BAHAN UAS KP.public Policy and Science-JARKOM

8/6/2019 BAHAN UAS KP.public Policy and Science-JARKOM

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Public Policy and Science

fadillah putra



Introduction� The study of public policy is firmly grounded in the study

of politics, which is as ancient as human civilization itself.

� Most of the ancient philosophers looked at politics ingeneral, theoretical ways.

�Platos Republic The search for justice. One of Platos objectivesin the Republic was to show that justice is worthwhilethat justaction is a good in itself, and that one ought to engage in justactivity even when it doesnt seem to confer immediateadvantage.

� Aristotles Politics - Since we see that every city-state is a sort of community and that every community is established for the sake

of some good (for everyone does everything for the sake of whatthey believe to be good), it is clear that every community aims atsome good, and the community which has the most authority of all and includes all the others aims highest, that is, at the goodwith the most authority. This is what is called the city-state orpolitical community. [I.1.1252a1-7]



Introduction

� Modern political theory.

� Niccolo Machiavelli.

� If we understand and plan the political actions wetake in pursuit of our goals, we are better preparedto seize the political opportunities that arise in thenormal course of political life.

� Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Weber,Durkheim.

� Focused on the exercise of power betweenindividuals, families, groups, communities, and thevarious levels of government.



Introduction

� The systematic study of public policy is a 20th

century phenomenon.

� Dates to 1922, when political scientist Charles Merriamsought to connect the theory and practice of politics to

understanding the actual activities of government, that

is, public policy.

� Nevertheless, most of the literature on public policydates back only about 50 years.



Introduction

� The study of public policy is the examination of thecreation, by the government, of the rules, laws, goals, andstandards that determine what government does or does

not do to create resources, benefits, costs, and burdens.� In studying public policy, we focus on those decisions

made (or implicitly accepted) by government andnongovernmental actors to address a problem that asignificant number of people and groups consider to beimportant and in need of a solution.



Introduction

� A major element of studying and

teaching public policy is the

reliance of policy studies on a

broad range of the social

sciences.



Introduction

Table 1.1. Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy

Discipline Description Relationship to

Public Policy

Some important

journals

Political Science The study of political

relationships; that is, the

study of the processes by

which societies seek to

allocate political power and

the benefits of such power,

The political process is the

process through which

policies are made and

enforced.

American Political Science

Review, American Journal

of Political Science, Journal

of Politics, Policy, Political

Research Quarterly, Public

Opinion Quarterly

Sociology Sociology is the study of

social life, social change,

and the social causes and

consequences of human

behavior. Sociologists

investigate the structure of

groups, organizations, and

societies, and how people

interact within these

contexts.

Community and group

activities are an important

part of policy making,

because groups of people

often form to make

demands.

American Sociological

Review, Contemporary

Sociology, Journal of

Sociology

Economics The study of the allocation

of resources in a

community, however

defined. Economists study

markets and exchanges.

Welfare economists seek to

understand the extent to

which an overall

community·s welfare can be

maximized.

There are many economic

factors that influence

public policy, such as

economic growth,

productivity, employment,

and the like. The tools of

economics are often used

to promote policies or to

explain why policies

succeed or fail.

American Economic

Review, Econometrica,

Journal of Applied

Economics, Journal of

Political Economy.



Introduction

Table 1.1. Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy

Discipline Description Relationship to

Public Policy

Some important

journals

Public

Administration

The study of the

management of government

and nonprofit organizations,

including the management

of information, money, and

personnel to achieve goals

developed through the

democratic process.

The management of public

programs is an integral part

of the policy process. PA

scholars study the

motivation of program

implementers and targets

and help research

innovations to improve

service delivery.

Public Administration

Review, Journal of Public

Administration Research

and Theory

Public PolicyThe study of what

governments choose to do

or not to do, including

studies of the policy

process, policy

implementation and impact,

and evaluation.

We give this label to the

highly interdisciplinary

study of the public policy

process. Policy scholars

develop theories about how

the policy process works

and develop tools and

methods to analyze how

policy is made and

implemented.

Journal of Policy Analysis

and Management, Journal

of Public Policy, Policy

Studies Review, Policy

Studies Journal, Journal of

Policy History



Introduction

� Because the field of public policy studies is sonew, it has yet to coalesce around a shared set of principles, theories, and priorities (paradigm).

