AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING · downstream educational interventions across the life span Jenny Silburn and Geraldine Box 30 Innovations in bridging and foundation education

AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF ADULT LEARNING

Volume 48, Number 1, April 2008

3 From the co-editors’ desks Roger Harris and Lili-Ann Berg

Refereed articles

9 Travellingagainstthecurrent:anexaminationofupstreamanddownstreameducationalinterventionsacrossthelifespanJenny Silburn and Geraldine Box

30 InnovationsinbridgingandfoundationeducationinatertiaryinstitutionRae Trewartha

50 ExploringthecontributionofplaytosocialcapitalininstitutionaladultlearningsettingsPauline Harris and John Daley

71 Adulteducation,socialinclusionandculturaldiversityinregionalcommunitiesRob Townsend

93 Negotiatinglearningthroughstories:maturewomen,VETandnarrativeinquiryJeannie Daniels

Contents Australian Journal of Adult Learning


108 “Outofthecircle”:internationalstudentsandtheuseofuniversitycounsellingservicesPius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong

131 Acompetencyapproachtodevelopingleaders–isthisapproacheffective?Patricia Richards

Practice articles

145 TheemergenceofcontinuingeducationinChinaXiao ChenandGareth Davey

162 Literacyteachingmethodandpeacebuildinginmulti-ethniccommunitiesofNigeriaOmobola Adeloreand HenryMajaro-Majesty

Book reviews Peter Willis

188 Beyond humbug: transforming government engagement with Indigenous Australians(Dillon&Westbury)Eileen Willis

196 Intimacy, transcendence and psychology: closeness and openness in everyday life (Halling)Margaret Byrne

201 Rebalancing the social and economic: learning, partnership and place (eds.Duke,Osborne&Wilson)Errol Lawson

Inclusion and Diversity

InthelatestissueoftheCambridge Journal of Education,Appleby(2008:135)statesthatsocialinclusionis‘ahighlycontestednotion…itallowsdiscussionwhichisbroaderthansimplypovertyormaterialdeprivation.Importantly,itcanencompassdiscussionaboutsocialjusticeaswellassocialandcommunitycohesion’.InSouthAustralia,ithasforsometimebeenthenameofagovernmentalunit,andrecentlyithasalsoappearedatthefederallevel.ItisthereforetimelythatthisissueoftheAustralian Journal of Adult Learningexploresthisnotionofsocialinclusion,particularlywithinthecontextofincreasingculturaldiversityinadulteducation.Whileadmittedlynot all contributions fit neatly into this theme, and they were not necessarilyselectedfortheirintensiveinterrogationofthesenotionsper se, nevertheless one can recognise significant connections in their discussionsandthepaperscollectivelyoffermanyvaluableinsightsforadulteducatorsandproviders.

The first two papers embrace the subject of enabling courses, focusingontheunder-representationofcertaingroupsinhighereducationsuchasstudentswithdisadvantagedbackgroundsorthoseunder-preparedfortertiarystudy.Thenexttwoexaminesocial

FROM THE CO-EDITORS’ DESKS

4 Roger Harris and Lili-Ann Berg Co-editors’ desk �

capitalandthebuildingofitamongadultlearnersin,respectively,institutionalsettingsandregionalcommunities.Thefollowingtwofocus on specific groups of adult learners – mature-age women returningtostudy,andinternationalstudentsandtheirunder-useofuniversitycounsellingservices.TheseventhpaperraisesconcernsaboutthewaysinwhichleadersaretrainedinAustraliaandadvocatesabroaderapproachthaniscurrentlyemployed.ThetwopracticepapersconcentrateontheriseofcontinuingeducationinChinaasawayoffurthereducatingtechnicianswhileinemployment,andonthemethodsofliteracyteachingandpeacebuildingamongthepeoplesofNigeria.ThebooksreviewedinthisissuehighlightIndigenousAustraliansandtheneedforthemtobere-engagedbygovernments,mentallydisturbedpeopleandtheneedforthemtobeperceivedaspeopleratherthanproblems,andtheimportanceofsocial–notmerelyeconomic–outcomesbeingfactoredintopoliciesandpractices.

As was flagged in last year’s November issue of this journal, two morepapersthatwerepresentedattheSecondNationalConferenceforEnablingEducators,Enabling Education: What Works?heldinJuly2007,areincludedinthisAprilissue.Theconference,hostedbytheUniversityofNewcastle,attractedpresentersfromeverystateinAustralia,aswellasfromNewZealand,theUnitedKingdomandSouth Africa. Such participant diversity gave it a significant national andinternationalfocusonthetheoreticalandpracticalissuesthatareuniquelyrelatedtothedesignanddeliveryofsuccessfulprogramsand learning outcomes in this educational field. The papers offered attheconferencedealtwithawidevarietyofaspectsinbridgingand enabling education, its many influences, prospects and future challenges.Educatorsandotherprofessionalsinvolvedindomestic,internationalandIndigenousfoundationprogramsweregivenagreatopportunitytomeet,networkandsharetheircommoninterestinthemethods,policiesandpedagogiesofadultandlifelonglearning.

Oneofthemoreimportantoutcomesoftheconferencewasthepossibilityoftheestablishmentofanationalassociationofenabling

educators,toencouragefurtherresearchanddevelopmentofthisparticularacademicendeavour,whichhastodateremainedasadlyneglected‘fringedweller’withinthegreaterprovinceoftertiaryeducation.Thetwopapersincludedinthisissueexplorecomplexquestionsregardingequityandequalityinadultlearningenvironmentsanddifferentpathwaystosuccessfullearningoutcomes.

Jenny Silburn andGeraldine BoxexamineanequityprogramatMurdochUniversityinWesternAustraliaintheirpaper,whichsetsouttoshowthatincreasingaccessdoesnotnecessarilymeananincrease in benefit. Their argument reinforces the need to establish aframeworktoaddresstheunder-representationofcertaingroupsinhighereducationthatneedspecialsupportandtheprovisionofavarietyofentrypathwaystotertiaryeducation.Thepaperexploresarangeofquestionsregardingsocialandeconomiccircumstancesofstudentswithdisadvantagedbackgroundsandprovidesvaluabledatathat will benefit other researchers in this particular field.

ThepaperbyRae Trewartha drawsattentiontotheimportanttaskofprovidingstudentswiththedisciplineknowledgeandacademicliteracytheyneedinordertoadvancetothenextlevelofstudyasindependent,criticallearners–asstudentswhoknow‘howtolearn’.ThepaperisbasedonareviewofcurrentbridgingandfoundationprogramsatUnitec,NewZealand,thatgrewoutoftheneedtoaddressissuesrelatedtotheincreasingnumberofunder-preparedstudentsenteringtertiaryeducation.Thereport,onwhichthispaperisbased,examinedstructuresatonlyonetertiaryinstitution,butitsconclusionsneverthelessmakeasubstantialcontributiontothewiderfield of enabling education.

Thenexttwopapersaregroupedbecausetheybothfocus,albeitwithquitedifferentemphases,onthebuildingofsocialcapital.Pauline HarrisandJohn Daleyinvestigatethroughtheiractionresearchhowplayasaneducationaltoolcanenhancesocialcapitalforadultlearnersininstitutionalsettings.Theirdifferentsettings

� Roger Harris and Lili-Ann Berg Co-editors’ desk �

areauniversityearlychildhoodprogramandatechnicalandfurthereducation(TAFE)programofferingcommunicationmodulestotradeandgenerallearners.Developingactivitiesandmaterialsthatemphasisedplay,andgatheringdatathroughobservationanddialogue,theauthorsexplorelinksbetweenplayandsocialcapital.and illustrate these with specific scenarios.Theydemonstratehowqualitiesofplayhavethepotentialtopromotelearningthroughenrichingadultlearners’engagement,cooperationandsenseofconnectedness.Indoingso,thepaperraisesquestionsaboutthebridgesthatadulteducatorscanbuildfromplaytootherkindsofadult learning approaches, and the part reflective dialogue between adulteducatorsandlearnershasinconstructingthesebridges.

Inaverydifferentsetting, Rob Townsendresearcheshowpeoplefromdiverseculturalbackgroundscanutiliseadultcommunityeducationasaspacetoexploretheirownsocialandculturalisolation.HissettingisaregionalcommunityinnorthernVictoria.Thispaperexamines the roles that adult providers can have in creating specific kindsofspaceforpeopletodiscovernewsocialnetworkswhileinteractingwithinformalandformalstructuresandprocessesofadultlearning.Thewarningisthattheycanalsomanagetheirspacesandprogramsinsuchawaythatexcludessomepeoplefromsocialandeconomicactivitycrucialtothedevelopmentofindividualandcommunitysocialcapital.Theauthorthusdrawsattentiontowhathecallsthe‘tentativeandquestionable’linkbetweenpopulationdiversity,adulteducationandsocialcapitaldevelopment–alinkthatisoften‘assumedratherthantested’–andconcludeswithsuggestionsforaddressingchallengesfacingadultandcommunityeducationprovidersinaccommodatingindividualsandgroupsexperiencingculturalandsocialinequity.

Jeannie Danielsusesnarrativeinquirytoinvestigateindepththelearningexperiencesofmaturewomenlearnersinvocationaleducationandtraining(VET).Interviewswithtwelvewomenfurnishedrichstoriesoflearningthatshedlightonhowthesewomen

wereableto‘contextualisetheireverydayintotheirVETlearning’.ShearguesthatwithinVETresearchthereisaneedtopaymoreattentiontothevoicesofmaturewomenlearners,whobringtotheiradultlearning‘richanddiverse,yetoftenunacknowledged,lifeexperiences’.Further,sheadvocatesfortheuseofstoriesforre-conceptualisinglearningasanon-goingandintegratedprocessthatmustbeunderstoodwithintheeverydaycontextsofwomen’slives.Thiswouldnotonlyenrichadulteducators’understandingoftheirlearnersandtherebyinformprovision,butalsohelpmakeVETmorerelevanttoalllearners.

Alsofocusingonthelivedexperiencesoflearners,Pius AngandPranee Liamputtongexaminetheadjustmentexperiencesofinternational students from Mainland China in their first year of universitystudyinAustralia.LikeDaniels,theseauthorscontendthatthereisneedforaricherunderstandingoftheexperiencesofparticular groups of adult learners which can allow, specifically in this case,universitycounsellingservicestodeveloppoliciesandpracticestobetteraddresslearnerneeds.Throughin-depthinterviewingofeightparticipantsinMelbourne,thepaperisolatedthreemainthemes: difficulties with spoken English to express emotions and feelings,continueduseoftraditionalnetworkstodealwithproblemsandlackofknowledgeofuniversitycounsellingservices.TheyclaimthattheirresultsmaybeapplicabletootherinternationallearnerswhostudyinAustralia.

Thelastrefereedpaperaddressesanothergroupoflearners–leadersandtheirdevelopment.Patricia Richardsarguesthatcompetency-basedframeworks,thoughwidelyadopted,maynotbethemostappropriateindevelopingleadersinworkenvironmentsasthecomplexityofleadershipdemandsbothcompetenciesandqualities.DrawingoninterviewswithseniorleadersintwelvediversecompaniesinNewSouthWalesandVictoria,theauthorfoundthatadulteducatorscanplayakeyroleinshowinghoweducationalinterventionscanhelpanindividualbecomeabetterleader;however,theyareconstrainedbythecharacteristicsoftheindividualandthe

8 Roger Harris and Lili-Ann Berg Australian Journal of Adult Learning


environmentinwhichtheyareoperating.Therefore,adulteducatorsshouldnot‘staysafebehindamatrixofcompetencystandards’butratherquestiontheoutputsoftheirworkandhowbesttheycanadaptatheoreticalbasetosuittheneedsofindividualsandorganisations.Sustainableleadershipdevelopmentrequiresamulti-tieredapproachthatcanbearthescrutinyofrobustresearch.

Finally,thepracticepapersfocusonadultlearningintwodiverseinternationalcontexts–ChinaandNigeria.Xiao ChenandGareth DaveyexplaintheemergenceanddevelopmentofcontinuingeducationinChina,itscharacteristicsanditslimitations.Itisarelativelyrecentphenomenoninthatcountry,becomingavailableinthe1980sfortrainingspecialisttechnicians,thoughnowwideningitsambit to include government officials, public service leaders, teachers andthegeneralpublic.Itisbecomingverypopularbecauseoftherapidlydevelopingeconomyanditsneedforaskilledworkforce.Butdifficulties remain that need to be addressed, and the paper offers sixrecommendationstopromotefurtherdevelopment.Omobola Adelore andHenry Majaro-Majestyexaminepeace-buildingprojectsandprogramsinNigeriawherethediversityinherentinmulti-ethnic communities leads too readily to conflict and violence. The high illiteracy level is identified as one major factor. Accordingly, theauthorsdevelopafunctionalliteracymodelforpeace-buildinginwhichtheroleofthefacilitatoriscriticallyimportant.Theyoffertheirmodelasameansof(a)promotingpeace,(b)developingliteracyskillsand(c)buildingcapacity‘tousesocio-culturalandpolitical structures to pursue human rights, fight inequality, prosecute injusticeanddemanddevelopmentinfrastructure’.

Dr Roger HarrisCentre for Research in Education, Equity and Work

University of South Australia

and

Dr Lili-Ann BergEnglish Language and Foundation Studies Centre

University of Newcastle

Travelling against the current: an examination of upstream and downstream educational interventions

across the life span

Jenny Silburn and Geraldine BoxMurdoch University

Current social and economic circumstances are presenting universities with a more diverse general student intake whose support needs are increasingly similar to those of traditionally defined equity groups. This paper examines a Murdoch University equity program to demonstrate that simply increasing access does not always translate into increased benefit. It presents an argument for the restructuring of existing equity enabling programs and increasing transitional support for all students to achieve more substantive equality in student outcomes.

A fair chance for all: policy implications

Australiahasnotalwayshadtheratesofentrytotertiaryeducationcurrentlyexperienced.In1939,thetotalnumberofstudentsat

10 Jenny Silburn and Geraldine Box Travelling against the current: an examination of upstream and downstream

educational interventions across the life span 11

Australianhighereducationinstitutionswas14,000(CommonwealthofAustralia1996:9).By2003,therewere719,555domesticstudentsenrolledinAustralianuniversities(CommonwealthofAustralia2004:11).Thisincreasewasmostpronouncedduringthe1990swhenacombinationofpopulationincrease,communityexpectationsandgovernmentpolicyreviewallcontributedtoincreasedstudentenrolments.Themovementfromelitetomassparticipationintertiarystudyalsobroughtaboutgreaterdiversityinthestudentpopulation.However,theunder-representationofcertainpopulationgroupssuggestedthatmorewouldhavetobedonetoincreaseequalityofopportunity.

TheHigher education report for the 2004 to 2006 triennium ‘madeacommitmenttothedevelopmentofalong-termstrategythatwouldmakeequityobjectivesacentralconcernofhighereducationmanagement,planningandreview’(CommonwealthofAustralia2004:11).

Followingthis,TheNationalBoardofEmployment,EducationandTrainingandTheHigherEducationCounciljointlypreparedadiscussionpaperontheissuesto:

• define the overall national equity objective for higher education• set national objectives and targets for each of the groups identified

asdisadvantagedgainingaccesstohighereducation• presentarangeofstrategiesforeachdisadvantagedgrouptoassist

institutionsinplanning• setouttheresponsibilitiesofbothGovernmentandinstitutionsin

achievingnationalequitystandards(CommonwealthofAustralia2004:11).

ThisestablishedaframeworkfortheHigherEducationPolicytoaddresstheunder-representationofcertaingroupsinhighereducation. In 1990 the policy and action plan set out to define particulargroupswhichwereunder-represented.Thesewere:

• women (later re-defined as women in non-traditional fields of study)

• AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople• peoplefromlowsocio-economicstatusbackgrounds(SES)• peoplewithdisabilities• peoplefromruralandisolatedareas• peoplefromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds(NESB)whohad

beeninAustralialessthan10yearsandspokealanguageotherthanEnglishathome.

Fromthetimeofthereleaseofthe1990policy,thesegroupshaveremainedthefocusofuniversities’equityaccessandsupportprograms, although most institutions have identified and prioritised specific target groups from within the original list of six.

Duringthepast20years,theprincipalapproachtakentoredressingunder-representationoftheseparticularequitygroupshasbeenthroughtheintroductionofspecialaccessandsupportprograms.Someprogramstargetaparticularequitygroup,othershaveamoregeneralequityfocus.Thesespecialprogramsworktoimprovetherates of access and support for people from the identified equity groups.Therationaleunderpinningthisapproachisthat‘byprovidingpracticalaccessandsupportschemes[thiswillleadto]amore balanced student profile and the benefits of higher education [will] flow to a more widely diverse group of individuals and to society’(CommonwealthofAustralia1996:10).

Equalityatthetimeoftheintroductionofthisnationalapproachin1990wasseenasequaltreatmentofallpeople,regardlessofcircumstances.Theexpectationwasthatprovisionofequalopportunitythroughequitybridging/enablingprogramswouldensuresimilaroutcomesforallstudents.‘Sameness’oftreatmentwasequatedwith‘fairness’oftreatment.However,equalityintheseterms‘doesnottakeintoaccounttheaccumulateddisadvantageofgenerationsofdiscriminationorthedisadvantagefacedbygroupsby



asystemthatfailstorecognisedifferentneeds’(WesternAustralianDepartmentofPremierandCabinetn.d.:6).

SubstantiveEquality[bycontrast]involvesequitableoutcomesaswellasequalopportunity.Ittakesintoaccounttheeffectsofpastdiscrimination.Itrecognisesthatrights,entitlements,opportunitiesandaccessarenotequallydistributedthroughoutsociety.Substantiveequalityrecognisesthatequalorthesameapplicationofrulestounequalgroupscanhaveunequalresults…henceitisnecessarytotreatpeopledifferentlybecausepeoplehavedifferentneeds(WesternAustralianDepartmentofPremierandCabinetn.d.:6).

Equity and social justice form one of four defining themes to which MurdochUniversityiscommitted.Thustheinstitutionhasfrom1990givenhighprioritytodevelopingkeystrategiestoaddressaccessandsupportforpeoplefromtheequitygroups.Oneofthosestrategiesistheprovisionforavarietyofentrypathwaystouniversitystudy,particularly for those people from the defined equity groups. In 1990, the University established the first of its alternative entry programs, UniQuest,aone-week,full-time,on-campus‘taster’andassessmentcourseforpeoplefromoneormoreoftheabovecategories.

By1997,theUniversitydecidedthatitrequiredanadditionalandmoreextensiveprogramto‘bridge’peoplefromtheequitygroupsintoundergraduatestudy.Thisprogram,entitledUniAccess,wasafour-week,full-timeenablingcoursewhichprovidedEnglishasSecondLanguageclassesandbroaderexposuretothecampuslearningenvironment.Frominception,participantswerepredominantlyfemales(70percent),soleparentsorotherlow-incomepensionholderswithincompletehighschooleducation.

Inthelasttwoyears,however,UniAccesshasattractedaprogressivelymorediversegroupofequitystudents(seeFigure1below).ThisischaracterisedbyalargerrepresentationofpeoplefromNon-EnglishSpeakingBackgrounds(NESB)predominatelythoseonRefugeeorHumanitarianVisas,requiringEnglishasSecondLanguagesupport.

Two other significant changes have also recently emerged in the makeupofthecohortaccessingtheUniAccessprogram.Firstly,anincreasingnumberofparticipants(45percentin2004)arelikelytohavecompletedaYear12orequivalentoverseaslevel,thoughmosthavenotstudiedtertiaryentrysubjects.ThisvariationcanbeseeninboththeAustralian-bornparticipantsandthoseonRefugeeorHumanitarianVisas.

ThesecondrecentdemographicchangeoccurringintheUniAccessprogramintakebetween1997and2005istheincreasedlevellingofthemaletofemaleratio.Fromitsinception,therehasbeena40:60ratiointheUniAccessprogram.However,inthe2004program,therewere57percentofmalesregisteredasparticipantsand,in2005,therewasanequalgenderdistributionof50percent.ThismovetoahighernumberofmaleparticipantsinUniAccessislargelyaccountedforbytheincreasingintakesofRefugeeandHumanitarianVisaholders,mostofwhomaremaleandfromtheSudan.Whiletherearestronghumanitarianandequityconsiderationsastowhythesestudentsshouldbegrantedopportunitiesforuniversitystudy,theireducationaloutcomeshavebeendisappointinglypoor(seeFigure2below).

Num

ber of Participants

Year

UniAccess 2001–2005 Equity Composition

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

50

40

30

20

10

0

LowSES

ATSI

Disability

R & I

NESB

Refugee

First

Male

Female

Figure 1: Composition of the UniAccess program (2001–2005)


educational interventions across the life span 1�

In the cohort of students entering their first year of university study in2002,10percentofthepopulationcompletedtheirundergraduatedegreeby2006.However,62percentofthiscohortdiscontinuedby2006.Inthe2003cohort,nostudentshavegraduatedandthepercentageofstudentswhohavediscontinuedis59.2percent.

Figure 3: UniAccess 2001–2006 (current status by cohort year)

Status

Com

ple

ted

Com

ple

ted

an

d

con

tin

uin

g

En

roll

ed

Dis

con

tin

ued

Inte

rmit

ten

t

Inac

tive

Tot

al

2001Count%withincohort

25.3%

37.9%

718.4%

2668.4%

0 0 38100%


510.0%

36.0%

1020.0%

3162.0%

0 12.0%

50100%


0 0 1632.7%

2959.2%

24.1%

24.1%

49100%


0 0 2859.6%

1327.7%

0 612.8%

47100%


0 0 4071.4%

1119.6%

35.4%

23.6%

56100%


0 0 4797.9%

0 0 12.1%

48100%

Inthe2005cohort,thepercentageofstudentswhohasdiscontinuedis19.6percent.Thisiscomparabletothenationalattritionrateofcommencingundergraduatestudentsestimatedtobe22percent(DEST2000).However,ifwetrackthesestudentsoverathree-yearperiodoftime,thecompletionandcontinuingratesoftheseundergraduatestudentsisfarlesssatisfactorythanthemainstreamcohort.The(former)DepartmentofEducation,Scienceand

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Completed

Completed andcontinuingEnrolledDiscountedIntermittentInactive

Figure 2: UniAcess entrants 2001–2006(enrolment/completion ststus as of March 2006)

UniAcess — current status by cohort year

Status

Figure 2: UniAccess entrants 2001–2006 (enrolment/completion status as of March 2006)

1� Jenny Silburn and Geraldine Box Travelling against the current: an examination of upstream and downstream


Training(2001)calculatedthatthecompletionrateforthe1993cohortofundergraduatestudentsnewtohighereducationwas62.2percent,which,comparedwiththeUniAccesscompletionrateforstudentscommencingtheirundergraduatestudiesin2002,was10percent.

Thequestiontheniswhythisshouldbethecase,giventhelevelofinvestmentandsupportcurrentlyprovidedtothesestudentsfromequitybackgrounds.

Educational investment for substantive equality

JamesHeckman,the2000NobelLaureateinEconomics,hasrecentlypresentedevidencewhichchallengescurrentpolicythinkingintheUSA,Australiaandotherdevelopednationsregardingthecost-efficiency of the range of public sector investments now made to overcomeeducationaldisadvantage.ThisevidenceisbasedonUSAnationallongitudinaldataandsuggeststhattheresourcesavailabletoyoungpeopleintheiryearsofuniversityattendanceplayonlyasmallroleinexplainingthesocio-economicandethnicdifferentialsinobservedratesofuniversityenrolmentandsuccessfulcompletion.TherelevanceofHeckman’sargumentstotheAustraliancontextisin showing what economic efficiency analysis adds to the traditional argumentsforinvestmentintheeducationalopportunitiesandskilldevelopmentofdisadvantagedgroups.Untilveryrecently,thesehavemostlybeenmadeonthegroundsoffairnessandsocialjustice.

Forexample,thetertiaryeducationalreformsinitiatedinthiscountrytoprovide‘A fair chance for all’(DEST1990) were basedontheargumentthatprovidingaccesstotertiaryeducationwouldenablestudentstoenjoyequalopportunities.However,increasingaccesshasnotalwaystranslatedintoincreasingopportunitytoparticipateor benefit. The value of Heckman’s thesis is in how it widens the frameofreferenceforconsideringcurrentAustraliantrendsin

highereducationenrolments,andtheparticipationandoutcomesofstudentsinmainstreamandequityprograms.

Accordingtothe2006reportoftheCouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG),Australianowhasamuchlowerproportionof adults in the workforce with a base qualification equivalent to Year 12thanmostotherOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)countries.ThisreportcitesrecentAustralianevidenceshowingincreasededucationalattainmentistheprincipaldeterminantofpeople’seconomicprospectsandlifechancesintermsoftheirparticipationandproductivity(AccessEconomics,citedinCOAG2005).Studiesofearningsineconomicallyadvancedcountries,including Australia, show the cumulative benefits of successive years ofeducation.Typically,eachextrayearofeducationraisespersonalearnings by five to ten percent (Dorwick 2003).

Governmentsarenowrealisingthatworkerswithhigherskillsalsocontributetoproductivityindirectlybyfacilitatingtheintroductionofnewproducts,services,processesandtechnologies.Higherskillscontributenotonlytoproductivitylevelsbutalsotoproductivitygrowthrates.Learningbegetslearningfornations,aswellasindividuals.TheAccessEconomicsreport,citedbyCOAG,suggeststhatanadditionalyearofaverageschoolingincreasesannualproductivitygrowthratesbybetween0.3percentand0.8percent(COAG2006).

TheproblemthusfacingmoderndevelopedeconomiessuchastheUSA,theUnitedKingdomandAustraliaisthatthesupplyofskilledworkersissimplynotkeepingpacewithdemand.Thedilemmaforeducationalpolicyandpracticeishowtoincreasethissupplyinaneconomically efficient way. The rising costs of tertiary education have seenmuchoftherecentpolicydiscussionfocusingonthegapsinschoolingattainmentbyfamilyincomeasamajorcausalfactorinthepoorparticipationandachievementofdisadvantagedstudents.



Secondchanceremediationprograms,suchapublicly-fundedTAFEjobtrainingoralternateaccessentryprogramstouniversitystudy,havebeenseenasanotherrelativelylow-costandeffectivestrategytoovercomeearlydisadvantage.Socialtransfers(suchasAustudy)whichprovideeconomicsupporttofacilitatetheeducationalparticipationofcash-constrainedindividualsareanother.However,despitetheapparentintrinsicworthoftheseprograms,Heckman’sanalysissuggeststhatthesemeasuresareunlikelytohavemucheffectinreducingdisparitiesineducationaloutcomesatthepopulationlevelunlessmorefundamentalreformsarealsomadeinincentivestoeducationearlierinthelifecycle.

ThereviewbyCarneiroandHeckman(2003)oftheUSA’slongitudinaldatasuggeststhatfavourableeducationaloutcomesinchildrenandadultsarecriticallydependentonsettingsandresourcesthatfosterintellectual,socialandemotionaldevelopmentlongbeforestudentsenteruniversity.Theyconcludethatthelonger-termfactorssuchasparentalenvironmentsandfamilyincomeavailabletochildrenovertheirentirelife-cyclearefarmoredecisiveinpromotinguniversityreadinessandsocialattachmentthanfamilyincomeintheadolescentyears.‘Betterfamilyresourcesinachild’sformativeyearsareassociatedwithhigherqualityofeducationandbetterenvironmentsthatfostercognitiveandnon-cognitiveskills’(Carneiro&Heckman,2003:11).Thisanalysisconcludesthatthereisa‘highreturnfromearlyinterventionsandalowreturntoremedialorcompensatoryinterventionslaterinthelifecycle’(Carneiro&Heckman,2003:1).Furthermore,theirevidenceregardingthereturnonearlypublicinvestmentindisadvantagedchildrenintermsofearninggainsshowthatthesemaybeashighas15–17percentperdollarinvested.Themagnitudeofthesegainsissuchthattheysuggestthatitispossibletoavoidtheequity-efficiencytrade-offthatplaguessomanypolicies–forexample,taxpolicyorwelfarepolicy.

Heckman’sevidencehasclearlybeenunderstoodbyAustraliangovernmentsiftheemphasisinthe2006COAGreportonstrategies

forinvestmentinhumancapitalformationisanythingtogoby.ThisnewdirectioninAustralianeducationalpolicy,asarticulatedinthe2006 COAG report, is underpinned by recent scientific evidence oftheroleof‘experiencebased’braindevelopmentinearlylifeandtheextenttowhichthisispredictiveofchildren’strajectoriesofdevelopmentinhealth,educationandsocialisation.Oneoftheworld’sleadingresearchersintothisaspectofhumandevelopmentisProfessorFraserMustardfromtheCanadianInstituteforAdvancedResearch.

Ina2006reportcommissionedbytheWorldBank,hestates:Toachieveequityincompetence,copingskillsandhealthwillrequireapplicationsofthenewunderstandingofhowtheearlyyearsofchilddevelopment,particularlybraindevelopment,settrajectoriesthataffecthealth(physicalandmental)learningandbehaviourthroughoutthelifecycle(Mustard2006:2).

Ifweextrapolatetheseinsightstothetertiaryeducationsector,whatdotheysuggestforthewayinwhichequityandalternativeaccessprogramscurrentlyoperate?Theconvergenteducational,neuro-developmental and economic findings cited by human development theoristssuchasMustardandHeckmansuggestthat,intheirpresentform,theseenablingprogramsdonotreallyofferequalopportunity,noraretheylikelytoensuremoreequitableoutcomes.Most,butnotall,studentswhocomefromlowsocio-economicbackgrounds,fromAboriginalandTorresStraitbackgrounds,fromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds,fromremoteandruralareasorstudentswithdisabilities,havegenerallylesscapacitytosucceedintheuniversityenvironmentbecausetheyaremuchmorelikelythanotherstudentstohavehadtheirlearningcompetenciescompromisedbyearlychildhoodfactors.Untilsuchtimethatearlychildhoodinterventionprogramsaremorewidelyimplementedinthiscountry,itisevidentthatuniversitiesmustcontinuetoaddresstheseissuesbytreatingstudentsdifferentlybecausestudentshavedifferinglearning,socialandeconomicneeds.



InreviewingtheoutcomedataforMurdochUniversity’sequityprograms over the past five years, it is clear that in a disappointing numberofcaseswehavenotbeenabletoredressthecumulativedisadvantagewhichthesegroupshaveexperienced(seeFigure2above).Givenourunderstandingofthemanyfactorswhichoperatetoenhanceorweakeneducationaloutcomes,whatinitiativesshouldwebeundertakingintheuniversitysettingtopromotemoreequitableresults?

What can be learned from other countries?

Anexaminationofpracticesandpoliciesinothersettingsisinstructiveinseekingtoanswerthisquestion.Post-apartheidSouthAfricaprovidessomeusefulpointersastohowstudentsfromdisadvantagedbackgroundscansucceedintheuniversitycontext.InthenewSouthAfrica,universitieshavebeenconfrontedwiththechallengeofprovidingaccesstolargenumbersofstudentsfrompoorscholasticandsocio-economicbackgrounds.

MostuniversitiesinSouthAfricaoffertwotypesofbridgingprogram:

The first is where students are able to complete their first yearintwoyearswithoutincurringanyfundingpenaltyfortheuniversity[and]thesecondisabridgingprogramwherestudentswhodonotqualifyforuniversityentranceonthegroundsoftheirpoorscholasticresults,repeatGrade12(ataspecialinstitutecalledSCIMATHUSrunbytheuniversity)inaprogramdesignatedtoclosethegapbetweenthelevelofcompetenceofthestudentandtheminimumrequirementsforuniversityentrance(Page,Loots&DuToit,2005:7).

AnotherinterventionthathasprovedsuccessfulintheSouthAfricancontexthasbeentheintroductionofpeersupportprogramstoassiststudentswhoareeducationallyinadequatelypreparedforuniversitystudies.IntheMedicalFacultyofStellenboschUniversity,topstudents in their second year of studies act as tutor mentors to first

yearstudents,whilethirdyearstudentsmentorsecondyearstudentswhoareatriskoffailing.Thetutoringaspectofthementoringschemehasbeenshowntobeessentialtothesuccessoftheprogram(Page,Loots&DuToit2005:7).

A particularly promising approach, which has shown significant benefit to students in their first year of university study, is that developedintheUSAbyTinto(2005).Hisworkhasdemonstratedthat students (particularly under-served students) benefit greatly fromtheavailabilityoflearningcommunities,whichservetobuildsupportacrossthecurriculumandbetweenacademicstaffandstudentsupportservices.Theselearningcommunitiesfeatureaminimumoftwounitstiedtoeachotherbyanoverarchingtheme.Forexample,athememightbe‘ThepresentationofraceinAmerica’.TheconnectedunitswouldbeaunitinCommunications,aunitinWritingandoneinUSHistory.Ateamspecialisinginthedifferentareaswouldteachstudentsand,inthisway,students’skillsaredevelopedandmonitoredbydedicatedteachingstaff.HisworkhasshownthatthesecommunitiesprovidetheconditionsforstudentsuccessandanumberofuniversitiesintheUSAhavere-organisedprograms so that learning communities are intrinsic to the first year experience.

Interventionssuchasthis,whileinitiallytime-consumingandlabour-intensive, have shown significant benefits to all students making the transition into university. Tinto has reported findings from a meta-analysisofseveralrecentUSstudiescomparingthetransitionaloutcomes of students participating in first year college programs organisedaroundlearningcommunitieswiththoseofstudentsincomparison programs. This showed the average first year pass-rate of studentsinlearningcommunitieswas76.6percentincontrastto55.9percentinthecomparisonprograms,andtheaveragecontinuationratewas57percentand41percentrespectively(Tinto2005).



Giventhegreaterdiversityofneedwithinthemainstreamstudentpopulationaswellastheincreasedlearningsupportneedsofexistingequitygroups,universitiesmustconsidernewwaysinwhichenablingprograms and transitional support for first year students can be more effectivelydelivered.

Initiatives at Murdoch University

In2004MurdochUniversitycreatedanewsenioracademicpositiondesignedtofacilitatethedevelopmentandimprovementofallenablingprograms(includingequityprograms),determinetheirefficacy and recommend policy initiatives to benefit students entering universitythroughalternativeaccessprograms.

Priortothecreationofthisposition,acomparativeanalysisoftheoutcomesofalltheenablingprogramshadnotbeenundertaken.TheUniAccessdatapresentedinthispaperbroadlyrepresenttheratesofretentionandattritionseenintheotherenablingprograms.Overall,thesuccessandcompletionratesofthesestudentsarepoorincomparisontostudentswhoenteruniversitythroughmainstreamavenues(principally,theTertiaryEntranceExaminationinWesternAustralia).

Combininganoverviewofthedatawithaclearerunderstandingofstudents’academicneedshaspresenteduswiththeopportunitytoconsideralternativestotheprogramsweofferstudents.Intheshortterm,thechangeddemographicofthestudentpopulationwithanincreasinglydiversecohortofstudentsintheUniAccessprogramhasdemandedtheintroductionofarangeofsupportstoencouragesuccessfultransition.Theseincludeadditionalone-on-onetutoring,andvariousotheraccommodationstoensurethatstudentscansuccessfullyaccessacademicmaterialsandthelearningenvironment.Thesecurrentinterventions,particularlyastheyrelatetostudentswhose first language is not English, are neither cost effective nor sustainableinthelongterm.

Itisanticipatedthatexpandingthecurrentfour-weekUniAccessprogramtoasemesterprogramwouldallowstudentstodevelopacademicskillsmorefullyandacquireanunderstandingoftheuniversityculture.Itwouldalsoenablestudentstogainabroaderinsight into courses and the requirements of specific disciplines. ArecentstudyconductedbytheUniversityofMelbourne’sCentrefortheStudyofHigherEducationonbehalfoftheDepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTrainingfoundonethirdofstudentssurveyedin2004feltill-preparedtochooseauniversitycourse(Campus Review2006:3).Thisisparticularlythecaseforstudentsfromlowsocio-economic backgrounds, first generation students and non-Englishspeakingbackgroundstudentsastheygenerallyhaveapoorunderstandingofcourseexpectationsandthecareerpossibilitiespotentiallyavailable.

Anexpandedequityenablingprogramwouldalsoallowforthedevelopmentofinformationandcomputertechnologyskills.Thisisessentialasstudentswhoarelocatedunderan‘equity’banneralsohavecommonalitieswithallstudentswhomAnderson(2006:2)calls‘thenewmillenniumstudent,whoistypicallyenrolledfull-time, working up to 20 hours per week and spending less than five hoursperweekoncampusotherthanforcourserequirements’.Oncestudentshaveembarkedontheirundergraduatedegree,theircapacitytoundertakesupplementaryskillscoursesislimitedandatMurdochUniversitywehaveseenthatfailuretoacquiretheseskillsgreatly affects a student’s capacity to achieve in the first year. This cancontributetotheirdecisiontodiscontinuetheirstudiesbeforethecompletionofafulltwosemesters.

InOctober2007,havingtakenintoaccounttheabove-mentionedconsiderations,MurdochUniversitypilotedatwelve-weekenablingprogramcalled OnTrack.Theprogramhasreplacedtheexistingnon-indigenousenablingprogramsacrossallthreecampuses.OnTrack isdividedintothreemodules,eachofwhichisfourweeksinduration.



Studentsarerequiredtoattendclassesoncampusforthreedaysperweek.AfourthdayhasbeensetasideforthosestudentswhorequireEnglishlanguagesupport.

Module One: ‘Footprints’: engaging with university life, culture and discoursesThisisthefoundationalmodulefortheprogram,whichintroducesstudentstotheuniversity,itscultureandexpectationsandencouragesstudentstobegindevelopingtheskillstheywillrequirefortertiarystudies.

Module Two: ‘Sustainable Living’: engaging with different knowledge communities and discoursesThismoduleencouragesstudentstodevelopaclearerunderstandingof the specific disciplines and courses they will undertake in their undergraduateprogram,whileatthesametimefurtherdevelopingtheiracademiccompetencies.

Module Three: ‘Sustainable Learning’: engaging in specialist knowledges and further development of research skillsThismoduleprovidesstudentswithopportunitiestorehearselearnedskillsandapplytheminpracticalandusefulways.Studentsatthisstageoftheprogramarerequiredtoundertakesomeresearchprojectswhicharerelevanttotheirintendedcourseofstudy.

What we hope to achieve through an extended enabling program

Studentswhocomefromeducationallydisadvantagedbackgroundsneedtimetointegrateandapplytheknowledgetheygatheratuniversity.Weanticipatethatthisslowerandscaffoldedapproachtolearningintheuniversitywillenablestudentstoenjoythescholarshipofdiscovery(aboutthemselvesandacademicdisciplines),totakepleasureinacademicactivitiesanddevelopskillsinintegratingknowledgeacrossarangeofdiverselearningopportunities.Moreparticularly,theOnTrackprogramisdesignedtoachieve:

• enhancedacculturationofstudentstotheuniversityenvironment• betterretentionofstudentsandimprovedacademicoutcomesin

theirundergraduatecourses• improvedunderstandingbystudentsofcourses,theiracademic

demandsandcareeropportunities• effectivementoringsystemsco-ordinatedbytheFirstYear

ExperienceCo-ordinator• goodconnectionsbetweenstudentsandacademicsfromtheir

discipline• moreinformedapproachestobalancingacademicstudies,work

andotherresponsibilities• abetterlevelofengagementwiththeprogrambyacademics,

administrativestaffandseniorexecutiveacrosstheuniversity.

Ourexpectationisthat,oncestudentshaveenjoyedaplayfulyetrigorouslyacademicintroductiontotheuniversityandthedemandsofitsvariousdisciplines,theywillberesourcedtopursuetheirundergraduate studies with sufficient confidence and application. Thepedagogicalandpastoralstrategiesdeployedinthisprogrammayalsobetransferableandhaveapplicationformanycommencingundergraduates,notonlyequitystudents.

Conclusion

Inthispaperwehavedemonstratedthattheinvestmentappliedtoincreaseaccessandskillsdevelopmentattertiarylevelforpeoplefromeducationallydisadvantagedgroupsdoesnotachieveequalityofoutcomesforthesegroups.

Governmentsneedtotakealonger-termviewinredressingtheneedsofwhatappearstobeagrowingproportionofthepopulationwhoarelikelytobeexcludedfromparticipationintertiaryeducationduetoadversecircumstancesofearlychildrearingandlearning.Whileexisting‘remediation’andaccessprogramsatthepre-tertiaryandtertiarylevelcanfacilitatesomelimitedindividualsuccesses,they

2� Jenny Silburn and Geraldine Box Travelling against the current: an examination of upstream and downstream


wouldappeartohavelittleeffectatthepopulationlevelincreatingsubstantiveequalityinoutcomes.

