( e x c e p t p e r h a p s

w h e n l e a r n i n g ) h a s a n y c o n s c i o u s b el i ef s o f t h e f o rm I n o w o u g h t to p l a c e m y a r m s t h u s

a n d s o , o r e v e n I a m n o w p l a c i n g m y a r m s th u s a n d so . B u t i t d o e s n o t se e m p l a u s i b le t o

t h i n k o f t h e k n o w l e d g e o n e h a s i n s u c h c a s e s , e v e n i m p l i c i t a s it is , a s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e

(o r r e la ted ) p ropos i t ions .

21 D u m m e t t , 1 99 1 ( w h i c h i s a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n o f D u m m e t t ' s 1 9 7 6 W i l l i a m J a m e s L e c t u r e s) .

22 I t h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t o m e b y E u g e n e M i l l s ( i n c o n v e r s a t i o n ) t h a t t h is a r g u m e n t b y

D u m m e t t r e l ie s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n th a t t h e re c a n b e n o e x p l i c i t t h e o re t ic a l k n o w l e d g e

p r i o r to o r i n d e p e n d e n t o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o m e l a n g u a g e ( i t i s th e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t k n o w -

i n g / b e l i e v i n g that p r e q u ir e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g so m e l a n g u a g e i n w h i c h t h e c o n t e n t that p is

e x p r e s s i b l e ) . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s d e f e n d e d b y D u m m e t t , f o r i n s t a n c e i n h i s 1 9 8 9. I t c a n

p e r h a p s b e r e j e c t e d , b u t I s h o u l d p o i n t o u t t h a t r e j e c t i n g i t i n t h e s p e c i a l c a s e o f e x p l i c i t

t h e o re t ic a l k n o w l e d g e o f language w o u l d h a v e v e r y o d d c o n s e q u e n c e s , w h i c h c o n s i d e r a -

t i o n s o f s p a c e p r e v e n t m e f r o m s p e l l i n g ou t .

23 A l t h o u g h D u m m e t t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y f a il s t o q u a l i f y t h is c l a i m , I b e l i e v e i t a p p l ie s o n l y

t o t h e l e a r n i n g o f o n e s f i r s t l a n g u a g e . T h e p o i n t i s p r e s u m a b l y n o t j u s t a p o i n t a b o u t t h e

c o n c e p t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f t y p i c a l f i r s t- l a n g u a g e l e a r n e rs , i .e . , b a b i e s . I b e l i e v e t h e p o i n t h e r e

has to do w i th w ha t s o me au tho r s ( s ee e .g ., S ea r le , 1969 , p . 33 f f .) have de s c r ibe d as the

' c o n s t i t u t i v e ' n a t u r e o f l i n g u i s t i c r u l e s , a s c o n t r a s t e d w i th t h e ' r e g u l a t i v e ' c h a r a c t e r o f ru l e s

o f , e .g . , e t ique t t e , o r be t t e r ye t , ty ing s hoe- laces . S ee a l s o my 1992a , w here I a rgue tha t

l i n g u i s t i c n o r m s a r e n o t , i n t h e f i rs t i n s t a n c e , ' t e l e o l o g i c a l ' n o r m s . R e m a r k s s i m i l a r t o t h e

p r e s e n t o n e s c o u l d b e m a d e r e g a r d in g t h e m a s t e r y o f a g a m e .

24 F o r r e l a t e d r e a s o n s w h y D u m m e t t t h i n k s s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e , s p e c if i c al l y , i s n o t

r e d u c i b l e t o a p u r e l y p r a c t i c a l k n o w - h o w ( D u m m e t t , 1 9 9 1 , p p . 9 7 - 1 0 3 ) . S e e a ls o D u m m e t t ,

1986 , p . 475f .

25 This is no t t o s a y t h a t D u m m e t t ( o r W r i g h t ) w o u l d g o a l o n g w i th r e a l i s t m e t a p h y s i c s .