� For public policy to be useful, we must bridge thegap between what academics know and howpractitioners and citizens use what we know tomake better policy (or better policy arguments).



Policy Science as Applied Science

� You may question whether policy is

science, but science is defined as the

state of knowing: knowledge rather than

ignorance or misunderstanding.

� The values of empirical science: the

number of teeth for men and women.




� Anecdotal evidence versus scientific evidence:The case of food stamps (discuss).

� The problem with anecdotes is that they are littletidbits of information that are unsystematicallygathered and that reflect the biases of the personrelating the story.

� Question: Is the food stamp program a failure?




� Scientific evidence (evaluation).� Compared to nonrecipients,

� Participants spend a larger portion of their total expenditures on all food items.

� Foods used at home by recipients have a greater monetary value per person and morenutrients per dollar.

� Recipients are more likely to shop for food on a monthly basis, resulting in betterplanning and lower transportation costs.

� The availability of twelve essential nutrients in the diet is higher for recipients.

� One dollar increase in food stamp benefits increases food expenditures between17 and 47 cents, whereas a dollar increase in income only increases foodexpenditures 5 to 10 cents.

� Information is:

� Peer-reviewed� Aggregate information rather than disconnected cases.

� Runs counter to common wisdom.




� Do food stamps work? Not necessarily.

� Difference between policy description and

policy advocacy.



Policy Studies as a Science

� We can say that the careful study of public

policy is scientific because it contributes

to knowledge by relying on methodological

rigor.

� Policy analysts share a commitment to

methodology, but not to any one particularmethod.




� Harold Lasswell argued that quantitative

analysis and the scientific method were

important elements of any policy science.

� But, Lasswell recognized that you must

combine quantitative and qualitative

information.




� Lasswells recommendations for an empiricallydriven, methodologically rigorous, yet flexiblestyle of policy research has served as the basis for

policy studies in late 20th century.� But it is also driven by the desire to solve

problems.

� No common paradigm. Dye lists eight theoretical

traditions.� Most of these theories need testing.




� Theorizing is important, because they make

sense of ambiguous evidence, and they

develop concepts that apply to more thanone case.



Science, Rationality, and the

Policy Process� Policy analysis is an important component of

policy sciences.

�But researchers should keep rational analysis incontext: within the interplay of evidence, valueand belief systems of the participants, thestructure of the process, and the distribution of power.

� Most policy analysis is not value neutral. Problemidentification is rarely neutral, for example.



What Is Public Policy?

� Attributes common to various definitions of public policy.� The policy is made in the publics name.

� Policy is generally made or initiated by government.

� Policy is interpreted and implemented by public andprivate actors.

� Policy is what the government intends to do.

� Policy is what the government choosesnot

to do.



What Is Public Policy?

Table 1.2. Defining Public Policy

Definition Author

The term public policy always refers to the

actions of government and the intentions

that determine those actions.

Clarke E. Cochran, et al.

Public policy is the outcome of the struggle

in government over who gets what.

Clarke E. Cochran, et al.

Whatever governments choose to do or not

to do.

Thomas Dye

Public policy consists of political decisions

for implementing programs to achieve

societal goals.

Charles L. Cochran and Eloise F. Malone.

Stated most simply, public policy is the sum

of government activities, whether acting

directly or through agents, as it has an

influence on the life of citizens.

B. Guy Peters.



The Research-to-Policy Gap

� Large investments have been made in policy-relevant data collection and research.

� Yet, opportunities for increasing knowledge andputting data to use are often lost.

� Researchers and decision makers work in differentspheres.



How is the gap manifested?