Academic institutions must now find the means to cater for a much greaterdiversityinthesupportneedsofindividualstudentsandthoseofdistinctequitygroupstoensuretheirsocialandacademicengagement.Ratherthanexpectingstudentstoadapttotheculture’sexpectations,theinstitutionshouldbelookingatwaystobestaccommodate the diverse needs of students. A ‘one size fits all’ model isnolongerappropriateordesirable.Substantiveequalitywhichpromotestreatingpeopledifferentlytoaccommodatetheirdifferingneedsmustbeintegratedacrossthecurriculumandbuiltintopedagogicalpracticessothatstudentsatriskcanperformbetterinhighereducation.

References

Anderson, M. (2006). ‘Degree of fit: university students in paid employment, servicedeliveryandtechnology’,Australasian Journal of Educational Technology,22(1):1–12.

Carneiro,P.&Heckman,J.(2003).‘Humancapitalpolicy’,Workingpaper9495,commissionedbytheUSNationalBureauofEconomicResearch.Cambridge,Massachusetts,USA.

CommonwealthofAustralia(2004).Higher education: report for the 2004 to 2006 triennium,Canberra:DepartmentofCommunications,InformationTechnologyandtheArts.

CommonwealthofAustralia(1996). Equality, diversity and.excellence: advancing the national higher education equity framework,Canberra:AustralianGovernmentPublishingService.

CouncilofAustralianGovernments(COAG)(2006).Human capital reform: report by the COAG national reform initiative working group, www.coag.gov.au/meetings/100206/human_capital_reform_report_COAG_100206.pdf[retrieved20February2006].

DeLong,J.,Goldin,C.&Katz,L.(2002). ‘SustainingUSeconomicgrowth’,Workingpaper,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkley.

DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining(DEST)(2001). Undergraduate completion rates: an update, Occasionalpaperseries01/

F,HigherEducationGroup,www.dest.gov.au/sectors/higher_education/publications_resources/profiles/archives/undergraduate_completition_rates_an_update.htm[retrieved9May2006].

DepartmentofEducation,ScienceandTraining(DEST)(2000).Characteristics and performance indicators of Australian higher education institutions,OccasionalPaperSeries01-B,HigherEducationDivision,Canberra,www.dest.gov.au/sectors/higher_education/publications_resources/profiles/archives/indicators_of_australian_higher_education_institutions.htm[retrieved22February2006].

Dickens,W.T.,Sawhill,I.&Tebbs,J.(2006).‘Theeffectsofinvestinginearlyeducationoneconomicgrowth’,BrookingsWorkingpaper,TheBrookingsInstitute.

Dorwick,S.(2003).‘Ideasandeducation:levelorgrowtheffects’,WorkingPaper9709,NationalBureauofEconomicResearch,http://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/9709.html[retrieved12March2006].

Elson-Green,J.(2006).‘Studentsurgedtotalkbeforetheywalk:dolowercut-offs lead to lower first year retention rates?’, Campus Review,1February,p.3.

Mustard,F.(2006).‘Earlychilddevelopmentandexperience-basedbraindevelopment – the scientific underpinnings of the importance of early childdevelopmentinaglobalizedworld’,TheBrookingsInstitute,www.brookings.edu/views/papers/200602mustard.htm[retrieved20February2006].

Page,B.J.,Loots,A.&DuToit,D.(2005).‘PerspectivesonaSouthAfricantutor/mentorprogram:theStellenboschUniversityexperience’,Mentoring and Tutoring,13(1),April,pp.5–21,www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cmet/2005/00000013/00000001/art00001[retrieved2February2006].

Teicher,M.(2003).‘Theneurobiologicalconsequencesofearlystressandchildhoodmaltreatment’,Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 27:33–44.

Tinto,V.(2005).‘Rethinkingdevelopmentaleducation:recentresearchonlearningcommunities’,Proceedings from the New Zealand Association of Bridging Educators’ Pre Conference Workshop,Auckland,NewZealand.

WesternAustralia.GovernmentDepartmentofPremierandCabinet(n.d.).Policy Framework for Substantive Equality,www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&q=policy+framework+for+substantive+equality&btnG=Search&meta=[retrieved12March2006].



About the authors

Dr Jenny Silburn, in her current role as Senior Lecturer (Academic Transition) at Murdoch University, is responsible for the development of transition policies and effective strategies for embedding good pedagogical practices across the university, so as to provide substantive equality (access and successful outcomes) to students from wide-ranging backgrounds. She is in regular contact with students from diverse groups and has a good understanding of the issues and challenges they face. Her role also involves consulting with academic staff to ensure that they are informed about the issues which impact on students’ capacity to succeed within the university.

She has researched the first year experience, particularly the learning experiences of non- traditional students. In 2005, she presented a report to the university entitled, Transitionandthejourney of the first year student. This has resulted in a number of initiatives being undertaken for the benefit of first year students, including the appointment of a first year coordinator. She has presented at national and international conferences on equity issues.

Geraldine Box, for the past 12 years, has been associated with programs which form an important part of Murdoch University’s entry and support strategies for students from educationally disrupted and equity backgrounds. Most recently, she was involved with the team developing the University’s new enabling program, OnTrack, which was introduced in October 2007.

Management of the Equity, Health and Counselling section of the University provides her with the opportunity to develop and improve access for equity students as well as supports to enhance continuation once they are enrolled. Geraldine’s current interests are focused on social inclusion as it relates to higher education.

Contact details

Jenny Silburn, Teaching and Learning Centre, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch WA 6150Tel: (08) 9360 2872 Fax: (08) 9310 8480Email: [email protected]

Geraldine Box, Equity, Health & Counselling, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch WA 6150Tel: (08) 9360 6146 Fax: (08) 9360 6502Email: [email protected]

Australian Journal of Adult Learning


Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 31

Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution

Rae TrewarthaSchool of Foundation Studies

Unitec, Auckland, New Zealand

A 2006 survey of programs at Unitec, New Zealand concluded that, in the main, Unitec programs and courses were not meeting student needs in the area of foundation and bridging education. Invoking international research and practice, a report was compiled proposing a number of recommendations to remedy this situation. Academic Board, in accepting recommendations that were based on developing and re-developing foundation and bridging courses and programs to better staircase students into degree programs, and to support first-year students in undergraduate degree programs, has challenged the Unitec community to think in new ways about the needs of students entering the institution.

It was argued in the report that the key determinant in developing these strategies should be the need to provide students with bridging/foundation education that supports them to develop the contextualised discipline knowledge and academic literacies they

need in order to transition to the next level of study as independent, critical learners – as students who know ‘how to learn’. Over the last few months, many exciting and challenging developments have occurred in relation to this initiative. This paper begins by examining the research that informed the recommendations in the report. Initiatives that are proposed or underway arel then outlined, and discussed in conjunction with examples of the challenges associated with making this shift in institutional thinking and practice.

[S]tudents are more likely to persist when they find themselves insettingsthatholdhighexpectationsfortheirlearning,provideneededacademicandsocialsupport,andactivelyinvolvethemwithotherstudentsandfacultyinlearning.Thekeyconceptisthatofeducationalcommunityandthecapacityofinstitutionstoestablisheducationalcommunitiesthatinvolveallstudentsasequalmembers.(Tinto2002b)

Background

InMay2005,aworkingpartytoreviewfoundationandbridgingeducationwasestablishedbytheAcademicBoardatUnitecwiththefollowingtermsofreference:

• Toreviewcurrentphilosophiesoffoundation/bridgingeducation,bothatUnitecandinternationally

• Toreviewcurrentmodelsoffoundation/bridgingeducation,bothatUnitecandinternationally

• Toidentifythefeaturesofsuccessfulfoundation/bridgingprogramsatUnitec

• TorecommendtoAcademicBoardcorecomponentsandfeaturesforallfoundation/bridgingprogramsatUnitec

• Toconsiderandprovideadviceonsuchothermattersrelatingtofoundation education at Unitec as the working party sees fit.

32 Rae Trewartha Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 33

Theworkingpartycomprisedmembersofacademicstaff,studentservices,thelearningcentreandthelibrary.Theauthorofthispaperchairedtheworkingpartyandco-compiledthereport,whichwasacceptedfollowingitspresentationtoAcademicBoardinSeptember2006(Trewartha&Barrow2006).

Internationally,andwithinNewZealand,theterms‘foundation’and ‘bridging’ are used to define a variety of educational offerings, dependingontheinstitutionand/orcountryprovidingthem.Itwasagreed,however,that,atUnitec,‘foundationeducation’wouldbeused to refer to certificate programs with courses at New Zealand Qualification Authority (NZQA) levels 1, 2 or 3, which include courses basedondevelopingliteracyandnumeracy,designedforstudentswhoneedconsiderablepreparationtopathwaytoeitheradiplomaordegreeprogram;andthat‘bridgingeducation’wouldreferto:(a)programsincorporatingcourseswithliteracyandnumeracylearningoutcomes, including level 4 certificates, that provide a one- or two-semesterstaircasetodegreeprograms,and(b)academicstudyskillscoursesdesignedtoprovidecontextualisedholisticsupporttostudents in their first-year at Unitec to introduce them to the skills andconceptsbasictosuccessfultertiarystudy.

TheinitiativetoreviewfoundationandbridgingeducationatUnitecgrew out of discussion around issues arising from the first annual institute-widereportonsuccessandretention(Barrow2004)andother2004reportsfromworkingpartiesinvestigatingEnglishlanguageentryrequirements(Blickem2004)andtheacademicliteracylevelsofstudents(ReportoftheProjectCherub2004).Theconcerns identified by these reports pointed to a need for the institute toaddressissuesrelatedtotheincreasingnumberofunder-preparedstudentsenteringtertiaryeducation.Atthesametime,therewasagrowingawarenessthatinternationaltrendsintheareaofbridgingandfoundationeducationweretowardsaverydifferentmodelfromthatcurrentlyemployedatUnitec.

Theaimofthereviewwastoinvestigateandreportonthestateofcurrentfoundation/bridgingeducationatUnitecandtoidentifyandrecommendnewmodelsforUnitecbasedoninternationaltrendsand practices. Unitec has a number of certificate programs that bridgetodiplomaordegreeprograms.However,veryfewoftheseprogramshadbeendevelopedonthepedagogicalprinciplesthatarenowinternationallyrecognisedasprerequisitetostudentretentionand persistence for non-traditional students. Furthermore, no first-yeardegreeprogramshadacademicstudyskillscoursestosupportstudents in their first year of study.

TheUnitecCharterstates:AtUnitecstudentslearntoreason,adapt,innovate,communicateandgrowsotheycanrespondtorapidchangesintheworkforceandsocietyandcanreturntostudy–ifthedesireortheneedisthere.(UnitecNewZealand2003)

If the Charter is indeed a valid reflection of Unitec’s institutional aspirationsforitsgraduates,itisimperative,sothereportargued,thattheinstitutionasawholeacknowledgethatmanystudentswillneverlearntheseskillsandbecomelifelonglearnersunlesstheyareinspiredandsupportedtodevelopthenecessaryintellectualunderstandings.

ThereportexaminedthecurrentsituationandrecommendedanumberofstrategiestoimprovebridgingandfoundationeducationatUnitec.SincetherecommendationswereacceptedbyAcademicBoard,theSchoolofFoundationStudies(SFS),whichwaschargedwithprovidingadviceandcoordinatingthedevelopmentandre-developmentofcoursesandprograms,hasbecomeinvolvedinprojectsinvolving16differentprograms(somewithinthesamediscipline).

Thispaperbeginsbyexaminingtheresearchthatinformedtherecommendations.Initiativesthatareproposedorunderwayarethenoutlinedanddiscussed,inconjunctionwithexamplesofthe

34 Rae Trewartha Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 3�

challengesassociatedwithmakingthisshiftininstitutionalthinkingandpractice.Whilethereport,onwhichthispaperisbased,examinedstructuresatonlyonetertiaryinstitution,itsconclusionshaveimplicationsforallthoseinvolvedinteachinganddevelopingprograms for foundation/bridging/first-year students. Adopting thesestrategieswould,itwassuggestedinthereport,leadnotonlytoenhancedstudentsuccessandretention–andasaconsequence,greatersatisfactionforteachingstaff.ItwouldalsostakeforUnitecauniquepositioninthemarketplaceasaninstitutionthatbothgraduatesstudentswithcompetencyinaparticulardiscipline,andchallengesandsupportsthemfromdayonetodeveloptheacademicskillstheyneed,astheCharterstates,‘toengageincriticalthinking,andtoexerciseindependentjudgement’(UnitecNewZealand2003).

Features of successful foundation/bridging programs

Internationally, foundation programs have moved away from deficit models,whichconcentratedonskillsdevelopment,tomodelsbasedonthepedagogicalbeliefthatfoundationstudentsneedtobuild‘strategic, institutional and disciplinary confidence’ (Dison & Rule 1996),incoursesthatarelinkedtoprovideintegratedandcontextuallearning‘emphasisedbystudent-studentandfaculty-studentinteraction’(Tinto1997).Thereisnowalargebodyofresearchpointingtotheeffectivenessofthismodel,particularlywithinthestructureoflearningcommunities(Prebbleet al.2004).

Similarly, for bridging and first-year students, White (1994: 7) argues that the primary educational imperative for first-year students should be that they are not simply ‘receptors of facts’ but complete the first yearknowing‘how to learn’(emphasisadded).InquotingKatzet al.(1988)onPerry’sworkonintellectualdevelopment(1968),Whitenotesthat:

AttheheartofPerry’sworkandthatofotherobserversofstudentintellectualdevelopmentisapowerfulyetsimple

observation:studentsgainintellectualsophisticationwhentheymustconfrontandassesscompetingandequallywellarguedperspectivesonanissueorsolutionstoaproblem.(p.7)

Whilesuccessfulfoundation/bridgingeducationreliesonidentifyingtheattributesdeemeddesirabletodevelopstudentswhoknowhowtolearn,andwhocansucceedascriticalthinkersandindependentlearnersatthenextlevelofeducation,italsorequiresanunderstandingofthevaluesandstructures,atboththeinstitutionalandclassroomlevel,neededtofacilitatesuchlearning.

A wide-ranging review of the literature identified the following internationallyrecognisedfactorsasleadingtosuccessfulfoundation/bridgingeducation:

1. Bridging/foundationprogramsarevaluedasintegraltotheinstitutionbyallmembersofstaffandcentralisedstructuresandfinances are in place to support these programs in a centralised manner(Boylan2002,Boylan,Bliss&Bonham1997,Kozeracki2002,Kuhet al.2005,Tinto1997).

2. Bridging/foundationpedagogyisafeatureoftheseprograms.‘Theyfocusonimprovingthequalityoflearning–theprocess–notjustcontentoroutcomes’(Tinto1997).

3. Diagnosticassessmentandacademicadvisingtakeplaceforallnewstudents,leadingtoplacementincoursesthatvaluetheirexistingknowledgeandprovideopportunitiesforstudentstobuildonthatknowledgeandattaintheirgoals(Boylan2002,Kozeracki2002,Malnarichet al.2003,Prebbleet al.2004).

4. Theculturalcapitalstudentsbringwiththemis‘valuedandaccommodated’andtheinstitutionisseenaswillingtoadaptitspractices to affirm students’ differing cultural needs (Zepke et al.2005:14).

5. Coursesinprogramsareintegrated–usuallyintolearningcommunities–and,wherenecessary,staffcollaborateacross

3� Rae Trewartha Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 3�

disciplinestointegrateteachingapproaches,contentandassessment(Dison&Rule1996,Prebbleet al.2004,Tinto1997).

6. The classroom environment is inclusive and affirming. Studentsandstaffareengagedinworkingtogethertoproduceunderstandingsofthecomplexitiesofknowledge.Staffteachinwaysthatmatchtheneedsofdifferentlearningstyles,differenceisvalidatedandstudentsaresupportedacademically,sociallyandemotionally(Dison&Rule1996,hooks1994,Kuhet al.2005,Prebbleet al.2004,Tinto1997).

7. Coursecontentiscontextualisedtomirrorandbuildontheexperienceoftheconstituentstudentpopulation(Malnarichet al.2003).

8. Learningtasksarebasedaroundcollaborativeandproblem-basedlearningand‘skills-basedlearningis[integrated]withmore challenging discipline-specific course content’ to introduce studentstotheacademiclanguageandtheoriesofthedisciplinestheyareintendingtomoveonto(Malnarichet al.2003).

9. Assessmentisintegratedacrosscourses.Assessmentcriteriaare specific, frequent feedback is provided and there are early opportunitiesforsuccess(Boylan2002)–wellmanagedandcomprehensiveformativeassessmentisafeatureofcoursesandtreatedasalearningtool;summativeassessmentisspreadthroughoutthesemester.

10.Thebeststaffontheprogramteachthebridging/foundationcourses;theinstitutionactivelyrecruitsstaffwhoarekeentoteachinthisareaandinvestsintheirdevelopment(Boylan2002,Boylan,Bliss&Bonham1997).

11. Student support such as learning support, financial aid and counsellingarewidelyavailable,areactivelypromotedandstaffarefamiliarwiththeservicesprovided(Boylan2002,Dison&Rule1996,Kozeracki,2002).

Thesehavesincebeencondensedintoalistofsixcriteria,whichallnewandre-developedfoundation/bridgingcoursesandprogramsmustmeet.

Pedagogically, it would be difficult to deny that the strategies listed hereareotherthandesirablefeaturesforallteachingprograms,atalllevelsofstudy.Itisthereforenotenvisagedthatfoundation/bridgingeducation should be seen as ‘fixing’ all the ‘problems’ students present with in their first year, or that teachers on higher-level programs/coursescanrelax,believingstudentsdonotneedthistypeofsupportoncetheymoveon.Infact,studentswhoexperiencethismodeofteaching,whilebecomingmorecapablelearners,arealsolikelytohavehigherexpectationsfortheirfutureeducation.Workingcollaborativelytodeveloptheprograms/coursesinfoundation/bridgingeducation,will,itishoped,leadtoteachingstaffembracingthispedagogicalphilosophyatalllevels.

Foundation/bridging education at Unitec

Foundation

In 2006, Unitec had approximately five certificates that could be defined as foundation programs. Made up of at least 40 credits, and usually more, these certificates normally consist of courses between levels1and3–someEAL(EnglishasanAdditionalLanguage)programsareatlevels4and5.Tobeeligibleforadmissionapplicantsmust,generally,onlymeettheinstitution’sEnglishlanguagerequirementsforprogramsatthislevel,togetherwitheitherUnitec’sgeneraladmissionorspecialadmissionrequirements.Apartfromthelevel 3 Certificate in Foundation Studies: Whitinga (CFS:W), which isaimedatprovidingapathwayforstudentstodiplomaanddegreeprograms at Unitec, certificates at levels 1 to 3 are sometimes needed forentryintotrades,craftandserviceoccupations,butmayalsoprovide entry to diploma and bachelor programs (e.g. Certificate in Animal Management, Certificate in Applied Technology).

Asmostoftheseprogramsdidnotmeetthecriterianotedaboveasanecessaryfeatureofsuccessfulfoundationprograms,itwasrecommendedthattheseprogramsbere-developedtomeetthe


criteriaandthenbere-approvedpriortoofferingin2008(sinceextendedto2009).

Bridging/academic study skills

Developedasaresponsetothechangingdemographicofstudents,bridgingandacademicstudyskillsprogramsandcoursesarenowafeatureofuniversitiesworldwide.WhileUnitechadnosuchcoursesorprogramsin2006,theproblemstheinstitutionfacesinregard to first-year students are comparable with those noted in the internationalresearchliterature.

Themajorityofresearchintheareaoftargetedcoursesforstudentsin their first year in tertiary education comes from the United States, wheresucheducationinitiativesarebasedonavaryingrangeofprograms and courses designed to assist first-year students in their transitiontouniversity.Somesimplyconsistofaone-hourperweek‘first-year’ seminar aimed at introducing students to the complexities ofuniversitylifeandprovidinga‘homeroom’-typesupportclass.Others,whichmayormaynotbebasedaroundatheme,areorganised as integrated learning communities, where a first-year seminarisusuallyjustoneofthethreeorfourclassestaken.

These programs and courses are concerned with preparing first-year students for the discipline they are intending to enter – firstly, byensuringtheyhavetheappropriatelevelofnecessaryskills,andsecondly,bysupportingthemtodeveloptheacademicliteracy/concepts/theoriespertainingtothatdiscipline.Almostallarecredit-bearing.IntheUnitedStates,inFall2000,76%ofalldegree-grantingtwo-andfour-yearinstitutionsofferedatleastonefoundationalreading,writingormathematicscourse(Parsad&Lewis2003,citedinNationalScienceBoard2006).

Barrownotedinthe2004Success and Retention ReportforUnitecthat:

IssueswithmathsandEnglishlanguagemanifestthemselvesin retention and success figures for lower level courses

inprograms.Togethertheyillustrateunder-preparednessfortertiarystudyinanEnglish-speakingsysteminareasotherthandisciplineknowledgeandlearning.

Across Unitec, academic staff have identified a problem with the low levelsoffoundationalskillsdisplayedbymanystudentsenteringdegreeprograms.TheProjectCherub(ReportoftheProjectCherub2004)datashowthatmostprogramdirectorsbelievethatalargeproportionofthestudentswhoentertheirprogramsareacademicallyunder-prepared.Table1categorisesresponsesfromasurveyofprogramdirectorsregardingthedegreeofEnglishlanguageandacademic literacy difficulties faced by students on their programs.

Table 1: The nature of English language problems (from the Report

of the Project Cherub ‘Other Qualifications Group’ 2004)

Language problems recognised by program directors

Language problemPercentage of program directors who identified this as a problem

Reading 50Listening 70Accuracy/grammar 86Vocabulary 63Writing 86Speaking 70

Extent of language problems

A lot Quite a lot Some A few None

%EALstudents 23 50 20 7%nativespeakers 56 34 10

Note:ThequestionsthatproducedtheseresultsincludedmentionofbothEnglishlanguageandacademicliteracyproblems,withthesurveyedprogramdirectorsnotingthatboththeEALandnativespeakergroupshadlanguageand/oracademicliteracyproblems.


InmanycoursesatUnitec,whileabasiccompetencyinmathematicsisrequiredforstudentstobeabletoachieve,mathematicsisnotoftentaughtasasubject.In2004,aconsultantwasemployedtolookatthedevelopmentofacentreformathematicsandstatisticsatUnitec.Theresultingreportmadeanumberofrecommendations,including:

4.1Thatconsiderationbegiventobroadeningthepedagogicalapproachesusedinallmathematics,statistics…courses.(Begg2004)

TheReportonBridgingandFoundationEducationatUnitecrecommendedtheintroductionoftwonewdevelopmentsinbridgingeducation at Unitec. The first of these involved each undergraduate degreeprogramindesigningandimplementinganelectiveacademicstudyskillscourseaimedatdevelopingtheknowledgeandacademicabilities recognised as necessary for first-year students to succeed in tertiarystudy.Thesecoursesweretobecredit-bearingandintegratedto provide contextualised, holistic support, specific to the first-year programinwhichtheyweresituated.

Thesecondrecommendedthatschoolsdevelopintegrated,cross-disciplinary,bridgingprogramsaimedatestablishingdisciplinaryconfidence together with academic study and numeracy skills. Such programs,basedonthelearningcommunitymodel(Tinto1997,Prebbleet al.2004),wouldnormallyincludeoneortwocourses(dependingonwhethertheywereone-ortwo-semesterprograms)fromthedegreeprogramintowhichthestudentwasprogressing.Studentswouldobtaincreditsforthesecoursesonprogressingtodegreestudy.Theprogramswouldbeaimedatolderstudentswhomay,forinstance,alreadybeintheworkforcebutarelookingfora change of direction and lack the confidence to go directly into a degreeprogram.Youngerstudents,whohaveachievedreasonablywell at school but do not have the necessary National Certificate of EducationalAchievementcreditstoenteraparticulardiscipline,mayalsobecandidatesfortheseprograms.ItisalsopossiblethatsuchprogramscouldcaterforEALstudentsbyprovidingintegrated

languagesupportcourses.Inotherwords,theseprograms,whiledesignedtodevelopdisciplineknowledgeandacademicandnumeracyliteracies,wouldalsofocusonmeetingtheneedsofparticularstudentgroups.

Implementing the recommendations

Astheinstigatorofthereport,theSchoolofFoundationStudieswasrecognisedasthebodywiththeknowledgeandexpertisetocoordinatethisdevelopmentandre-developmentofcoursesandprograms. Work began in what, on reflection, was a somewhat ad hocfashion,basedonworkingwithanydisciplinethatcametotheschooldeclaringinterestindevelopingacourseorprogram.Itwassoonevidentthatthismodeofoperationwasquicklygoingtodepletethesomewhatslimresourcesavailable–twopeoplewereworkingonthisontopoftheirotherwork.Asmallcommitteewasthensetuptoprovide the first contact for interested parties and also to prioritise initiatives.Astheworkloadgrew–therearenow16coursesorprogramstakingpartintheproject–itbecameobviousthatUnitecneededtofundanotherposition.Whiletherewasnodisagreementthat the position was a priority, it was difficult to find the funding withinthecurrentbudgetaryclimate.However,inAprilanotherstaffmemberwasappointed,whichmeanstheworkloadis,comparativelyanyway,manageable.

Course and program development

Foundation programs

TheCFS:W(level3)isthemainprogramintheSchool.A60-creditprogram,itprovidespathwaystodiplomasanddegreesatUnitec,although in a few disciplines the pathway is to a level 4 certificate. Studentsundertakecoursesaimedatdevelopingacademicliteracyandnumeracyand,insomecases,introductorydisciplineknowledge.


Themostpopularpathway,whichhasbeenrunninginitspresentformforsevenyears,isintotheBachelorofNursingdegree.Thefourcourses,withclassesofapproximately22studentsineach,compriseanintegratedlearningcommunity.Twoofthesecourses,AcademicStudySkillsandSociologyforNursing,aredevelopedandtaughtbytheSchoolofFoundationStudiesandtheothertwo,IntroductiontoHealthKnowledgeandIntroductiontoHealthScience,aredevelopedandtaughtbytheSchoolofHealthSciences.However,thereisathemerunningthroughtheprogramandassignmentsareintegratedthroughout,sothereisagreatdealofinter-disciplinarycommunicationtakingplace.

CommunitySkillsandEarlyChildhoodEducationhavesimilarpathwaystotheirdegreeprograms,althoughthereisalowerlevelofcourseintegration.Otherprogramsrelyonthelevelsofacademicliteracy,and/ormathematicsandsciences,studentshavegainedtogaugetheirreadinessforstudyatdegreeordiplomalevel.However,therearenoprogramsthatprovideguaranteedentrytostudentswhogaintheCFS:W.

TakingtheBachelorofNursingmodel,theSchoolhasworkedwithfourotherprogramsthisyeartodevelopsimilarpathways.TheSchoolofDesign,forinstance,hasdevelopedacoursethatincorporates36creditsfordesignwiththeCFS:Wlevel3,a24-creditAcademicStudySkillscourse.TheIntroductiontoDesigncoursehasbeendevelopedbystafffromtheSchoolofDesigninconsultationwithstafffromtheSchoolofFoundationStudies,includingmathematicslecturers,sothatitintegratesawiderangeofdisciplinaryandacademicliteracycontent.AstheSchoolofDesignhasrecentlyre-workeditsdegreestructure,andeliminateditsdiplomaprogram,thelevel3CFS:Wwillprovide a pathway to the new level 4 certificate. There is provision, however,forafewhighachievingstudentstobridgedirectlytothedegree.

Thereareavarietyofdifferentinitiativesalsobeingdevelopedtomeettheneedsofotherprograms.Whiletheemphasisisonbestmeetingtheneedsofstudents,therealsohastobeanacknowledgementoftheexpertiseeachprogramhasdevelopedtomeettheparticularrequirementsoftheirdiscipline.Itishopedthat,byworkingwitheachprogramtodevelopapathway,theyfeelcomfortable with the on-going reflective practice and development anditwillcontinueasatwo-way,inter-disciplinaryprocess.

Bridging courses

Basedonaverygenericcourseoutline,andadaptedtomeettheparticularneedsoftheirdisciplineandtheirstudents,anumberoflevel 4 certificates are developing integrated academic study skills coursestoaddtotheirprograms.Thesecredit-bearingcoursesarebeingdevelopedbytheSchoolofFoundationStudiesandtheprograminvolved,withtheaimofbeingtaughtbyeitheralecturerfromtheSchooloracombinationoflecturersfromthetwoschools.

Aone-yearprogramisinthedevelopmentstagestobridgestudentstotheBachelorofNursing.Thisprogramwouldincorporatetheexistinglevel 3 CFS:W certificate, which students would undertake in the first semester, with two courses from the Bachelor of Nursing (these willbecredit-bearingandabletobetransferredtothethatdegree)andadditionalpre-scienceandmathematicscoursesinthesecondsemester.Whilethepresentcourseworkswellforsomestudents,itisobvious that it does not provide sufficient grounding for others, who then struggle and drop out in the first year. It is hoped that the extra semesterwillprovideabetterrangeoffoundationalknowledge.

Oneschooltookupthechallengetoprovideacredit-bearingacademicstudy skills course for its first-year students this semester. This was notaneasycoursetodevelopasthelecturersintheschooldidnotwanttobeinvolvedindeliveringanintegratedcourse,appearingtobelieve that the purpose of the course was to ‘fix’ student problems

44 Rae Trewartha Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 4�

withoutanyinputontheirpart.Whileitwasoriginallygoingtobecompulsory for all first-year students in the program, in the end only15,mainlyEALstudents,wereenrolled.Tomeettheparticularneedsofthisprogram,thecoursewastaughtanddevelopedbybothalecturerfromtheSchoolofLanguageStudiesandonefromtheSchoolofFoundationStudies.

Thestudentswhotookthecoursewerehighlyenthusiasticintheirevaluationsandsaidtheythoughtthecoursehadmadearealdifference to their first-semester experience. They commented that theycouldnotunderstandwhyitwasnotcompulsory,as70–80%ofstudentsintheirotherclasseswerealsoEALstudentsandtheyfeltit would have benefited their study in those classes if more of these studentswerealsoundertakingtheAcademicStudySkillsclass.

However,workhasbegunwithaseveralotherdegreeprogramsandoneofthese,inare-designoftheirdegreeprogram,isworkingwiththeSchoolofFoundationStudiestointegrateacademicstudyskills into two of their first-semester courses. The agreement is that aSchoolofFoundationStudieslecturerwillworkwiththeotherlecturersonthesecourses,bothondevelopmentandteaching.Thisisaninterestingdevelopmentandbothschoolshaveembracedtheopportunity.

Staff development

WhiletheSchoolofFoundationStudieshastheresourcestoworkwithotherschoolsondevelopingandre-developingthesecoursesandprograms,itdoesnothavethestafftoundertakealloftheteachingrequiredandneitherdoesitbelievethatalltheteachingshouldbecarriedoutbySchoollecturers.PlanningforstaffdevelopmenthasbeenlinkedtoaMinistryofEducationinitiative(‘Learningforliving’)toincreaseexpertiseintheteachingofliteracyandnumeracyandtheintegrationofthisknowledgeintotheteachingofcontent(MinistryofEducation2007).WorkshopshavebeenrunatUnitec

involvingbothlecturersontheCFS:Wprogramandthoseteachingonotherfoundationandbridgingprograms,particularlythosewhoseprogramsaremovingtoincludeabridgingcoursesuchasAcademicStudySkills.

Coordination with government strategy

Theapprovaloftherecommendationsfordevelopmentandre-developmentoffoundationandbridgingeducationstrategiesatUnitechascoincidedwithapushbytheTertiaryEducationCommissiontoprioritisefoundationlearning.TheTertiary Education Strategy 2007–12notesthatfoundationlearninghasbeguntomove‘fromarelativelymarginalpositionwithinthetertiaryeducationsystemtobeingacoreactivity,underpinnedbyinformedprofessionalpracticeandimproveddiagnosticandteachingtools’(MinistryofEducation2006,citedinMinistryofEducation2007:22).Indeed,twoofthefourpriorityoutcomesfortertiaryeducationfor2007–12aretiedtofoundationlearning:

…raisingliteracy,numeracyandlanguageskillsfortheworkforce…isapriority … increasingthenumberofNewZealanders achieving a qualification at level four and above beforetheageof25isapriority.(MinistryofEducation,2007:22)

Atthesametime,startingin2008,theTertiaryEducationCommissionisintroducinganewfundingmodelbasedonchangedkeyperformanceindicators,someofwhicharerelatedtoeachtertiaryinstitution’scommitmenttoandprovisionoffoundationeducation,and the New Zealand Qualification Authority is rolling out a new qualityassuranceprocessforfoundationprograms.Workthusneedstotakeplaceineachinstitutiontointegratetheserequirements,sothatfundingandqualityassuranceissuesaredemonstrablytiedtostaffdevelopmentandmeasurablestudentgains.AtUnitec,acommitteehasbeenformedtoadviseseniormanagementandto

4� Rae Trewartha Innovations in bridging and foundation education in a tertiary institution 4�

workwiththemtodevelopthebestpossibleoutcomes.Ifitistomeetitsaimtoraiseliteracyandnumeracylevelstoenablemorepeopletoentertertiarystudy,thegovernmenthasrealisedthatfoundationandbridgingeducationisabasicnecessity.Thefocushasthusmovedfromskills-basedprogramsaimedat‘helping’people,totheprovisionoftrainingandincentivestoencourageinstitutionstodevelop‘staircasing’programs,whereliteracy,numeracyandacademicstudyskillsareintegratedwithdisciplinecontent.

Conclusion

While the reasoning behind a new strategy can find acceptance withamajorityofthoseinvolved,theactualimplementationofthatstrategycanbeextremelycomplex–theimplementationoftherecommendationsfromtheReport on bridging and foundation educationatUnitechasbeennoexception.Itbecameclearearlyon,forinstance,thatthetimelinesneededtobeextended,astheywereunrealisticifthedevelopmentandre-developmentofnewcoursesand programs was to be undertaken with sufficient consultation. On theotherhand,itwasalwaysenvisagedthatthiswouldnotbea‘onehat fits all’ strategy, but that each new initiative would be developed withinthecontextofaparticularcourseorprogramtomeetthelearningneedsofthestudentsinvolved,andthisishappening–andinwaysneverenvisaged.Indeed,itisgratifyingtohaveprogramdirectorsengagingindebatearoundtheseissuesafteryearsofresistance.Whilethereisstillalackofunderstandingfrommanyofthoseteachingatdegreelevelinregardtothemultiplicityofproblemsthenewwaveofstudentsenteringtertiaryinstitutionsbringwiththem,therearealsothosewhonowacceptthattheirteachingneedsto change to reflect this diversity. Changes to government funding fortertiaryprograms,involvingtheprioritisationoffoundationlearninginitiatives,arealsodrivingapushfornewstrategiesattheinstitutionallevel.

Inleadingthechallengetoincorporatefoundation/bridgingcoursesandprogramsintoUnitec’sexistingacademicstructures,theSchoolofFoundationStudieshasbeenchargedwithaprojectthatinvolvesafundamentalchangeinthewayUnitecsupportsstudentswithfoundationandbridgingneeds.Whilesuchaprojecthasinherentfrustrations,thereisalsoafeelingofexcitementaseachnewinitiativebeginsdevelopment.Theresearchshowsthatstudentsaremorelikelytopersistandsucceedininstitutionsthatprovideopportunitiesforstudentsandstafftoconnectinthelearningprocess.Thegoalofthisprojectisfortheimplementationofsuccessfulinitiativestoleadtogreater staff ‘buy-in’, and increased acknowledgment of the flow-on benefits that result from addressing the academic equity needs of studentsatthefoundation/bridginglevel.

References

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Begg,A.(2004).Report on benchmarking project – development of a Centre for Mathematics and Statistics at Unitec,reporttoUnitecNewZealandSeniorExecutive,Auckland:UnitecNewZealand.

Blickem,C.et al.(2004).English language entry requirements working party: a report to the Academic Board,reportpresentedtotheAcademicBoardofUnitecNewZealand,Auckland:UnitecNewZealand.

Boylan,H.R.(2002).What works: research-based best practices in developmental education,Boone,NC:TheContinuousQualityImprovementNetworkwiththeNationalCenterforDevelopmentalEducation.

Boylan,H.,Bliss,B.&Bonham,B.(1997).‘Programcomponentsandtheirrelationshiptostudentperformance’,Journal of Developmental Education,20(3):2–8.

Dison,L.&Rule,P.(1996).‘Bridgingthesubject-studentdivide:anintegratedapproachtodevelopingfoundationalcurricula’,Academic Development, 2(2):83–97.

hooks,b.(1994).Teaching to transgress: education as the practice of freedom,NewYork:Routledge.


Katz,J.,Bornholdt,L.,Gaff,J.,Hoffman,N.,Newman,L.,Ratner,M.&Weingartner,R.(1988).Planning effective general education. A new vitality in general education,Washington:AssociationofAmericanColleges,3–26.

Kozeracki,C.(2002). ‘ERICreview:issuesindevelopmentaleducation’,Community College Review,29(4):83–101,http://libproxy.unitec.ac.nz:2048/login?url=?did=123063161&sid=3&Fmt=3&clientId=7982&RQT=309&VName=PQD[retrieved26May2005].

Kuh,G.,Kinzie,J.,Schuh,J.,Whitt,E.&Associates(2005).Student success in college: creating conditions that matter,SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

Malnarich,G.,Dusenberry,P.,Sloan,B.,Swinton,J.&vanSlyck,P.(2003).The pedagogy of possibilities: developmental education, college-level studies and learning communities,NationalLearningCommunitiesProjectMonographSeries,Olympia,WA:TheEvergreenStateCollege,WashingtonCenterforImprovingtheQualityofUndergraduateEducation,incooperationwiththeAmericanAssociationforHigherEducation.

MinistryofEducation(2006).The system in change: tertiary education strategy 2002/07 monitoring report 2005,Wellington,NZ:Author.

MinistryofEducation(2007a). Learning for living professional development workshops, www.moe.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=12006&indexid=11194&indexparentid=1028[retrieved6June2007].

MinistryofEducation(2007b).Tertiary education strategy 2007–12: incorporating statement of tertiary education priorities 2008–10,Wellington,NZ:Author.

Perry,W.(1968).Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: a scheme,NewYork:Holt,RinehartandWinston.

Prebble,T.,Hargraves,H.,Leach,L.,Naidoo,K.,Suddaby,G.&Zepke,N.(2004).Impact of student support services and academic development programs on student outcomes in undergraduate tertiary study: a synthesis of the research,reporttotheMinistryofEducation,Wellington,NZ:MinistryofEducation,www.minedu.govt.nz/index.cfm?layout=document&documentid=10247&data=l[retrieved12November2005].

Report of the Project Cherub ‘Other Qualifications Group’ (2004).ReportpresentedtotheAcademicBoardofUnitecNewZealand,Auckland,NZ:UnitecNewZealand.

Tinto,V.(1997).‘Classroomsascommunities:exploringtheeducationalcharacterofstudentpersistence’,The Journal of Higher Education,68:599–623.

Tinto,V.(2002). ‘Establishingconditionsforstudentsuccess’,keynoteaddresstothe11thAnnualConferenceoftheEuropeanAccessNetwork,MonashUniversity,Prato,Italy,www.ean-edu.org/news/tinto-pratoconf.pdf[retrieved8May2006].

Trewartha,R.&Barrow,M.(2006).Report on bridging and foundation education at Unitec,reportpresentedtotheAcademicBoardofUnitecNewZealand,Auckland,NZ:UnitecNewZealand.

UnitecNewZealand(2003).Charter,Auckland,NZ:UnitecNewZealand,www.unitec.ac.nz/?71B01FBA-3A09-4012-91F8-FD4D80C72E6F[retrieved27April2006].

White,C.(1994).‘Amodelforcomprehensivereformingeneraleducation:PortlandStateUniversity’,Journal of General Education,43(3):168–237.

Zepke,N.,Leach,L.,Prebble,T.,Campbell,A.,Coltman,D.,Dewart,B.et al.(2005).Improving tertiary student outcomes in the first year of study,Wellington,NZ:NewZealandCouncilforEducationalResearch,www.tlri.org.nz/pdfs/NickZepkefullreport.pdf[retrieved27April2006].