T h e y m a y s ti ll h a v e independen t o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e r e a l i s t n o t i o n o f t r u th . S e e e s p e c i a l l y

D u mm et t , 1991 , Es s ay 15 , an d W r igh t , 1987 , p . 238 an d Es s ay 11 ).

26 T h i s i s n o t to d e n y th a t t h e t h e o r y o f s c ie n t i fi c k n o w l e d g e - t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y o f s c i e n c e

h a s a l o t m o r e t o d o . F o r i n s t a n c e , i t m u s t t e l l u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n o f s c i e n -

t if ic t h e o r i e s a n d t h e i r e v i d e n c e , a s w e l l a s a b o u t t h e o r e t ic a l j u s t i fi c a t i o n . I a m h e r e o n l y

s a y i n g t h a t t h e t a s k o f a t h e o r y w h i c h p u r p o r t s t o c h a r a c t e ri z e t h e c o n t e n t o f a t h e o r e ti c a l

s c i e n c e -

w h a t

t h e t h e o r i st s ( e x p l i c it l y ) k n o w - i s t h e r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e o n e o f p r o v i d i n g a

s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n a n d c a n o n i c a l s p e c if i c a t i o n o f th e t r u th s k n o w n .

27 A g a i n ( s e e p r e v i o u s n o t e ) , t h i s is n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e re w o u l d n o t r e m a i n o t h e r t h e o r e ti c a l

t a sk s c o n c e r n i n g s e m a n t i c k n o w l e d g e , s u c h a s e x p l a i n i n g h o w s p e ak e r s c o m e t o h a v e t h e

r e l e v a n t b e l i e fs , h o w l i n g u i s t i c b e l i e f s a r e r e l a te d t o l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e , a n d s o o n .

28 T h e s e s u g g e s t io n s w e r e p u t f or th o n D u m m e t t ' s b e h a l f b y S i m o n B l a c k b u r n ( i n c o n v e r-

s a t ion ) .

29 F o r r e lev an t d i s cu s s ion , s ee (Lyca n , 1988 , Ch . 3 ) .

30 I a m h e r e f o l l o w i n g a s u g g e s t i o n b y M a r k P l a t ts , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h w e c a n s e e a

s p e a k e r ' s a b i l i t y t o repor t s o m e o n e e l s e 's u t t e r a n c e o f a n o v e l s e n t e n c e a s m a n i f e s t in g h e r

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r e l e v a n t m e a n i n g th e o r e m f o r t h a t s e n te n c e . M y r e p o rt J a n e a s se r te d

( o r s a id ) t h a t p c a n s e r v e to s p e c i f y t h e c o n t e n t o f th e s e n t e n c e p a n d t h e r e b y t o d i s p la y

e x p l i c i t ly m y o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t s e n t e n c e . ( S e e P l a t ts , 1 9 7 9 , p . 2 3 6 . ) T h i s i s , o f

c o u r s e , n o t t o s a y ( y e t ) th a t s u c h r e p o r ts s h o w u n d e r s t a n d i n g to b e know ledge o f ( rea l i s t )



1 64 D OR IT BA R ON

t ru th-condi t ions.

31 Th is i s as P lat t s w old h ave i t ( ib id . ) .

32 The l i te r a tu r e is r ep lea t wi th a rgum ent s coun te r ing C hom sky ' s u se o f t he no t ion o f

k n o w l e d g e i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n . In r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e a r g u m e n t s , C h o m s k y h a s p r o p o s e d to

d r o p t h e c l a i m t h a t s p e a k e r s k n o w t h e t r u ths in ques t ion in f avor o f t he more t echn ica l

s o u n d i n g c l a i m t h a t t h e y m e r e l y cogn i ze them. See e .g . (Chomsky, 1975, p . 164f . and

1982, pp. 97-8) .