� Stereotypes

� Assumptions about howdecisions are made



Researchers' Stereotypes of

Policymakers

y Uninterested or too busy to read

y Reach hasty conclusions

y Actions unsubstantiated by data

y Distrust survey and research findings

y Limited perspectivey Should be responsible for drawing

implications from the data



Policymakers Stereotypes of

Researchers

y Avoid policy implications of findings

y Prone to professional "faddism"

y Excessive use of technical jargon

y Inconclusive generalities about broad

theoretical matters

y Little appreciation of real problems and

data needs



Assumptions about Decision-making

� Practice rational decision-making

� Prioritize goals and objectives

� Examine alternative solutions

systematically� Choose alternatives that maximize goals

Researchers may assume that

policymakers:



Policymaking is Not Linear

PROBLEMSSOLUTIONS

POLITICS



A Window of Opportunity

for Policy Change

Window of

opportunityPOLITICS

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS



Moving the Spheres Together

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

POLITICS

Agenda

Setting





Characteristics of Issues that Get on

the PolicyA

genda

� Clear, measurable indicators

� Policy champions� Feasible policy or program

alternatives

� Attention-focusing events



Agenda Setting Activities

� Press conferences and other kinds of

support for journalists

� Public events, seminars and speeches

� One-on-one meetings with policymakers



Coalition Building

Links together individuals from

yGovernment

yThe academic community

yThe media

yNGOs and advocacy groupsyBusinesses



Coalition Building Activities

� Create and/or facilitate media or

advocacy networks

� Provide information to existing

networks



Policy Learning

� The ongoing stream of information

to policymakers

� An understanding by all actors of

complex power relations andchanging institutionalarrangements



Policy Learning Activities

� Policy analyses

� Publications� Electronic communications

(websites, CD-roms, e-newsletters)

� Seminars and briefings



Crafting the Policy Message

Policy communication messages

yderive directly from the datayhelp decision makers to

understand policy implications

and to make grounded policy

recommendations.



Research

Key

Findings

Recommendations

Implications

Research to Recommendations



Implications ar e:

� Broad statements that express a

direction, new information, or a

need implied by the findings.

� Analyses derived from two or more

findings.

� Guides to help the audience begin

to interpret the findings.



Making the Link to

Recommendations

Implications are a bridge from

your key findings to policyrecommendations.



Recommendations:

� Offer specific actions that you

urge a policymaker or program planner to take.

� Should start with an action &be S.M.A.R.T.



A S.M.A.R.T.

Recommendation Is:

� Specific

� Measurable� Action-oriented

� Realistic

� Timebound



Skilled Attendance at Delivery, by

Residence, India 1998-99

56

23

18

11

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Urba R ra

D r Tra e rse/m e

Sour e: OCR Ma r o, India Na iona Family Health Survey, Demographic and

Health Surveys.

Per cent of live bir ths



Implications� Rural women may be at significantly

higher risk of maternal death than

urban women because of the lowlevel of skill attendance at birth.

� A higher percentage of the urban

women who have skilled care rely ondoctors, which may result in higher

medical costs.



Recommendations� Within one year, conduct a behavior change

campaign in rural areas to increase

awareness of the importance of skilled care,

and in urban areas to build support for using

nurse/midwives.

� Within two years, expand the number of

trained nurse/midwives by 50%, and include acommunity service requirement to increase

the pool of skilled providers in rural areas.



Place of Delivery, by Education,

Peru 2000

15

29

8184

69

18

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

No ducation r imar ducation econdar +

Deliver at health f acility Deliver y at home

Sour ce: OCR er u Demographic and Health Sur vey.

er cent of live bir ths



Implication� Educational level is clearly related to

whether women in Peru deliver their

babies at home or in facilities, but onlythe most educated women rely on

facilities. Since women with primary

education are quite similar to those with

no education, programs need to targetboth groups to address their needs for

safe delivery.





Evaluating Policy Communications

Have policy communications activities :

� Helped your issues gain the attention

of policy makers;

� Enhanced coalition efforts to increasethe saliency of your issues; or

� Supported policy learning?



And UltimatelyThe Window of

Opportunity

Is there evidence of change in

� Policies,� Programs,

� Strategies, or� Resource allocation?



Need for Benchmarks

Coalition building Policy Learning

Agenda Setting

³best´

³wor st´



Initial Assessment

Coalition building

Agenda Setting

Policy Learning



Post-Intervention Assessment

Coalition Building:

No change

Agenda Setting:

Improved

Policy Learning:

Improved

Window open



In Summary

� Policy change is a complex, dynamic process.

� Research can play a key role but the research-to-

policy gap must be bridged.

� Agenda-setting, coalition building & policylearning are key elements in policy change.

� Effective policy communication depends on clearfindings, implications & recommendations.

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BAHAN UAS KP.public Policy and Science-JARKOM