About the author

Rae Trewartha is Head of the School of Foundation Studies at Unitec New Zealand. She has been engaged in bridging/foundation/enabling education in New Zealand for the last 12 years – both as a teacher and as a researcher with a particular interest in bridging pedagogy. Coordinator of the New Zealand Association of Bridging Educators, and an executive member of the Institutes of Technology and Polytechnics Foundation Forum, Rae has also been involved in advocating for changes to government policy, changes that have brought this area of education to the forefront of the tertiary education strategy agenda in New Zealand.

Contact details

School of Foundation Studies, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92025, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland 1142, New ZealandTel: +649 815 4321 x 8378 Fax: +649) 815 4383Email: [email protected]



Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings �1

Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings

Pauline HarrisUniversity of Wollongong

and

John DaleyNSW Department of Education & Training

This paper explores how play as an educational tool can enhance social capital for adult learners in institutional settings. Framed by conceptualisations of social capital (Putnam 1993, 2000) and play (Melamed 1987, Meares 2005, Vygotsky 1978) and supported by research literature on play in adult learning, our action research in our adult education classes focuses on cooperative forms of play in which pretend, role-play, improvisation, playful activities and a playful mindset were key components. We investigate these play experiences in terms of their implications for nurturing adult learners’ social capital. Our preliminary findings to date reveal thatplaycontributestosocialcapitalbyenrichingadultlearners’engagement,cooperationandsenseofconnectednesswithone

anotheraswellaswithpeople,resourcesandinformationbeyondtheirgroup.

Social capital

Thispaperchroniclesearlystagesinajourneytounderstandhowplaycanfosteradultlearners’socialcapitalininstitutionalisedsettings.FollowingPutnam(1993,2000),weviewsocialcapitalintermsofsocialconnectionsandnetworksthatareembeddedininteractionsamongpeopleandfosteredbytrustandsharedunderstandings,valuesandbehavioursthatenablecooperativeaction(Cohen&Prusak2001).Cooperativeactionmaybefurtherunderstoodintermsofpeoplebuildingcommunities,committingtooneanotherandweaving‘thesocialfabricoftheircollectivebeing’

(Smith2001,URL).

Intermsofadultlearnersininstitutionalsettings,weviewcooperativeactionas:• buildingadultlearningcommunitiesthatsupportandpromote

learners’accesstoinformationandresourcesrelevanttolearninggoalsandaspirations

• nurturingadultlearners’commitmenttotheirfellowlearnersandtotheirrolesinanadultlearningcommunity

• sharingandweavingadultlearners’collectiveexperiencesandunderstandingsthroughtheirinteractionswithoneanother,engagementinsharedexperiences,knowledgeandresources,andpoolingtheirrespectiveexperiencesandresources.

Therelationshipbetweensocialcapitalandlifelonglearninghasbeenbroughtunderscrutiny,withconclusionsdrawnthatsucharelationship is mutually beneficial (Field 2005). However, it cannot betakenforgrantedthatwhenindividualscometogetherasa

�2 Pauline Harris and John Daley Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings �3

group,asenseofcommunitywillevolve.Ininstitutionalsettings,adultlearnerscanfeelhostiletowardslearninginstitutions,basedontheirpreviousexperiencessuchasschool.Insuchsettings,too,adultlearnerscanfeelconcernaboutworkingingroups–aconcernthatcangrowoutofthecompetitivenatureofinstitutionallearningandthelinkingoflearningtoassessment.Thereneedstobeaclearsenseoftherelationshipbetweentheindividualandthegroup.Relationshipsandnetworkscanbestrengthenedbytrustandknowledge,whichfacilitatereciprocityandcooperationformutualbenefit of the network group (World Bank 1998, Putnam 1993, 2000, McClenaghan2000,Hibbitt,Jones&Meegan2001).

Interconnectivity(Falk,Balatti&Golding2000)inthegroupisimportantinenablingadultlearnersinagroupsettingtomakeconnectionsamongpeople,informationandexperiences.Itisthenthatasenseofalearningcommunity(asdistinctfrombeingmerelyinagroup)canevolve.Thelearningthatoccursinsuchacommunityis tied to qualities of the interactions such as enthusiasm, reflection, action,engagementandrespect–‘ourconversationscanbecatalystsorimpedimentstolearning’(Baker2006:1).

The extent to which learning communities are flexible, diverse and inclusivealsohasanimpactonlearning(Flora1998,inKilpatrick,Field&Falk2001).Thesequalitiesofalearningcommunity,aswellaswillingnessonthepartofitsmemberstoentertainnewideasandacceptchange,cangreatlyenhanceandenrichlearning(Flora,Flora&Wade1996,inBaker2006).

Play and adult learning

Key aspects of social capital identified here are also associated withplay–andsoitstandstoreasonthatweexplorerelationshipsbetweenplayandsocialcapital. Whilemostcommonlyassociatedwith children, play is also significant to adult learners. Viewing play as alife-spanactivity,Göncü&Perone(2005)havefoundthatpretend

playandimprovisationamongstadultlearnersfosterscommunitybuildingthatrequiresdialogue,trust,andreciprocity,sharingandnegotiation–allcharacteristicsthatareassociatedwithsocialcapital.AsGöncüandPerone(2005:19)state,dialogueinplay‘contributestotheconstructionofanensemble,anenvironmentofsupportandacceptanceinwhichthegroupworksthroughanddiscoverscreativewaysofmakingsenseofexperiences’.Necessarytoplay,dialoguealsoisenrichedbyplayandfostersasenseofcommunityandfellowfeelingamongadultlearners(Meares2005).

Playisalsoaboutastateofmind–itisacreativeandnon-literalapproachtoaction(Bruner1972)andcreatesazoneinwhichindividualscanexceedtheirusualday-to-dayperformance(Vygotsky1978).Playfullearningisactive,enjoyableand‘concernedwiththecreationofmeaningthroughdialoguewithothersandthroughtheprocess of self-reflection and personal transformation (Mezirow 1985)’(Melamed1987:18).

Inplay,thereisadoublenessofmindthatsimultaneouslydealswithbothrealandunreal(orpretend)experiences(Baldwin1906)– requiring flexibility and openness to new ideas as they come and go inplay.Complicity,engagement,enthusiasmandsharedvisionareneededforparticipantstosustainthisdoublenessofmindandcanhelpthembondwithoneanother.

From her work with adult learners, Melamed (1987) has identified five defining characteristics of play that are described in Figure 1.

�4 Pauline Harris and John Daley Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings ��

Figure 1: Five distinctive qualities of play (summarised from Melamed 1987)

Qualities Description

Relationalqualitiesofplay

Playnurturesrelationshipsandengendersasenseofcommunityamongplayersastheyengageandinteractwithhighlevelsofsynergy,enjoyment,enthusiasmandfellowfeeling,andlowlevelsofinhibition;andconversethroughpretendandrealdialogueinwhichtheyexploreand reflect on their experiences and understandings.

Experientialqualitiesofplay

Inplay,participantsengageinsharedexperiencesthatareenjoyableandengrossing;pooltheirownexperiencesandperspectives;andvalidateandlearnfromoneanother’sperspectives.

Metaphoricqualitiesofplay

Inplay,participants’intuitionandcreativitycometotheforeastheyfollowtheirhunchesandimpulses.Throughimaginationandnon-literalthinking,playerstransformtheirimmediaterealitiesandcreatenewkindsofsocialspacesinwhichtoengageandinteract.

Integrativequalitiesofplay

Inplay,participantsengageinholisticexperiencesinwhichthereisastrongsenseofconnectednesstoandamongpeopleandthings;andparticipantsmakeconnectionstopeople,ideas,events,resourcesandexperiencesbeyondtheirsituation.

Empoweringqualitiesofplay

Inplay,participantsareabletoriseabovetheirperceivedconstraintsandlimitations,asplayreleasesthemfrominternalrestrictionsandconformityinintellectualandsocialsettings.

Thesequalitiesresonatewithourownunderstandingofsocialcapital,insofarastheytakeaccountofrelationalenvironmentsinwhichplay occurs, shared experiences and sharing of experiences, flexible andcreativewaysofthinking,integrationofpeople,experiencesandresources,andempowermenttoovercomelimitationsandobstacles.Thesequalitiesthereforeprovideuswithtoolsforexamininghowplayenhancessocialcapitalforadultlearnersininstitutionalsettings,asexplainedbelow.

Approach to our inquiry

Our adult education contexts in this inquiry

Thispaperisbasedontwodifferentadulteducationcontexts.First,authorPauline’scontextisauniversityearlychildhoodpreserviceteachereducationprogram.Thesubjectunderfocusisaboutplayinearlychildhoodsettings.Weeklyclassesranforthreehours.Inthescenariosusedinthispaper,theclasssizewas20:16wereschool-leavers,threeweremature-agestudentsandonewasanoverseasexchangestudentfromtheUSA.

Second,author John’scontextisinvocationaleducationandtraininginaTechnicalandFurtherEducationenvironment,deliveringcommunicationmodulestogroupsoftrade(building)studentsandgeneral(CommunicationSkills)students.Weeklyclassesranfortwohours.Classesaretaughtinthedaytimewithgenerallyyoungerstudents,notlongoutofschoolorjustcommencingworkatentrylevelinthebuildingindustryorrelatedtrades;andintheeveningwithgenerallyolderstudentswhoaremoreestablishedintheindustry.Studentsaremostlyfromnon-Englishspeakingbackgrounds,seekingtohonetheirEnglish.

Using action research and self-study

Actionresearchhasbeendescribedasaproblem-solvingapproachundertakenbypractitionersintheirworkplacesettingsinordertoimprovethequalityoftheirpractices(McTaggart&Kemmis1991).Usingthisapproach,wemovedthroughcyclicalstagesofplanning,implementing and reflecting on our play experiences before planning ournextstep.

Ourinquiryisalsoframedbyself-study.AccordingtoLoughranandNorthfield (1998: 15):

Self-study is best regarded as a sequence of reflective instances about your teaching. Reflection is a personal process of thinking, refining, reframing and developing actions. Self-study

�� Pauline Harris and John Daley Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings ��

takestheseprocessesandmakesthempublic,thusleadingtoanotherseriesofprocessesthatneedtoresideoutsidetheindividual.

Actionresearchandself-studywereparticularlyrelevantforbothofus.Paulinehasbeenateacherfor25years.Startingoutasateacherintheearlyschoolyears,shemovedontoteachereducationinthetertiary sector. She sought to develop, apply and refine principles oflearner-centredpedagogytoheradulteducationcontext–specifically, developing an integrated play-based pedagogy with adult learners.

Johnhasbeenanadulteducatorfortwoyears,followingrecentstudyatuniversity.Thisperiodofadultlearningwasprecededbya22-yearcareerinanotherindustryinvolvingcommunicatingwithclientsatarangeoflevels(fromschoolchildrentoMembersofParliament)tomeettheirinformationneeds.Hedailymeetsnewteaching-learningsituations that require him to seek, implement and reflect on teaching approachesthatoptimiseadultlearners’engagement.

Data collection and analysis

Inourinitialdeliberations,wediscussedhowwemightuseplaytofostersocialcapitalinourclasses.Wechosecooperativeformsofplayinwhichpretend,role-play,improvisation,playfulactivitiesandaplayfulmind-setwerekeycomponents.Weplannedactivitiesandmaterialsthataccommodatedandencouragedadultlearners’perspectives,choice,initiative,direction,dialogue,collaborationandinvolvement.

Wegathereddatathroughin-classobservationsofouradultlearners’behavioursandinteractionsoverthecourseofateachingterm.Paulineobservedonethree-hourclassonceaweekover13weeks;andJohnsimilarly.Wedocumentedourobservationsasrunningrecordsand anecdotal records. We verified these observations by talking aboutthemwithouradultlearners.Dialoguewasakeyaspectaswe

discussed our experiences and reflections with each other and made ongoingrecoursetobroaderframesoftheoreticalreferenceaboutplayandsocialcapitalandaswecontinuedtohoneourpracticesandinterpretourobservations.

WeanalysedourdataintermsofseekingevidenceofeachplayqualitydescribedinFigure1:• Relationalqualitiesofplay–welookedforevidenceoflearners’

connectednessandsynergyamongoneanother,andconversationsthatwereenthusiasticandresponsiveinbothrealandpretendinteractions.

• Experientialqualitiesofplay–welookedforevidenceoflearnersengaginginsharedactivities,sharingtheirexperienceswithoneanother, being absorbed in their play activity, finding common ground,andpoolingandcomparingoneanother’sperspectives.

• Metaphoricqualitiesofplay–welookedforevidenceoflearners’creativethinking,imagination,readinesstosuspendreality,flexibility, engaging with both real and pretend layers of meaning, andcreatingmake-believesituations,rolesanddialogue.

• Integrativequalitiesofplay–welookedforevidenceoflearnersmakingconnectionsamongpeople,events,people,ideasandresources,andconnectingpast,presentandfuturetimes.

• Empoweringqualitiesofplay–welookedforevidenceoflearnerstalkingaboutandrisingabovephysicalrealitiesandperceivedlimitations,breakingawayfromconformity,andinnovating,experimentingandexploring.

Inouranalysis,wealsoexaminedhoweachplayqualitycontributedto social capital in our adult learning communities. Specifically we lookedforevidenceofcommunitybuildingthatsupportsaccess,commitmenttooneanotherandtheirrolesintheiradultlearningcommunity,andbringingtogethercollectiveexperiencesandunderstandings.


Findings

Asweexplorelinksbetweenplayandsocialcapital,wefocusononeplayqualityatatimetomakesomegeneralobservationsonwhatwefound.Werelatetheseobservationstotheliterature,aswedidasourinquiry unfolded. We then illustrate these observations with specific scenariosfromourclasses.

Exploring relational qualities in play and their contribution to social capital

Synergyandasenseoffellowfeelingareassociatedwithrelationalqualitiesofplay(Meares2005,Melamed1987).Conversationsbetweenouradultlearnersduringplayresonatedwiththekindsofconversationsthatcatalyseadultlearning(Baker,Jensen&Kolb 2002, in Baker 2006) – they showed enthusiasm, reflection, responsiveness,intentengagementandunderstanding.Theseconversationswerebothrealandimaginary,especiallyintheirpretendplayandrole-play.Asenseofcommunitybuildingthusemerged(Göncü&Perone2005).

To illustrate these findings, we draw on a scenario from John’s communicationclasswithbuildingdiplomastudents.Thepurposewastoillustratetheimportanceofbuilderslisteningtodifferentmessagesfromtheiradvertisers,suppliersandgeneralmediamessages.

Playoccursinanatmospherecreatedbyanother(Meares2005)–inthiscase,the‘other’wasthepretendpersonaofamaverickbuildercalledHappyJoeHappy,adoptedbyJohn.AssoonasJohnbroughtthispersonaintoplay,howJohnandtheadultlearnersrelatedtoone another changed. At first, learners responded to ideas that John presentedinrole–suchassomedoubtfulideasaboutdeliveringvalueformoney.GraduallymorestudentsjoinedinwithcommentsdirectedtoHappyJoeandoneanother–suchaswhatconstitutedappropriatelevelsofcustomerservice.Findingtheirplaceinthediscussion,theselearnerscooperativelycreatedaconversational

spaceinwhichtheyraised,sharedandchallengedworkplacepractices,experiencesandperceptions.

Inafollow-upclass,JohnconductedaGeoffreyRobertson-styleHypotheticalsdiscussion.Heassignedpretendrolestomembersofthegroupasthediscussionprogressed–aWorkCoverinspector,ayoungworkerdesperatelyseekingworktosupportawifeandyoungfamily,andabuilderwho‘doestherightthing’andgetshisinsurancepaperworkin,resultinginhigherinsurancepremiumsforhonestlydisclosingrisk,andthenbeingundercutbythedubiousbuilderwithloweroverheads.Learnerswereaskedtoimprovisebyenteringthediscussionintheseroles.Graduallythedirectionofthediscussionchanged–fromonewhereinitiallythemajorityofthediscussionparticipantssupportedthebuilderbecauseofhisapparentindependentstreak,toonewherelearnersrealisedthereweremanyotherpointsofviewandstakeholdersinthisdiscussion.

Astheseadultlearnersshiftedperspectivesinroleandtookownershipofthediscussion,theybecameincreasinglyengrossedinrelatingtooneanotherfromdifferentstandpoints.Asbuilders,theseadult learners will find themselves dealing with people in different rolesandrelationshipssuchasthosetheytookonhere–forexample,foremen,clients,suppliers,contractors,regulationauthorities,work-matesandsoon.Thisobservationhighlightsrole-playasawayofpromotingindividuals’understandingofdifferentroles,relationshipsandperspectives(Mead1934),whichassisteffectiveinteractionsandnetworkingexperiences.

Exploring experiential qualities in play and their contribution to social capital

Whenouradultlearnersplayedinourclasses,theywereinvolvedincollectiveexperiencesthattheypatentlyfoundenjoyableandengrossing–highlightingtheexperientialqualitiesofplayasdescribedbyMelamed(1987).Witheveryoneabsorbedinthesameactivity,playseemedtohelpindividualsovercomepotentialbarriers


among them and appreciate diversity and flexibility – key attributes associatedwitheffectivelearningcommunitiesandsocialcapital(Flora1998,inKilpatrick,Field&Falk2001,Flora,Flora&Wade1996,inBaker2006).

Intheirplay,individualscontributedtocommontasks,fromwhichthey collectively built understanding. We illustrate these findings in a scenario from John’s Communication Skills Certificate III class. Thisclassconsistedentirelyofnon-Englishspeakingbackground(NESB)learners,seekingtoretrainaspartoftheirre-settlementexperienceorhonetheircommunicationskillsaspartofhavingtheiroverseasqualifications recognised in Australia.

Johndividedtheclassintothreesmallgroups.Eachgroupwasgivenanactivitydesignedtoencouragelearnerstousediscussionandproblem-solving skills studied in class to achieve the goals specific to eachtask.Theseactivitiesinvolvedchildren’spicturebooks:• The Waterhole(Base2001)–thisactivityinvolvedidentifying

camouflaged animals on a particular page and matching them to theirminiaturesilhouettesinthebordersofthesamepage.Thepurposewastopoolandcorroboratesightingsandresolveanydifferencesininterpretations.

• Mausis farben(Maisy’s colours)(Cousins1997)–thispicturebookwaspresentedinaGermantranslationwhichno-oneintheclasscouldunderstand.Thepurposewastoreachagreementonthestorylineinthebook,making,testingandreviewinghypothesesagainstthebackdropofthegroup’sexperiencesandinsights.

• Rosie’s walk(Hutchins1968)–thewordsofthispicturebooktellofahen’suneventfulwalkwhiletheillustrationsshowafoxstalkingher.ThepurposewastoshareandcontrastdifferentpointsofviewandresolvedifferencesinordertoreachconsensusastowhetherornotRosiewasawareofthefox.

Allgroupswereobservablyanddeeplyengrossedintheseactivitiesandoneanother.Students’diverseculturalandlinguisticbackgroundsprovidedforrichandenthusiasticsharingofideasandexperiencestosolvethetaskathand–bolsteredbytheplayfulnatureandvisualorientationofeachactivity.Forexample,groups solvedtheproblemofdecodingthewordsinMausis farbenbydrawingontheircollectiveknowledgeabouthowpicturebookswork,interpretingpicturesandrelatingthemtothewords,andseekinganalogiesbetweenEnglishandGermanwordssuchas‘braun’and‘brown’.

TheexperientialnatureofthisactivityalsoalleviatedpressuresthattheseadultlearnersusuallyfeltinrelationtousingEnglishastheirnon-nativelanguage.TheyputtheirdictionariestoonesideandwererelativelyuninhibitedinusingEnglishinexplainingtheirpointsofviewtooneanother.ThisabsenceofanEnglishlanguagescreenwassupportedbytheplayfulnatureoftheactivitiesandcontrastedwithJohn’sobservationsofNESBspeakersacrossotherclasssituations.

Exploring metaphoric qualities in play and their contribution to social capital

Inplay,wefoundthatadultlearners’creativitycametothefore.Theyfreelyfollowedhunchesandimpulsesandengagedwithrealand imagined situations, roles and ideas. They showed flexibility and willingnessintakingonotherpeople’spointsofviewandacceptingchange,qualitieswhichhelpfostersocialcapitalandeffectivelearningcommunities(Flora,Flora&Wade1996,inBaker2006).

To illustrate these findings, we draw on an example from Pauline’s classwherepreserviceteachersbegantochangetheirlecturetheatreintoamovieandlivedramatheatre.Owingtoalast-minuteroomchange,Paulinefoundthattheclasshadbeenre-scheduledinatiered lecture room with fixed seating, minimal floor space, a video boothattheback,andalargescreenandwhiteboardatthefront.Thisroomlimitedherplansforaplay-basedpedagogy.Workingwiththeteachingspaceandnotagainstit,Paulinedecidedtousethe


ideaofatheatretotransformthelecturetheatreintoamovieandentertainmenttheatre.

Tolaunchthemovietheatrewiththestudents,Paulineusedamind-mapgameandthreetheatreprops–atorch,popcornandachildren’smoviestorybook–tostimulatewholeclassbrainstormingofassociations.Studentswillinglyentertainedandbuiltonnewideasfromoneanotherandaccepteduncertaintyandchangeastheirlinesofthinkingunfolded.Oncethemoviestorybookwaspresentedasthefinal prop, associations narrowed to movies and theatres and so the room’smakeoverwasbegun.

Insmallgroupfollow-up,studentscontinuedtocolludeonwaystousethemovietheatretoframetheirteampresentations.Initially,Paulineaskedstudentstodesignmovieposters–apopularculturegenrewithwhichtheywereallfamiliarandwhichwasmodelledandbrainstormedbeforegoingintosmallgroups.Paulineaskedstudentstothinkofmovietitlesandtaglinesfortheirpresentations,andcomeupwithavisualdesignthatwouldbestcapturetheessenceoftheirsubjectmaterialaboutplayinthecurriculum.

Studentsexceededexpectationsastheystretchedthemselves.Theirideas flowed freely as they created titles, tag lines and visual designs. Theyexploredotheraspectsoftheirpresentations–suchasplay-basedtechniquesandpropstheycoulduseandrole-playstheycouldsetup.Theirheightenedengagementwasevidentintheirenthusiasticplanningoftheirpresentations,overheardincommentslike‘I’msoinspired’,andthefactthatsomestudentsactuallywenthomethatdayandhadsleepoverssotheycouldcontinueplanningtheirpresentations.

Astheweeksensuedandstudentsdevelopedandgavetheirpresentations,Paulineandstudentsalikemaintainedongoingcomplicityintheimaginaryre-creationoftheirsharedadultlearningspace.Suchcomplicitywascriticalinnurturingasenseofcommunityandsupportamongstthemall.

Exploring integrative qualities of play and their contribution to social capital

Inthekindsofplayprovidedinourclasses,therewasanemphasisonholisticexperiences.Ouradultlearnersmadeconnectionsamongexperiences,peopleandresources,past,presentandfuture,intheirrealandimaginedworlds.MakingtheseconnectionswasakintowhatMeares(2005,p.165)describedinplayasindividualsweavingthe‘skeins’oftheirideasandimaginings.Wefoundadeepresonancebetweenthisintegrativeaspectofplayandsocialcapitalinadulteducation.Socialcapitalalsoisembeddedinconnectionsamongpeople,resourcesandeventsthatassistlearnersinmovingforward.Inthiswesawtheprincipleofinterconnectivityatwork(Falket al.2000)inhelpingtoengenderasenseoflearningcommunity.

Toillustratetheseaspectsofplayandsocialcapital,wehavechosenascenariofromPauline’spreserviceteachereducationclass,whichfollowedonfromdevelopingthetheatremetaphorpreviouslydescribed.Agroupofstudentsgavetheirpresentationontheuseofplayinthecreativeartscurriculum.Theychosetoexplorethistopicfromthreetheoreticalperspectivesanddevisedarole-playscriptthattheyenacted.Therole-playtooktheformofapaneldiscussionamongthreetheoreticalexperts,andanearlychildhoodteacherseekingprofessionaladviceonhowexpertsengageherpupilsmoreeffectivelyincreativeartslessons.

Theseadultlearnersenthusiasticallyembracedrole-playandadoptedaplaymindsetinwhichtheyintegrateddifferentpointsofviewacrosstimeandplace.Theymadeconnectionstoandamongpeople,ideas,experiencesandresourcesbeyondtheirgroup.Insodoing,thesestudents reached out to technologies, resources and people in the field toinformandassisttheirpresentation:• TheyincorporatedDVDandPowerpointtechnologiestosupport

theirpresentation,callingoninformationtechnologyexpertiseandmaterialresourcesoutsidetheirgrouptosupporttheirowncollaborativecreationofaDVDandaPowerpointdisplay.

�4 Pauline Harris and John Daley Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings ��

• Theyresearchedtheperspectivesofthreetheoreticiansandcomparedandcontrastedwhateachhadtosayaboutplay.Theytransformedthisresearchintoascriptedrole-playthattheyactedoutandwhichbroughttolifecomplexandoftensubtlesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongthethreeperspectives.

• Theyconnectedtheorytopracticebyconnecting‘experts’witha ‘teacher’ with whom they engaged in dialogue, reflection and demonstrationofpracticallyandtheoreticallyinformedideasfortheclassroom.

• Theyconnectedwiththeiraudience,astheyco-optedtheirpeerstojoininthedemonstrationsofactivitiesandrelatedtothemasfellowteachers.

• Theyconnectedthepast,presentandfuture.The‘StarWars’devicemadeaclearpopularculturereferencetotheirpastexperiences of this film. They also reached into the historical past of theoreticians who still have a presence in the field of early childhoodeducation;andtheyconnectedthesepastexperiencesandideastothepresentcontextoftheirrole-playsandtheirfuturecareersasteachers.

Exploring empowering qualities of play and their contribution to social capital

Ithasbeenwrittenthatplayreleasesindividualsfrominternalrestrictionsandconformityandallowsthemtoreachbeyondperceivedconstraintsandlimitations(Melamed1987).Wefoundevidenceofsuchempowermentinourclasses,whereplayprovidedazoneinwhichindividualswereheadstallerthanthemselves(Vygotsky1978).Therelevanceheretosocialcapitalinadultlearningis having the confidence and know-how to reach within oneself to realiselatentcapabilities,aswellastoreachbeyondone’simmediatesituation and access other people and resources, to the benefit of the individualandthegroup.

Reflecting on this connection, we explore below a scenario in which playwasusedtomediateanassessmenttaskinJohn’sclasswith

CommunicationSkillsstudents.Theactivity’sfocuswastouseand reflect on group processes for resolving workplace conflict and meetingdeadlines.Johncasttheassessmenttaskasarole-playthatrequiredcooperationandindividualaccountability.Insodoing,hereducedtheadultlearners’senseofriskthattheyoftenfeelwhenperforminganassessmenttask.Theseadultlearnerswereencouragedtostretchthemselvesbytheplayfulnessoftheiractivityandsupportoftheirfellowlearners.

Therole-playwasgivenonthestudents’arrival.Theytookonrolesofteammemberswhoweretocompleteareportontheirundertakingforathirdparty,withasetdeadline.Thereportwoulddeterminethefuturefateoftheteam’sowncompany,seeingthecompanycloseifthedeadlinewasnotmet.Theteamappreciateditsimportancebutoneteammember,enactedbyJohn,thwartedtheirefforts.Thisrecalcitrantteammemberhabituallycamelatetoteammeetings,hadnotdonewhathesaidorwasaskedtodo,continuedtomakeexcusesforhisfailuretohonourhisteamresponsibilitiesandworkplacecommitments, and showed difficulty in meeting deadlines and contributingtotheoverallgoaloftheteam.

Twoverydifferentwaysofresolvingthisissueemergedintherole-play, with significant consequences for the team and the errant team member.Inlightoftheseconsequencesandthelivelydiscussionthatfollowed,theseadultlearnerswereprovokedintocarefullyreviewingtheirrespectivepositions–safeintheknowledgethatplayprovidesflexibility and empowered by the freedom that play affords. The eventualconsensuswastobothassisttheindividualandhonourthecorporatedeadline.

Inplay,onethingleadstoanother–andthisscenariowasnoexception.Withthisconsensusreached,JohnintroducedthestudentstotheroleofEmployeeAssistancePrograms(EAP)intheworkplace.TherelevanceofEAPinthiscontextwascleartoallinboththeimmediatepretendsituationandultimately,theseadultlearners’

�� Pauline Harris and John Daley Exploring the contribution of play to social capital in institutional adult learning settings ��

workplacefutures.TheyaskedJohnforanadjournmenttoinvestigatetherolesofEAPs.Insodoing,theyreachedbeyondtheirgrouptoaccessnewknowledgeandhelpfulresourcesthatwouldassistthemintheirlearningandchosencareers.Theydidsowithaninquiringmindandacriticaleye.Empowermentaffordedbyplayprovokedtheseadultlearnerstostepuptothemark,interrogatethesituationathand,andconsiderandreviewkeyperspectivesandstakeholders,evenwhilecompletinganassessmenttask.

Conclusions

Acknowledgingtheearlystagesofourinquiry,anyconclusionswemakemustbetentative.However,wedoseeindicationsthatplayinadultlearningcancontributetonurturingsocialcapitalbyfostering adultlearningcommunitiesthatsupportandpromoteaccesstoinformationandresourcesrelevanttolearninggoalsandaspirations.InFigure2,westateourconclusionsabouteachplayqualityintermsof principles associated with social capital (italicised in this figure).

Figure 2: Conclusions about how qualities of play contribute to social capital

Play qualities

Conclusions

Relationalqualities

Relationalqualitiesofplaycontributedtosocialcapitalby:• creatingconversational spacesthatsawenthusiasm,

understanding, reflection, action and genuine engagementamongadultlearners

• invitingandnurturingdialogueamongadultlearners• involvingcooperationofadultlearnerswithoneanother• engagingadultlearnersinsharing, corroboratingand

reviewing ideasandexperienceswithoneanother• enhancingreciprocity and trustamongadultlearners

Experientialqualities

Experientialqualitiesofplaycontributedtosocialcapitalby:• engagingadultlearnersinsharedhands-onengagement,

enjoyment,absorptionandactiveparticipation• invitingadultlearnerstobringtheirownexperiencesto

bearandsharewithoneanother• providingexperienceswhereflexibility, diversity and

inclusivityofideasandpeoplewerevalued• breakingdownpotentialbarriersamongadultlearners

and enticing them into finding common ground and shared understandings

Metaphoricqualities

Metaphoricqualitiesofplaycontributedtosocialcapitalby:• providingadultlearnerswithanapproach to

cooperative action• helpingadultlearnersbondwithoneanotherthrough

collusiononideastheycooperatively constructed• openingupavenuesofcollective thought and intellectual

corroborationbyvaluingintuitivethinking,andfollowinghunchesandstreamsofconsciousness

• encouragingflexibility and creativitywithawillingnesstoentertainandbuildonnewideasfromoneanotherandacceptchange

Integrativequalities

Integrativequalitiesofplaycontributedtosocialcapitalby:• providingholisticexperienceswhereadultlearnersmade

connectionstoandamongpeople,ideas,experiencesandresourcesbeyondtheirgroup

• engenderingasenseofinterconnectivityamongstadultlearnersandtheirpast,presentandfutureexperiencesandaspirations

• providingopportunityforadultlearnerstoweave togethertheskeinsoftheirideas,experiencesandimaginings

Empoweringqualities

Empoweringqualitiesofplaycontributedtosocialcapitalby:• providingameansforthegrouptocollectively

transform and transcendimmediatesharedrealitiesandlookbeyondtheirimmediatecommunalsituation

• creatingazonewhereadultlearnersreached beyondtheiractualcapacitiesandworkedtowardstheirpotential

• encouragingadultlearnerstoreachbeyondtheirgrouptoaccess other people and resources


Thesequalitiesofplaywereseentofosterlearningbyenrichingadultlearners’engagement,cooperationandsenseofconnectednesswithoneanotheraswellaswithpeople,resourcesandinformationbeyondtheirgroup.Theseconclusionsaresupportedbytheliteratureonwhichwehavedrawnandwarrantfurtherinvestigation.Furtherinquiry needs to continue to document the specific details of play’s contributiontosocialcapital,alongwithadultlearners’perspectivesof this relationship, and any carry-over effects and benefits to other adultlearningsituations.Alsoofinterestinthislineofinquiryarethebridgesadulteducatorsmaybuildfromplaytootherkindsofadultlearning approaches, and the role that reflective dialogue between adulteducatorsandlearnersmayhaveinbuildingsuchbridges.

References

Baldwin,J.M.(1906).Thoughts and things: or genetic logic, Vol. 1,London:Macmillan.

Base,G.(2001).The waterhole, London:PenguinBooks.

Bruner,J.(1972).‘Thenatureandusesofimmaturity’,American Psychologist, 27, 687–708.

Cohen,D.&Prusak,L.(2001).In good company. How social capital makes organizations work,Boston,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.

Cousins,L.(1997).Mausis farben.Frankfurt,Germany:Sauerlaenderverlag.

Field,J.(2005).‘Socialcapitalandlifelonglearning’,The encyclopedia of informal education, http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/social_capital_and_lifelong_learning.htm[lastupdated:28April,2005].

Göncü,A.&Perone,A.(2005).‘Pretendplayasalife-spanactivity’,Topoi,24(2),137–147.

Hibbitt,K.,Jones,P.&Meegan,R.(2001).‘Tacklingsocialexclusion:theroleofsocialcapitalinurbanregenerationonMerseyside’,European Planning Studies, 9(2):141–161.

Hutchins,P.(1968).Rosie’s walk, London:BodleyHead.

Kilpatrick,S.,Field,J.&Falk,I.(2001).Social capital: an analytical tool for exploring lifelong learning and community development, www.crira.utas.edu.au/files/discussion/2001/d13-2001.pdf

Loughran, J. & Northfield, J.R. (1998). ‘A framework for the development of self-studypractice’,inHamilton,M.L.(ed.),Reconceptualizing teaching practice: self-study in teacher education,London:FalmerPress,7–18.

McClenaghan,P.(2000).‘Socialcapital:exploringthetheoreticalfoundationsofcommunitydevelopmenteducation’, British Educational Research Journal, 26(5):565–582.

Mead,G.H.(1934).Mind, self and society. Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress.

Meares,R.(2005)The metaphor of play – origin and breakdown of personal being (3rdedition),London:Routledge.

Melamed, L. (1987). ‘The role of play in adult learning’, in Boud, D. & Griffin, V.(eds.),Appreciating adults learning: from the learner’s perspective, London:KoganPage,13–24.

Putnam,R.(1993).Making democracy work: civic traditions in modern Italy, Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress.

Putnam,R.(2000).Bowling alone: the collapse and revival of American community, NewYork:Simon&Schuster.

Smith,M.K.(2001).‘Socialcapital’,The encyclopedia of informal education,www.infed.org/biblio/social_capital.htm

Vygotsky,L.(1978).Mind in society: the development of higher mental processes,Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

WorldBank(1998).The initiative on defining, monitoring and measuring social capital: overview and program description, SocialcapitalinitiativeworkingpaperNo.1,Washington,DC:TheWorldBankSocialDevelopmentFamilyEnvironmentallyandSociallySustainableDevelopmentNetwork.

About the authors

Dr Pauline Harris is Associate Professor of Language and Literacy and Early Childhood Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Wollongong.

Her research interests are in literacy education in the early years, play in adult learning settings, and self-study as an approach to action research in adult learning settings. Pauline currently leads a project, funded by the Australian Research Council, which investigates relationships between literacy research, policy and practice.

�0 Pauline Harris and John Daley Australian Journal of Adult Learning


John Daley is (since 2005) a part-time teacher of Communication and English at South Western Sydney Institute of TAFE, New South Wales. He is currently also a part-time student in the Graduate Certificate program in TESOL at the University of Wollongong. John holds a M.Ed. in adult education and training, and graduate diplomas in Librarianship and Local Government Management. In a previous career, he was a local government manager. In his new career, John has developed a research interest in the role of play in adult learning.

Contact details

Pauline Harris, Faculty of Education, The University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522Tel: +61 2 4221 3877Email: [email protected]

John Daley, TAFENSW, South Western Sydney InstituteTel: +61 41 613 6167Email: [email protected]

Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities

Rob TownsendSchool of Education

Victoria University

This article presents the outcomes of recent research into adult education programs and experiences in the Shire of Campaspe, a region in northern Victoria. Research data of people from diverse cultural backgrounds reveal how individuals can utilise adult education as a space to explore their own social and cultural isolation in a regional context. The research reveals patterns of migration, internal population mobility, social isolation and cultural identity within the context of this one regional shire. The article discerns the roles that adult education providers play in creating specific kinds of space for people to discover new social networks while interacting with informal and formal structures and processes of adult learning. Adult education programs and practices can play an important role in providing space for the exploration of social, cultural and economic experiences. However, individual adult education organisations manage their spaces and programs in such

�2 Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities �3

a way that excludes some people from social and economic activity crucial to the development of individual and community social capital. Adult learning policies, programs and practices in regional communities need to address the holistic nature of adult learning for people from culturally diverse backgrounds in order to contribute to the development of sustaining social capital for individuals, families and communities in Australian society.

Context

Theaimofthisarticleistoexplorethethemesthathaveemergedfromdoctoralresearchconcerningadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)inregionalcommunitiesinAustralia.Themixedmethodsresearchactivities(Tashakkori&Teddlie2003,Creswell2002)included the surveying and interviewing of fifteen adult learners fromculturallyandlinguisticallydiverse(CALD)backgroundswhichresultedinthedevelopmentofvignettesassnapshotsofhabitualnarratives(Redman2005,Linde2001,Arvay1998,Norum1998).Theseresearchinstrumentsweredevisedutilisingcurrentliteratureonindicatorsofsocialcapitaldevelopment(Cox2004,Balatti&Falk2002,ABS2000,Winter2000).

TherewerealsofocusgroupmeetingswithindividualsparticipatinginalocalculturaldiversitysupportgroupintheShireofCampaspeandafocusgroupwithlearnersinanEnglishasasecondlanguage(ESL)program.ThesefocusgroupmeetingsevaluatedtheimpactofgovernmentfundedACEpoliciesandprogramsontheindividuallivesofparticipants(Feldman,Skoldberg,Brown&Horner2003).TherewereinterviewswithACEstaffworkingwitharangeofCampaspe-basedadulteducationproviders,allowingforthecompilationofacomprehensive profile of adult education activities in this region. QuantitativedataofACEparticipationinurbanandregionalareasin

VictoriawerealsoanalysedtoexploretheassumptionthattargetedACEdeliverycouldimpactonACEparticipation(ACFE2006).

Thethemesthatemergedfromtheresearchrepresentamultiplicityofindividualexperiencesoflifeinaregionalcommunityandtheresearchrevealstheconnectivityofdiversity,adultlearningandsocialinclusioninthisoneruralshireinAustralia.Theresearchtookshapeinthecontextofaregionalgeographiccommunity,theShireofCampaspe,situatedinnorthernVictoria.TheShireofCampaspehasapopulationofover37,000peoplethatisgrowinginnumberanddiversity(ABS2007,ShireofCampaspe2006).Agriculturalproductionbasedonintensiveirrigationisthelargestindustryintermsofnetworthandrevenue,anddairyfarminganddrylandfarminginvolvingcattle,sheepandgrainarethemainagriculturalindustries.Employmentoccursmostlyintheservicesectorsofretail,finance, hospitality and tourism. In recent times, the Shire has been significantly affected by drought, impacting on collective economic, socialandpersonalcircumstances.

TheplacethatisCampaspeisrepresentativeofmanyregionsinAustraliawherethepopulationisdiversifyingasmorepeoplemovefromlargeurbanareasandasmigrantsandrefugeesare‘diverted’intoregionalareasbyFederalandStategovernmentpolicies.Withinregional Victoria there are specific patterns of age-specific migration, withdifferentagegroupsmovingoutofandintotheseareas.Olderadolescents,forexample,showapatternofmovementtowardurbancentres,mostlyforeducation.Thesepatternstendtoreversefor25–29 year olds in regional areas such as Campaspe, reflecting the attractionofregionalareasforyoungfamiliesandthereturnmobilityofsomewhohavecompletedtheirtertiaryeducation(DVC2006).