33 T h e s e b e l i e f s w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e a s c r i b e d a s p a r t o f a n e x p l a n a t io n o f s p e a k e r s ' m a n -

i f es t ed ab i l i t y t o spea k and und er s t and the i r language . S peake r s a r e ( a lmos t ) au toma t i ca l ly

c r ed i t ed wi th l i ngu i s t i c k n o w l e d g e , and no t m ere ly l i ngu i s t i c be l i e fs , s ince , un l ike b e l i e f s

sub jec t s migh t ha ve a bou t , say , the chem is t ry o f subs t ances in the i r su r round ings , o r the

de ta i l s o f t he i r own in t e rna l ana tomy, the r e i s a sense in wh ich the be l i e f s speaker s have

abo u t t he i r l anguag e a r e au thor it a t ive . As we have sugg es t ed be fo re , i n t he l i ngu i s t ic case ,

w e d o n o t f i n d t h e n o r m a l g a p w e e x p e c t to f i n d b e t w e e n b e l i e f a n d k n o w l e d g e . E v e n

Ch om sky appa ren t ly co nc ur s - see (1982 , p . 16 and 1986 , p . 33 ). A l so , see m y (1990 , Sec .

III, 1992b, S ec. I , and 1993b) .

34 Thus, Dummett (1976) , p . 109f . (quoted in Wright 1987, p . 218ff . ) proposes that i f , as

D a v i d s o n i a n s e m a n t ic i s ts , w e a r e i n te n d i n g a s e r io u s r e p r e s e n ta t i o n o f w h a t i s k n o w n b y

a n y o n e a b l e t o s p e a k E n g l i sh , w e c a n n o t l i t e ra l l y c r e d i t h i m w i t h a n u n d e r s t a n d in g o f th e

' t echn ic a l de v ic e ' o f sa t is f ac t ion by an in f in i te sequence .

35 He po in t s o u t t ha t , a l t hough the no t ion o f impl i c i t kno wle dge i s ve ry e l as t i c , i t canno t be

r e a s o n a b l y s t r e t c h e d t o c o v e r o u r w h o l e k n o w l e d g e o f o u r n a t i v e t o n g u e . W e c a n a t t ri b u te

i m p l i c i t k n o w l e d g e o f a l i n g u is t i c r u l e to s o m e o n e , D u m m e t t m a i n t a i n s , p r o v i d e d th a t ,

w h e n h e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e s t a t e m e n t o f i t, h e a c k n o w l e d g e s i t a s a c c u r a t e ly d e s c r i b i n g h i s

e x i s t i n g p r a c t ic e . B u t [ i ]t w o u l d b e p r e p o s t e r o u s t o s u g g e s t t h a t a ll c o m p e t e n t s p e a k er s

wou ld r ecogn i se [ a mean ing- theory fo r t he i r l anguage] as co r r ec t i f i t were p r esen ted to

them (1991 , p . 96 ) .

36 Fo r d isc uss ion , see W right , 1987, p . 226ff .) .

37 The i s sue cou ld pe rhaps be pu t equa l ly in the f ami l i a r t e rms o f ' f o l low ing ' v s . mere ly

' ac t in g in accorda nce wi th ' l i ngu i s t i c r u l es . Our p r es en t po in t wou ld then be tha t , s ince

t h e d i s p o s i t i o n a l a c c o u n t h a s s p e a k e r s m e r e l y ' a c t i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h ' s e m a n t i c ru l e s ,

i t l eaves the do or open fo r r ea l i s t seman t i cs . Fo r , i n t hese t e rms , t he Dum met t i an ch arge i s

t h a t s p e a k e r s c o u l d n o t b e c r e d i t e d w i t h f o l l owing sem an t i c ru l es a s t he r ea l i s t under s t and s

t h e m . B u t w e h a v e b e e n g i v e n n o r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e th a t s p e a k e r s c o u l d n o t m e r e l y ' a c t i n

acco rdan ce wi th ' such ru l es ( un less, o f cour se , t he r e a r e i ndependen t r easons fo r r e j ec t ing

the no t ion o f ve r i f i ca t ion - t r anscende n t r uth; see be low) . To r epea t , t he p r esen t con ten t ion i s

tha t , i f a l l t he r e i s to spe ake r s ' know ledge i s t he posses s ion o f ce r ta in d i spos i t i ons su i t ab ly

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s e m a n t i c t h e o ry , th e a n t i- r e a li s t c r i ti q u e b a s e d o n s p e a k e r s ' k n o w l e d g e

has v ery l i t t le force.