CommunitiesinregionalVictoriawith16%ofthepopulationbornoverseas are significantly less diverse than Melbourne, with 36% ofthepopulationbornoverseas(DVC2006).Issuesofculturalandsocialmarginalisationmotivatemanypeopleandespecially

�4 Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities ��

newlyarrivedmigrantstochoosetoresideinthediversityofurbanareas.However,inrecentyearsanumberofregionalmunicipalitiesinVictoria,andaroundAustralia,areactivelywelcomingmorediversegroupsintotheircommunitiesforarangeofeconomicandsocialreasons.CurrentlythereareimmigrationprogramstargetinghumanitarianentrantstoresettleinregionalandruralAustralia,skilled migrants can fill skill shortages and there are opportunities for guest workers to come to Australia to fulfil specific employment contractsinregionaland/orruralcommunities(Broadbent,Cacciattolo&Carpenter2006,DoTaRS2006).Towhatextentcanthesenewinternalandinternationalmigrantsexpectsupportintheirresettlementandinadjustingtolifeintheirnewcommunities,andwhatsupportdotheyneed?Thecontextofthispaperisresearchaboutadulteducationandtraininganditsroleinregionallifeforinternalandinternationalmigrants.

Regional population diversity via migration and internal mobility

IndividualsfromculturallydiversebackgroundsinterviewedfortheresearchhavecometoCampaspeviatwomainmeans–internalmobilityand/orinternationalmigration.Themature-ageindividualswhohadresidedinAustraliaforadecadeormore,mostlyinlargeurbancommunities,relocatedtoCampaspeforpersonalreasons,the lifestyle, mental health and, for some, financial benefit. This mobility reflects individual life transitions facilitated by a number offactorsincludingrelationshipbreakdowns,the‘emptynest’syndromeorphysical/mentalhealthissues.Theseindividualsaresearchingforasenseof‘place’and‘community’,asenseofbelongingtosomewhereoutsideoftheirpriorfamilialandculturalexperiences.Thisappearstobeafunctionofage-relatedlifetransitionsasmuchas CALD background or migration experiences. No longer satisfied or dependentonthesamesocialconnectionsthathavesustainedtheminthepast,thisgroupareseekingsomemeaningtotheirindividuallives rather than solely financial gain or familial stability.

ThisraisesthequestionwhethertheCALDormigrationexperienceweakenscertainties,makingfora‘rootlessness’thatallowsforquiteradicalrelocationfromurbantoregionalcommunity(Giorgas2000).Doestherecomeapointwhereandwhenpeopledonotexpectmuchculturalorfamilialconnectedness,theupheavalofinternationalmigrationinthepasthavingcreatednewbutshallow-rootedandcircumscribedconnectionsinanewcountry?

DifferentmotivationsandobjectivescharacterisedtheyoungerindividualsfromCALDbackgrounds,allwomen,whohadmigratedwithin the past five years or so. These individuals have come to resideinCampaspebecauseofapersonalrelationship.Theirstoriesreflect the economic issues of the countries of origin and the search ofindividuals(andtheirfamilies)fora‘better’lifeforthemselvesinanewcountry.Theyarenotasarulepreparedfortheexperience(s)oflivinginAustralianregionalorruralcommunitiesandhaveoftenhadlittlechoiceintheirlocation.Somebelievethat‘fate’broughtthemtoCampaspe.

ThemostcommonthemeemergingfromtheexperiencesofalltheseindividualsinCampaspewasthebeliefthattheirbackgroundsmadethemsocialoutsiderswithinthisregionalcommunity.Theyhad all experienced social exclusion and difficulty in developing localised,supportivesocialnetworks.Australianregionalandruralcommunitieshavedistinctlocalisedculturesinthemselves,oftenWhite-Anglo-Saxon-Protestant(WASP)androotedinthecolonialhistory of a specific region. New residents to these communities are required,asnewcomers,toadjusttothemoresandcodesoflocallife:

Idomixwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures…It’simportantinaplacelikeEchucawheretherearelotsofAussierednecks.(Connie)

[Echuca]lookedlikeamodernandquitetrendytown,butitwasalllooks;theattitudesandbehaviourof‘locals’aboutpeoplefromdifferentculturesandotherdifferenceswererootedinanAnglo,rural,redneckculture.(George)

�� Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities ��

However,thecloseranindividualistotheWASPcolonialtraditionofregional/ruralAustralia,thequickerandeasieronewilldevelopnewsocialnetworks,oftenresultingfromparticipationinexistinglocalnetworksaroundactivitiessuchassport,businessandchurch(Babacan2007,Hero2007).Employmentwastheoneissuethatemergedfromtheresearchasonewayforindividualstoconnectwithlocalisednetworks.Indeed,itwasassumedbysomeACEprovidersthatformostnewarrivals,employmentwouldactuallyexcludethemfromparticipationorinvolvementinadulteducation.Mostoftheindividualsinterviewedfortheresearch,drawnfromcurrentACEprograms,werenotemployed,eitherbecausetheywerefull-timecarersforpartnersand/orchildren,orbecausetheywereunemployed.ThisraisesanumberofquestionsregardinginvolvementinadulteducationonthepartofpeoplefromCALDbackgrounds.TheirunemploymentrelatestothelifetransitionsmentionedpreviouslyandtheconnectednesstheymightexpectfromACEislimitedduetoperceptionsofthe‘working’migrant.

ThecomplexityofthisdynamicisunderscoredbythefactthatunemploymentacrossAustraliaishigheramonggroupssuchasnewlyarrivedmigrantwomen,middle-agedmenandwomenreturningtowork(ABS6202.02007),andthesearesomeofthemaintargetgroupsofACEprogramsinVictoriaandinCampaspe.Thesepatternsof social and economic inclusion and/or exclusion are not a specific functionofthecommunitiesintheShireofCampaspebutofthewholeofAustraliansociety,asthisdiversityisduplicatedthroughoutmanyregionalandruralareasofAustraliaandprobablymanyurbancommunitiesaswell(DoTaRS2006,Giorgas2000).Anindividualcanexperiencebeingan‘outsider’withinacommunitybecauseoftheirCALDbackground,orbecausetheyareanassertiveyoungwoman,oragaymanorsomeonewithamentalillness.

Manyindividualsandsub-groupswillbeperceivedasbeingoutsideofestablishedlocalexperiencesandoften‘pegged’bylocalsaspeople

who ‘won’t fit’. All of the individual learners interviewed for the research experienced social exclusion and isolation in the first years oftheirlifeinCampaspebecausetheywereoutsiders.Whiletheirexperienceswerealldifferentduetoindividualfactors,therewereexperiencestheyallhadincommon;somehaddevelopedsocialcapitalviamainlyemployment-basednetworksandexperiences,whileothersstillfeltthemselvestobe‘outsiders’intheShireofCampaspe.AlloftheindividualswhoparticipatedinthisresearchweresearchingforsocialconnectionseitherasaprimaryorsecondaryissuewhenaccessingACE.SomehadbeenabletouseACEinthedevelopmentofnewsocialnetworks,butothersfoundACEprogramsandpracticesexcluding,disappointingandunhelpfulinthisendeavour.

The role of adult and community education in regional communities

TheindividualsfromCALDbackgroundsinterviewedforthisresearchhadallaccessededucationand/ortrainingprogramsatACEprovidersinCampaspeinrecentyears.ItisclearthatforthisgroupACEhasbeenaccessibleinthesensethattheycanaccessanACEcentre,enquireaboutprograms,enrolinandthenattendagroupeducationalactivity.Theseindividualsaccessedadiversityofeducationandtrainingprograms,fromaccreditedvocationaltrainingtopersonaldevelopmentcourses.

TheindividualsinthisstudyaccessedACEprogramsforpersonal,socialandeconomicreasons,withemphasisonthepersonalandsocial.ACEstafffortheirpartunderstoodthatACEisaboutaccesstoeducationandthatpeopleparticipateinprogramsforpersonalandsocialreasons.Interviewswithprovidersrevealed,however,theextenttowhichACEisnowincreasinglyaboutvocationaltrainingfor specific groups who traditionally access ACE for social reasons, forexample,womenreturningtowork.RecentchangestoAustralianincomesecuritypolicyviawelfare-to-workinitiativeshavemeant

�8 Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities �9

thattargetingthisgroupforvocationaltrainingisalucrativefundingmechanismviaworkskillsvouchers.ACEnowappearstohavetheunenviabletaskofhavingtobemanythingstomanypeoplewithingeographiccommunitieslikeCampaspe.

ThishasledACEprovidersinCampaspeintospecialisingandtargeting specific groups instead of diversifying their profiles to suit abroadercommunity.Forexample,MurrayHumanServicesonlytargetspeoplewithdisabilities;MirrimbeenaAboriginalEducationGrouptargetsIndigenousyoungmen;andCampaspeCollegeofAdultEducationmostlytargetswomeninterestedincommunityservicestraininglikechildcare,agedcare,andhomeandcommunitycare.ThesearerecentexamplesinCampaspeofACEprovidersandprograms being developed to service specific groups. None of the providers,however,arepurposefullytargetingpeoplefromCALDbackgrounds,probablybecauseofalackofahomogenousandvisible population profile and recognised need. Not only is the CALD population significantly smaller (though growing) in Campaspe comparedwithmanyurbancommunities,butthereisabroadrangeof CALD sub-groups reflecting the entire history of migration in Australia:Irish,southernEuropeans,ChineseandmorerecentlyAsianmigration–Vietnamese,Malaysian,Filipino,Indian,SriLankanandnowMiddle-Easternfamilies.

ACEprovidersinCampaspearenotconnectingtothisbroad,diversecommunitybuttotheindividuals,sub-groupsandindustriesthat match the targeting of specific State and Federal funding arrangements.CampaspehaseightACEproviderswiththemostestablished, smaller ACE centres servicing specific communities. For instance,thetwomostrecentlyestablishedprovidershavedevelopedto service specific sub-groups in the Shire, that is, Indigenous peopleandpeoplewithdisabilities.ThesenewACEserviceshavedeveloped and apparently flourished in terms of growth in funding andprograms,whichrevealsthatpriortotheirestablishment,these

‘equity’groupswithintheShirewerenothavingtheirACEneedsmet.Exclusionfrom‘traditional’ACEprovidersforsomesub-groupsreflects a history of ACE in Campaspe where the main providers havebeentargetingandservicingmainstream(WASP)groupsinthecommunitysuchas;womenreturningtowork,thoseseekingleisureprogramsand/oryouthwhohave‘droppedout’ornotcompletedsecondaryschool.

Itappears,then,thatwiththisresearchidentifyingunder-servicingofCALDgroups,ACEinCampaspeisexclusionaryforarangeof‘equity’groups.AlthoughACEisbasedonaneducationalpedagogyofinclusion,theWASPcultureofCampaspehasinculcatedACEprogrammingandpracticeswithprovidersandpractitionersnotbeingabletorecognisetheneedsofarangeofsub-groupsinthisregionalcommunity.Such‘culturalblindness’byACEprogramminginthisregionalcommunityappearstoresultfromarangeofcomplexhistorical,population,socialandeconomicfactors.

ThisregionalcommunityisdeeplyrootedinthecolonialhistoryofAustralia.TheMurrayRiverinthisregionwastheearliest‘highway’andallthecommunitiesalongtheriverweretakenfromIndigenousclansandsettledtoassistintheexpansionofAnglo-Saxoncommunitiesaimingtoclaimlandandwaterfortheirowneconomicdevelopment.Culturaldiversityofanykindinthesetimeswaslimitedto the goldfields where Chinese and European immigrants had also settled.Themono-culturalhistoryofregionslikeCampaspestilllingerstothisdaywithtownslikeEchucaandSwanHillcelebratingtheirAnglo-colonialhistorytothedetrimentofrecognisingtheemergingdiversitywithintheirlocalcommunities.

DiversityinpopulationandcultureisonlyaveryrecentphenomenonforCampaspewiththelocalpopulationgrowinganddiversifyingmostlyinthepast15years(ABS2007).ThissituationisunlikeadjoiningregionssuchasMoiraShirewheretownslikeSheppartonandCobramhavea50-yearhistoryofencouragingmigrantstosettle

80 Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities 81

inthatregion(CityofGreaterShepparton2005).Campaspehasnotbeenpartofrecentprogramsaimedatencouragingmigrantstosettleinregionalcommunities.Itis,then,notsurprisingthatlocalserviceproviders,includingadulteducationorganisationsandthelocalpeoplethatworkintheseservices,arenotattunedtorecognisingandmanagingpopulationdiversity.TherehasbeenlittleleadershipwithinlocalCampaspecommunitiestoacknowledgethegrowingdiversityoflocalpopulations.

Theestablishmentofaculturaldiversity‘supportgroup’,Echuca Enriched,in2006isoneindicationthatpeoplefromdifferentculturalbackgroundsinthisareahavefelttheneedtosupporteachotherbecausetheyare(still)notbeingincludedinlocalsocialnetworksandprocesses.ThisgrouporiginatedfromprofessionalsofvariousculturalbackgroundswhoweremeetinginnearbySheppartonwhichhasalargerandmorediverseculturalandlinguisticpopulationprofile. Residents from Echuca who were attending this group wereofferedsomefundingfromtheGoulburnValleyMigrationProjecttoestablishagroupinEchuca,hopingtodevelopnewsocialcontactsforpeoplefeelingculturallyandsociallyisolated.Thegroupofferedanumberofsocialeventsin2006/07asanattempttobringpeopletogethertosharetheirexperiencesandresourcesoflivinginCampaspe.

ACE funding structures have indirectly influenced patterns of provision of adult education to specific groups. The funding is allocated to providers based on targeted funding for specific sub-groups,suchasthelong-termunemployed,womenreturningtowork,peoplewithdisabilities,AboriginalandTorresStraitIslanderpeople,peoplefromCALDbackgroundsandsoon(ACFE2006).Thishasencouraged significant levels of niche provision. Providers reported inthisresearchthat,overtime,Campaspehasseenthedevelopmentof new ACE providers targeting specific groups such as Indigenous groupsorpeoplewithdisabilities,whohavebeenabletoattract

a specific ‘client group’ clearly being excluded by established ACE providers.

ItmaywellbearguedthatthisdevelopmentinACEservicesintheregion reflects a diversification of social capital in that population sub-groupsaredevelopingtheir‘own’servicesandnetworkingopportunities(DoTaRS2006,Giorgas2000).Itisalsoclear,however,thatthesealternativenetworksarebeingdevelopedoutsideorparalleltothoseofthebroadercommunity,andarisebecausethebroadercommunityfailstomeettheneedsofthistargetgroup.CALDgroupscarvingoutalternativesocialandeconomicnetworkshighlightsand reflects a community that is practised in protecting established networksratherthanextendingandnourishingthembyembracingtherealgrowthindiversityofthemaincommunitiesinthisShire.Theresultofthisforpeoplefromarangeofculturalbackgroundsisthe need to lobby specific education providers to take note of their needsandtotargetCALDindividualsexclusively.

Whatthisresearchhassuggested,however,isthattargetingpeoplefromculturallyandlinguisticallydiversebackgroundsisnotasimplisticexerciseandthatindividualscannotbegroupedeffectivelyintoaCALDcategorywhichfailstotakeaccountoftheirlifecircumstances(Bowman2004).Targetingstillrequiresacknowledgementthatthisgroupisnothomogenousandthatdiverseofferings,includingEnglishlanguageprograms,generaleducation,vocationaltrainingandrecreationprogramsareneededtoattractthisgroup(Kearns2006).Often,individualsfromCALDbackgroundsaresearchingforculturalandsocialelementstoadulteducationthatarelessobvioustoproviders,activitiesthatareovertlyculturalandsocialsuchasprogramsthatpromotelanguages,food,religionsandotherculturalpractices.Again,theseissuesandthemesarenotuniquetotheShireofCampaspenortotheACEsector,astheyareintegralinthehistoricaldevelopmentofAustraliansocietyandcanbeseenintherecenthistoryofFederalxenophobicpolitics(Szego2006,Withers2006).


The diverse experiences of adult learning at ACE in a regional community

The specific individual experiences of ACE in the Shire of Campaspe revealedsomecriticalfactors.IndividualsfromCALDbackgroundswhowereinterviewedsawtheirforaysintoeducationandtrainingintermsofsearching.They‘lookedat’ACEasbeingawayforwardfortheirtransitionalsocialandeducationalneeds.Theywent‘lookingfor’transitionalprograms,activitiesanda‘place’tohelpsortout‘wheretonext’.Moreoftenthannot,theyfoundthatwhattheywerelookingforwasavailablebutdidnotreallysuittheirindividualpersonalcircumstances–takingwhatwasofferedbutawarethatitmightnotmeet their needs, ‘filling up’ up on the education that was available:

…myexperiencesattheCollegeandUniwerebothgoodandbad.AsIdideachyearofthesecourses,IknewIwasimproving,mywritingandstudyskillsweregettingbetter.Istartedusingpeoplewhoweregoodwithwritingtohelpme;Iusedthepeoplearoundmeasaresource.(Connie)

…theLiberalArtscoursewaslikeagarden,withChineseseedsandEnglishseedandothers.Theyallneeddifferentsoilsandstufftogrow;itwaslikeeveryonemightnotgrow,butthecourseconsideredthesourceandthesubjectofeachperson.(George)

RebaisamemberoftheNeighbourhoodHouse,forthecommittee,forthemeetings.ShealsoattendsfromtimetotimethecommunitylunchonMondays.ShecomesbacktotheNeighbourhoodHouse‘toseewhattodonextandtopractiseonthecomputers.Iamlonelyathome,butstaybecauseitisallIhave’.

ForLiz:

…itistheneedforpeopletobelong…IcangetverysickifIsitathomeallthetime…Therearealotofpeople,needypeople,justlikeme.Andwiththeirhelp,loveandunderstanding,lifeneednotbesohard.

IndividualsvaluedtheconnectednessthatACEfosteredbuttheiruseofACEwassporadicintermsofthetypesandcontentoftheACEprogramstheywereaccessing.Theseindividualsweremostlynotwantingeducational‘pathways’,butthespectrumofeducationprogramstobeavailable:generaleducation,vocationaleducation,publiceducationetc.Mostofthesurveyed‘older’individualsfromCALDbackgroundsexperiencedthesocialconnectivityandthedevelopmentofnewsocialnetworksthattheywerelookingfor;however,therewasalsorecognitionthatitwasonlysomeoftheprogramsthatachievedtheseoutcomes:

Mariesummedthisupinsaying:‘inthemain,Ihavefoundadulteducation informative; some, however, is so simplified that you don’t needabraintopassthecourse’.Hannasaid‘weneedmoreoptionsofwhereyoucango;youendupdoingwhat’sthenextbestcourse,ratherthanwhatyouwanttodo.Education/coursesneedtobewherewe’reat,lifestage...’.

Apartfrombeing‘older’,theseindividualswerealsomoreestablishedwithinAustraliansocietyandsoweremoreassertiveabouttheirneedsandmoreknowledgeableabouthowtogoaboutlocatingresourcestomatchtheirneeds.TheyreportedthatsomeACEprogramshadsuccessfullyblendedsocialandeducationalactivitiesmostly because of a specific tutor who fostered social activities as part oftheireducationalprogram,irrespectiveofthatprogram’scontentandintendedoutcome.ItwasindividualsworkingwithinACE,rather than specific ACE providers, programs or practices, who were abletofacilitateadulteducationprogramsthatacknowledgedthepersonal,socialandculturalaspectsofparticipants.TheintegrationofexperientiallearningframeworksappearedverylimitedwithinACEprovidersinCampaspe,whichrevealedadisconnectionfromthepedagogicalframeworksthatareparticularlyeffectivewithdiversegroupsoflearners.

84 Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities 8�

TherewasalsoadisturbingrecognitionbysomeoftheindividualsthatACE‘didn’tsetthestandardstoohigh’forsomeoftheirprograms.Hereitwasarguedthatindividualpotentialwasnotbeingreachedbecauselearnerswereseenasbeing‘disadvantaged’,meaningthattheywereundemandingandunchallenging.Thisreflects an ‘input focused’ approach to the philosophy and practice ofadulteducation,whereenrolmentsandstudentcontacthoursweighstronglyindecisionsaboutfundingandprogramprovision.Underthismodel,educationprovisionisaboutachievingnumericaloutcomestosuittargetsandfunding,ratherthananypracticesthatsuit the local community. Unfortunately, this may also reflect a patronisingeducationalframeworkthatdoesnotexpecttoomuchfromthesegroupsoflearnersbecause‘weshouldn’texpecttoomuch’ofpeopleaccessingadulteducationviaACEprovidersandprograms.

Mostoftheyounger,migrantwomeninterviewedfortheresearchexperiencedACEasanextensionoftheirtotalsocialisolationinanew community. Their experiences of ACE programs reflected a range ofissueswhereAustraliansociety‘expects’newlyarrivedmigrantstoattendEnglishlanguageclassesuntiltheycan‘function‘properly’,thatis,assimilatelinguistically.Here,theonusisoneachindividualtoaccessandparticipateintheseprogramsratherthanonACEorAdultMigrantEnglishProgram(AMEP)providerstooutreachtothisparticulargroupoflearners.

Theexperiencesofthesewomen,whohavemorerecentlymigrated,alsoreinforcedanunderstandingofAustraliaasapatriarchalsocietymuchlikethecountriesfromwhichtheyhadmigrated.Forthesewomen,menwerethepeoplewhohadpoweroverthem,whetherintheirpersonallivesorintheirACEprograms.TheirexperiencesaswomenatACEreinforcedtheirisolationbymirroringthelackofsocialintercoursewithotherACEparticipantsfromCALDbackgrounds,meaningtheycouldn’tlocateotherswithsimilarexperienceswithwhomtheycouldbondanddevelopnetworks.

Some saw themselves as being ridiculed by others and/or objectified becausetheywereyoung(er),migrant(Asian)women.Thiswasareflection of their experiences as women within the wider community. Forthem,ACEproviderswerenotreallyanydifferentintermsofattitudesaboutrace,cultureandgender;thesewerethemoresoftheCampasperegionalcommunityofwhichACEisapart:

TherearenotmanymumsinEchucaworkingregularlypart-timeorfull-time.Thereisasmalltownattitudethatwomenwhoaremothersdocertainthings,stayathome,playgroup,shopping,notstudyingorworkingandjugglingdifferentthingstodo.Thisattitudeisnothelping.Thereisnotaproblemwithmyculturalbackground,butIthinkit’stheattitudetomeasamother.(Arosha)

Wegooutandseepeoplewhenhusbandathome,hesay,sitandlisten,learnhowwomendothingshere.SoIsit.Iworkinsupermarketawhile…Oldermen,theysmiledatme.Onemantriedtotouchme,Iscreamedandrun.Nogoback,husbandtoldthem,nogoback.(Ollie)

This group found it difficult to build their social capital as part of theirACEexperiencebecauseofthelackofsocialsupportintheirpersonallivesthatcouldactasacatalysttosupporttheirventuringintonewsocialnetworkdevelopment(Hero2007).Socialisolationacts as a barrier that can feed on itself. Unless individuals find a place that facilitates social inclusion, it can become self-fulfilling where everyindividualexperienceleadstosocialisolation(Baron,Field&Schuller 2000). The marginalisation of these women again reflects a historyofrace,cultureandgenderinAustraliansocietythat,despitethemulticulturalagendaofthepastthreedecades,emphasisesaviewofmigrantsasaneconomicresource.Thetotalityofthemigrantexperienceandtheresourcesthesewomenbringwiththemarenotvaluedhighly,andyettheycouldbeavaluableresourcetothelocalcommunity,ifonlytheycouldbeacknowledgedforwhotheywereandwhattheyhadtooffer.

8� Rob Townsend Adult education, social inclusion and cultural diversity in regional communities 8�

AdultandcommunityeducationcanbemoreactiveindevelopingsocialcapitalamongstCALDgroupsinregionalcommunitiesonly when it starts to recognise the specific groups, families and individualsresidinginthosecommunities.Thisalsomeansactivelyminglingwithpeoplefromdiversebackgrounds,byengaginginallmannerofsocialandeconomicnetworkswithincommunitiestolocateandinvolvethesegroupswhoareoftenhiddenfromthemainstream(Nadarajah2004).Thisresearchfoundthat,muchlikeanyothersegmentofthepopulation,peoplefromCALDbackgroundswantandneedarangeofadulteducationandtrainingactivities:Englishlanguageprograms,professionaldevelopmentprograms,vocationaltraining,generaleducationandrecreationprograms.However,forACEprogramstobegenuinelyinclusive,theyneedtoincorporateexperientiallearningphilosophiesandpracticesthatengagewithalllearners,theirbackgroundsandtheircurrentknowledgeandskills,allasabaseforplanningandfacilitatingnewadulteducationprograms(Chappell,Rhodes,Solomon,Tennant&Yates2003,Fenwick2000).

Conclusion

Thelinkbetweenpopulationdiversity,adulteducationandsocialcapitaldevelopmentisstillatentativeandquestionableone.Oftenthelinkisassumedratherthantested.ACEdoeshaveamandatedroleinprovidingaccesstoeducationandtrainingbutthisdoesnotnecessarilytranslateintothebuildingofsocialcapital(Volkoff&Walstab2007).TheresearchoutlinedinthisarticlesuggeststhatACEproviders,programsandpracticescanactuallycontributetosocialexclusion,particularlyforpeoplemorerecentlyarrivedinthiscountryandinregionalcommunities.Raceandcultureasexperiencesandindicatorshavebeenabsentfromthesocialcapital‘thesis’(Hero2007)andthereisevidenceinthisresearchthatsocialcapitaldevelopmentviaACEcanbeaformofsocialcontrolandsocialreproductioninregionalcommunities.ACEdoesneverthelesshave

thepotentialtoactasanagentofsocialnetworkingandthereforesocialcohesion(Balatti,Black&Falk2006).

FurtherresearchandevidenceaboutsocialcapitaldevelopmentisrequiredfromdiversecommunitystructuresandprocessesthroughoutAustraliansocietyinbothurbanandregionalsettings.SocialcapitalmeasurementtodatehasbeenmainlyfromWASP,middleclasscommunitiesandusingtraditionalindicatorssuchaschurch-going,volunteeringandnetworkingviaclubsandassociations.Peoplefromlowersocio-economicbackgroundsormarginalgroups,ontheotherhand,tendtoutilisepublicservices,communityservicesandsportastheirmainsocialnetworkingenvironments,andtheseconnectionsarenotbeingresearchedascompletelyastheycouldandshouldbe(Hero2007).

Gender,life-stageandlengthoftimeofresidenceinAustraliaallinfluenced the ACE experiences of these individuals from CALD backgroundsinterviewedinthisresearch.Peoplefromdifferentcultural backgrounds were expected to ‘fit in’ to regional and rural communities.Basedonitsstatedphilosophicalandpedagogicalbackground,ACEhasaroletoplayinmoreactivelyfosteringsocialinteractionfordiversegroups,becausethereisevidencethatthisiswherepeoplefromdiversebackgroundsdo‘searchfor’accesstopersonal,socialandeconomicnetworkdevelopment(Volkoff&Walstab2007,Kearns2006).

Asasociety,thereisaneedinAustraliatoexaminetheACEsectorinallitscapacitiesandlocatewhatitisaboutACEthatfosterssocialcohesion, social production or social control. However, it is difficult toimagineanACEsectorthatcanactasaunifyingforcewhen,asasectorofadulteducation,itisitselffracturedwithdifferentphilosophiesandpracticesineachStateandTerritory,betweenregionswithinStates/Territoriesandbetweenproviderswithinspecific regions. While one of the strengths of ACE is its ability to serviceandresourcelocalcommunities,itsweaknessasasectoris


thelackofaunifyingphilosophyaboutitsroleinAustraliansociety(Kearns2005).DoesnottheACEsectorhaveanobligationtoactasaneducationalandsocialservicethatmeetsthediverseneedsofcommunities?Ifso,whichgovernmentsandagenciesaregoingtoactasthecatalystandfacilitatortomakethishappen?

ThedatacollectedanddocumentedinthisresearchonACEinoneAustralianregionalcommunityoutlinedveryindividualexperiencesbased on many factors. So it is difficult to ‘lump’ these individuals intotargetedequitysub-groupssuchasCALD,women,youthandunemployedbecausetherearealwaysexceptionstothenorm.ThischallengesACEtomovebeyond‘targetgroups’and‘group-basedadultlearningpractice’todevelopanexperientialandecological(humanistandinteractionist)approachtoplanningandfacilitatingACEprogramsofdiversetypesfordiverseindividualsandcommunities(Osborne,Sankey&Wilson2007,Kearns2006,Fenwick2000).ThechallengeisalsoforACEproviderstodevelopindividual, flexible, responsive, experiential learning programs andprocesseswhichrecognisetheneedsofallindividualsandthecommonalitiesoftheseneedswithincommunitiesviaamixofeducationalprograms,includingclassroominstruction,socialandculturalactivities,mentoring,communitynetworkingandworkplacetraining(Kearns2005).

ThiscanonlybeachievedwithACEnotonlynetworkingwithotherACEprovidersbutwithothereducationandtrainingproviders,communityserviceagenciesandlocalgovernmentstoascertainwhoneedswhatandhowwithinasocialandcommunitydevelopmentframeworkratherthanahumancapitalone.AnationalACEphilosophycouldcreateasharedmeaningandpurposetoACEthatmakesitdistinctfromotherpost-compulsoryeducationandwithfundingframeworksthatlinkfundstoindividualneedsratherthantargetgroups.

Thiswouldre-orientateACEprovidersandpractitionerstolistentoand‘see’thoseindividualandgroupsexperiencingculturalandsocialinequity,thosewhoarestillcurrentlymissingoutonbasicaccesstoarangeofpersonal,socialandvocationaleducationprograms.ACEpractitionersalsoneedprofessionaldevelopmentaroundmanagingdiversityinarangeofcommunitycontextsandhowtodesign,developandfacilitateexperientiallearningprogramsthathonourcurriculumframeworksandyetalsoacknowledgeindividualadulteducationmotivationsandneeds.

Acknowledgements

MygratitudetoDrMerrynDavies,AssociateProfessorSantinaBertoneandthetwoAJALrefereeswhoprovidedsubstantialcomments on the first draft of this article.

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Withers,G.(2006).‘Acurate’segg?Australia’simmigrationandpopulationpolicies’, Blake,Dawson,WaldronLecture,2May,VisionsTheatre,NationalMuseumofAustralia,www.crawford.anu.edu.au/degrees/pogo/discussion_papers/PDP06-06.pdf

About the author

Rob Townsend is a lecturer in Social Work & Social Policy at La Trobe University, Bendigo, and a PhD candidate with Victoria University, Melbourne. He lives and works in the central region of Victoria and is in the final phase of an APA scholarship at Victoria University completing doctoral research into adult education in regional communities. The research will be available through Victoria University by the end of 2008. He lectures in social policy, works with a number of regional, community adult education providers and is interested in how access to Australian adult education programs can be facilitated via experiential learning frameworks that enhance the diversity and harmony of all communities and countries.

Contact details

Social Work & Social Policy, La Trobe University, P.O. Box 199, Bendigo, Victoria, 3552Tel: (03) 5444 7465Email: [email protected]

Negotiating learning through stories: mature women, VET and narrative inquiry

Jeannie DanielsSchool of Education


This paper explains my choice of narrative inquiry as a methodological approach in my recently completed PhD study. My research investigated learning experiences of mature women learners in VET. Notions of learning as negotiated lived experience called for a methodological approach that privileged the learner’s perspective and opened space in which alternative notions of learning might emerge. From interviews with twelve mature women, I explain how I use stories of learning to understand how these women, as learners with distinct yet diverse life experiences, contextualise their everyday into their VET learning. Some ethical considerations in using other people’s stories in narrative research are also identified. I argue for the use of stories to research women’s understandings of their VET learning and to reconceptualise learning as an ongoing and integrated process that must be understood within the everyday contexts of women’s lives.

94 Jeannie Daniels Negotiating learning through stories: mature women, VET and narrative inquiry 9�

Introduction

InAustralia,manymaturewomenareparticipatinginvocationaleducationandtraining(VET),andinsomeagecategorieswomen’sparticipationsurpassesmen’s(NCVER2007).YetcriticsoftheAustralianVETsystem(Butler&Ferrier2006)claimthattherepresentationofwomeningeneralhaslessened,andwomenhavebecomelessvisibleinresearchpublicationsandpolicydocuments.Whilewomen’sissuesremain,theyarenolongertalkedabout:womenasadistinctyetcomplexcategoryarenowdrawnintothegenericmixofVETlearners.

Ifmaturewomenaresubsumedintosuchgenericrepresentationsalongwithothergroups,howdoresearchersthenunderstanddiverseexperiencesoflearninginVET?Whenthediscourseassumesasimilarityofexperiencewithmenhowdomaturewomenmaketheirexperiencesknown?Whathappenstowomen’severydaycontextsoflifewhenthesearenotrecognisedandsocannotbeexpressedinVETdiscourse?

InmyrecentlycompletedPhDresearchIinvestigatedtheseexperiences.Iwantedtoknowhowmaturewomenunderstoodtheirlearning,whatvaluestheyplacedontheirexperience,andspecifically how they negotiated that learning within the contexts oftheireverydaylives.InthispaperIdiscussmymethodologicalapproachandhowthisshapedtheperspectivefromwhichIgatheredandanalysedmydata.Iexplainhow,throughtheuseofnarrativeandstories,thediversityofmaturewomen’sexperiencesinVETcanbemadevisible,andunderstood.

The research context

Educationalresearchershavelongunderstoodtheusefulnessofnarrativeasatoolinqualitativeresearch(Carter1993,Clandinin&Connelly1998,Newman1999,Phillion2002).Narrativeinquiry

isusedinmanyadulteducationsettings,yetthereisanotableexception:currentresearchinVETinAustraliahastakenaninstrumentalturn,focusingonstatisticalandgender-neutralrepresentationsofitslearners.Arecentdocumentexplains:

[T]hemainclientgroupofVET…comprisesindividualsacrossallpost-compulsoryschoolingages,andrangesfromearlyschoolleaverstoolderpersonsre-engagingwiththeworkforce.(NCVER2006:5)

Whileclients, individualsandpersonsareconsideredaccordingto age, ability, ethnicity, previous qualifications, areas of study and destinations, these categories elide the significant differences that genderedlivingpresentsfor–andamongst–womenandmen.Infact,ButlerandFerrier(2000)claimthat,withinmuchAustralianVETresearchliterature,womenhavebecomeincreasinglysilentandunseen.VET’s‘masterscript’(Bloom1998:67)tellsstoriesabout womenandco-optsthemintoaframeworkthatsimultaneouslyrenders them invisible, making it difficult to find a location from whichtobeginexploringwomen’slearning.

A‘relationalontology’(Mauthner&Doucet1998)thathasinformedagreatdealoffeministeducationalresearchhasbeenusedtoarguetheneedforanalternativeapproachtoeducationalprovision(Hart1992,Thompson1997).Mystudyadvancesthisconceptofwomenasrelationallearners,andlearningasacontextualisedprocess.Itisthroughconnectionsandrelationshipsthatwomenbuildasenseofachievement,self-esteemandsuccess.Inaddition,learningismorethanexposuretofactsandideasandthegenerationofknowledgethatoccurs–equallyrelevantaretheprocessesthatareengagedindoingso,andthevaluethatwomenattachtothoseprocessesandtothemeaningstheymakefromtheexperience.

Describing learning experiences

Learningoccursthroughoutlife,andin relation tootherlifeeventsandactivities(Luke1996,OECD2007).Whilstformallearning–such

9� Jeannie Daniels Negotiating learning through stories: mature women, VET and narrative inquiry 9�

asinVET–requiressomedegreeofseparationfromotheractivitieswhilethelearnerattendsclassandstudiesforassignments,Ibelievethattheseactivitiesarebestunderstoodaspartofacontextualised‘everyday’.Formanywomen,commitmentssuchascaringforchildrenoragedparentsmaystillneedtobeconsidered;previousnegativeexperiencesofeducationimpactonhowawomananticipatesherengagementwithformallearning;shemayberecoveringfromill-health or abuse, or lack confidence in herself as a knowing woman. Theseconsiderationswillimpactonawoman’sengagementwithlearning,butareunlikelytobetakenintoaccountasshemakesherwayintotheVETsystem;andtheyarenotfactoredintocurrentVETresearchonlearners.

Learningdoesnottakeplaceinisolation,butisanegotiatedexperience.Borrowing(badly)fromJohnLennon,Isuggestthatlearning is what happens while you’re busy doing other things.Learningisexperiencedaspartofacomplexinterplayofotherevents,memories,feelingsandactions.Assuch,itcanbestbeunderstoodwhenitiscommunicatedbythosewhoexperiencetheexperience.Basedonthispremise,Iconsideredthreefactorstobeimportantinthisinvestigationintolearning:themainsourcesofinformationweretobethelearners;storieswouldbeusedasdata;andlearningwasunderstoodwithinthecontextofeverydaylife.

Focusing on the learner

Theworkofresearchinglearningandlearnersis,naturallyenough,usuallyundertakenbyacademics,who,aseducationalresearchers,takeaneducator’sperspectiveintotheirresearch.Butdoesthisperspectiveofferaccurateinformationonhowlearningisexperiencedby the learner?Theprocessoflearningengagesbotheducatorandstudent,butthemeaningsthattheyattributetothatlearning–itspurpose,valuesandtheirunderstandingsofit–maybeverydifferentindeed.

Contributionsfromfeministeducatorswhohaveshapededucationalprovisionforwomen(hooks1994,Tisdell1998)havetendedtofocusonthedevelopmentofsuitablecurricula,thelearningenvironmentorontheirownroleasfacilitatorratherthanonwhatthelearners’perspectivesmightbe.FlanneryandHayes(2000:7),lamentingtheabsenceofstudiesofwomenlearnersinadulteducationliterature,describetheaimsfortheirownstudyaboutwomenandlearning:

Weeachwantedtolookforourownlearningstoriesandthoseofourrelativesandfriends,sistersandmothers,grandmothersand nieces. Where were they? Could we find them reflected in theliteraturewemightbeabletoidentify?

WhatFlanneryandHayesidentifyisalackofknowledgepertainingtowomen’slearningasabroadspectrumofexperiencesindiversesettings,andfromtheperspectivesofthelearners.Women’slearning,theyclaim,isnotfullyaddressedundertherubricofadultlearning,since the influence and effects of gender relations in society is significant in shaping ‘women’s and men’s experiences in different ways,givingthemtheopportunitytoacquiredifferentsortsofknowledgeandabilities’(Flannery&Hayes2000:4).

Withinfeministscholarship,therehaveinfactbeensomenotableattemptstounderstandwomen’sperspectivesonlearning(inadditiontoFlannery&Hayes2000,seealsoEdwards1993,Parr1998,Jackson2004–womeninhighereducation;Fenwick2002,Bierema2001–womenandwork;andKnights2000–womeninadulteducation).Whatthesestudiesrevealisthathowwomenlearnersthinkaboutlearningdoesnotalwaysconcurwithcommonlyheldnotionsofexpectationsandaimsoflearning.

Tounderstandmaturewomenlearners’perspectivesontheprocessandexperienceoflearning,Ichosetobeginfrom‘ordinarylivedexperience’(Clandinin&Rosiek2007:42),takingasmystartingpointwomen’sstories.Whatdidtheysayaboutlearning?Whatwerethecontextsinwhichtheyrelatedtheirlearningstories,andwhat

98 Jeannie Daniels Negotiating learning through stories: mature women, VET and narrative inquiry 99

werethevaluesandmeaningstheygavetothem?HowdidtheyweavetheirVETlearningintothemultiplicityofstorieswithinwhichexperiencesaremade,feltandperformed?Iwantedtounderstandtheirstories,setwithinthecontextsinwhichtheylivedthem.Todothis,Ichosenarrativeinquiry,which‘beginsandends…inthestoriedlivesofthepeopleinvolved’(Clandinin&Rosiek2007:42).Whilepeople‘leadstoriedlivesandtellstoriesofthoselives’(Connelly&Clandinin1990:2),Iuseboth narrativeandstory to define specific facetsofmyresearch:narrativedescribestheinquiryandstoriesrefertotherelatedexperiencesofparticipants.

Stories told

Narrativeinquiryisusefultostudyexperiencesofthelessvisiblemembersofanygroupinsociety.Forthisreason,feministresearchers(Bloom1998,Barr1999,Mohanty2003)encouragetheuseofstoriesasameansofprovidingopportunitiesforwomentorelateexperiencesimbuedwiththeirownmeaningsandvalues.AccordingtoMohanty(2003),women’sownwordsin‘testimonials,life stories and oral histories are a significant mode of remembering andrecordingexperience’(p.77)andofbringingthatexperiencebackintotherealmofacceptedknowledgeofeverydaylife.Storiesgivewomenaspacetotalk,andtopresenttheeverydayfromtheirownperspectives.This,accordingtoClandininandRosiek(2007:50),makesnarrativeinquiryanappropriatechoice:

Forthenarrativeinquirer,aperson’sexperiencemustbelistened to on its own terms first, without the presumption of deficit or flaw, and critique needs to be motivated by the problematicelementswithinthatexperience.