38 W r igh t po in t s ou t t ha t t h i s p rob lem i s no t an em pi r i ca l p rob lem , bu t can be ' c r ack ed

i n t h e a r m c h a i r ' , j u s t a s p h i l o s o p h e r s o f l a n g u a g e h a v e a l w a y s s e e m e d t o s u p p o s e ( ib i d. ).

( W h e r e a s h e t h i nk s t h a t i f E v a n s ' a c c o u n t w e r e r ig h t , t h e p r o j e c t w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e

e m p i r i c a l t h a n h a s b e e n s u p p o s e d b y p h i l o so p h e r s . T h i s i s o n e o f h is r e a s o n s f o r b e i n g

d i ssa t i s f i ed wi th Ev ans ' accoun t . See p . 234f f .) So lv ing th i s non-em pi r i ca l p rob le m would

cons t i t u t e t he f i r s t s t age in exp la in ing the sem an t i c capac i t i e s o f spe aker s . A t t he seco nd ,

e m p i r i c a l s t a g e , w e w o u l d a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n h o w t h is p r o g r a m p l u s t h e r e le v a n t c a p a c i t ie s

. . . m ig h t be incorpora t ed in to a phys i ca l ly poss ib l e dev ice (1987 , p . 236) .

39 A n d a l t h o u g h t h e y p r e s u m a b l y d o n o t t h i n k o f m e a n i n g s a s t he ou tpu t s o f a spe c i f i c

theory o f mean ing ; see abo ve , Sec t ion 4 .1 .



ANTI-REALISM AND SPEAKER KNOWLEDGE 65

40 See W r igh t , 1987, p . 236) . Th i s may be no t un l ike see ing sub jec t s a s em bod y ing p rogram s

fo r p ro cess ing v i sua l i npu t ye t e ven tua l ly a r r iv ing a t pe r ce p tua l be l i e f s .

I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t W r i g h t, t o o , m a k e s t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

t h e o r e m s - w h i c h h e r e g a r d s a s a n u n p r o b l e m a t i c i n s t a n c e o f i m p l i c it k n o w l e d g e - a n d

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a x i o m s o f a s e m a n i c th e o r y , w h i c h h e d o e s n o t th i n k w e c a n s e e i n t e rm s

of an ep i s t em ic re l a t ionsh ip be tw een speake r s and sem an t i c - theore t i ca l con ten t s ( op . c i t .,

p . 237ff .) . Ye t W r igh t t h inks tha t t he an t i - r ea l i s t c r i t ique is no t unde rmine d by suc h a

b i fu r ca t e d accoun t ( op . c it . , p . 209) . I am a rgu ing tha t Wr igh t is wron g ab ou t t h i s .

41 As

right

pu t s i t :. Th e an t i - r ea l i s t cha rge i s t ha t i f ' t r u th ' i s under s tood as t he r ea l i s t

i n t ends , t he r e i s , in an impo r t an t c l ass o f cases , no such th ing as know ing the t r u th - cond i t ions

o f a sen tence . I f t h i s i s t o be a c r i t i c i sm o f r ea l i s t sema n t i cs , i t i s e ssen t i a l t ha t under s t and ing

m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s a s p e c i e s o f k n o w l e d g e . [ B ut] i t c a n n o t everywhere cons i s t i n explicit

k n o w l e d g e . . . t h e k in d o f k n o w l e d g e it essentially i s m u s t , it s e e m s b e i m p l i c i t. A n d

h e t a k e s D u m m e t t ' s a n t i - re a l i s t c r it iq u e to b e t h a t o n l y a n a n t i -r e a l is t t h e o r y o f m e a n i n g

c a n s u s t a i n th e d e m a n d s m a d e o n t h e n o ti o n o f i m p l i c it k n o w l e d g e , w h e r ea s ' c l a s s i c a l

s e m a n t i c s ' p l a c e s i m p o s s i b l e d e m a n d s o n t he r a n g e o f w h a t s p e a k e r s m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e

r egarde d as ( impl i c i t l y ) kno win g ( t98 7 , p . 209) .