Asisthecaseacrossthesocialsciences,education(andVETperhapsparticularlyso)isstilllargelyinformedby‘theandrocentricassumptions…thatmen’slivesandactivitiesaremoreimportantthanthoseofwomenand/orconstitutethenormfromwhichwomen’slivesandactivitiesdeviate’(Chase2005:654).Myintentiontherefore

wastoidentifyhoweachwomanmadesenseofandcontextualisedherownexperiencesinVET,butneitherasaresponseorreactionto,norasadeviationfrom,that‘norm’.

Storiesarealsothestartingpointinnarrativeresearch(Connelly&Clandinin1990,Chase2005).Byplacingwomen’sstoriesasthepointfromwhichtobegintheanalysis,Ihopedtoopenuppossibilitiesforconsidering,differently,experiencesofVETlearning.Becausestoriesofferawayofpresentingtheexperienceincontext,andfromthespeaker’sperspective,Iwasabletoexploreaspectsoftheexperienceoflearningthatmovedbeyondtheassumptionsoflearningasanactionwithabeginning(participation),acompletionandanoutcome,asVETresearchtendstobecategorised.

Contexts negotiated

Storiesoflearninghavealsobeenshowntooffervaluableinsightsintothecomplexityoflayersthatconstructeachindividual’slearningexperience.AsClandininandConnelly(1998)explain,‘individualstoriesareshapedbylivinginanarrativelandscapewithitsownnetworkofstories’.Whatsuchstoriesrepresent,therefore,isexperienceasatransactionalprocess(Clandinin&Connelly1998,Clandinin&Rosiek2007).Experienceisnot‘thetruth’,buttherepresentationofarelationshipbetweenanindividualandherenvironment.MaturewomenalreadyhaveyearsoflifeexperiencebehindthemwhentheycontemplateenrollinginVET.Experienceisbuiltuponexperiencethroughpartnerships,marriage,family,death,previouseducation,employment,voluntaryworkandmanyotheractivities.Theserichlycomplexcontextsofdailylifeneedtobeconsideredwhenattemptingtoresearchwomen’sexperiences:

Describingthewaypeoplegoaboutmakingsenseoftheirexperiencewithinthesecontexts,andcontributingtothatongoingsensemaking,isthepurposeofnarrativeinquiry.(Clandinin&Rosiek2007:45)


Havingfoundamethodofinquirythataddressedmythreeconsiderationsoflearner-centredness,storiesandcontext,Icollectedstoriesoflearningfromunstructuredinterviewswithmytwelveparticipants.

What are stories of learning? Cassie’s story

Mynextstepwastoidentifystoriesfromthetranscripts.Riessman(2003:334–335)asks:‘howdoesaninvestigatordiscern…segmentsforanalysis?’,addingthatselectionisinitselfaninterpretiveaction.I identified passages that were to my mind responses to my questions and prompts. The final selection was made according to the context inwhichthewomanplacedherreply,notonthechronologicalcorrectnessandadherencetomy presumedfocusofthequestion.Inthefollowingexample,Cassie1respondstomyquestion:‘whatwereyourexpectationswhenyouenrolledinVET?’:

IfeltasthoughIwasjustlearningsomuchabout,um,yeah,noteverythingofcourse,butaboutlotsofthings.Youknow,ourhistory…youknow,whichreallyum,ah,ourassignmentwasgreatbecausethequestionsthatweneededtoask,I,Iaskedmymum,sothatwasareallylovelything,thenIgotto find out more about my mother, and her history, and her family’shistory,andum,yeah,Ijustbecamehooked.SoIdon’t,Ihonestlydon’tthinkthatIhadexpectations,exceptforto fulfil myself, and then I think it was probably leading up to, musthavebeenthesecondyearthatI’dbeendoingjustonesubjectatatimeeachtime,verygentlytakingit.Andthenthatwas when I decided: OK, I’d like to do the Certificate, and do thecoresubjects.IthinkexceptforReturning to Study,allthesubjectsIdidwereelectives.SoIdidmassesofelectivesthatyoudon’thavetodo,butthatwaswonderful.And,andIthinkthatthecostwasahugefactorforme,becauseIwasn’tworking,and,uh,tobeabletodosomethingfor,Ithinkitwas,youknow,mighthavebeen$15atermorsomethinglikethat,these,thiswasreallyfantastic,yeah.(Cassie.Interview1,p.5)

1 Notherrealname

Inthispieceoftext,Cassierelatesanumberofstorieswovenintoeach other: finding out about her mother, the financial considerations ofstudying,andherowndecision-makingaroundherlearning.Sheemphasiseshowtheseexperiencesfelt,too.Sherecallsthatbeingabletostudybychoicewas‘wonderful’,andinterviewinghermotherwas‘a really lovely thing’. There is a suggestion of learning as fulfilment andevenaddiction,althoughverylittleaboutherexpectations.Whatsheexpectedfromherlearningwasevidentlylessimportant–orlessmemorableperhaps–thanhowshefeltaboutit,andhowsheconnectedittootheraspectsofherlife.

IfCassie’stextisunderstoodaslayersofstories,allimportanttotheconceptofherlearning,thenitcanbeunderstoodhowanexperiencesuchaslearningisnotaseparateactionbutisdependentonandinformedbymanyotherevents,memoriesandexperiences.Learningisacontextualisedexperience,developedinnegotiationwithotherpartsofpeople’slives.

Discussion

Thisresearch,andthelensthroughwhichitinvestigateslearning,mayofferawayofunderstandingwhywomenhavenotbeenwellservedbyVETinthepast,andwhytheirlackofvoiceassumesanabsenceofongoingconcerns.Researchingwomen’slearningexperiencesthroughnarrativeinquiryletswomenspeak,andspeakintheirownwords,ratherthanthroughamasterscript(Bloom1998) that limits their expression to already defined meanings. Such aperspectiveallowsforthedifferentlycontextualisedexperiencesofmaturewomenlearnerstobecomepartofthenegotiationsofenteringalearningenvironment.Expectations,aimsandoutcomescanthenbeseenascontextualisedintheirmeanings.

Researchingthroughstoriesalsoofferspossibilitiesforabroaderapproachtounderstandingthepurposeoflearning,thatis,notasatextbookprocedure,butasanevolving,changingprocess.Narrative


inquiryiseminentlysuitedtoexploringlearninginthisway,sincethatchangeabilityispartoftheinquiryprocess.Iamdrawntonarrativeinquirybecause it addresses the indefinite – it is a different wayofconceptualisinginquiry,and,inthecaseofmystudy,ofunderstandinglearning:

[T]hefactthattheinquiryisalteringthephenomenaunderstudyisnotregardedasamethodologicalproblemtobeovercome.Itisthepurposeoftheresearch.(Clandinin&Rosiek2007:45)

Thenarrativeresearcherfacessomenecessaryconsiderationswhenusingstoriesasdata.Decisionsaremade–bytheresearcher–aboutwhichstoriesmatter,andwhichcontextsshouldbefavouredoverothers.Aswithanyresearch,theresearchermakessubjectivechoices(Wolf 1996), and mine were undoubtedly influenced to some extent bymyownexperienceasamatureagelearnerandmyown‘take’onthewomen’sstories.

ConnellyandClandinin(1990)explainthecomplexityoftheprocessofcollectingandanalysingstories,inwhichthestoryisinterpretedandre-interpretedsimplybybeingheard,considered,documented,readandre-read.Itis‘aprocessofcollaborationinvolvingmutualstorytellingandrestoryingastheresearchproceeds’(p.4).Indeed,storiesareasharedexperience,involvingthenarrativeinquirerinrecallingtheirownmemories,whicharethenre-interpretedaswellasinformingtheinterpretationofotherpeople’sstories.Duringmyresearch,IrememberedmanyexperiencesofmyVETlearning:somewerepromptedbysimilarstoriestoldbytheparticipants,andotherswereverydifferent,andwereverymuchmyownlearningexperiences.

Thestoriesofthewomeninmystudyarethereforepresentedthroughthelensofmyownunderstandingoftheissuesandconcernsofwhichtheytalk,andmyperceptionofthevaluestheyattributetothese.Chase(2005:657)describestheprocessthus:

Asnarrators,then,researchersdevelopmeaningoutof,andsomesenseoforderin,thematerialtheystudied;theydeveloptheirownvoice(s)astheyconstructother’svoicesandrealities;theynarrateresultsinwaysthatarebothenabledandconstrainedbythesocialresourcesandcircumstancesembeddedintheirdisciplines,culturesandhistoricalmoments.

Narrativeresearchersmust,however,becarefulnottocommit‘academicviolence’(Clandinin&Rosiek2007:60)resultingfromgoodintentions,suchasthedesiretocontributetoageneralisedknowledgebase.ClandininandRosiekexplainhowthiscanresultinpeople’sstoriesbeing‘ripped’fromtheircontextandusedtocreate‘commonthemesanduniversalnarrativestructures’(p.61).Thedatabecome fixed, but dislocated from their context.

Narrativeinquirycannotbecontext-free–itsaimandpurposeisnottogeneraliseanduniversalisebuttoillustratetheuncertaintyandchangeabilityofexperience.Thestoriesareboundupinthetellers’(changing)lives,andifseveredfromtheirsourcetheylosetheirmeaning(Clandinin&Rosiek2007).Sincestoriescreatemeaninginthetelling(Clandinin&Connelly2000),astudyusingnarrativeinquirymustbeunderstoodasrepresentativeratherthantruth.Narrativeinquiryrecognisesthenatureofexperience–anyexperience–asaneventconstantlyundergoingchange.Learningisjustsuchanexperience.

Conclusion

WithinthecontextofVETresearchinAustralia,thereisaneedtoattendmoretothevoicesofmaturewomenlearners,whobringintotheirVETlearningrichanddiverse,yetoftenunacknowledged,lifeexperiences.IfVETlearningisresearchedasaninstrumentalprocess,and findings presented as numbers or generic categories, findings cannotrepresentequitablytherangeofwhatlearnersthinkaboutlearning.Inaddition,muchoftherichnessofthelearningexperience

104 Jeannie Daniels Negotiating learning through stories: mature women, VET and narrative inquiry 10�

remainshidden.Usingstoriesofexperiencetoinvestigatelearning,researcherscangaininsightsthatarenotpossibleusingmethodsthatprecludeindividualexperienceasastartingpoint.

Learningisacontextualisedandrelationalexperience,andassuchrequiresaresearchmethodologythattakesasitspurposetheunsettledandcomplexnatureofthephenomenabeingstudied(Clandinin&Rosiek2007).Ihaveaddressedtheseconsiderationsinmydoctoralresearch,usingnarrativeinquiryandfocusingonthelearners,theirstoriesandthecontextsinwhichtheyareexperienced.

Withinsucharesearchframework,possibilitiesexistfordialoguebetweenmaturewomenandtheVETsystem.Thevoicesofmaturewomenlearnerscanprovideinsightsintoabroadernotionofwhatlearningmeans,andhowtheireverydaylivesareintegraltotheprocess.Aswellasenrichingpractitioners’understandingoftheirstudentsandinformingeducationandtrainingprovision,suchstoriedapproachestoresearchcanmakeVETmorerelevanttoalllearners–notonlytheincreasingnumberofmaturewomenwhoparticipateinAustralianVET.

References

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Butler, E & Ferrier, F (2006). ‘Asking difficult (feminist) questions: the case of‘disappearing’womenandpolicyproblematicsinAustralianVET’,Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 58(4):577–601.

Butler,E.&Ferrier,F.(2000).‘Don’t be too polite girls!’ Women, work and vocational education and training: a critical review of the literature,Brisbane:AustralianNationalTrainingAuthority.

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Connelly,F.M.&Clandinin,D.J.(1990).‘Storiesofexperienceandnarrativeinquiry’,Educational Researcher, 19(5):2–14.

Edwards,R.(1993).Mature women students: separating or connecting family and education,London:Taylor&Francis.

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Knights,S.(2000).‘Womenandlearning’,inFoley,G.(ed.),Understanding adult education and training,2nded.,StLeonards,NSW:Allen&Unwin,240–252.

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About the author

Jeannie Daniels is a PhD candidate (submitting March 2008) at the University of South Australia, in both the Centre for Research in Education, Equity and Work (CREEW) and Centre for Studies in Literacy, Policy and Learning Cultures (CSLPLC) concentrations

within the Hawke Research Institute. She has worked as an adult educator in formal and non-formal settings, teaching adult literacy and English as a Second Language. Her current role includes teaching in the School of Education, University of South Australia. Among her research interests are women in VET, mature-age learners and non-traditional higher education pathways.

Contact details

School of Education, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095Tel: + 61 8 8302 6235 Fax: + 61 8 8302 6239



“Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 109

“Out of the Circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services

Pius L.D. AngPostgraduate Student

and

Pranee LiamputtongSchool of Public Health

La Trobe University

In this paper, we attempt to gain a greater understanding of the adjustment experiences of international students from Mainland China in their first year at university. Three themes emerge from our data: lack of confidence in speaking English; the preference for using family, partners and close friends as their support networks to deal with problems; and the lack of knowledge of university counselling services. The participants did not view the university counselling services as a support service they would use to assist them with their personal difficulties.

Introduction

Universitycounsellingservices,likemostuniversitysupportservices, constantly review how they can deliver a more efficient servicetotheirclients.Inthelasttenyears,increasednumbersofinternational students have been a significant feature of tertiary educationinstitutions.Understandingtheadjustmentexperiencesofinternationalstudentsinatertiaryenvironmentwillallowuniversitycounsellingservicestodeveloppoliciesandpracticesthatbettermeettheneedsofthiscohort.Thefocusofthispaperistogainadeeperunderstandingofthelivedexperiencesofinternationalstudentsduring their first year at university and their views regarding the use oftheuniversitycounsellingserviceasasupportserviceduringthattime.

Increased challenges for international students

Internationalstudentsasacohortexperiencegreaterchangesduringtheinitialtransitionalperiodthandomesticstudents(Hechanova-Alampay,Beehr,Christiansen&VanHorn2002,Leong&Chou1996,Suen1998,Ward,Bochner&Furnham2001).Theyarerequiredtodealwiththedifferencesbetweentheirownculturalvalues,normsandcustomsandthoseoftheirhosts.Theyexperienceproblemswithverbalandnon-verbalcommunication,dealingwithinterpersonalrelationships,aswellaslearningtodealwiththeissueofbecominganadultawayfromtheirfamiliesandcommunities(Hechanova-Alampayet al.2002).Culturaldifferencesrelatedtotheeducationalenvironment,aswellaslanguageissues,willbediscussedinmoredepthlaterinthisintroduction.However,Hechanova-Alampayet al.(2002)andBaileyandDua(1999)arguethatcollectively,thesechallenges,togetherwithgenerallyhavingamorelimitedsocialresourcestructureandnetwork,leadtoahigherlevelofstressforthesestudents.BreinandDavid(1971,citedinBailey&Dua1999)foundthattheperiodofgreateststressrelatingtotheadjustmentof

110 Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong “Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 111

dealing with a new cultural environment occurred within the first six monthsofthestudent’sstayinanewcountry.

The first year of university, for most students, has a number of difficulties and challenges. International students, as a sub-group of the first year student population, are universally required to dealwithadditionalchallengesduringtheirtransitionphase.UniversitiesinAustraliaarebecomingmorereliantontheincomefrominternationalstudentstoremainviable,whichmakesitimperativethatthesestudents’experiencesarebetterunderstood,andthateveryopportunityismadetoassistthemtohaveapositiveexperienceduringtheirtimeatuniversity.Theexperiencesinthefirst few months for a new international student, dealing with a new educationalenvironmentandsettlinginanewcountry,couldbecharacterised by interactions that are filled with misunderstandings duetothecomplexitiesofthedifferencesbetweencultures.Theseexperiencesarelikelytohaveresultedinsomedistressandfrustrationbeingexperiencedandpossiblyself-doubtabouthavingmadethecorrectdecisiontostudyinanothercountry.

Methodology

Weutilisedin-depthinterviewstocollectinformationfromparticipants.In-depthinterviewingisonemethodthatisfrequentlyusedbyqualitativeresearcherstogatherdataabouttheexperiencesofaresearchparticipantfromhisorherperspective(Liamputtong&Ezzy2005).Itallowsafuller,contextualpicturetobegatheredofanindividual’sexperience(Liamputtong&Ezzy2005)thancanbegainedbyusingquantitativemethodssuchasquestionnaires.Itopensupthepossibilityofgaininginsightintothefeelingsandthoughtsoftheparticipants(Minichiello,Aroni,Timewell&Alexander1995).

Theuseofqualitativemethodologyhasbecomeincreasinglyprevalentincontemporaryresearchasitprovidesrich,informativeandcomplexdatathatgiveinsightsintotheexperiencesofothers

(Babour2007,Denzin&Lincoln2005,Liamputtong&Ezzy2005).Qualitativeresearchisinterestedintheuniquenessoftheinterpretiveprocessthatoccursforanindividualaroundaparticularexperience.It is our interest in the experiences of a specific cohort of students that makeaqualitativemethodologysuitableforthisstudy.

Eightparticipantswereinterviewedforthisstudy.Fromthisgroup,onlyseveninterviewscouldbeused,asoneinterviewcouldnotbetranscribedduetopoorsoundquality.Thefollowinginformationreferstothesesevenparticipants.AllparticipantsarestudentsofoneofthemajoruniversitiesinMelbourne,Australia.Threemalesandfourfemalesparticipated.Theyrangedinagefrom20to28yearsold.Onefemaledidnotdiscloseheryearofbirth,evenaftertwoattemptstoelicitthisinformation,althoughsheprovidedabirthdateandmonth.

ThreeparticipantshadcompletedtheirundergraduatedegreesinChina,onehadcompletedadiplomainSingaporeandonehadcompletedsecondaryschoolinginNewZealand.TheremainingtwohadcompletedtheirsecondaryschoolinginChina.Ofthethreeparticipantswhohadalreadycompletedadegree,onewasenrolledin another undergraduate degree, in a different field to his first degree,onewasenrolledinapostgraduatecourserelatedtohisdegreeandthethirdwasenrolledinamaster’sprogram.Onlytwoof the participants were completing their first year of tertiary study wheninterviewed.Oftheremainingtwoparticipants,onehadjustcompletedhersecondyearandtheotherwasinherlastyearofstudy.FouroftheparticipantshadbeenlivinginAustraliaundereighteenmonths,twohadbeenlivinginAustraliabetweentwoandfouryears,andtheotherparticipanthadbeeninthecountryforoverfouryears.

Alltheinterviewswereconductedwithinthegroundsofthestudents’homeuniversity.Participantswereassuredthattheiridentitywouldremain confidential and that anonymity would be maintained by the useofpseudonymsandbythecollatedformofthedata.


Intheanalysis,theinitialdatawerebrokendownintoopencodes.Themainaimofcodingwastogeneratealternativemeaningstothe data. This process is identified as the pivotal link between the dataandthetheory(Charmaz2006).Inthecodingprocesses,initial categories and sub categories were identified and noted. Whilstthiswasoccurring,comparisonsweremadewithnewdata,betweencategoriesandwithexistingtheories.Fromthisprocess,the identification of a major direction of the study emerged which allowedamorefocusedanalyticalprocessingofthedatatooccur.Re-codingoccurredandthedatawerere-examinedwithamorefocusedviewpoint.

Verbatimexamplesareusedtoillustratethemainaspectsofthethemes and participants are identified by their pseudonyms to preservetheiranonymity.

Results

Threemajorthemesemergedfromthenarrativesoftheresearchparticipants.

Difficulties in speaking English

ForinternationalstudentsinterviewedfromMainlandChina,Englishwas not their first language and one of the main reasons for a number oftheparticipantstochoosetostudyinAustraliawastodeveloptheirEnglishlanguageskill.EventhoughtheparticipantshadpreviouslessonsinEnglish,theirexperiencesofAustralianspokenEnglishweredifferentfromwhattheyhadexpected.TheirexperienceofcommunicatinginEnglishinaneweducationalenvironmentwasdifficult:

Englishismosthardpointforme…sometimesmytutors,mylecturer,Ican’tunderstandwhattheysaid(Bo).

Bo spoke about the difficulty he had listening to English being spoken and then elaborated on his difficulty with individual words:

WhenIgotsomenewwords,Idon’tunderstandwhattheymean, I don’t know the Chinese meaning. I can’t find this word evenusingthedictionary.Idon’tknowthepreciselythewordsandwhatthemeaningis.

Difficulties with the language also affected participants’ interactions withlocalstudents.Nothavingacommonbackgroundorculturemade it difficult for participants to place interactions in the correct context. This was reflected by a number of participants. Bo said:

IthinkthemainproblemislanguagebecauseIcan’tspeakfluently so they [local students] don’t wait. They are not wantingtomakefriendstome,Ithink.

Cheng,whohadalreadycompletedabiomedicaldegreeinChina,was confident to engage with local students about topics related to his subjects but found it difficult when the conversation changed to a socialfocus:

IseldomtalkwiththelocalstudentssomyexperiencejustalittlebitIdiscusswiththemaboutthecontentsof(my)course.Icanhandleit,butaftertheclassmaybewehavecasualchats,soIalwayskeepsilence.

MeiexpressedangeratbeingseentobeinferiortolocalstudentsduetoherlackofspokenEnglishskills.Hernegativeexperiencesledhertobehesitantabouttryingtomakefriendswithlocalstudents:

Idon’twanttomakefriendswiththembecauseIfeelmycountryismodernthanhere,Fashionismodernthanhere.Don’tlookdownmeright,butyou’rejustEnglishbetterthanme.

Language difficulties with local students appeared to be common, butparticipants’experienceswithlocalpeopleinthecommunityingeneraltendedtobedifferentandmorepositive.Meielaboratedherbeliefaboutwhylocalpeoplemaybefriendlier:

Theyaremoreunderstanding(of)internationalstudents.

114 Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong “Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 11�

Cheng,recallinghisinteractionswithpeopleonthestreet,supportedMei’sviewabouthowhelpfultheywere:

…andthepeopleherearequitepoliteandthey’requitepleasanttohelpotherpeople.That’swhatIoftenseeinthestreetsorsomewhere.

Unfortunately,notallinteractionswerepositive.Meialsospokeaboutanincidentwhereshefelttheresponsebyarealestateagentwasrude.

Anoutcomeofnegativeinteractionswithlocalstudentsisthatinternationalstudentsaremorelikelytoseekinteractionswithotherswhohavesimilarvalues,languageandculturalhistory(Wardet al.,2001).Relationshipsareformedwithotherinternationalstudentswhohavesharedexperiencesandsimilarculturalbackgrounds.Gainingfriendswhohavesimilarexperiencesandbackgroundsmadeinteractionsmorecomfortableandparticipantsfelttheywereabletoarticulatewhattheywantedtosaymoreeasily:

IchooseMalaysia,Indonesia,ChineseorJapaneseinternationalstudents,notlocalpeople.Theyfacesamesituation.Theywillmoreunderstandwhatyouthink(Mei).

Apart from the benefit of having their social needs met, interactions withotherinternationalstudentsalsoincreasedtheparticipants’academic resources, which participants did not find in their interactionwithlocalstudents.Meispokeaboutthewillingnessofotherinternationalstudentstoshareinformationonassessmenttasks:

They [other international students] will help you to find someinformationormaybehelpyoustudying,lecturenotes,textbook,everything.It’smorecomfortableIfeel,morethanlocalpeople.

Thisacademicnetworkwasimportantforparticipants,astheytendednottouseacademiclecturersasaresource.

The lack of confidence in their English was a major problem in theirstudies.Bospokeabouttheextraamountoftimehespenttocompensateforhislanguageweakness:

Ihavetospendmoretimeinhometoreadthelecturenotesandtotelltheanswers.

Daiyuspokeaboutthenumberoftimesshehadtoreadtogainanunderstandingofwhatwasrequiredforherassignments:

Youknow,Icouldn’tunderstandorwhenIreadonceandIneedtoreadasecondtime,thirdtimeandthenIcanunderstand.

MeitoldhowherlackofEnglishrequiredhertospendmoretimewithherstudies:

Ineedtousedictionarymany,manytimesbecauseIdon’tknow…ItoldyoumyEnglishisnotverygoodsoIneedtotranslateusingdictionary.Moretimeconsuming,yeah.

Toassistherwithhergrammarinheressays,sheusedthelanguagecentre.Thisrequiredhertosubmitadrafttothemintimeforittobecorrectedpriortotheduedate.Thisprocessrequiredfurthertime.Meiwasrequiredtosubmitherdraftsometimespriortothelecturercompletinglecturesrelatedtotheassessmenttask.ForMei,thiswasfrustrating:

Infact,wehaven’tenoughtimetodoouressay,but,youknow,IneedtodoouressayearlierandthensubmittotheEnglishdepartmentandthensubmittooursubjectlecturer.

Whenparticipantsdidseekassistancefromtheirteachingstaff,theyweremorelikelytoseeksupportfromtutors.Theythoughtthatlecturerswouldbetoobusy.Whenparticipantsinteractedwithacademicstaff,thepreferredwaywasthroughtheuseoftheelectronicmedium.Byusingthismethod,participantsgavethemselvesmoretimetoformulatetheirquestionsandanswersinEnglish. Cheng said that this was partly due to his higher confidence inhiswrittenskillsthanhisspeakingskills.Byusingthewrittenword, he was more confident in the correctness of what he was trying

11� Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong “Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 11�

tocommunicate.Chengbelievedthatthiswasanoutcomeofhisprioreducation:

[Chinesestudentshavea]lackofopportunitytospeakandlisten…sothewrittenskillsandthereadingisbetterthantheirspeakingskillsandlistening.

Daiyu highlighted a key feature of developing confidence in speaking anewlanguage.Shesaiditwasimportanttodevelopapositiveattitudetowardschangeasspeakinginanewlanguagewillchangewhoyouare.

Notonlysomethingaboutpractice,wanttoembracesomething(language)ifyouwanttoreallyknowsomething.

The essential element of this theme was that confidence in the participants’spokenEnglishlanguagewascriticalfortheirpersistenceincommunicatinginEnglish.Increasinginteractionsallowedagreaterunderstandingofthecultureandnormsofthenewenvironment,butmoreimportantly,fordevelopingopportunitieswheretheybelievedtheywerebeingunderstood.Ascounsellingisprimarily a talk therapy, having difficulty speaking English may have beenamajorfactorthatinhibitedthemfromusingtheuniversitycounsellingservice.

Using family and close friends for support

InthemoretraditionalChinesefamily,thefamilyisgenerallythemainsupportforthechild(Lee1996,Soo-Hoo1999).Priorstudiesshowedthatfamilyandfriendsarethemainsupportforinternationalstudents(Mori2000,Robbins&Tanck1995,Rosenthal,Russell&Thomson2006,Suen1998).Inanumberofone-childfamiliesinChina,theparents’solefocushasbeenonthechild:

WhenIwasinChina,mymotherandfatherdidalotofthingsforme,soIdidnothavetoworryaboutalotofthings(Bo).

Theparentsusuallybecametheprimarysourceofsupportforthestudent.Withtheuseoflowcosttelephonecards,easeofconnectionstoemailsandwithInternetweb-cams,participantsnegatedthe

problemofdistancewhentheywishedtocommunicatewiththeirparents:

[I]communicatewiththefamilyinthetelephonesoImakeacalleveryweek.ItalkforseveralhoursofsomethingwithmyparentssoIovercomeit[feelinghomesick]inafewweeks(Cheng).

Parents provided financial as well as emotional and practical supportfortheirchild.ButnotalltheparticipantsfeltthattheirparentsunderstoodtheirsituationhereinAustralia,orprovidedtheemotionalsupportthattheyrequired.Meifeltthatherparentsdidnot understand the difficulties she faced studying in Australia:

MaybeItellthemI’mveryunhappy,I’mveryboringandtheysaidohyouprepared,youexpectitlikethat.Youdon’tsayunhappyyousayyoucometohere.Oh,Ihurt.Idon’tknowwhattosay.

Bo articulated the financial pressure he feels with respect to the amountofmoneyhisparentsspendonhisstudy:

IfIwastofail,Ihavetopayanother,likeathousandAustraliandollars,IthinkitisveryexpensivetomeandmyparentsbecauseIamanoverseasstudent.

Laterintheinterview,Bospokeaboutthesenseofobligationhefelttowards them due to the financial debt:

IfeelshamewhenIusemyparents’moneyandIcannotbelikeotherAustralianstudents…MyparentspayalotofmoneytosendmetoAustraliaandtogivemeagoodopportunitytostudyinAustralia,soIhavetorewardthem,Ithink.Paybackmoneyorhelpingwiththemwhentheygetold.Tostaywiththemineffect.

Attimes,parentsmadedecisionsinvolvingthechildwithoutthechild’sinputintothedecision.Weiwasinthissituation.Shewassentto New Zealand for the final year of her secondary schooling and she found it very difficult to adjust to her new educational and cultural environment.Anotherparticipant,whowasinhermid-twenties,


spoke about the strong influence her family has on her here in Australia:

InChina,youdoeverythingaccordingtoyourparents,…alwayshavetotalktoparents(Jia).

Interestingly,eventhoughmostparticipantscontactedtheirparentsto speak with them about their difficulties, for two of the male participantstherewasastrongbeliefinhavingtobeself-reliant.BothChengandBoarticulatedthisviewdifferently:

ForChinesestudents,theyalwayssolvetheirproblemsorsomethingthemselves(Cheng).

I’mdiligent…thoughifotherscandoit,Icandoitalso(Bo).

Itappearsthatthekeyelementofthisthemewasthestronglevelofconnectednessthatparticipantshadwiththeirfamilies.Therewasasenseofthestrongcommitmentparentsmadetowardsthedevelopmentoftheirchildren’seducationalfuture.Therewasastrongacceptancethatparentswouldbeinvolvedintheparticipant’slifeinAustraliaandtheyusuallybecamethemainsourceofsupportintheeverydaylifeoftheparticipant.Forthesestudents,theeaseofaccesstotheirfamiliesmayhavelessenedtheirneedtospeaktoothers,suchascounsellors,whoareoutsideoftheirprimarysupportnetwork.

Views towards using the university counselling services to assist during difficult periods

NoneoftheparticipantsindicatedthathadusedtheUniversity’scounselling service during their first or subsequent years of their study.Oneoftheparticipantsdidnotknowoftheexistenceoftheuniversitycounsellingservice,eventhoughshewascompletingthesecondyearofherdegree:

Untilnow,Idon’tknow[abouttheuniversityhavingacounsellingservice](Mei).

Weiwasawarethattheuniversityofferedacounsellingservicebutdidnotknowthelocationorhowtoaccessappointments:

Ididn’tknowexactly[wherethecounsellingserviceislocatedoncampus],butIknoweveryinstitutionhasone.

Daiyuarticulatedthecommonviewheldbytheparticipantswhowereawarethattheuniversityhadacounsellingservice:

Idon’tthinkalotofChinesepeopleuseit[counsellingservice].

Huanspokeabouthisconfusionanduncertaintywithcounselling:BeforeIgotocounsellor,Idecidetogotocounsellor,whatiscounsellor?WhatwillhappenifIgousea–whatwillhappen?

Participantsheldabeliefthatuniversitycounsellorswouldnotunderstandtheirculturalbackgroundandwouldnotbeabletohelpthem.Bospokeabouthisbeliefthatalackoftheculturalhistorybycounsellorswouldlimittheirabilitytoassisthim:

Ithinktheycan’thelpme.Ithinktheycannotsolveit…They[counsellingservicestaff]don’tknowme.

Cheng identified counsellors as people who were outside the circle of supportpeopleinhisnetwork:

Becausethesepeople[parents,friends,teachers]areafamilywiththem[Chinesestudents],forourselvesapsychologicalcounsellorisastranger.

Huan further defined Cheng’s view about the importance of a participant’sgroup.Hemadeacleardistinctionbetweenbeingafriendofhis,butnotbeingpartofhisgroup:

…thinkChinesedividetheirrelationshipintoverysimpleway,myfriend!notmyfriend;mygroup!notmygroup;verystrongbond(Huan).

You’reafriend,butnotmygroup(Huan)

Huantriedtoarticulatetheimportanceofbeinginthegroup,andmadeanimportantdistinctionbetweensomeonewhowasafriendandsomeonewhowasconsideredinthegroup:

This group is special meaning... group first and I find there will besourcefromthegroup,fromthegroup.


Daiyuarticulatedthecruxoftheimportanceofbeingpartofthegroup:

InChina,studentsbelongtocircle,belongtopeople’srelationship.

Theessentialelementofthisthemeisthatuniversitycounsellorsarenotwithintheprimarygrouporcircleofpeoplethatparticipantsviewaspartoftheirsupport.Unlesscounsellorsareabletobepartofthecircleofindividualswhohavearelationshipwiththeparticipants,internationalstudentsareunlikelytoseekcounsellingsupportduringperiods of difficulties.

Discussion

Literature has suggested that the first year of university for the majorityofstudentsisatimewhentheyfaceanumberofchallengesanddealwithchange.Formanyinternationalstudents,theyfaceadditionalchallengesasaresultofhavingtodealwiththecomplexitiesoflivinginadifferentcountry.Thethreekeythemesidentified in this study relate to the participants’ difficulties in their spokenEnglishlanguage,continuedutilisationoftraditionalsupportnetworksandalackofknowledgeoftheuniversitycounsellingservice,leadingtotheconclusionthatparticipantsdidnotviewitasasupport service they would use for personal difficulties.

Confidence in speaking English

Theparticipants’levelofspokenEnglishwasanimportantthemethat influenced every major academic and social interaction. The participants’perceptionoftheirabilitytocommunicateeffectivelywithlocalstudentswasverydependentontheirabilitytospeakEnglish.ThisissupportedbyHendersonandothers(1993,citedinWardet al.2001)intheirresearchstudyonAsianstudentsintheUSA.Theyfoundthattheabsenceofadequatelanguageskills,whichwasapparentin97%oftheirsample,wasthemostseriousand frequently identified difficulty. Kono (1999), Li and Kaye (1998)

and Mori (2000), through their studies, also support the finding that language competency is a significant issue for international students.

TheperceivedgreateropportunitytodevelopEnglishlanguageskillswas an influencing factor for participants to choose Australia as the countrytofurthertheirstudies.Allofthem,intheinitialstageofstudy,hadastrongdesiretomakefriendswithlocalstudents,butthisappearedtobeanexpectationthatdidnoteventuate.Unfortunately,thisunmetexpectationisalsofoundinstudiesconductedinNorthAmericawhichshowedinternationalstudentsarekeentoexperiencemoreinteractionwithlocalstudents(Arthur2004).Wardet al.(2001)arguethattheoccurrenceofinteractionsislargelydependentontheculturaldistancebetweenthehostcultureandthecultureoftheinternationalstudent,withthegreaterthedistancethelowerthefrequencyofinteraction.Pedersenandcolleagues(1996)arguethatthegreatertheculturaldistance,thegreatertheadjustmentdemandsplacedontheinternationalstudent.UsingHofstede’sdimensions(1980)togaugeculturaldistance,MainlandChinesestudentsandAustralianstudentsarealmostatoppositeendsofthedimensions.Therefore,theparticipantsinthisstudyarefacedwiththedoublehurdleofhavingalowfrequencyofinteractionsandhigheradjustmentdemandsintheirquesttodeveloppositiverelationshipswithhoststudents.

ForstudentsfromMainlandChinawhoaredevelopingtheirEnglishlanguage proficiency, one likely outcome of these experiences would beachangedviewofthemselves.Theymayinitiallyhaveaself-viewthattheyarecompetentstudents,reinforcedbystrongacademicgrades.IftheirgradesinAustraliaarelowerthanexpected,Arthur(2004)andWardandcolleagues(2001)arguethatastudent’sviewofselfmaychangenegatively.Ifthischangedviewwasunexpectedorresulted in confusion in the individual, the individual may find it very difficult to try to explain their situation and emotions using English.


Fromalanguagepointofview,oneofthepossiblereasonsforthelownumberofthesestudentspresentingtoacounsellingserviceis that they may have difficulty trying to articulate adequately the emotionalstatetheyareexperiencingwhentheydonothavetheEnglishwordstodescribetheirinternalworld.SueandSue(1990)arguethatuniversitysupportservicesarelimitedforstudentswhodo not possess the language skills or confidence in the host language. This difficulty of developing competency in English is also found inothergroupsintheAustraliancommunity.Inherrecentstudy,Liamputtong(2006a)foundthatdevelopingadequateEnglishlanguage skills was a major difficulty for the study’s participants. Forthem,Englishlanguagewasessential,asitgavethemaccesstoinformationandresourcesinthecommunity(Liamputtong2006a).Similarly, for this study’s participants, confidence in their spoken Englishisrequiredtoallowthemtobecomfortabletoaccessandusethecounsellingservice.

Forstudentswhocanovercomethislanguageproblem,increasedpositiveinteractionwithlocalstudentsresultsinanincreasedidentification with the host culture (Tseng & Newton 2002) but, as oneoftheparticipantsnoted,lackofpracticeinspeakingEnglisheroded her confidence in maintaining contact with her local friends. Wardet al.(2001)citeanumberofstudiesthatshowtheincreasein interaction has a positive flow-on effect on academic studies, socialinteractions,languagecompetencyandgeneraladaptationofinternationalstudents.Forinternationalstudents,obtainingcompetencyinEnglishwasessentialtounderstandwhatwashappeningaroundthem,butmoreimportantly,gaveparticipantsthesensethatothersunderstoodthem.

Support networks

Participantsinthisstudypredominantlyspokewiththeirfamilyastheirmainsourceofsupport.Cost,timedifferenceorgeographicallocationdidnotappeartobeanissueforthestudents.Oliver,Reed,

KatzandHaugh(1999)alsofoundintheirstudythatlivinginaseparatecountryfromtheirimmediatefamilydidnotprecludethemasasourceofsupport.

Oneofthemainadvantagesofspeakingwithfamilyfortheparticipantswasthatlanguagenolongerbecameanissue.Fortheparticipants,thisallowedagreateramountofdiscussiontooccuranda number of strategies could be developed to deal with the difficulties. Anotheradvantageofspeakingwiththeirfamilieswasthattheyhelpedtoreinforcethehighvalueofeducationforthestudent.InAsiancultures,educationisseentobringanincreaseinopportunitiesineconomic,socialandmoralareas(Stevenson&Lee1996).Forinternationalstudentsraisedinacollectivesociety,speakingwiththeirfamiliesandhavingfamiliesinvolvedindecisionmakingmaybemorecomfortabletothemthanseekingoutacounsellor(Snider2003,Sue&Sue1990).

ConsistentwiththestudyofOliveret al.(1999)wasoneoftheparticipant’sviewsoftheimportanceofaromanticpartnerwithwhomtotalk.Thesingleparticipantinthisstudywhoadvocatedhavingaboyfriendorgirlfriendasasupportpersonfeltthatherparents were not able to understand her difficulties in studying inAustralia.Thisparticipantfeltherboyfriend,whowasaninternationalstudent,wasabletoprovidebettersupport,ashehadsimilarexperiencestoher.Asimilarbeliefwasheldbyanumberoftheotherparticipantsinthatotherinternationalstudentswhohadsimilar experiences would be more understanding of the difficulties facedbythem.

Use of university counselling services

Generalinformationabouttheuniversitycounsellingserviceisavailablethroughanumberofdifferentmedia,suchaspamphlets,websites,orientationtalksandhandbooks,yetparticipantsinthisstudystillappearedtolackbasicgeneralknowledgeabouttheservice.

124 Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong “Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 12�

IntherecentlypublishedstudybyRosenthalet al.(2006),theyfoundthat65.5%oftheirsamplepopulationofinternationalstudentsdidnotknowwheretogoforcounsellingassistance.

PriorstudieshaveshownthatinternationalstudentsfromAsiaaregenerallyinfrequentusersofauniversitycounsellingservice(Hechanova-Alampayet al.2002,Pedersenet al.2002)and,inthisstudy,noneoftheparticipantsreportedhavingusedtheuniversitycounsellingservice.Theviewofthisstudy’sparticipantswasthatcounsellorswouldnotunderstandtheculturalcontextoftheindividualandsowouldnotbeabletohelpwiththeproblem.ThisviewissupportedbytheresultsofRosenthalet al.,where46.9%ofthatstudy’ssampleindicatedthatcounsellorswouldnotunderstandthemand47.6%thoughtthatcounsellorswouldnotbeabletohelpthem.

Liamputtong(2006b)arguesthatconceptsdonotalwaysexistbetweenculturesandlanguages,andifthecounsellorhasadifferentcontextualunderstandingofthewordsusedbytheinternationalstudent,thenmisunderstandingsarelikelytooccur.Thismaybeoneofthemainfactorsfortheparticipants’beliefthatcounsellorswouldnotunderstandtheculturalcontextoftheirissue(Suen1998).

Theparticipants’negativeviewthatcounsellingservicesareforindividualswithamentalillness,withtheassociatedsocialstigmathatholds,isconsistentwithanumberofothersstudiesconductedbyKinoshitaandBowman(1998),Mori(2000),SueandSundberg(1996)andSuen(1998).Itisnotinconceivablethatstudentsdonotseethecounsellingserviceasaresourcecentrefordevelopingpersonalcopingskills.InMori’s(2000)study,hefoundthatthesocialstigmaofbeingseentouseacounsellingservicewasespeciallyprevalentforChinesestudents.

IndividualsofAsiancultureswhohaveusedcounsellingservicestendtobemorecomfortablewithasolution-focusedandtask-

orientatedcounsellingservice(Hart2002,Lee1996,Soo-Hoo1999).Asianstudentswhorequirethesupportofuniversitycounsellingservicestendtorequireacademicproceduresupport,suchasspecialconsideration. For these students, counsellors hold specific expertise thatfamilyorfriendsareunabletoprovide.Rosenthal,RussellandThomson(2006)foundthatinternationalstudentswhohadpositivepriorexperienceofthecounsellingservicearethemainsourceofencouragementforotherstudentstoseekassistancefromthecounsellingservice.

Intheirstudy,Oliverandcolleagues(1999)exploredthevariableof language, differentiating between English as a first or second languagefortheparticipant.Theyfoundthatlanguagewasnotasignificant factor for their participants to seek assistance from any potentialhelpsource.Inthisstudy,however,thelackofMandarin-speakingcounsellorsisseenasadeterrentforMainlandChinesestudentstoattendtheuniversitycounsellingservices.ItisunclearfromthestudybyOliveret al.(1999)whetherthepotentialhelpsources included people who spoke the international students’ first languageoronlythosewhospokethehostlanguage.

Theparticipants’useoffamilyastheirprimarysourceofsupportduring difficult periods is consistent with other findings that showed internationalstudentsprefermoreinformalsourcesofsupport(Robbins&Tanck1995)andhavehelp-seekingbehaviourdifferentfromnative-bornstudents(Oliveret al.1999).

Implications for counselling services

Thedevelopmentofagroup-basedprogram,wheretheuniversitycounsellingserviceispresentedtointernationalstudentsasaresourceorskilldevelopmentcentretoassistthemwiththeiracademicprogress,couldbeusedtostarttochangethewaythecounsellingserviceisseenbyinternationalstudentsfromAsia.Thegroupprogramcouldconsistofanumberofsessionsheldin

12� Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong “Out of the circle”: international students and the use of university counselling services 12�

consecutive weeks. For the first few sessions, facilitation of the group would be co-run with staff from another service such as finance, housing,languagesupportandcareers.Theremainingsessionswouldbeusedtofurtherdevelopthegroupandtoincludeanyaspectofadjustment that the group would find valuable. Eventually, the aim wouldbetohaveinternationalstudentsandcounsellorsfacilitatethegroups.

WeknowfromthestudyofRosenthal,RussellandThomson(2006)thatinternationalstudentswhohavehadpositiveexperiencesofcounselling influence other international students to seek counselling support.Tostrengthenthisinformalnetwork,onecounsellor’srolecouldbedevelopedtobecomecommunity-developmentfocused,workingmorewithinternationalassociationsandgroups.Thismayprovideahumanfaceandnamefortheuniversitycounsellingservicethatwouldberecognisedbyinternationalstudents.

Conclusion

Inthisstudy,wehaveshownhowinternationalstudentsfromMainlandChinaexpressedtheirviewsandexperiencesoftheirlifeinAustralia.Forthesestudents,counsellorsareseentobeoutsidethecircleofpeoplethattheywoulduseforsupporttoassistwithpersonal difficulties during their time at university. We identify some of the factors that may influence international Asian students’ reluctancetouseuniversitycounsellingservices.Oneofthefactorswasparticipants’misconceptionthatclientsofthecounsellingservicehaveamentalillness.Anotherfactorwastheparticipants’lackofknowledgeoftheuniversitycounsellingservice.

Participants’willingnesstointeractwithuniversitycounsellorsmay be stifled by their lack of English vocabulary to express their emotionsandthoughts.Havingtoconverseinasecondlanguagecontinuestoplayamajorroleinparticipants’interactionswithothers.Participantsdidnotseegeographicdistanceasaproblem,and

thefamilycontinuestoprovidethemainsupportforparticipants.Friendswerealsousedtoprovidebothsocialandacademicsupportanditappearsthatcounsellorsareprimarilyusedfortheirexpertisein academic procedures and not to assist with personal difficulties.

Itisanticipatedthattheoutcomeofthisstudywillbeusedtofurtherdevelopprogramsandpoliciesthatwillassistinternationalstudentstomoreeasilyaccessuniversitycounsellingservicesduringperiod of personal difficulties. Although this study was carried out withinternationalstudentsfrommainlandChina,wecontendthatourresultsmaybeapplicablealsotootherinternationalstudentswho study in Australia. As such, our findings can be used as a basicunderstandingforfurtherinvestigationontheexperiencesofinternationalstudentsinAustraliaandelsewhere.

Acknowledgment

Wewishtothankalltheparticipantswhowillinglysharedtheirthoughtsandexperiencesforthisstudy.Theircontributionplaysapartinthefuturedevelopmentofprogramsinsupportservicestoensurethattheoverallexperiencesofinternationalstudentsremainsapositiveone.

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130 Pius L.D. Ang and Pranee Liamputtong Australian Journal of Adult Learning


About the authors

Pius L.D. Ang is currently a postgraduate student. He received a Master of Counselling Psychology from the School of Public Health, La Trobe University, and has been working as a counsellor in different university settings.

Dr Pranee Liamputtong holds a Personal Chair in Public Health in the School of Public Health, La Trobe University, Victoria.Pranee is a qualitative researcher and has carried out a number of research projects relating to reproductive and sexual health among immigrant women in Australia and women in Southeast Asia.

Contact details

Professor Pranee Liamputtong, School of Public Health, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia 3086Email: [email protected]

A competency approach to developing leaders – is this approach effective?

Patricia RichardsSouthern Cross University

This paper examines the underlying assumptions that competency-based frameworks are based upon in relation to leadership development. It examines the impetus for this framework becoming the prevailing theoretical base for developing leaders and tracks the historical path to this phenomenon. Research suggests that a competency-based framework may not be the most appropriate tool in leadership development across many organisations, despite the existence of these tools in those organisations, and reasons for this are offered. Varying approaches to developing effective leaders are considered and it is suggested that leading is complex as it requires both competencies and qualities in order for a person to be an effective leader. It is argued that behaviourally-based competencies only cater to a specific part of the equation when they relate to leadership development.

132 Patricia Richards A competency approach to developing leaders – is this approach effective? 133

Introduction

Agreatdealofattentionhasbeengiventoleadershipdevelopment,and it has emerged as a profitable industry in its own right over the lastdecade.UniversitiesandcorporationsinAustraliahaveplayedanenthusiasticpartintheonslaughtofleadershiptraininganddevelopmentinitiativesinwhichacompetency-basedapproachtoleadershipdevelopmenthasbecomethedominantapproach.Thispaperquestionstheeffectivenessofacompetencyframeworkfordevelopingleadersinawork-relatedenvironmentandconsidersthereasonswhyitmaynotbeappropriateastheprevailingtheoreticalbasefordevelopingleaders.

Thepaperdrawsondatacollectedfrominterviewsconductedwithseniorleadersfromanumberofcorporations.Iwilloutlinewhattheyregardedastheessentialelementsofeffectiveleadershipandcomparethesewiththeofferingsofacompetency-basedapproachandconsiderthecompatibilitybetweenthem.ItissuggestedthatcompetenciesasaframeworkandsystemweredevelopedasmoreapoliticalandsocialresponsetoaperceivedneedthatAustraliansrequiredupskilling.Further,althoughcompetenciesmaybesuitableforsometypesofskilldevelopment,thecompetencyframeworksystemfromwhenceitderivedisnoteasilymigratedtocatertothecomplexitiesofleadershipanditsdevelopment.Developingleadersisacomplexissueandacompetency-basedmatrixmaybefundamentallytoonarrowtopreparesomeoneinsuchcomplexities.

For the purposes of this paper, ‘leadership’ is defined as being distinctlydifferentfrom‘management’.Day(2001)suggeststhatamanagementrolereferstoprocessesandactivitiesthatneedapersontomanagethem,whereasaleadershiproleismoreaboutapersonleadinginscenarioswherebytherearenoprescribedsituationsoroutcomes.Hesuggeststhattheleadermustworkinunforeseencircumstancesand,inordertodothiseffectively,thepersonmusthaveconsiderableskills,attributesandknowledge.Theroleofthe

leaderisaboutengagingotherstoworkwithinacontextthathasnopredeterminedoutcome,andthereforebothHollenbeck,McCallandSilzer(2006)andDay(2001)cautionthatduetothecomplexityofleadershipandtheoutcomesthataresought,wemustnotconfusealeaderwithapersonwho‘manages’asetandgiventask.

A competency-based framework reviewed

Hodge(2007)remindsusthatcompetenciesincorporate‘skills,knowledgeandbehaviours’.However,literatureonmanagementandleadershiphasextolledforsometimethatleadershipcompetenciesandqualitiesaretwodistinctbutcriticalelementsofeffectiveleadershipandthat,inadevelopmentsense,boththeseaspectsneedtobetakenintoconsideration(Donovan&Jackson1991).

Therearenumeroussourcesregardingcompetencysystemsandframeworksthataddressthepoliticalandeconomicdriversunderpinningtheintroductionofsuchsystems(e.g.Hawke2000,Hodge2007).Ithasbeensuggestedthatcompetency-basedsystemshaveledtoashiftinthewaytrainingisconductedandthattheyhaveledtoamorecorporatebasedtrainingfocus;however,itisarguedthatthecriticalpathsthatledustothecompetenciesoftodayhashadbothapoliticalandsocialimpetusthatstemsfromtheUSAovertwodecadesago.Gonczi(2000)questionstheeffectivenessofsuchaframework,andexamineswhathasoccurredinothercountriesinhisattempttoevaluateit.Heexaminesthecomplexitiesofadulteducationandsuggeststhattherearemanyfactorsthatdetermineifaworkeriscompetentwhichareoutsidethesomewhatprescriptivenatureofacompetencysystem.

In1995theKarpinReportwastabledinParliament,claimingtherewasashortageofleadershipskillsandeffectiveleadersemerginginAustralia.TheReportdetailedanumberofrecommendationsregardingtheneedformanagersandleaderstobedevelopedinAustraliaandmanyoftherecommendationslefttheresponsibility

134 Patricia Richards A competency approach to developing leaders – is this approach effective? 13�

ofaddressingthemtocorporations.Thissetapoliticalagendainmotioninthepushtowardsthedevelopmentofleaders.TheKarpinReportonthependingleadershipcrisissentreverberationsthroughthecorporations,andinterventionsstartedtobeundertakentoaddressthiscriticalissue.Trainingwasplacedonanationalagendaandcorporationswereforcedtorisetodevelopmentinitiatives,withtrainingorganisationsbeingestablishedwhichwerecorporate,unionandgovernmentsponsored.Todaywesee,bothintheUSAandAustralia,thatthemajorityofcompanieshaveadoptedacompetency-basedframeworkforthedevelopmentofleaders,andresearchundertaken has confirmed that this is the prevailing platform (Effron, Greenslade&Salob2005,CorporateLeadershipCouncil2003,Richards2008).

The limitation of developing leaders via a competency-based approach

Competency-basedleadershipdevelopmenthasclearlyemergedasadominantframework,withresearchintheUSAshowingthatover85%ofcompaniesinthatcountryutilisedacompetencyframeworkforleadershipdevelopment(Effron,Grenslade&Salob2005).However,ithasalsobeensuggestedinotherstudiesintheUSAthathavingacompetency-basedframeworkforleadershipdevelopmenthashadlimitedimpactongrowingeffectiveleaders(CorporateLeadershipCouncil2003).Inthisresearch,itwasdiscoveredthatotherapproachestoleadershipdevelopmentmaybeshowntobemoreeffective,andtheresearchoutlinedwhattheyconsideredwerethecriticalaspectstoleadershipdevelopmentaheadofleadershipcompetencies.

Itcouldbearguedthatleadershipisgreaterthanthemixofskills,knowledge and behaviours which competencies were first defined as,andthattheessentialmissingingredientis‘qualities’(Bernthal&Wellins2006)forwhich,Iwouldargue,acompetency-based

approachisnotentirelyabletocater.Writersonmanagementdevelopmentoftenseparatethesetwoaspectsofleadership,andIbelievethisisduetothefactthatleadershipisafarmorecomplexsetofabilitiesthatextendbeyondthetechnicalcompetenceto‘manage’something.

Necessaryleadershiptraitssuchasintegrityandintellectualcapability are very difficult to develop and locate within a competency matrix.ResearchundertakenbytheauthorinAustraliaalsosuggeststhis. Sixty two managers from a large financial institution were interviewedabouttheirownprogressiontoleadershipappointmentandthewaytheymakeappointmentsthemselves.Alltheleadersinterviewedspokeaboutqualitiesratherthancompetenciesasthedecisionpointsfortheseleaderswhenmakingseniorleadershipappointment(Richards2008).

Afurtherstudyoftwelveleaders,drawnfromcompanieslistedontheAustralianstockexchange,smallerprivatecompaniesandlargepublic-sectorcorporations,wasalsoundertakenbytheauthor. The chief executive officers had management responsibility forcorporationsranginginsizefromaworkforceofover4,000employeestoaworkforceofabout120employees.Allofthemwereextremelywellremunerated,andamajorityofthemweremale,university-educatedandinthe45to60yearagebracket.Aconveniencesamplingapproachwasutilisedforthisstudy,andinterviewswereconductedin2006and2007acrossVictoriaandNewSouthWalesaspartofapilotstudyonleadershipsuccession.Alltwelvespokeatlengthaboutwhattheylookedforwhenappointingaseniorleader.

Eachintervieweewasgivenacopyofthequestionsinadvanceandwasofferedfullanonymity.Questionsincluded:• Whatfactorsdidtheylookforinapersonwhenappointingthem

toaleadershiprole?• Howdidtheyassesssuchfactors?

13� Patricia Richards A competency approach to developing leaders – is this approach effective? 13�

• HowdidtheyutiliseandvaluetheservicesofHumanResourcesintheseprocesses?

OnemanagingdirectortalkedaboutMaslow’sHierarchyofNeedasthebasisheuseswhentalkingaboutgoodleadersandalsowhenrecruitingandevaluatingifapersonwouldmakeasuitableleaderforhisorganisation.Hespokeatlengthabouthowhewouldevaluateifapersonwasnearingastateof‘self-actualization’oriftheywerelesssecureasapersonalityandweremorefocusedonsurvivalorself-gratification. The questions that this managing director would askpeopleinaninterviewwerestructuredsothathefelthecouldgaininsightintoaperson’spositioninginregardtohisinterpretationofMaslow’sHierarchyofNeed.Anotherintervieweetalkedabouttrustandintelligencebeingthekeycharacteristicsheusedwhenheevaluatedleadershippotential.Thesecharacteristicsforeffectiveleadershipfromtheperspectiveoftheintervieweesdonotappearreadilycompatiblewithacompetency-basedapproachtoleadership.

Itisalsonotablethatinthispilotstudy,althoughallseniorleadersfeltthatHumanResourcessystemshadaroletoplayinanorganisation,theydidnotfeelthattheleadershipdevelopmentandassessmentprocessescommonlyadoptedbytheirHumanResourcesdepartmentsprovidedvalidtoolsormethodswhenitrelatedtoleadership.Onereasonforthismaybethatthereareperceivedinadequacieswhichconstraintheopportunitytoengagewiththelesstangible,non-technicalcomponentsofleadership;theresultbeingthatostensiblytheseleadersmadeuptheirownsystemandcriteria.Thisresearchisnotexhaustive,however,andneedstobefurtherdevelopedtounderstandmorefullytherequisiteroleofHumanResourcesinleadershippreparation.

Fromthisstudy,forseniorleadersoutsideofHumanResources,competenciesarenottakenseriouslywhenconsideringleadershipeffectiveness, particularly in the context of identification of leadership potentialandascriteriaforleadershipdevelopment.Inthiscontext,

itisinterestingtonotethatarecentstudyintheUSAfoundthat,although85%ofcompanieshadacompetency-basedframeworkforleadershipdevelopment,lessthanhalfofthesecompaniesactuallyusedthisframeworkforseniorleadershipappointment(Effron,Greenslade&Salob2005).

Other factors to consider when developing leaders

Theneedforskillstobegainedonthejob,Lombardo(2000)claims,iscritical.Itisaboutmasteringajob,notjustbeingcompetentatit.Anumberofwriters(Cornford1997,Gonzci2000)areconcernedthat there exists too narrow a definition of ‘competent’, provided byacompetencysystemwhichemphasisesminimalstandardsofskillacquisitionratherthanthemasteryrequiredbythetrulyeffectiveleader.Learningtoengagepeople,designastrategy,sharethatstrategywithothersandmotivatepeople,arenotsuchstraightforwardskillsforaleadertomastereasily;thereistimingandwisdomgained,whichenablesthistobeachievedanddeveloped(Kellerman2004).

TheCorporateLeadershipCouncil(2003)suggeststwomajorfactorsforsuccessfulleadershipdevelopment,basedonleadersinthebusinessactingasrolemodels,andseniorexecutivecommitmenttoleadershipdevelopmentasadistinguishingfactor.TheCouncil(2003)suggeststhat,ifthesetwofactorsarenotpresentinacorporation,thereisfarlessprobabilitythateffectiveleaderswillemergeinthatbusiness,despitethepresenceofcompetencysystems.Althoughonecouldconcludethathavingleadershipcompetenciesinplacecanassistleadershipdevelopment,effectiverolemodelingandrewardingdesiredmanagementbehavioursthatmatteraremorebeneficial. This leads to the question of what other elements may be neededinordertoassessanddesignleadershipeducation.

McCall(1998)suggeststhatself-awarenessandfeedbackareimportantelementsinleadershipdevelopmentandthat,duringthe


evaluationanddevelopmentofleaders,itiscriticaltogaindatafromnumerouspeopleabouthowtheparticularleaderisabletolead.Thisreducesthelikelihoodoftheassessororeducatorbeingmanipulatedintobelievingapersonismoreadvancedinleadershipskillsthantheyactuallyare(Hare2003).

Ithasbeensuggestedthatlearningnewbehavioursisharderforpeoplethanlearninganewjobortechnicalknowledge(Goleman2002).Golemansuggeststhatapersonmaybehighonabilitytolearnanewjobbutverylowonabilitytolearnnewormoreeffectivebehaviours.Thisclearlydifferentiatesbetweenacompetency-basedapproachtoleadershipdevelopmentwhichseesbehaviourasrelatedinasimplelinearfashiontoskillandknowledge,andotherapproachestoleadershipdevelopmentwhichconceiveofbehaviourasmediatedbypersonalityinadditiontotheothercomponentscharacteristicofthecompetency-basedapproach.

Lombardo(1998)suggeststhatsomeleadersareabletoperformin a superior way and that these abilities are superior in first time conditions.Weknowthatthissuccessisalsoindicativeofaperson’scognitiveability,which,ithasbeensuggested,isanabilityapersonisbornwith(Kelner1991).

Thisconsiderationofcompetenciesandqualitiespromptstheoftenaskedquestion:‘Areleadersbornormade?’AccordingtoGoleman(2002),leadershipislearnable;Lombardo(1998)wouldagreewiththis,aswouldMcClelland(1985)toadegree.DonovanandJackson(1991)arguethatcertainaspectsofleadershipcanbetaught,butthatitisnotfromablankstartingpoint.Theremustbeapropensityforleading,andqualitiesinwhichtoembedenhancedskill,forexample,moreeffectivewaysofcommunicatingandplanning.Theviewthatthereneedstobeanaptitudeforlearningandapersonalitymake-upthatisconducivetoeffectiveandethicalleadershipisalsosupportedbyresearchconductedbyHare(2003)andMorse(2004)whichsuggeststhatover25%ofchiefexecutivesandleadersinthe

USAhavequalitiesthatlackintegrity.Hare’sviewisthatleaderswhoarecharismaticmayalsobeinsincereandmanipulative,andthatoftenthepeoplewithwhomtheyaredealingarenotawareofbeingmanipulated.Hestatesthatotherqualitiessuchasinsensitivity,blaming,impatience,unfocusedandparasiticbehavioursareallimportant deficiencies to identify when looking for and assessing apotentialleader.Theseattributesmaygounnoticedinanarrowcompetencyassessmentandapersonmaybedeemedascompetentwheninfacttheywouldbeapoorleaderduetothelackofcertaindesirablequalities.Hareisreferringtotraitsandqualitiesthataremorecomplexthanbasicskills,knowledgeandbehaviour.Whenexaminingacompany’s‘developmentoffering’,theCorporateLeadershipCouncil(2003)suggestedthateducationalframeworksratherthanpsychologicaldiagnosticsarethefundamentalkeytodevelopingleaders.TheCouncilsuggestedthattheredoesappeartobemeritinacompetencyframeworkbut,ifusedtotheexclusionofallotherapproaches,suchasystemmayleaveacompanyshortoneffectiveleaders.Thatis,competenciesmaybeapartoftheequationforleadershipdevelopmentalthoughcertainlynotthewholepicture.

A key educational challenge – are leaders born or made?

Ifakeyfactorinleadershipeffectivenessistheculminationofmorethanjustskills,thentheother‘qualities’thatmakeeffectiveleadersneed to be identified in order to understand if these qualities can bedevelopedornot.Oneinterestingperspectivecomesfromanexaminationofleadershipmotives.McClelland(1985)hasarguedthatthemotivesforleadersarenotlinkedtovalues,andthatthesecannotbechanged.Hisresearchsuggeststhatpeopleareeitherbornwiththeirmotive(adoubtfulproposition)orthatitisdevelopedandcementedataveryearlyage.Hesuggeststhatthesemotivesarecriticaltoleadershipcapabilityandsuccess,howeverbecausetheyareestablishedatanearlyage,theyaregenerallythoughttobehighlyresistanttochange.


Thethreeprimemotivatorsoutlinedinhisresearcharetheachievement motive, the influence motive and the affiliate motive (McClelland1985),andeachismanifestedinadifferenttypeofleader.McClelland’sresearchshowedthattwo-thirdsofalleffectiveleaders have the influence or high achievement ‘driver’, however his researchdoesshowthatanindividual’smotivemustbeconsistentwiththemotiveoftheorganisationinorderforthatpersontobeasuccessfulleader.

Aspointedoutearlierinthispaper,apersonisbornwith,ordevelopsearly,certainkeycharacteristics,suchascognitiveability,motivatorsandtraits.Ifthesearecriticalineffectiveleaders,thenasadulteducatorswemustask:canwedevelopsuchcharacteristicsiftheydonot exist or, alternatively, assist in their enhancement once identified asbeingpresentinthepersonwearewishingtodevelop.Ifso,wheredoes a competency framework fit in?

OtherresearchinAustraliafromRichards(2008)alsosuggeststhatcompetencieswerenotusedinleadershipappointmentsinalargeAustralianinstitution,despitetherebeinginplaceasophisticatedcompetencybasedframeworkforleadershipdevelopment.Thephenomenonthatthisresearchuncoveredfortheorganisationwastheimportanceofmentors,atthetimeofaleadershippositionbecomingavailable,thesebeingmoreessentialtoleadershipsuccessandsustainabilityforaleadershippostthanformaldevelopment.Crucially,personalitycharacteristicsorqualities,andthefactthatthesewerecongruentwiththeexistingleadership’sperceivedqualities,werevaluedmorehighlybymentorsthanmorenarrowlyassessedcompetencies.Researchinotherpartsoftheworldalsosupport such findings (Cranshaw 2006, Corporate Leadership Council 2003,Effron,Greenslade,Salob2005).

Conclusion – a multi-tiered approach to leadership development?

Leadershipdevelopmentcannotsimplybeconcernedwithmeetingastandardasprescribedbyacompetency-basedsystem.Adulteducatorsneedtofocusondevelopingleaders’skillsandabilitiestoworkwithinaparticularorganisationeffectively,withthatpersonhavingthequalitiesappropriatetothatorganisationandstrategy(Bernthal&Wellins2005,Effron,Greenslade,Salob2005).The‘influencing leader’ who is able to engage people may come in many guisesandtheopportunityexistsforhumanresourcepractitionersandeducationprofessionalsaliketoconsidereachindividualonmerit.Adulteducatorsplayakeyroleinshowinghoweducationalinterventionscanhelpanindividualbecomeabetterleader,howevertheyarelimitedbythecharacteristicsoftheindividualwithwhomtheyaredealingandtheenvironmentwithinwhichthatindividualoperates.

Wedonotknowwhattheleaderofthefuturelookslikenorwhattheorganisationofthefuturelookslike(Florida2002).Theworkplaceischangingrapidlyandsoisoursociety–politically,sociallyandeconomically.Thesefactorsallmeanthatleadershipisbecomingmoreimportantthanever.However,theyalsosuggestthattheelusivenessoftheeffectiveleaderappearstobemoreprevalent,althoughwewouldsuggestthatincreasingly,peoplearelookingfor‘ethical’leadershipbypeoplewiththerequisitequalitiestoprovidethistypeofleadershipratherthanasetofnarrowlyprescriptiveskillsandpracticescomingoffapoorcharacter/personality/qualitiesbase.Adulteducatorsneednottostaysafebehindamatrixofcompetencystandardsandframeworksinthepursuitofasystemisedapproachtotheirprofession;rather,theyshouldquestionateachturntheoutputsoftheirwork,andhowbesttheycanadaptatheoreticalbasetosuittheneedsofindividualsandorganisations.

InthispaperIhavelookedatthegeneralconceptofcompetenciesand the framework within which they operate. I have briefly reviewed


researchwhichconcludesthatasetofcompetenciesacrossalldisciplinesisstillunderreviewforitseffectiveness.Ihavearguedthatcompetency-basedsystemshavemigratedovertimetoincludeleadershipdevelopmentandIhavequestionedthevalidityofthismigration.

Iforganisationswanttodeveloppeopletobemoreeffectiveleaders,theynotonlyneedacompetency-basedframeworkwhichincludesarigorouseducationalframework,butalsomustconsiderthetypeofperson with whom they are dealing, and design specific interventions that are relevant for that individual in the context of their field of leadershippractice.

Developinganindividual’straitsandabilitiesmaynotbeentirelypossible,anditappearsitwillnotcomeasaby-productofleadershipcompetencies.Ibelieveweneed,withtheconsentoftheindividual,anunderstandingofwholepersonalitiesandmustdesignprogramsappropriatefromthatknowledgebase.

Weneedtounderstandwhatmotivatesanindividualandwiththisknowledge,combinedwiththeirskillset,designarobusteducationalcurriculumforthatindividual.Thegoalshouldbetoensurethatindividualscomingoutofaneducationprocessactuallymeettheoutcomesthatarerequiredforaparticularrole,whichiswhateveryadulteducatorseeks.

Leadershipdevelopmentiscomplex,asistheroleofbeingaleader.Inthispaper,onlycertainapproacheshavebeenaddressed,ratherthanacomprehensiveexaminationofallmethodsofleadershipdevelopment.Moreresearchisneededonleadershipdevelopmentonamoreempiricalbasissothatwecanunderstandthesuiteoftoolsthatmaybeusedinordertoaddressthismostcriticalissueofleadershipdevelopment.

Thisnewapproachmaywellincludeanumberoftheoreticalbasescomingtogether–psychological,educational,sociologicalandanthropological–asasuiteofinterventionsthat,whenputtogether,willprovideahigherqualityofdevelopmentinitiativesforleaders.Thismayincludecompetencies,butonlyasacomponentofamorecomprehensiveapproach.Onlywithamulti-tieredapproach,whichismethodologicallyconsistent,willtherebeanyreallysustainableleadershipdevelopmentthatcanbearthescrutinyofrobustresearchin this field.

References

Bernthal,P.&Wellins,R.(2006).‘Trendsinleaderdevelopmentandsuccession’,Human ResourcePlanning,29(2):31–40.

Cranshaw,J.R.(2006).‘Justicesourceandjusticecontent:evaluatingthefairnessoforganisationalcareermanagementpractices’,Human Resource Management Journal,16(1):98–120.

Cornford,I.(1997).‘Competency-basedtraining:anassessmentofitsstrengthsandweaknessesbyNSWvocationalteachers’,Australia and New Zealand Journal of Vocational Education Research,5(1):53–77.

CorporateLeadershipCouncil(2003).Hallmarks of leadership success – strategies for improving leadership quality and executive readiness,Washington,DC:TheAdvisoryBoardCompany.

Day,D.(2001).‘Leadershipdevelopment:areviewincontext’,Leadership Quarterly, 11(4):581–613.

Donovan,F.&JacksonA.C.(1991).Managing human service organisations,Sydney:PrenticeHall.

Effron,M,Greenslade,S.andSalob,M.(2005).‘Growinggreatleaders:doesitreallymatter?’,HumanResources Planning,28(3):18–23.

Florida,R.(2002).The rise of the creative class,NewYork:BasicBooks.

Goldman,D.(2002).The new leaders,London:TimeWarnerBooks.

Gonczi,A.(2000).‘Reviewofinternationaltrendsanddevelopmentsincompetencybasededucationandtraining’,inArguelles,A.&Gonczi,A.(eds.),Competency based education and training: a world perspective,MexicoCity:NoreigaPress,pp.15–39.

Hare,R.D.(2003).Without conscience,NewYork:TheGuildfordPress.

144 Patricia Richards Australian Journal of Adult Learning


Hawke,G.(2000).‘Implicationsforvocationaleducationandtrainingofchangingworkarrangements’,Workingpaper,ResearchCentreforVocationalEducationandTraining,UniversityofTechnology,Sydney.

Hodge,S.(2007)‘Theoriginsofcompetency-basedtraining’, Australian Journal of Adult Learning,47(2):179–209.

Hollenbeck,G.,McCall,M.Jnr,Silzer,R.(2001).‘Leadershipcompetencymodels’,The Leadership Quarterly, 17:398–413

Kellerman,B.(2004).‘Leadership–wartsandall,Harvard Business Review,82(1):40–5.

Kelner,S.(1991).Interpersonal motivation: cynical, positive, anxious,Boston,MA:BostonUniversityPress.

Lombardo,M.&Eichner,R.(2000).‘Highpotentialashighlearners’,HumanResources Management,39(4):321–330.

McCall,M.,Lombardo,M.&Morrison,A.(1988).The lessons of experience,Lexington,MA:LexingtonBooks.

McClelland,D.(1985).Human motivation,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Morse,G.(2004).‘Executivepsychopaths’,Harvard Business Review,82(10):20–2.

Richards,P.(2008,inpress).‘Organisationalleadership:acasestudyof the identification and advancementofmanagersinanAustraliancorporation’,Research and practice in humanresources management,SingaporeHumanResourcesInstituteandCurtinUniversity,Singapore.

About the author

Patricia Richards is the Human Resources Director (Asia Pacific) for FremantleMedia. She is currently enrolled in a Doctor of Education program at Southern Cross University. Her research interests are leadership appointment and talent management, with a particular interest in the preparation and grooming of leaders.

Contact details

FremantleMedia Asia-Pacific, Locked Bag 2222, St Leonards, NSW 2065Tel: +61 2 9434 0644 Fax: +61 2 9434 0705Email: [email protected]

The emergence of continuing education in China

Xiao ChenBeijing Normal University, China

and

Gareth DaveyUniversity of Chester, UK

This article reports on continuing education in China. It discusses the emergence of the field in the 1980s, the Chinese characteristics of continuing education, recent developments, and limitations. Continuing education became available in China in the 1980s following a change in government policy and economic reform. It caters mainly for training specialist technicians, although the field has recently diversified to include programs for government officials, leaders of public services, teachers and the general public. Continuing education is increasing in popularity due to the developing economy that demands a skilled workforce. However, several problems and challenges limit the field’s development, including inaccessibility (particularly for the general public), out-dated curricula and teaching methods, and limited legislation.

14� Xiao Chen and Gareth Davey The emergence of continuing education in China 14�

These issues need to be addressed if continuing education in China is to develop further, be of high quality and meet the needs of society.

Introduction

Continuing education as a field emerged relatively recently in China. However,thecountryhashadalongtraditionofadulteducation,groundedintheteachingsofancientChinesephilosophers.Confucianism(traditionalChinesephilosophy)emphasiseseducationbeyondothervalues,andtheearlyChinesestateestablishedafeudalimperial exam system to teach and select government officials (Zhang 1995).EducationhasbeenhighlyvaluedinChinasinceclassicaltimesanditcontinuestoplayaprominentroleinsociety–ahighstandardofeducationisassociatedwithhighsocialstatusandbetteropportunitiesinlife.

NowadaysinChina,educationbeginsinkindergarten(ages3–6),andcontinuesthroughprimaryschool(6–12),middleschool(12–18)andthen,fortheprivilegedfew,highereducation.Someadultscanalsogo on with their studies via continuing education, which became first availableinChinaintheearly1980s.ThereisanimportantsocietalroletobeplayedbycontinuingeducationinChina.Themajorityofthepopulationiscurrentlynoteducatedbeyondmiddleschool,andalargeproportionleaveeducationafterprimaryschool.Therefore,continuing education has a significant role to play in increasing people’sknowledgeandskills.Itisalsoimportanttounderstandcontinuingeducationbecauseofthelargenumberofstudents(72.8millionin2005).SinceChinaisthefourthlargestcountryintheworld(hometo1.3billionpeople),thedemandforcontinuingeducationcouldbeveryhigh.TheimportanceofcontinuingeducationisincreasingasChinaundergoesdevelopmentandmodernisation;inordertomeettheneedsofthecountry’sgrowingeconomy,there

hasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofstudentsenteringcollegesanduniversities,andaconcomitantincreaseineducationprovision(Table1).Moreandmorepeoplearereturningtoeducationtoupdatetheirknowledgeandskillsbecausethejobmarketisverycompetitive;candidates with educational qualifications are favoured.

DespitetheincreasingimportanceofcontinuingeducationinChina,limitedinformationaboutitisavailableintheWesternliterature.Tobridgethisgap,thisarticlereportsoncontinuingeducationinChina.ItbeginsbysummarisingtheChinesecharacteristicsofcontinuingeducationanditsdevelopment,anddiscussestheproblemsandchallenges that face the field. The information is then drawn together todiscussrecommendationstodevelopcontinuingeducationinChinafurther.

Continuing education with Chinese characteristics

ContinuingeducationwasintroducedtoChinafromtheWestinthe 1980s. China’s participation in the first World Conference on ContinuingEngineeringEducationinMexicoin1979stimulatedinterestforestablishingcontinuingeducation(Wu2006).Atthattime,thecountry(anditseconomy)wasopeningupafterdecadesofisolationfromtherestoftheworld.Adecadelater,in1988,theMinistryofPersonnelintheChinesegovernmentwasassignedthe task of developing a continuing education field. At that time, continuing education was defined as:

educationforspecialiststaffsuchastechnicalmanagers,engineeringtechnicians,thoseinhospitals,andalsosomesocialsciencespecialists.Thecontentofcontinuingeducationistosupplementandrenewpeople’sknowledge,especiallytointroducenewtechnology,newtheoryandnewmethods.Italsoincludesotherkindsofbasiceducationandspecialisteducation(citedinWu2006).

148 Xiao Chen and Gareth Davey The emergence of continuing education in China 149

TheaboveChineseinterpretationofcontinuingeducationissimilartotheWesternconceptbecauseitfocusesontheeducationofadultswho have finished formal education and who are in employment. However,continuingeducationinChinahassomedistinctcharacteristicsasaresultofthecountry’sdifferentsocial,historicalandculturalbackground.

First,continuingeducationisalmostexclusivelyforspecialisttechnical staff who work in fields such as the scientific industry. Two majorcontinuingeducationpoliciesinChina1 define continuing educationaseducationreceivedbyspecialisttechniciansormanagerswhohavereceivedacollegeoruniversitydegree.Ithelpsthemtoimprovetheirknowledgeandnewskillsinordertocarryouttheirjobs,suchaslearninghowtousenewtechnology(Zhang1998,Wu2006).ContinuingeducationinChina,therefore,refersgenerallytovocationaleducationavailabletograduatesofuniversitiesorcolleges;itisgenerallyatypeofpostgraduateeducationthatenableslearnerstoup-datetheirknowledgetomeettherequirementsoftheiremployment(Gu1998).

The field recently diversified, however, to include training to non-technicalstaff–continuingeducationisnowgainingpopularityamong governmental officials, leaders of public services and the Party,senioradministrativepersonnelofenterprises,andteachers(Li2005).Inrecentyears,courseshavebecomeavailabletothegeneralpublic.Evenso,technicalstaffcontinuetobethemainrecipientsofcontinuingeducationinChina.

AnotherdistinctfeatureofcontinuingeducationinChinaisitsemphasis,asexplicitlystatedingovernmentpolicy,oncontributingtothecountry’sdevelopmentaswellastheindividual.Thegovernment,particularlystate-ownedenterprises,encouragesemployeestopursue

1 Thepoliciesare‘Decisionofinnovationanddevelopmentofadulteducation’(1987)and‘Furthercommentontheinnovationanddevelopmentofadulteducation’(1992).

continuingeducationinordertomeettheneedsofthedevelopingeconomyandsociety,aswellasstrengtheningtheirindividualcapabilitiesandimprovingtheircreativity(Li2005).

The development of continuing education in China

ContinuingeducationemergedrelativelyrecentlyinChina,anditsdevelopmentcanbedividedintofourstages:StageI:fromthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytothelate1970s;StageII:fromthe1980stothe1990s;StageIII:the1990s;andStageIV:thepresentsituation.Themainmilestones,policiesandregulationsconcerningthedevelopmentofcontinuingeducationinChinaarediscussedbelowandpresentedinTable1.

Table 1: Main milestones and policies in the development of continuing education in China

Date Main milestones and policies

1979.4 Chinatookpartinthe1stWorldConferenceonContinuingEngineeringEducationinMexico.Theconceptof‘continuingeducation’ was first introduced to China.

1980.8 TheChineseAssociationforScienceandTechnologypassedthepolicy,Comment on the specialized training for scientific technicians,whichregulatedtheobjectives,content,resources,andorganisationandleadershipofcontinuingeducationcourses.

1984.11 TheContinuingEducationAssociationofChinawasestablished.

1985 ThecontinuingeducationcollegeofTsinghuaUniversitywasestablished, the first in the country.

1986 Thegovernment’s7thFive-YearPlanemphasisedthatitisnecessary to provide continuing education for scientific technicians.

1987 Thepolicy,About the decision of innovation and development of adult education,pointedoutthatitisnecessarytoprovidecontinuingeducationforuniversitygraduates.

1�0 Xiao Chen and Gareth Davey The emergence of continuing education in China 1�1

1987.10 Thepolicy,The temporal regulation for the continuing education of company scientific technicians, was published. It was the first administrativeregulationforcontinuingeducation.

1987.12 Thepolicy,About the temporal regulation for the development of continuing education after university graduation,pointedoutmorecontinuingeducationisneededafteruniversitygraduationforspecialisttechniciansandmanagers.Continuingeducationprogramswereextendedtoincludealltechniciansandmanagersratherthanonlyengineeringtechnicians.

1988 TheresponsibilityofcontinuingeducationforspecialisttechnicianswasassignedtotheDepartmentofPersonnel.

1989 Localgovernmentsestablishedregulationsforcontinuingeducation(The temporal regulation for national specialist technicians’ continuing education).

1991.12 TheMinistryofPersonnelpublishedThe outline of 8th Five-Year Plan for national specialist technicians’ continuing education.

1993 ThePartyandStateDepartmentpublishedThe outline of the innovation and development of Chinese education.Itwasthefirst policy document that used the term ‘continuing education’, andconsideredcontinuingeducationasoneofthefourmainconstructsoftheChineseeducationalsystem.