42 Ob v ious ly , a l o t mo re need s to be sa id on the p r ec i se sense in wh ich s peaker s can be sa id

t o ' l a y d o w n ' o r ' l e g i s l a t e ' tr u t h -c o n d i ti o n s f o r s e n te n c e s o f t h e i r la n g u a g e , a t a s k w h i c h I

m u s t l e a v e f o r a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n . In p a r t ic u l a r, w e s h o u l d n o t t h i n k o f s p e a k e r s a s a c h i e v i n g

the l eg i s l a t ion individually. T h e r e m a y b e a s e n s e i n w h i c h e a c h s p e a k e r ' r e i n v e n t s ' t h e

l angua ge they l ea rn ; and th i s may we l l he lp ex p la in ce r ta in aspec t s o f l ingu i s t i c change . B u t

I be l i eve tha t bo th the p roce ss and the p rodu c t s o f t r u th - cond i t ions cons t ruc t ion ough t t o be

in p r inc ip l e open fo r, and r espo ns ib l e to , pub l i c a ssess me n t and c r i t i c i sm. (Re levan t he r e

i s w h a t I h a v e e l s e w h e r e c a l l e d t h e P u b l ic i t y R e q u i r e m e n t - s e e m y 1 99 2b a n d 1 9 9 3 b .)

43 Even a s t aunch r ea l i s t such as Fodor seems to r ecogn ize the need fo r someth ing l i ke

th i s r e s tr i c t ion . I f i nd th i s i n h i s ackn ow ledge me nt o f a sp ec ia l s t a tus f o r the sem an t i cs o f

obse rva t iona l conc ep t s i n the ca se o f t he l ang uage o f though t ; c f . h i s 1987 , p . 118f t. .

44 I b e l i e v e t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h a n a l t e rn a t i v e e p i s t e m o l o g y f or l i n g u is t ic k n o w l e d g e

( w h i c h o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t ) c o u l d a l so p r o v e u s e f u l

i n o t h e r a r e a s w h e r e p u z z l e s a b o u t p r i v i l e g e d e p is t e m i c a c c e s s a r i s e, s u c h a s t h e t h e o r y

o f a c t i o n ( k n o w l e d g e o f o n e ' s o w n i n te n t io n s , d e s i r e s , p l a n s , a s w e l l i n v e n t i o n s ) a n d t h e

t h e o r y o f i m a g i n a t i o n ( k n o w l e d g e o f t he c o n t e n t s o f o n e ' s a c t s o f i m a g i n a t io n ) ,

45 M y t h a n k s t o S i m o n B l a c k b u r n , M i c h a e l H a n d , M i k e R e s n i k , K e i t h S i m m o n s a n d J i m

V a n C l e e v e , f o r r e a d i n g e a r l i e r d r a ft s o f t h is p a p e r a n d p r o v i d i n g h e lp f u l c o m m e n t s . T h a n k s

a l s o t o a u d i e n c e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f M a r y l a n d , a t U N C - C h a p e l H i ll , a n d a t V i r g i n ia C o m -

m o n w e a l t h , a s w e l l a s to m e m b e r s o f t h e R e s e a r c h T r i an g l e M i n d a n d L a n g u a g e g r o u p ,

f o r u s e fu l d i s c u s s i o n s . W o r k o n t h i s p a p e r w a s p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d b y a f e l lo w s h i p f r o m t h e

Ins t i tu t e f o r t he Ar t s and H um ani t i e s a t UNC -Cha pe l Hi l l .

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Ac cep ted for publication in October 1993.

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Department o f Philosophy

3125 Caldwell Hall

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