1995 Lifelong education was legalised in China for the first time via The educational law of the People’s Republic of China.

1995 TheMinistryofPersonnelpublishedThe temporal regulation for national specialist technicians’ continuing education.

1999 TheMinistryofEducationpublishedThe regulation for the continuing education for the elementary and middle school teacher.

2000 TheParty’s15thmeeting passedSuggestion to making the 15th Plan on the development of civil economy and society,whichemphasisedcompletingtheeducationalsystemandconstructingthelifelongeducationalsystemgradually.

2002.5 The Party General Office and the State Department published The outline of the Plan for constructing the National Talent People Troop from 2002–2005.Thedocumentpointedoutthatitisnecessarytodevelopadulteducation,andpromotethesocialisationofeducationaltraining.

2002 TheParty’s16thmeetingpointedoutthatitisnecessarytoformthenational-learningandlifelonglearningsocietyandpromotecontinuingeducation.

2004 ChairmanHuJintaopointedoutinthehumanresourcesmeeting that there needstobeimprovementinthecontinuingeducationsystem.

Informationsource:Li,X.L.(2005)

Stage I: from the beginning of the twentieth century to the late 1970s

In this period, there was no modern continuing education field in China,butthereweresomenotableexamplesofadulteducation.Forexample,atthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,duringtherevolution against the feudalism and fight against the aggression of Westernimperialism,educationalistssuchasSunYat-senandCaiYuanpeirealisedtheimportanceofeducationforthecommonpeople,andprovidedschoolstoteachthemhowtoreadandwrite(Zhou2005).AnotherfamousexampletookplacebeforeandshortlyaftertheestablishmentofthePeople’sRepublicofChinain19492,whenpoliticaleducationwasprovidedtotheparticipantsintheCivilWar,andincludedteachingsofthetheoriesofMarxism,philosophyofMaoZedongandtheguidelinesoftheCommunistParty.

Anotherimportanteventwasin1950,whenReminUniversityinBeijingheldaneveningschoolforMaxism(Zhou2005).Therewerealsosomecampaignsinthe1950storeduceilliteracy.However,after1949adulteducationwasscant,andconsistedofelementaryeducationbecauseoftheloweducationlevelofthepeopleatthattime.Further,alleducationinChinawassuspendedbetween1966–1977duetothe10-yearCulturalRevolution(apoliticalmovementwheneducationwasdisruptedanduniversitieswereclosed;Unger1980).

2 ThePeople’sRepublicofChinawasestablishedin1949followingvictorybytheChineseCommunistPartyintheChineseCivilWar


Stage II: from the 1980s to the 1990s

Continuing education as a field emerged in the 1980s after economic andsocialreformsintroducedbyDengXiaoping,thenewleaderofthecountryatthattime.InApril1979,aChineserepresentativejoined the first World Conference on Continuing Engineering EducationinMexico,andtheterm‘continuingeducation’wasintroducedtoChina.Thenextimportantmilestonewasin1980,whentheChineseAssociationforScienceandTechnologypasseda policy entitled ‘Comment on the specialised training for scientific technicians’whichemphasisedtheneedforcontinuingeducationoftechnicians.Next,inNovember1984,theContinuingEducationAssociationofChinawasfoundedand,inthefollowingyear,thecountry’s first Continuing Education College (at Tsinghua University inBeijing)wascreatedandapprovedbythethenStateEducationCommission(nowtheMinistryofEducation).Anotherimportantturningpointwasin1988whentheresponsibilityofcontinuingeducationwasassignedtoagovernmentdepartment(MinistryofPersonnel).

Duringthe1980s,continuingeducationwasgenerallylimitedtoengineeringtechnicians,althoughitlaterbecameavailableforothertypesoftechniciansandtechnicalmanagers.Continuingeducationpoliciesweregraduallysetupinothercities,aslocalgovernmentsencouragedtheiruniversitiesandcollegestoprovidecontinuingeducation.

Stage III: the 1990s

The development of the continuing education field in the 1990s was characterisedbyfurtherrecognitionbythegovernment.In1993,theChinesegovernmentincorporatedcontinuingeducationintothe country’s official education framework, and labelled it as one ofthefourmainconstructsoftheeducationsystem(alongwithbasiceducation,careereducationandhighereducation).In1995,

in“ThelawofeducationofthePeople’sRepublicofChina”,lifelongeducation was legalised for the first time; it emphasised that specialist techniciansshouldhavetherightandresponsibilitytoreceivecontinuingeducationduringtheircareers(Wu2006).Thelawalsoemphasisedtheneedforcontinuingeducationinordertomeettheneedsofthedevelopingeconomyandsociety(Li2005).Toaidthis,theMinistryofPersonnelissuedregulationsthatprescribedthetasks,content,method,durationandorganisationofthemanagementandadministrationofcontinuingeducation.Thesubjectsavailableviacontinuing education also diversified during the 1990s, and included education in the fields of engineering, technology, agriculture, literature,law,managementandsoon.

Stage IV: the present situation

Currently, the continuing education field is undergoing rapid developmentandgrowth.Themaindrivingforcesarerecenteducationreform,whichpermitsuniversitiesandcollegestosetupcontinuingeducationprograms,andthedevelopingeconomythatiscreatingademandfortrainedstaff.

Therehavebeenchangesinthegovernment’sattitude.Thegovernmentnowviewscontinuingeducationasparttheeconomy’sdevelopmentstrategy,whichhasresultedinfurthersupport.In2000,2002and2003,continuingeducationwasanimportantissuediscussedinseveralofthecountry’stopgovernmentmeetings.In2000,thegovernmentissuedregulationsthathighlightedtheneedtocreatealifelonglearningeducationsystem,andtoprovidemoreresourcestoimprovetrainingandcontinuingeducationfordifferentgroupsofpeople(Li2005,Wu2006).InSeptember2004,theChairmanofChina,HuJintao,pointedoutthatthecountryneedstoimproveitscontinuingeducationsystem(Wu2006).Sincethen,thegovernmenthasviewedcontinuingeducationstrategically,whichhasencouraged further development of the continuing education field.

1�4 Xiao Chen and Gareth Davey The emergence of continuing education in China 1��

Categories of continuing education

TherearetwomaintypesofcontinuingeducationinChina:‘diplomaeducation’and‘non-diplomaeducation’–alsoknownasacademiccredentialeducationornon-credentialeducation(Shang&Zhang2005,Li2005,Yu2005,Chen&Li2005,Lin2003).Diplomaeducationusuallyreferstoadulthighereducationforgraduates,andemphasisesthelearningofnewknowledgeandtheoreticalissues,ratherthanvocationaltraining,andlearnersoftenreceiveadiplomaaftercompletionoftheircourses(Shang&Zhang2005).Incontrast,non-diplomaeducationpayslessattentiontotheory,andismorepracticalinnature;itconcernslearningskillsthatcanbeputintopracticedirectlyandimmediately.Itincludestrainingaboutcomputers,businessEnglish,modernmanagementandtrainingforfarmers(Shang&Zhang2005,Zhou2005,Chen&Li2005).Itisusuallyprovidedbyvocationaltrainingorganisationsorcolleges,and the content, duration and place of study are more flexible in accordancewiththeneedsofstudents,themarketandsociety(Wang&Sun2005,Dong2006,Yu2005).Accrediteddiplomasareusuallynotawardedaftercoursecompletion,althoughstudentsmayreceivecertificates of attendance.

Diplomaandnon-diplomacontinuingeducationalsodifferintheirpopularity.Accordingtorecentgovernmentstatistics3,mostcontinuingeducationstudentsareenrolledinnon-diplomacourses,andtherearealsomoreorganisationsandfacultiesinnon-diplomaeducation(Table2).Thisisbecause,aspreviouslymentioned,continuingeducationinChinahastraditionallyfocusedonthetrainingofhighlyskilledstaffsuchastechnicians.Anotherinterestingdifference shown in these official statistics is that a higher proportion ofnon-diplomastudentssuccessfullycompletetheircourses,althoughreasonsforthedifferencehavenotyetbeenresearched.

Table 2: Statistics for continuing education in China from 1990 to 2005 (unit: ten thousand)

Diploma courses Non-diploma courses

Yea

r

No.

of

grad

uat

es

No.

of

sch

ools

No.

of

facu

lty

No.

of

grad

uat

esin

O

rdin

ary

Hig

her

Sc

hoo

ls

No.

of

grad

uat

esin

A

du

ltT

ech

nol

ogy

Tra

inin

gO

rgan

isat

ion

sb

No.

of

Ad

ult

Tec

hn

olog

yT

rain

ing

Org

anis

atio

ns

No.

of

Fac

ult

y

inA

du

ltT

ech

nol

ogy

Tra

inin

gO

rgan

isat

ion

s

1990 —— —— —— —— 1545 —— ——1991 —— —— —— —— —— —— ——1992 51.77 1198 20.6 177.21 4958.51 28.41 ——1993 —— 1183 —— 156.72 5706.8 29.83 ——1994 45.53 1172 21 133.7 6625.38 34.48 37.941995 63.61 1156 21.34 157.64 7698.19 39.88 45.431996 —— 1138 21.42 157.16 7698.19 44.28 42.571997 —— 1107 21.46 239.99 8579.26 45.20 46.291998 —— 962 20.39 279.5 8682.41 46.48 51.021999 88.82 871 20.01 255.28 10156.88 53.42 53.712000 88.04 772 18.7 252.12 9396.22 48.56 49.402001 93.06 686 17.38 257.69 9270.44 50.79 48.502002 117.50 607 16.81 427.39 8118.81 38.95 39.742003a 159.34 558 15.35 353.25 7242.08 23.06 45.722004 189.62 505 15.50 318.84 6957.34 27.71 51.452005 166.79 481 14.89 373.39 6743.87 19.86 52.62

a Nostudentswererecruitedin2004duetotheSARS,andtherefore2002’sfigure is listed

b AdultTechnologyTrainingOrganisationsprovidetrainingforworkersandfarmers

Note:Datafornon-diplomaeducationonlyincludestudentsfromschools,andtheworkersandfarmerswhoreceivetechnologytraining.Itdoesnottakeintoconsiderationotherkindsofadulteducation,suchasadultself-learningqualifications and adult junior school and high school. Data source: Public ReportoftheStatisticsoftheDevelopmentofNationalEducationofChina,1990–2006.

3 The Public Report of the Statistics of the Development of National Education of China 1990–2005(Table2andTable3)

1�� Xiao Chen and Gareth Davey The emergence of continuing education in China 1��

The problems and challenges that face continuing education in China

Thereareseveralproblemsandchallengesthatfacethecontinuingeducation field in China. First, the percentage of people who receive continuingeducationisverylow.Therearemorethan300milliontechniciansandmanagersinChinabutonlyabout10millioncurrentlyreceivecontinuingeducation(Li2005,Zhao2003).Thismeansthatmanytechniciansdonothavetheopportunitytoupdatetheirskills.Further,thegeneralpublicislargelyexcludedfromcontinuingeducation,althoughsomecollegesoffercourses.

Anotherproblemisthatcontinuingeducation,particularlynon-diplomacourses,isstilllookeddownuponinChina(Wen2005,Xue2004).Althoughschoolandhighereducationishighlyvalued,continuingeducationisconsideredamateurishandoflessvalue(Wu2006,Zhang&Zhang2002).Thisisbecauseitisconsideredlessdevelopedandlacksrigour(Zheng2005,Yu2005).Also,somecollegesconsidercontinuingeducationtobeawaytomakeextraprofit or to use redundant resources, and focus more on collecting the tuitionfeethanteachingquality(Lin2003,He&Wang2004).Thisviewmaydiscouragepeoplefrompursuingcontinuingeducation.There have also been complaints that the continuing education field doesnotrespondtothemarketandcompetition,andthatthequalityofthestudentsdoesnotmeettherequirementsofthemarket(Wu2006,Zhou2005).

Thequalityofcontinuingeducationisnotasdevelopedasothereducationsectors(Wen2005,Zhou2005,Wu2006).Teachingmethods,curriculaandequipmentareoutdatedandnotestablishedadequately(Zhou2005,Zhang&Zhang2002,He&Wang2004).Mostofthecontinuingeducationcurriculumisreplicatedfromhighereducation–itisthesameincontentandteachingmethod(He2002,Hao2006,Wu2006,Zhou2005,Qiu2006).Thismeansthatstudentsincontinuingeducationlearnthesamecoursesashighereducationstudents,eventhoughtheirneedsandbackground

differ.Mostcontinuingeducationstillreliesontraditionaleducationmethods,andlacksinnovativeteachingmethods(Li2005,Qiu2006).Aneffectiveassessmentsystemforensuringteachingqualityofcontinuingeducationteachingisstillunresolved(He2002,Zhou,2005).Moreover,thesalaryofcontinuingeducationteachersislow(He2002,Zhou2005),whichdoesnotattracttalentedstaff.

Thereisalsoalackoflegalisationandnationalcoordinationofcontinuingeducation(Li2006,Ma&Zhao2004,Dong2006,Wen2005,Lei2004).Thereisnospecialnationalandlocalgovernmentorganisationtakingchargeofcontinuingeducation(Fang&Yi2006,Qiu 2006). There is also no long-term plan for developing the field (Li 2005). Although the government has officially recognised and emphasisedtheimportanceofcontinuingeducation,fewformallawsorregulationshaveyetbeenproposedtosupportitsdevelopment(Ma&Zhao2004,Wu2006).Furthermore,thereislimitedregulationofexistingguidelinesissuedbythegovernment.Forexample,althoughin1995thegovernmentissuedregulations4thatrequiredalltechnicians in certain fields to complete a certain number of lessons ofcontinuingeducationeveryyear,theirattendanceisnotcheckedbecauseofthelackofmanagement(Qiu2006).AlloftheseissuesmeanthatthereislegalambiguitysurroundingcontinuingeducationinChina.

Finally,researchaboutcontinuingeducationinChinaislimited(Ma&Zhao2004).Moststudiesarediscussionsoftheproblem/challenges that face the field, yet little research is being done to solve them,suchasincreasingaccess,optimisingtheteachingprocessorenhancingteachingquality.Moststudieslackatheoreticalbackground,andtherehasbeennoempiricalresearchpublished.

4 TheTemporalRegulationforNationalSpecialistTechnicians’ContinuingEducation(1995)


Recommendations

ContinuingeducationisdevelopingquicklyinChina.Thesituationreviewedinthispaperleadstothefollowingrecommendationstopromoteitsdevelopment.

• Accesstocontinuingeducationshouldbeincreased,especiallyforthegeneralpublic.ThemajorityoftheChinesepopulationiscurrentlyexcludedfromcontinuingeducation.

• Thelevelandqualityofcontinuingeducationshouldbeimproved.Modernteachingmethodsshouldbeintroducedandused(Wen2006,Zheng&Xu2006,Pan&Wang2006,Li2005).

• Aneffectiveassessmentsystemshouldbeestablishedtomonitorthequalityofcontinuingeducation(includingthequalityofteachers,materialsandsoon)(Pan&Wang2006,Sun2004).

• An official assessment system should be introduced for students, suchasthatusedinhighschools(Daveyet al.inpress).

• Continuingeducationcollegesshouldinvestigatetheneedsandrequirementsofsocietytoensurethatthecurriculumisdrivenbysocietyandmarket(Yanget al.2005,He&Wang2004,Zhang1998,Wang2003).Thisisparticularlyimportantbecausetheeconomyandcountryaremodernisingatafastpace,andthetypesofskillsrequiredinthejobmarketarechangingconstantly.

• Thegovernmentshouldprovideclarityaboutthelegalisationandmanagementofcontinuingeducation,andissuealong-termdevelopment plan for the field (Sun 2004, Li 2006, Lu 2006, Wen 2006).

References

(Please note that all the journals listed below are published in China, in Chinese).

Chen,X.G.&Li,B.(2005).‘Strengtheningautomaticlearningtoimprovethequalityofeducation’, Continuing Education,9:34–35.

Dong,R.P.(2006).‘Discussionabouttheadultnon-diplomaeducation’,Adult Education,4:59–60.

Fang,G.R.&Yi,C.F.(2006).‘Thoughtsaboutthecurrentstatusanddevelopmentofcontinuingeducation’,Journal of Higher Correspondence Education (Philosophy and Social Sciences),19:4–6.

Gu,M.Y.(1998).The dictionary of education,Shanghai:ShanghaiEducationPublisher.

He,G.(2002).‘Someproblemsincurrentfurthereducation’,Journal of Binzhou Teachers College,3:78–80.

He,L.&Wang,J.X.(2004).‘ExploringthereformanddevelopmentofChina’shigheradultcontinuingeducation’,Journal of Beijing Economic Management Institute,3:27–31.

Lei,B.L.(2004).‘Theopportunitiesandchallengesofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,1:10–11.

Li,J.B.(2006).‘Strategiesofthespecializationofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,5:30–31.

Li,X.L.(2005).‘ThehistoryanddevelopmentofChinesecontinuingeducation’,Management and Review of Social Sciences,3:64–71.

Li,Y.H.(2006).‘Theinnovationanddevelopmentoftheadulteducation’,Adult Education,3:25–26.

Lin,S.W.(2003).‘Aconsiderationofcontinuingeducationatcollegesanduniversities’,Journal of Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (Philosophy and Social Sciences),6:88–90.

Lu,X.B.(2006).‘Considerationabouttheproblemsofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education Research,2:15–16.

Ma,Y.&Zhao,C.L.(2004).‘Considerationofthecurrentadulteducationandcontinuingeducation’,Journal of Further Education of Shaanxi Normal University,21:Sup.43–44.

Qiu,M.X.(2006).‘TheexistingproblemsandcountermeasuresforcurrentcontinuingeducationinChina’,Adult Education,1:51–52.

Shang,J.Y.&Zhang,X.G.(2005).‘ThemainstructureofChinesecontinuingeducation’,China Electric Power Education,2:51–53.

Sun,Z.W.(2004).‘ThedevelopmentofChinesecontinuingeducationinthenewcentury’,Continuing Education,11:32–33.

The Public Report of the statistics of the development of national education of China 1990–2006,http://www.jyb.com.cn/


Wang,J.S&Sun,D.Q(2005).‘Abouttheexplorationandpracticeonmutualpromotionbetweennon-diplomaeducationanddiplomaeducation’,Journal of Henan Radiao & TV University,2:70–71.

Wang,L.H.(2003).‘Thedevelopingtrendofcontinuingeducation’,Chinese Adult Education,1:85–86.

Wen,J.(2005).‘ThesituationandlimitationsoftheChinesecontinuingeducation’,Career and Adult Education Research,11:97–98.

Wen,J.(2006).‘ThestrategiestosecurethedevelopmentofChinesecontinuingeducation’,Adult Education,3:18–19.

Wu.Z.Q.(2006).‘Astudyoncontinuinghighereducation’,unpublishedMaster’sdegreedissertation,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences,Beijing.

Xue,T.(2004).‘Analysisandsolutiontotheproblemsofthedevelopmentofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,7:24–25.

Yang,J.B.,Shen,X.Y.,Jiang,X.H.&Chang,B.(2005).‘Theinnovationofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,12:36–37.

Yu,Haiqing(2005).‘Thewaytolayequalstressonthedevelopmentofacademiccredentialandnon-academiccredentialeducationinnetworkeducation’,Journal of Southwest University of Science and Technology,4:93–97.

Zhang,G.L&Zhang,Y.H.(2002).‘Theproblemsandcountermeasuresofthedevelopmentofcontinuingeducation’,China Adult Education,12:54–55.

Zhang,Z.H.(1998).‘Severalproblemsaboutcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,4:4–10.

Zhao,J.P.(2003).‘ThoughtsaboutthedevelopmentofcontinuingeducationinOrdinaryHigherSchool’,Theory Circle,3:83–84.

Zheng, Z.H & Xu, S.S. (2006). ‘The development of modern scientific technologypromotesthedevelopmentofcontinuingeducation’,Continuing Education,1:32–33.

Zhou,Y.Y.(2005).‘ResearchonqualityissuesofcontinuingeducationinChina’,unpublishedMaster’sdegreedissertation,DalianUniversityofTechnology,Dalian.

About the authors

Xia Chen, MA, is a lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai Campus, in China. His teaching and research interests are in continuing education and educational psychology.

Dr Gareth Davey is an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Chester in the United Kingdom, and has interdisciplinary research interests. He is the author of The international student’s survival guide published by Sage, as well as journal articles about education and other topics in South East Asia.

Contact details

Dr Gareth Davey, Psychology Department, University of Chester, Parkgate Road, Chester CH1 4BJ, UK.Email: [email protected]

Xiao Chen, College of Education, Zhuhai Campus of Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, 519085, People’s Republic of China.Email: [email protected]



Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1�3

Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria

Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-MajestyDepartment of Adult Education

University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

The challenge of peace building in Nigeria is increasing as communities continue to show adversary tendencies. This is happening even after many third party conflict transformation efforts have been expended to resolve and set a conducive climate for stakeholders to sustain peace. Some peace building assessment projects have indicated that the peace building process is not fully realised, which justifies exploring the place of literacy education in peace building. Since illiteracy has been identified as one major factor which promotes conflict and violence in Nigeria’s multi-ethnic communities, the importance of functional literacy is further stressed. In this paper, a review of some adult education teaching theories is undertaken, and a model for literacy functionality – a transformative teaching paradigm for peace building called ‘cemento-conscio education’ – is developed.

Introduction

Thechallengesofbuildingpeaceinmulti-ethniccountrieshavebeengivenaprominentfocusinacademicwritings,theorisinganddevelopmentpractice.Themoretheorieswehave,thecloserweseemtobemovingtoaformidablepeacebuildingstrategy,butthemoretheworldmissesitinpractice.Thesearchforaformidablestrategyandpracticeforbuildingpeacehasprovokedamulti-disciplinaryinputwhichincorporateseducationinthesearchforsustainablepeace(peaceeducation)asassertedbytheUnitedNations,theUnitedNations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) andtheUnitedNationsChildren’sFund(UNICEF).Inspiteofthisrecognitionthateducationcouldplayavitalroleinpeacebuilding,theroleofadulteducationinthesearchforsustainablepeacehasbeenlessemphasisedbyUNESCO,UNICEFandotherplannersofeducation, even though definitions of peace education recognise adultsasoneofthetargetgroupsforpeaceeducation.Formulatedcurriculumandplansforimplementationofpeaceeducationalwayscountedadultsout,whilefocusingmoreonchildrenandyouthsinformalschoolsystems.Missingalsoaretheoriesandconceptsofadulteducationthatwillproperlylocatepeaceeducationinpeacebuildingefforts.

Adulteducationanddevelopmentagentsmustbegintoreasonwaysforthedisciplinetofortifypeacebuildingprocesses,andhowitcanserveasacatalysttotransformtheminds,attitudesandbehavioursofgroupsandothercommunitiesthroughinformalandnon-formaleducation.Thefocusonliteracyeducationforpeacebuildingisimportantfor thirdworldnations,especiallyAfrica,whereahighilliteracyrateisprevalent.Aspartofourcontribution,wereviewthemeaningofliteracy,modelsofliteracy,theoriesforliteracyandtherelationshipbetweenliteracyandpeacebuilding.Inaddition,wehope,throughacarefulpresentationofpremises,todevelopaliteracy-teachingparadigmforpeacebuilding,usingtheNigerian

1�4 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1��

context where multi-ethnic violence and communal conflicts threaten itsexistence.

Nigeria’s need for literacy and peace building

Nigeriaisamulti-ethnicnationthataccountsfor389ethnicgroups(Otite2000)outof 5000ethnicgroupsin184independentcountriesoftheworld(Kymlicka1995).Likeothernations,ithasnotbeensparedthepeculiarproblemofethnicity.Withatleastover50different violent conflicts recorded between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria becameanationfacedwith possible disintegration.Thissituationjustifies a need for vigorous peace building efforts by government and non-government organisations (NGOs) (IPCR 2003). The conflict transformationeffortsadoptedinNigeria,accordingtoresearchbyMajaro-Majesty(2006),werecarriedoutonthreecommunalviolentconflicts in three regions – the Ijaw/Ilaje, Itsekiri/Urhobo and the Tiv/Jukun armed conflicts. This research showed that the singular conflict transformation strategies adopted in these areas were not significant in instituting a peace building process, and that integration ofallthestrategieswasonlyabletorealisethedemobilisationofmilitiaandnottoreintegrateanddisarmmilitias.Demobilisation,disarmamentandreintegrationofmilitiasprovideashort-termyardsticktomeasuringthepeacebuildingprocess.

The research indicated a need for intensified efforts to build the nation by first restoring peace in all warring communities and the stoppageofspill-overeffectsthatviolencehasonothernationalmattersaswellascommunitieswithinthenation.Examplesof these types of activities aretheviolenceandextra-judicialkillingofIgboandChristiansinKanobyHausa-FulaniMuslims,resultedinthekillingofHausasintheeasternpartofthenation.Nigerianotonlyhascohesionproblems,italsohastheproblemsofpoverty,ahighilliteracyrateandinequityinthedistributionofeducationalinfrastructureamongstitsconstituentethnicgroups.Forexample,theSituationandPolicyAnalysis(1993)documentreportsalack

ofaccesstoadulteducationprogramsformanyadultsinasmanyas46%ofthecommunitiessampled,whiletheMultipleIndicatorClusterSurvey(FME1999)datashowedthattherewasnoreductionofilliteracylevelbutadeteriorationinsteadfromtheinitial57%to49%andadisparityintheliteracyratebetweenthesouthernandnorthernregionsofNigeria(55%and60%forsouth-westandsouth-eastrespectively,whilethenorth-eastandnorth-westrecord21–22%forfemaleand40–42%formale)(FederalMinistryofEducation2003).Inthesamevein,theFederalGovernmentofNigeria/UNICEF(FederalGovernmentofNigeria2001)reportsthatforwomentheliteracyratedeclinedfrom44%to41%.

The high prevalence of illiteracy has definite implications for the peacebuildingeffortsofanynation,andthehighprevalenceofilliteracyislinkedtotheethnicviolenceamongNigeria’smulti-ethniccommunities.Justaseducationisneededforeconomicdevelopment,acivicresponseandpoliticalawareness,educationisalsonotpossiblewithoutthebasicfoundationprovidedbyliteracyeducation.Theneedforadultliteracyistiedtothefactthatmostilliterates(85%)inNigeriaarewithintheagesof15and35years(FederalMinistryofEducation2003),andthereforeoutsidetheschoolpopulation.

Eventhougheducationhasbeenfoundnottobesingularlyasufficient approach to realise either development or peace (Bush &Saltarelli2000),ithoweverdependsonthetypeofeducationprovided. Adult education as a problem-solving field could, through itsvariousskilldevelopmentprograms,develophumancapitalandcapacityforpeacebuilding.Inthisway,positivesocialattitudescanbedevelopedthatwillproducetherequiredcommunalsolidarityandspiritformutualdevelopmentincommunities,membersandtheirethniccommunityneighbours.Thisrolebynon-formaleducationiscalled‘functionalliteracyeducation’,whichentailstheacquisitionofliteracywithaskillforapurpose.Itsachievementdependsonhowtheadultlearnersareengineeredororganisedtoachievethesesetgoals.

1�� Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1��

Re-defining education for peace building

In general, peace and education have been identified as essential factorsforthedevelopmentofcommunitiesandforthebuildingofthenation.Peaceandeducationalsoaffecteachother.Thisisbecauseforeducationtoachieveitsfullestpotentialinanysociety,peaceisrequired;inthesamewayfornationalcohesiontobeachieved,educationisrequired.Ifeducationisproperlyengineeredtosolvesocialproblems,itsemphasisshouldbeonrealisingpeace.Educationalactivitiesaimedatpeacebuildingarecommonlyreferredtoas‘peaceeducation’.UNICEF(1996)conceiveditas:

Theprocessofpromotingtheknowledge,skills,attitudesandvaluesneededtobringaboutbehaviourchangethatwillenablechildren, youth and adults to prevent conflict and violence, both overt and structural; to resolve conflict peacefully; and tocreatetheconditionsconducivetopeace,whetherataninterpersonal,inter-group,nationalorinternationallevel(p.13).

UNICEF,however,arguedthatpeacefriendlyattitudesandbehavioursoccurovertimeinallages–theprocessislong-term,notshort-term.Inpractice,however,UNICEFandUNESCOusuallyplanpeaceeducationforchildrenandinschoolswhilethemediaattendstotherestofsociety.Theseothersincludeadultsandout-of-schoolchildrenandyouths.Peaceeducation needstoinvolvethesegroups.

Inourview,peaceeducationpracticeinformalschoolisnotsufficient for community peace building for three reasons. First, peaceeducationisconceivedasknowledgetobehandeddowntoapeoplewithinauniversalcontext,forgettingthatpeculiaritiesexistamongstsocietiesandcommunities.Thecontentsandvaluesofpeaceeducationaregeneralized,hopingtobesuitableforallsocieties,andnottakingaccountofthenature,rootcausesanddimensionsoftheethnic conflict as well as the traditional values of the people.

Secondly,peacebuilding’sscopeandpracticeinschoolsandinmediacampaignshaveshort-termvalue.Forexample,childrenhardlyhaveexperientialconnectionbetweenthereal-worldandknowledgefromtheschool-world.Thesubstanceofpeaceeducationisshort-livedinthemonleavingschool,astheyfacereal-lifesituationsthatsupplythe experientialbasistobeabletojudgewhathasbeenlearntandthentoeitheracceptorrejectthe peaceeducationapproach.Theissuesraisedbypeacecampaigneducationfromthemediaalsoinmostcasesarequicklyforgottenorbecomemonotonousandboringto listeners. They diminish in significance, becoming objects of mere creativeentertainmentratherthanapracticalmessage.Inthesecases,peaceeducationisultimatelyinconsequentialforbuildingandsustainingpeace,becausethestructuresandfactorsthatproduceethnic conflicts are ever present and unresolved.

InNigeria,forinstance,wheremediacampaignshavebeenusedfortransforming conflict, government has lacked the political and social willtomobiliseagainstethnicsentiments,indigenousandmigrantrules,andthepoliticsofseclusionoftenpractisedinallstatesofthefederation.Howcouldachildreconcilethecontentsofunityandpeaceinpeaceeducationwithhis/herfatherpayingschoolfeesforhim/herinastatewhereschoolisdeclaredfreefortheindigenous,orincaseswheregovernmentsarereluctanttoprosecuteperpetratorsofreligiousriotsbecausevictimsareofotherreligiousgroupsandnon-indigenous? These disjunctures definitely will cause a shock and arethinkbysuchachildtoaccepttopursueanethniccauseabovecommunalornationalpeaceandunity.

Thirdly,peaceeducationinmostofitsconceptionsdoesnotrecognisethepolitical,economicandsocialneedsofindividuals,groupsandnations;itassumestoomuchofitsabilitytoderivenon-violentbehaviour.Meanwhile,educationcanonlyplayonepartinthepeacebuildingprocesswhilephysical,political,economicandsocialinitiativesplaytherest.Again,theimpactofpeaceeducationon

1�8 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1�9

society is identified or evaluated without a clear functional role in providingeconomiclife-lines(vocation)andpoliticalordemocraticparticipation,whilesocialinter-relationshipisalsohardlyeverillustrated.BushandSaltarelli(2000)opposedpeaceeducationbyidentifyingtheneedtoexpandthescopeofeducationalapproachesinwaysthatallowforresponsestoboththemanifestationofviolenceanditsrootcauses.Theycalledthisnewinitiative‘peacebuildingeducation’.Theyconceivedthat:

Peacebuildingeducation–likepeacebuildingitself–wouldbe abottom-upratherthantop-downprocessdrivenbywar-torncommunitiesthemselves,foundedontheirexperiencesandcapacities. It would be firmly rooted in immediate realities, not inabstractedideasortheories.Itwouldbeapplied,immediateandrelevant,whichmeansthatitcannotberestrictedtotheclassroom(p.23).

BushandSaltarelliinsistedthat,inthebroadestsenseofeducation–formal,informalandnon-formal–contentandteachingmethods,artandsciences,child-centredandadultcentred,mustallbeexplored.Asweadoptthispremise,foranevolutionofamoreresult-orientedstrategyormodelofeducationforpeacebuildinganditslocalisation,weaddthatanyevolutionofpeacebuildingeducationmustnotonlybringknowledgeabouthowtoarticulate,accommodateandacceptdifferencesbetweenandwithingroups,butitmustalsodrawgroupscloserandmakerealinpracticetotheadversariesinvolvedinviolence the benefit of mutuality in coexistence.

Thetheoreticalrelationshipbetweeneducationforbehaviourchange,politicalandeconomicparticipation,andpsychologicalandemotionalbondingthatpromotescoexistencebetweengroups,mustalsobeconsidered.Weholdastrongviewthatanystrategyforpeacebuildingeducationshouldbeabletospecifyclearlytheobjectiveanddestinationofthepeacebuilding.Inprinciple,weadoptthestrategythatMajaro-Majesty(2006)called‘cementisation’.Cementisationisaprocessthatcatersforasustainablepeacefulcoexistence,especially

in situations of communal conflict where either party cannot vacate landareas(Albert2001)whichbothoccupiedeitherasearlyorlatearrivalsinthesameland.Cementisationoftwocommunitieslivingin thesamegeographicallocation–forinstance,Ife/Modakeke,Jukun/Tivs,Itsekiri/Urhobo/IjawsandtheIlaje/IjawsinNigeria(tomentionafew)–willentailintroducing‘communalised’(thatis,mutuallyorcollectivelyshared)interestsandtheraisingofacommonenemy.Thisisachievedbyinvolvingpartiestoraiseideologiesthatwillresultinaco-buildingoftheerstwhiledivergentcommunity.

Cementisation,tous,becomesthepeacebuildingprocessthatmaintainspeaceandgeneratesanewsocietywhereviolencebecomesalienthroughthebuildingofnewattitudesandbetterunderstandingbydevelopingcapacitiestocommunicateandchannelsof communication. Cementisation seeks to redefine the way that communityanddevelopmentareconceived,andconceptualised,by redefining it to recognise peace in all its socio-political re-constructionsandpolicies(includingnormsandvaluesystems).Theneedforpeaceispivotalinanydevelopmentplanbyeliminatingpolitical,economicandsocialbarriersthatpreventpeoplefromhavingequalrightsandaccessingjustice,aswellastheirhumanrights.

Redefining development therefore, in our view, is adopting the Majaro-Majesty (2001) definition as:

Arehabilitativechange,whichemanatesfromcommunity(ies)self-effortbasedonitsneeds,bringingadesirablestandardof improvement for the benefit of themselves, immediate neighbours,childrenunbornandtheworldingeneral.Community, therefore, is redefined as a group or groups of peopleidentifyinganeedtocometogethertosatisfydivergentinterests,creatingaconducive,physicalandpsychologicalatmospheretoaffectoneanothermutuallyunderacommonsolidarity.


Communityhereisseenasasituationnotalreadyformedbutformingandachievablethroughaconsciousanddeliberateeffort.Developmentcouldthenemergeasaresultofaconsciouslyformedcommunity.

Thenextquestionishowtheneducationcanbringaboutthiscementisationandpeace.First,weholdthatwhentheneedforpeaceis identified and development factors such as politics and economy, equalityandsocialjusticeareupheld,peacewillemerge.Second,iftwoethnicgroupsarehelpedto(a)identifythecommonenemyoftheirco-existenceanddevelopment,(b)recognisethestrengthexistingindiversityandinmutuality,and(c)acquire,througheducation,theskillsandknowledgetotacklethehumanandinhumanproblemsthatposeasdevelopmentproblems(thecommonenemy),whichwillinturnpromotetheneedanddesireforpeace,thenbeneficiaries will emerge and culminate in peace.

Forthistooccur,educationthatisdynamictosupplypolitical,economic,social,civic,vocationalandhealthlearning,bothonashort-termandalong-termbasis,isrequiredtorealisepeacebuilding.Thiskindofeducationmustalsomeetthechangingneedsofthesociety;itmustbecapableofupgradingknowledgeasnewneedsemerge.Adulteducationinourviewisthekindofeducationthathassuchcapability,capacityandcredibility.Adaptingadulteducationforpeacebuilding,therefore,willrequiretheharnessingofeducationalresources(formal,non-formalandinformal)andallstakeholders(governmentandnon-governmentorganizations)andthetargetpeople(groupsandallages).Again,inordertoaccommodatethepresenceandparticipationofthecommunityinthesuccessofthiscementisationprocess,weproposeanadultandcommunityeducationmodelcalledthe‘cemento-conscioeducation’model.

Thepremiseforthismodelwillbefullydiscussedafterwehavereviewedadultlearningmodelsbelow.However,cemento-conscioeducationisamodeldesignedtoassociateadulteducationwith

thecementisationgoalofdrawingdivergentcommunitiestogetherandmakingtheminseparableinideologyandmutualdependence.Thisliterallymeanstheeducationthatcementspeoplethroughconsciousnessraisingandcapacityprovision.Here,literacyeducationisexploredasoneofthewaysthatcouldraisesuchconsciousnessandtheprovisionofcapacityneededtoderivepersonalandcommunalneeds.

Adult literacy teaching model

Apersonisliteratewhenoneutilisestheacquiredskillsinreading,writingandnumeracyinone’sday-to-dayliving.Thisissubstantiatedbytheconsensusreachedatameetingofexpertsonliteracy,convenedbyUNESCOinJune1962,that:

Apersonisliteratewhenhe[sic]hasacquiredtheessentialknowledgeandskillswhichenableshimtoengageinallthoseactivitiesinwhichliteracyisrequiredforeffectivefunctioninginhisgroupandcommunity,andwhoseattainmentsinreadingandwritingandarithmeticmakeitpossibleforhimtocontinuetousetheseskillstowardshisownandthecommunitydevelopmentandforactiveparticipationinthelifeofhiscountry.(UNESCO1993)

Theskillmayvaryfromalmostnothingtotheequivalentofhighschooloruniversityeducation,dependingontheleveltowhichreading,writingandcomputationgenerallyplayapartincommunitylife.Asmentionedabove,functionalliteracydealswithselectiveandintensiveeducationthatistailoredtowardsaparticularneed.Therearetwoaspectsoffunctionalliteracyeducation(Bown&Okedara1981). The first aspect is known as ‘oriented functional literacy’, which dealswiththeteachingofliteracywiththecontentofthevocationalknowledgeandtheacquiredskillstotheextentthatthegenerativeliteracyknowledgeandacquiredskillsenablelearnerstoimprovetheir working efficiency and increase their productivity. Here the technicallanguagetobeusedandthevocationalknowledgetobe


includedareturnedtotheselectedoccupation.Thesecondaspectisknownas‘socio-culturalfunctionalliteracy’,whichdealswiththeteachingofliteracyinthecontextofsocio-culturalmatterssuchasfamilylife,sanitation,nutrition,religionandcivics.

Socio-culturalfunctionalliteracyprovidessocialneeds–addressingsocialmatters.Thetwoaspectsoffunctionalliteracyeducationhavetobeintegrated(literacy,vocationalandsocialskills)inordertosustainfullytheinterestoftheparticipants.Anyformofliteracyeducation has to be fitted into the larger plan. Following from adult basiceducationistheprogramofliteracyeducation.Adultliteracyeducationmaybepartofawidesystemofremedialeducationdesignedtoenablelearnerstomakeupforschoolingpreviouslymissed,eitherthosewhoneverenteredschoolatallorthosewhostartedanddroppedoutforsomereason.Planningthelearningprogramisonething,whileteachingadultsisanotherchallengeinitself(Nafukho,Amutabi&Otungu2005).

Teachingadultsrequiresutilisationoftheprocessmodelratherthanthecontentmodel(Delahaye2002).Whilethecontentmodelisbasicallyinterestedinwhatmustbelearnt,considerationoflearners’interestsandneedsareoftennotanissue.Theprocessmodelconsiders many factors, ranging from the identification of needs, determinationoftheobjectiveandthemeansforimplementationofthelearningtaskandevaluationofthelearningprogram,thatis,toknowifithasachievedthesetobjective.Itmustbeacceptedthatadultliteracyeducationrequiresaproblem-solvingapproach.Thisisalsoindicatedinitsteachingmethodsandmodels.‘Andragogy’istheartandscienceofhelpingadultstolearn;theemphasishereisontheword‘help’.Consequently,adulteducationprogramsaredevelopedtoprovidemethodsforanadulttohelphimselforherselflearnontheirownratherthanbeingtaught.

Differentmodelsofadultlearninghavebeendevelopedtoshowhow adults could be taught and how they learn. Regarding the first

categoryofmodels–howadultscanbetaught–Blakely(1981)claimsthatthree approaches aregenerallyusedinadultlearningprograms.Theyare:

• Theproblem-solving,instructionalgamesapproachisawellknownandpopularlyusedmethod.Learnersareconfrontedwithasetofproblemsrealorimaginedwhichrelatetothelearnersituation.Theinstructionaldeviceistoinvolvethelearnersinananalysisoftheproblemandtheexplorationofalternativesolutions.Thistechniqueisparticularlyeffectivewhenthelearnersprovidearealprobleminwhichtheyallhavesomeknowledgeandabilitytosolve.Thetransactionsamongthelearnersarefarmoreimportantinthissituationthaninteractionbetweenthelearnersandtheinstructor.

• Themutualinquirymethodisutilisedwhenthelearnermustacquireinformationorskillsnotintheirpossession.Here,theinstructordevelopsaschemewiththelearnerstoacquirecertaininformation.Thedegreeofstructureinthisprocessdependsonthelearninggroup.Thegroupwilldevelopgreaterskillsindiscovering data as well as confidence in sharing information with otherparticipantsastheprocessevolves.

• Theinformation-sharinganddialogueprocessemphasisestechniquesforimpartingdatatoadultlearnersinwaysthatallowlearners to both reflect and react. This method is intended to provideasystematicformofdirectinformation,givenwithoutviolatingthemajorpremisesofadulteducationtheories.Theinstructor,anexpertorauthority,mayprovideavenuessuchaspaneldiscussions,reactionpanels,questionnairesandaudienceparticipationforthelearnerstointeractwiththedataandthepresenter.

Thesecondcategoryofmodelsconcernshowadultslearn.ThesemodelsaredevelopedfromPauloFreire’sconscientisationmodel(1970).Theycanbetermedpurposivelearningstrategies,whichin

1�4 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1��

mostcasesaretransformativeastheydealwithtransformationofthemindandbehaviours.Freire’smodelassertedthattheonlytypeofadultliteracyeducationworthitsnameistheonethatliberatesindividualsfromalltypesofbondage–political,economic,socialandcultural.Adultliteracythusbecomes,inhiswords,‘aculturalactionforfreedom’(Freire1972).Inthisaction,individualsareaidedtoliberatethemselves,discoverthemselvesandtobecomethemselves.Inthismodel,theteacheractsasamerecatalyst,orfacilitatorofknowledge.

Themethodofteachingisnotbyinstructionbutbyengagementinauthenticdialogueinwhichthelearneristhechiefparticipant(Freire1970).Itstargetisanygroupofpeoplewhoare‘inanywayoppressedinmind,bodyorestate’(Freire1970).Itis opposedtoanymethod of teaching that seeks to ‘feed’ or ‘fill’ people with morsels ofknowledgeorthatlullsthemintowhatFreirecalled‘thecultureofsilence’(Akinpelu1981).Thisisnodoubtaphilosophyofadulteducationthatneedsgreaterelaborationandsystematisationbecauseitmaywellprovetobewhatwereallyneedagainsttheinequalityandinjusticesthatpervadeourpoliticalsociety.Butitisnotenoughtouseeducationasaweaponagainsttheseviceswithoutthinkingofpeace.This is because any information could stir up conflict and violence inpeoplewhoaremadetounderstandthetruereasonfortheirdisadvantagedsituation(Majaro-Majesty2006).

Freire’steachingmethodsareperhapsbestsummarisedasbelow(Freire1973):

• Participantobservationofeducatorsturningintothevocabularyuniverseofthepeople(participants)

• Anarduoussearchforgenerativewordsattwolevels,syllabicrichnessandahighchanceofexperimentalinvolvement

• Codification of these words into visual images which stimulate people‘submerged’inthecultureofsilenceto‘emerge’asconsciousmakersoftheirown‘culture’

• The de-codification by culture circle under the self-effecting stimulusofacoordinatorwhoisno‘teacher’intheconventionalsense,butwhohasbecomeaneducatorandaneducateeindialoguewitheducateesaseducator.Thisisunliketheformalsystemwheretheteacherassumestheroleofabossoraknow-it-all;learnersheretakeresponsibilityfortheirlearningor,inotherword, they are given the power to find solutions to their problems whiletheanimatoronlyfacilitatesthelearningprocess.

• A creative new codification; this one is explicitly critical and aimed ataction,whereinthosewhowereformerlyilliteratenowbegintorejecttheirroleasmereobjectsinnatureandsocialhistoryandundertaketobecome‘subjects’oftheirowndestiny.

Freire’scentralmessageisthatonecanknowonlytotheextentthatone‘problematises’thenatural,culturalandhistoricalrealityinwhichanindividualisimmersed.Theeducator’sroleistoproposeproblemsabout codified existential situations in order to help the learners arriveatanincreasinglycriticalviewoftheirreality.Freire(1972)illustratedthattheteachingandlearningtransactionisadialogue,andthetraditionalteacher-learnerrelationshipistransformedintoarelationshipofstudents-teacher.Hislearningmodelisemancipatory.

Emancipatorylearningtransformslearners’negativeframesofreferenceorlearningstructures(Mezirow1996).Also,Argyris’(1992)masterprograminvolvesadoubleloopconceptwhichallowslearnerstoquestionunderlyingthevaluesystem.Thesedeterminethemeaningorvaluelearnersattachtoaparticularobjectthatrequiresthemtoreactorputupafavourableornon-favourableresponsetoit.Theseframesofreferencearedeep-seated,andunderliethevaluesandbeliefsguidinganddictatingourbehavioursandattitudeseachday.Emancipatorylearningthereforeseekstoredressortransformour frame of reference. Its benefits will be that the individual is influenced not to act in a particular unfavourable way.

1�� Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 1��

Endemicintransformativelearningisemancipatorylearning,whichis to provide an avenue for individuals’ critical reflection where they activelyexaminethoseassumptionsorframesofreferencetoseeiftheystillhaveaplaceintheindividuals’currentlives.Delahaye(2000:87)suggeststhat:

Hegemonicassumptions–thoseassumptionsthatseemtomakeourlifeeasierbutinfactworkagainstourlong-termbestinterest–areusuallyrecognisedasworthyofchange…Debilitatinginconsistenciesbetweentheassumptionsoftheindividualandtheobligation(s)…maydemandthealterationoftheindividual’sassumptions.

Thismeansthatindividuals’wrongfulthinkingwouldbetransformedtoincludetheirrole.Thoughtsandrolesexpectedoftheindividualsshouldcoincidetomakeatransformationprocesscomplete.

Violent conflict ideas and behaviours and their acceptance are examplesthatresultfromsocialframesofreference,whichmayarisefromfactsorexperiencethatviolenceistheonlywaytoresolvinga problem, or perceived oppression or deprivation by an identified partyoradversary.Duringlearningsessions,learnersaremadetofacevaluesandfactsthatmustnegate thisframeofreference.Especiallyinatypicaladulteducationsetting,adultlearnersmayfaceperceivednegativeimpressionsaboutcertainculturesandtribes,embeddedthroughaparadynamicassumption,withbothprescriptiveassumptionsandcausalassumptions.Theseassumptionsofgoodandbad are fundamental to our classification of our world by providing criteriaforjudgingrightandwrong,trueandfalse,andappropriateandinappropriate(Delahaye2000).

Any community with frequent violent conflicts is likely to survive if thepeopleconcernedbegintoassociatetheseassumptionswiththeneedsoftheirnewenvironmentaldevelopment.Adultnon-formallearningprovidesalifelongopportunityforevaluating,validatingandrevalidatingassumptions,andeasyaccesstoenvironmentaleducation

needstocomplywiththenewenvironmental(socio-culturalandeconomic) challenges. In most conflict-torn communities, especially inmulti-ethnicandmulti-culturalsettings,transformativelearningwillbepurposefulandrequireacontinuingneedfortheup-datingofknowledge,throughformal,non-formalandinformalsettings.

Selectingandadheringtoanyoftheseliteracyteachingmodelsisdifficult because all are relevant in the complete teaching and learning processofanadult.Therefore,itcanbesaidthatnoonetheoryonadultlearningcanadequatelyaddressthediverseneeds,experiencesandculturesthatadultsbringtothelearningenvironment(Strootet al.1998).Acombinationofallthesemodelsandtheoriesmay provideasolution.

Cemento-conscio education as a model

Incountrieswhereliteracyeducationhasbeenintegratedwithconflict resolution and peace building, efforts are centred on the provisionofknowledge,facilitationofbasicneedsandcapacitytosecurefoodresources,andlifebuildingandtrainingexercises.InSierraLeone(ChurchWorldService2006) where87%ofwomenand69% of men are illiterates, integrating literacy, conflict resolution andpeacebuildingwascentraltothetraining.Bothparticipantsandthetrainersgeneratedfourobjectivesforthetrainingworkshop:(1)knowledgeandbasicskillsinfacilitatingcopingmechanismsfortraumatisedpersons,(2)theskillstofacilitatetheacquisitionofliteracyandnumeracyskillsrequiredbypeopleintheirpersonal,occupationalandcommunallife,(3)workingknowledgeonthenature, types, structure and dynamics of conflict as well as skills for conflict transformation, and (4) definitions and strategies to mapissuesofpeacebuildingincommunities(Bombande&Doe2001).ChurchWorldService,participatinginpartnershipwithprovided literacy education and vocational skills for conflict-affected populationsallaroundAfrica,raisedtheircapacitytosecurefoodresourcesinordertorebuildtheirlives(CWS2006).


Thisapproachcallsforafar-reachingstrategy,asidefromprovidingliteracytoempowerlearnerstoacquireeconomiccapacitiesforbetterliving,socialskillsandpsychologicalhealingoftrauma.Itextendsto making the case for benefits that are inherent in mutual living – mutual benefit in coexistence. This cemento–conscio education includesthecontentandprocessforachievingthecementisationobjective–thatis,cementingthediversecommunitiessothattheybecomeinseparableinideologyovertime,uponwhichtheirphysicalcohesionisdependent.

Asadulteducationornon-formaleducationadoptstheprocessmodel,cemento-conscioeducationmakeseffortstoincorporatelearners in the identification of their needs, statement of the objectives,implementationofthelearningprogramandevaluationofthelearningprocess.Themodelincludesthefacilitator’sroleintheprocessofteaching–howtheteachermustintroducethesubject(asfacilitator,notteacher,andatthesametime,alearnerand not a facilitator). The teacher’s role fluctuates between being afacilitatorandalearner.Also,unlikeintheformalschoolsystemwherethecontentofeducationismoreimportantthantherealneedsofthecommunityornation,cemento-conscioeducationprovidesthecontentthatisbestsuitedtosolvetheeconomic,politicalandsocialproblemsthatthesocietywillfaceinpeacebuildingand,byextension,thecementisationprocess.

The cementisation process integrates conflict transformation strategies(resettlement,reconstructionandrehabilitation)andpeacebuildingstrategies(demobilisation,disarmament,andreintegration).Itseespeacebuildingasataskthatmustbeplannedfrom inception of conflict settlement or conflict resolution through to conflict transformation stages. It is a long-term strategy, but it takes short-term achievement of pacific efforts also as important. This isbecauseanymistakeintheshort-termwilljeopardiselong-termachievements. The first phase resettlement of soldier/ethnic militia

mustalsoleadtodemobilisationofrefugees/displacedpeople.Inthesecondphase,whatmustbeachievedisreconstructionofthesociety,whichshouldalsoenhance thedisarmamentprocesses.Rehabilitationofsoldiersandrefugeesshouldalsoleadtothereintegrationofmindsandtherebuildingofthesocial,politicalandeconomicstructuresofthecommunityornationinthethirdstage,whichinitselfmustharbourevaluationofallotherstrategiestoassessachievements.

Thethirdphaseofcementisationcomprisesthevisionstage,whereliteracy education and other forms of adult education are identified asstrategiestobringaboutanewstructureandexistence.Basically,twoprinciplesthatcemento-conscioeducationfollowsarethe‘recallstage’ (first stage) and the ‘vision stage’ (Majaro-Majesty 2006). Althoughwedonotintendheretodiscussindetailtheprocess,itisimportanttoclarifytheessenceofthesestages,astheyarepivotaltotheliteracyparadigmforpeacebuildingthatisbeingputforward.Therecall stage suggests that for any conflict to be resolved, the history of the people should be undertaken and a careful identification of where a wrong decision was made that led to development of ethnic conflict betweentwocoexistingcommunities.Therecallstageisessentialtotheprocessofcemento-conscioeducationinthatmostrootcausesof conflicts are not known either by the adversaries themselves or by thepeaceworkers(thethirdpartymediators).Actionsforsettlingandsustainingpeaceareoftentakenbasedonperceivedcauses.Thevisionstageistheforwarddirectionalmovement,wherethedirectionofthelearningtaskmusthelpthelearnersorparticipantsintheconflict problem-solving workshop or the literacy program to see the futureofcoexistence–learnersneedtobehelpedpersonallytopaintapictureoflivingwithformeradversaries.

Twootherassumptionsaremadehereinadditiontotheassumptionthat the root causes of the development of conflicts are often not known.First,adversariesdonotknowhowtogoaboutresolvingtheir conflict problems to the standard that will benefit both parties

180 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 181

equallyandmutually.Second,thosewhoco-existdonotrecognisethestrengths,opportunities,weaknessesandthreatsthatimpactonthem.Therefore,thetaskistohelpthemrealisetheseelementsastheyenvisionthefutureordreamabouttheirfutureco-existingtogether.Thiswouldhelpthemacceptthemselvesnotsomuchasthreats/rivals/adversariesbutmoreasco-dependants.Itisatthisstagethatcementisationisuseful,aseveryinterestwillbeseenasmutualinterest.Howthisconceptionisappliedinliteracyteachingbecomescritical.

Literacy teaching method for cemento-conscio education

Developingadultliteracyeducationtobecomethebedrockforachievingpeacebuildingamongethnicrivalneighbourswithhigh/lowliteracyratesiscogent,buthowtorealisethisisoftenaproblem.Ashighlightedabove,enablingtheliteracylearnertolearnfromtheirexistentialsituation,likeFreire(1972)initiates,isidealbutmustbeachievedbyhelpingthemtorethinkandinteractwiththeirpast(recall), and helping them to identify root causes of their conflict –mistakes(forexample,badpolicies,segregationmovements,ethnicgoalsandthelike)thatweremadeinthepastandhaveledtoviolenceandadversity.Whilethistracelasts,throughdialogue,wordsareidentified from the vocabularies of the learners that relate to peace, conflict and coexistence. These vocabularies are used to generate literacytasksandconsequentappreciationofliteracyskills.Inthesamemanner,thetransformationoftraumatisedminds,attitudesandhabitsistaughtandlearnt.

Asinthe visionstageofthecemento-conscioeducationmodel,thelearnersaretobetakenthroughactivitiesthathelpthemvisualiselivingwiththeirformeradversaries.Learningactivitiesinvolve dialogue to find out from participants what are the barriers theyenvisageincoexistingwiththeirethnicneighbours/formeradversaries/ethnicenemies.Thefollowingactivitiesarepartofthe

teacher’sroleinexploringhowthesebarrierscouldbesolvedandalsoalternativenon-violentmeansofachievingdevelopment,eitherpersonalorgroup.Figure1belowshowstheactivitiesforthismodel.

Theroleofthefacilitatorinthismodelisveryimportant.Thefacilitatorshouldnotassumetheroleofa‘teacherknowitall’–asintheformalschoolsystem–ass/hehasthelibertytoaddtotheknowledgeoflearnersbysharingwiththeminformationwhichtheydonothavebuts/hehas.Theseactivitiesaretobedoneskilfullyandwithcaresoasnotto reducethelearningprocesstoamereinstructivesituation,wherethelearners’realworldcanbecometrivialisedwithinthemyopicviewsandimpressionsoftheteacher.Thefacilitator,eventhoughs/heparticipatesactively,mustinthisactiveperiodposequestionsthatwillhelpthelearnerstofurtherproblematise,andpondertoderiveananswer.Ifthefacilitatorsucceedsinhelpinglearnersproblematise,s/hewouldhavehelpedthelearnerstorememberthosepoints,whichtheyhaveeithernevertakencognisanceoforhaveforgottenasbeingimportant.Thefacilitator‘s role therefore fluctuates between passive to active and fromactivetopassive.Theseactiveperiodsarethosetimeswhens/heeitherinformsorinstructsthelearners,andthepassiveperiodsarewhens/helistensto,takesnotesandlearnsfromthelearners.

We do not think it is wise to stifle the facilitator’s initiative, however ourconceptofpassiveandactiveperiodsareguidelinesthatthefacilitatormayupholdass/heprovidesinformation/instructionandlistens.S/hemustprovidetheinformationandinstructionnotinawaythatlearners’interestsandviewsareforgottenorneglected.Inthesamevein,thefacilitatormustnotreduceherself/himselftoapersonwhoisinconsequentialtotheparticipants’learningendeavours.Webelievethat,ifthefacilitator’sroleistoopassive,the learner will become de-motivated, as they lose confidence in the facilitatorasonehavinginadequateknowledge.Ontheotherhand,ifthefacilitatoristooactive,learnerswillbecomeintimidatedbythe

182 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 183F

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184 Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 18�

facilitator’s depth of knowledge. Our guideline also is justified by the factthatnotallfacilitatorsaretrainedinadultlearningprocesses.

The learners’ role also fluctuates from active to passive as the facilitatorsharesthesameexperience.Learnersarehelpfulingeneratinginformationthatthefacilitatorwillmanipulatefortheparticipants’learning.Theyareactivewhentheyareaskedtodebate,tellstoriesandpaintpicturesoftheirsociety,answerquestionsandsoon.Thetechniquesofhelpinglearnerstoelicitinformation,ponderoverissuesandexposetheirpersonalbiasesareatthediscretionofthefacilitator–theymaychoosefromdrama,casestudystoriesandsimilarmaterial.Learnersalsomustlistentothefacilitatorwhentheyareguided,instructedandinformedofnewideasandknowledge.ThelearningactivitiesinFigure1indicatethattherecallstageisshorterwith two steps, while the vision stage consists of the remaining five steps.Thereasonisasexpected,thatittakesmoretimetobuildthantodestroy.Activitiestounlearnthenegativeviolentknowledgetaketimeandpatience.

Conclusion

Developingaliteracymodelforpeacebuildingisaveryimportantrequirementforadult,communityandnon-formaleducationalpractitioners,especiallyinAfricawheretheilliteracylevelishigh.The benefits of this model willbefeltinthepeaceandcohesionbuilding,ifliteracyismadefunctionaltoproducetheseclimates.Thefunctionalityofliteracymustaddressthetransformationofminds,trauma,povertyandcapacitybuilding,allinthehopeofgeneratingandpromotinganenjoyable,peacefulco-existenceandmutualityofliving(throughmutualdependence).Cemento-conscioeducationwillhelplearnersnotonlytounderstandthecauseoftheirproblemsbutalsotoderivesolutionstotheseproblems.Asthecaseof conflict transformation, learners should be guided to re-settle emotionallybytreatingtheirtraumaandhatred.Theyshouldalso

begiveninformationaboutalternativemeanstoachievingtheircoursethroughpeacefulmeans.Capacitybuildingonhowtooperatepolitical,cultural,socialandstatejudicialstructuresandapparatustoupholdtheirrightsisalsotaught.Cemento-conscioeducationstrikesabalancebetweendevelopmentalneedsandsocialneeds.

The cemento-conscioeducationmodelforliteracyeducationisofferedtoplaythetriple roleofbuildingpeace,developingliteracyskillsandbuildingcapacitytousesocio-culturalandpoliticalstructures to pursue human rights, fight inequality, prosecute injusticeanddemanddevelopmentinfrastructure.Theroleofthefacilitatorisvital,ass/hedeterminesthesuccessesandthefailuresofthetransformationprocess.Thevocabulariesofthelearnersduringdialoguesprovidethetoolsorframesofreferencetoworkwith,whichmustspanfromthepasttothepresentandtothefuture.Thisisatracerapproachthatmustbedividedintotwo–therecallstageandthevisionstage–sothatlearnerscometorealisenotjusttherootcauseoftheirproblemsbutthemistakestheymadeinthepastthatwereinsensitivetothefeelingsandpeacefulcoexistencebetweenonecommunityandtheother,orbetweentwopersonsorevenintra-person.

Themodelseekstoimproveontheimpressionthatagoodliteracyapproachisthatwhichhelpslearnersunderstandthefactorsthatholdthemdownorareresponsiblefortheirsuffering,pains,andlosses,andguideslearnerstoachievethedesiredpositionorfreedomwithout losing it in conflict. The model is also predicated on the basisthatdevelopmentmusttakearepairapproach–‘rehabilitativedevelopment’.Anynation,therefore,witha sinceredesiretopursuepeace and nation building will find this model adaptable for re-engineeringitssociety.Wewarnthatthismodeldoesnotclaimtheimpossibilityofitsmisusebyoperatorswhomayutiliseitfornegativetraininggoals,butwestronglybelievethatitwillbeveryeffectiveinachievinglearninggoalswhicharedirectedtowardspeaceanditssustainability.

18� Omobola Adelore and Henry Majaro-Majesty Literacy teaching method and peace building in multi-ethnic communities of Nigeria 18�

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Akinpelu,J.A.(1981).‘Philosophyandadulteducation’,inBown,L.&Okedara,J.T.(eds.),An introduction to the study of adult education: a multi-disciplinary approach for developing countries,Ibadan:IbadanUniversityPress.

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Argyris,C.(1992).On organisational learning,Cambridge,Mass:Blackwell.

Blakely,E.(1981).‘Adulteducationprinciplesandpractices’,inBownL.&Okedara,J.T.(eds.),An introduction to the study of adult education: a multi-disciplinary approach for developing countries,Ibadan:IbadanUniversityPress.

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Bown,L.&Okedara,J.T.(eds.)(1981).An introduction to the study of adult education: a multi-disciplinary approach for developing countries,Ibadan:IbadanUniversityPress.

Bush,K.D.&Saltarelli,D.(eds.)(2000).The two faces of education in ethnic conflict: towards a peace building education for children,Florence,Italy:InnocentResearchCentre,UnitedNationsInternationalChildren’sEducationFund.

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Delahaye,B.L.(2000).Human resource development,Sydney:JohnWileyandSonsLimited.

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FederalMinistryofEducation(FME)(1999).‘Multipleindicatorclustersurvey’,Abuja,Nigeria:FederalMinistryofEducation.

FederalMinistryofEducation(1993).‘Situationandpolicyanalysis:educationalreport’,Abuja,Nigeria:FederalMinistryofEducation.

Freire,P.(1970).Pedagogy of the oppressed,NewYork:HerderandHerder.

Freire,P.(1972).Pedagogy of the oppressed,Harmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooks.

Freire,P.(1973).Education for critical consciousness,NewYork:ContinuumInternationalPublishing.

Institute of Peace and Conflict Resolution (IPCR) (2003). ‘Conflict AssessmentReports’,Abuja.

Kymlicka,W.(1995).The rights of minority culture,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Majaro–Majesty, H.O. (2005). Evaluation of effectiveness of conflict transformationstrategiesforpeacebuildinginselectedmulti-ethnicsocietiesinNigeria’,PhDseminarpresentedtotheDepartmentofAdultEducation,UniversityofIbadan,Ibadan.

Majaro–Majesty H.O. (2006). ‘Evaluation of conflict transformation strategiesforpeacebuildinginselectedmulti-ethniccommunitiesofNigeria’,PhDseminarpresentedtotheDepartmentofAdultEducation,UniversityofIbadan,Ibadan.

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About the authors

Omobola Adelore teaches in the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She has great interest in the use of ICTs for out-of school-youths and adults in adult literacy programs.

Henry Majaro-Majesty is a doctoral student in the Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan. His interest is in the area of peace and conflict resolution. He has almost completed his doctoral program.

Contact details

[email protected]@yahoo.com



Book review 189

BOOK REVIEW

Beyond humbug: transforming government engagement with Indigenous Australians

Michael Dillon and Neil WestburyWest Lakes, South Australia: Seaview Press, 2007

ISBN: 9781740084802 (pbk)

ThekeythemeofthisbookisstructuralgovernmentdisengagementinAboriginalaffairsinremote(andtosomeextenturban)Australia.Thishasmanyguises,nottheleastofwhichisthepolicyofAboriginalself-determinationwhichhasallowedbothFederalandStategovernmentstokeepahands-offapproach,toout-sourceessentialservicessuchashealthtounderfundedcommunitycontrolledservices,tooperatedemonstrationone-offprograms,andgenerallytofailtoprovideAboriginalcitizenswiththesamelevelofgovernmentservices(education,health,law,economicandpolitical)enjoyedbyotherAustralians.ThisanalysisdiffersfromthosewhoseetheplightofAboriginalAustraliansastheresultofwelfarecolonialism,orthe

impedimentstoeconomicdevelopmentbroughtaboutbyculturalfactorsgoverningownershipofland,orforthatmatter,Pearson’sthesisofthefailureofindividualandcommunityresponsibilityfortheruleoflaw.WhileDillonandWestburydonotdismisstheseexplanations,theyarguethatthefundamentalproblemhasbeendisengagementbygovernmentfromremoteIndigenousAustralia.Thesolutionisapolicyofre-engagementwithIndigenousAustralia.

ThesevenchaptersinthisbookaredividedbetweenadescriptionoftheIndigenouspopulationandthecurrentprogramsonoffer,anexaminationofimpedimentstothewayforward,anexplorationofwhatmightbedone,andthreecasestudies(housing,landrightsoverParks,andlandrightsandhomeownershipinremotecommunitytowns)thatdemonstrateoperationalandstrategicsolutions.

In the first chapter Dillon and Westbury provide the facts. While themajorityofAboriginalpeopleliveinlargeurbancities(80%),inremoteAustraliatheymakeupthemajorityofthepopulation(20%constitute45%oftheremotepopulation).ThisAboriginalpopulationisconsiderablyyoungerthanthenon-Indigenousbutwithhigherratesormortalityandfertilitymakingfortheclassicpyramidpopulation profile. Migration between remote communities and rural townsishigh,somuchsothatmanymajorruraltownsarebecomingIndigenised.ExamplesincludePtAugusta,BrokenHill,Kalgoorlie,TamworthandDubbo.Conversely,inthecapitalcities,increasesinIndigenouspopulationsarenotduetomigration,butaretheresultofhigherratesoffertilityandtoIndigenous/non-IndigenousfamilypartnershipswheretheoffspringaremorelikelytoidentifyasIndigenousthannon-Indigenous.Unemploymentinthesesuburbsishigh,butitistwiceashighforIndigenouspopulations.SuggestionsthatapolicysolutionforremotecommunitiesistheassimilationofyoungAboriginalpeopleintotheoutersuburbsofcapitalcitieswillhave to deal with significant and intensified unemployment in these urbanghettos.

190 Eileen Willis Book review 191

InchaptertwoDillonandWestburyraiseanissueclosetothebone–thedilemmaofnationalsecurityforremoteand‘isolated’Australia.Inpresentingtheirargument,theyprovidetwopointsinsupportoftheirhypothesisoftheneedforincreasedgovernmentengagementinremoteAboriginalAustralia.Firstly,theyremindthereaderthatremoteAustraliaisinhabited(therearesome1,200remoteAboriginalsettlementsand2millionAustraliansinruraltownsandcommunities)andthenlistseveralprojectsperformedbyIndigenousAustraliansthatcontributetonationalsecuritythatcouldbefurtherdeveloped.TheseincludeAboriginalservicesinconservationontheirownlandsandNationalParks,aswellasprogramsincoastaland border control to prevent illegal fishing, or breaches of customs regulations.TheseservicesarebolsteredbythenetworkofisolatedAboriginal communities with linked roads, air fields, schools and hospitals.Inshort,itmakesnationalsecuritysensetomaintainandincreasethisinfrastructurepresenceinremoteAboriginalAustralia.Theauthorsthenturnthissecurityargumentonitsheadandsuggestthatthepastlackofseriousgovernmentengagementintheseremoteregionshasresultedinadriftofyoungpeopletoremotetowns.Whilecurrentviolenceinthesesettlementsandtownstendstowardsintra-groupviolence,makingsettlementsunsafeplacesforwomenandchildren(andsomenon-Indigenousservicestaffsuchasnurses),itisnotunrealisticforthisviolencetospread.Thesolutionissocialandcanbefoundingovernmentre-engagementinruralandremotetownsparticularlythroughtheprovisionofinfrastructuretoincreaseemploymentopportunities.

AtthispointtheauthorsaskifthesituationinremoteandnorthAustralia is analogous to the failed states of the Pacific Rim where it isarguedthatgovernmentshavefailedtoprovideadequateincome,securityandeducationforcitizensortooperatewithintheboundsof legitimacy. Here they are reflecting on Papua New Guinea, Fiji andtheSolomons.Whiletheyseearangeofparallels,theyarguethatthesituationinremoteAboriginalAustraliaisnotthesame.

WhileAboriginalpeopledohavelowincomes,lowlevelsofliteracyandformaleducationandlackbasicsecuritymeasuressimilartopeoples in other Pacific Rim nations, Dillon and Westbury dismiss theargumentthatthefailureofAboriginalaffairsisprimarilyduetointernalculturalandgovernancefactorssuchasthesmall-scale,kin-based structures of Aboriginal society. In the Pacific Rim the impactoftheseculturalfactorsonnationalgovernancestretchesfromthefamilyhomethroughtotheseatsofparliament.ThisisnotthecaseinAboriginalAustralia.RemoteAboriginalcommunitiesarenotsovereignstateslegallyindependentofthewiderAustralianstate;theyarecommunitieswithinAustraliawheretheresponsibilityforlawandorderrestswiththestate.

Chapterthreecontinuestheanalysisoftheproblemwithaccompanyingstrategies,thistimefocusingsquarelyongovernment.Theauthorssuggesttheproblemisthree-fold.Thesearethe(i)socialandinstitutionalenvironment,(ii)thearchitectureofgovernmentand(iii)theframeworkestablishedbygovernmentstodeliveryprograms(p.53).Indelineatingthesocialandinstitutionalenvironment,DillonandWestburypointtotheresilienceofAboriginalcultureandtheneedtotailorprogramdeliverytomeetthisculturaldifference,theneedtotakeintoaccounttheyouthfulnessofAboriginalpopulations,andtheinterpenetrationofIndigenousandnon-Indigenouspopulations.TheypointtothelackofinfrastructureinremoteAustralia,notjustofgovernmentservices,butalsooforganisationsandinstitutionslinkedtocivilsocietyandtheprivatesector.Pointedly,theynotethatwhengovernmentsoutsourceserviceprovisiontocivilsocietysuchaschurchesandclubs,theseorganisationsmaynotbeinplaceinremotecommunitiesortowns,ormaynothavetheservicesofbanks,shopsorsmallbusinessestosupporttheiroperations.Theiranalysisofthefailureofthearchitectureofgovernmenthighlightsthemultiplicityofprogramsprovidedbythethreelevelsofgovernment,sometimesinconcert,butmostoftennotorwithlittleadherencetotheprincipleofawhole-

192 Eileen Willis Book review 193

of-governmentapproach.Asaconsequence,programsoperateincompetitionwitheachotherforfundingfromtheCommonwealth,andbothlevelsofgovernmentconductduplicateprograms.ThispointiscloselyalignedtotheirthirdfactorwhichdealswiththeprogramframeworkforAboriginalservicedelivery.

TheauthorsgivetheexampleofhousingpolicywhichtheysayischaracterisedbyamultiplicityofState/TerritoryandFederalprograms,nicheprogramsthatprovidetoolittlefundingovertooshortatimeframe,inadequateresourcestoAboriginalandnon-Aboriginalstaffemployedinremoteregions,programduplication,andoutsourcingtounder-fundedandunder-resourcedAboriginalorganisationsthatmustconstantlyaccountforshort-termfunds.Theseorganisationsoperatewithfewerresourcesthancomparablegovernmentdepartmentsdeliveringsimilarservicestonon-Aboriginalpopulations.Theauthorsprovidenumerousexamples– one will suffice here. In the inquiry into red tape in Aboriginal communities,thereportnotedthatthecommunityofWadeyehadenteredintoover90separatefundingagreementsinordertoprovideaminimumnumberofservices.Staffwererequiredtodealwithandmeetaccountabilityauditsforall90agreementsinmanyinstances on an annual basis. The energy required to obtain sufficient fundingtoprovideadequateservicestaxesthescarcereservesofmostcommunitiesandisinconsistentwithwhatisprovidedbygovernmentstootherAustraliansthroughcommonwealth,stateorlocalgovernment.

Insummary,DillonandWestburychallengethedualsystemofserviceprovisiontoremoteAboriginalAustraliasuggestingthat,whileitmighthavebeenappropriateinthe1970swhentheStatesandTerritories were less inclined to meet their financial responsibilities toAboriginalpeople,thisisnolongerthecase.Coupledwiththis,thepolicyofself-determinationhasallowedallthreesectorsofgovernmenttodisengagefromgenuinepolicyprovisionin

AboriginalAustralia.Ithasalsomeanttheseserviceshavebeenunder-fundedandthatinmanyinstancesAboriginalpeoplereceivelowerstandardsofservice.TheoccasionallackofperformanceofAboriginalorganisationshasenabledgovernmentstolaytheblameatthefeetofAboriginalpeopleandtheirapparentculturalpracticesofmismanagement.AsFredChaneynotesintheopeningpages,‘Failuresblocknotyourrecord,butthatoftheblackfellaswhocan,intheend,alwaysbeblamed’.

ThebooktakesseveralswipesattheNorthernTerritoryInterventionalongtheway,butitisnotuntilthelastchapterthatDillonandWestburyprovideadirectcritique.Theynotethattheinterventionmayhavepositiveoutcomes,butchallengetheCoalitiongovernment’sanalysisthatthecauseoftheproblemliesinAboriginalcultureorisinternaltothecommunities.Whilenotdirectlyarticulated,theiroverallthesissuggeststhecauseofthedysfunctionliesinthesystematicdisengagementbygovernmentfromremoteAboriginalAustraliasincethe1970sundertheguiseofself-determination.Theysuggesttheinterventionofferstheopportunityforamorethorough-goingre-engagementinAboriginalcommunitieswherelawandorderarenotimposedonpeoplebutariseoutofgenuinecommunity-governmentdialogue.Theinterventionshouldnotbeapolicyof‘stablising,normalisingandexiting’,butthebeginningofre-engagementinAboriginaldevelopment.Theywritethe‘challengeinourviewistotransformtheinterventionintosubstantiveengagementacrosstheNorthernTerritory’(p.210),ratherthanwhattheynowseeasareturntothepaternalisticpracticesofpre-1970’sregimes.CertainlythecurrentmediareportsonincreasedfreshfoodconsumptiononmanyAboriginalcommunitieswherewelfarepaymentshavebeenquarantinedcanmakenomoreclaimstosuccessthanthemissionariesofthepastwhosupervisedthedailyfeedingofthepopulation.

194 Eileen Willis Book review 19�

Howcanthisre-engagementofgovernmentbedone?DillonandWestbury provide a range of first steps. These include, but are not limitedto,separatingAboriginalaffairsoutfromthevagariesofpartypoliticsthroughthecreationofbi-partisanprocessesforon-goingreform.TheysuggestthecreationofanIndigenousReformCommissionthatwouldoperateoutsideandindependentlyofelectioncycles, the allocation of funds to the States and Territories specifically fordevelopmentofremotecommunitiesandremoteAustraliaprovidedindependentlyofotherCommonwealthfundsthattendtobeappliedtotheStatesonapopulationbasis,incentivestoengagetheprivatesectorandcivilsocietyinAboriginalaffairsandtheplacingof government personnel on communities. The role of these officers wouldbetomediategovernmentpolicyandcommunityaspirationsinatwo-wayprocessofdialogue.

Onlyoneissueremainsproblematicformeinreadingthiswellargued,clearandpersuasivetext.WhileDillonandWestburyarenottotallydismissiveofAboriginalControlledorganisationsandpresumablyinremoteAustraliathesearelimitedinthemostparttocommunitycouncils(whichtheythinkoughttocomeunderlocalgovernment),itremainsunclearhowtheyintendtoreconcilethemainstreamingofhealth,law,educationandsomesocialserviceswiththefactthatinmanyremotetownsandsomecommunitiestheseservicesareprovidedbycommunitycontrolledorganisations.DillonandWestburydopointtothestrengtheningofcommunityorganisations,butItookthistobecommunitycouncils,notlegalandhealthservices.Thereare,ofcourse,clearwaysinwhichtheseservicescouldbecomepartofgovernmentre-engagementwithAboriginalpeopleswithconcomitanton-goingregularandadequatefunding,butitpresumablyalsomeansachangeintheircurrentgovernancearrangements.IthinkmanyIndigenouspeoplewillbemistrustfulofthispolicyanditsimplications,andtheirnon-Indigenoussupporterswillbeunsure;caughtasweareinacrisisofdistrustandinertia.

Thebookisunfortunatelypoorlyproducedwithanumberofword-processingerrorsandmissedreferencesandbindingthatcameapart.Thismaybetheresultofgettingitoutinhaste.IaminclinedtothinkitwasworththerushsincetheideasareofhighqualityanditishightimeAustralians,bothIndigenousandnon-Indigenous,beganthinkingaboutanewwayforward.Inmyview,thisbookprovidestheotherbookendtoNoelPearson’sthesisincreatingablue-printforawayforward.

Associate Professor Eileen WillisHead: Department of Paramedic and Social Health Sciences

School of MedicineFlinders University



Book review 19�

BOOK REVIEW

Intimacy, transcendence, and psychology: closeness and openness in everyday life

Halling, SteenNew York: Palgrave Macmillan, December 2007

ISBN-13: 978-0-230-60045-4 (hbk), 248 pagesISBN-10: 023060045X

ISBN-13: 978-0230600454

BorninDenmarkbuteducatedsincehewastwelveinCanada,andinPittsburgUSAatpost-graduatelevel,SteenHallinghastaughtpsychologyatSeattleUniversityformorethanthirtyyearsandhasheldthepositionofProfessorofPsychologyatthatuniversitysince1989.

Inthis,hismostrecentwork,Hallingsetsouttoilluminatetwointerrelatedphenomena,namely,intimacyandtranscendenceineverydaylife,aswellasaddressacademicquestionsaboutcoming

tounderstandhowonecanexploresuchintangibletopicsthroughphenomenology.Althoughitisaslimbookof248pagesincludingbibliographicalnotesandanameindex,itgavemethefeelingofgettingandreadingtwobooksforthepriceofone.Butthereisnothingskimpyaboutthisbook’scontentsoritstreatment.Perhapsbecausethiseasilycarriedvolumeisawonderfuldistillationofthirtyyearsofscholarshipandclinicalexperiencewhichhasbeenpubliclyrecordedintwentyfourjournalarticles,thirteenbookchaptersandtwo books as well as in fifty six scholarly presentations.

Hallingacknowledgesthatreaderscan,iftheywish,takeeitheroftworoutesthroughthebook.Theycaneithergoona‘straightthrough’journey or alternatively begin at chapter five and then double back to thebeginning.Chaptersonethroughfourdealwithboththepositiveandnegativeaspectsofintimacyandshowhowbothcancontributeto the transformation and growth of the person, while chapter five givesanoverviewofhisresearchmethodology.‘Thosereaders’,hesays, ‘who would first prefer to know something of the basic approach taken…areencouragedtoreadChapter5beforestartingChapter1’(p.13).

The book is divided into seven chapters. The first two deal with his theme of ‘seeing a significant other as if for the first time’. Chapter oneviewsthisasapositiveexperiencewhenweseethattheotherisinfact,agreater,kinder,wiserorperhapsmorelovedpersonthanwe at first judged. This is the other as a ‘more than’ experience. The oppositeexperienceisthesubjectofchaptertwo.Here,theotherisalreadyidealisedandthereissomeexperiencewhichshowsthemtobe‘lessthan’.Itistheexperienceofdisillusionmentanditspossibledestructivenesswhichhealsoshowsisapossibleinvitationtogrowth.Thethirdchapteronforgivenessisanaturalsuccessor.Inithe discusses how it is often a long and difficult process to accept the falliblehumanityofbothourselvesandtheotherperson,describingit in terms of ‘recovering one’s future’. While the first three chapters

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dealwitheverydayrelationsofeverydaypeople,chapterfourmovesintotherelationalaspectsofdealingwiththosewhoarementallyill. Halling acknowledges that readers may find it strange but goes ontoshowthat‘…comingtounderstandsomeonewhoismentallyillhappensinfundamentallythesamewayaswithanyoneelsewho initially puzzles or confounds us’ (p.107). Chapter five, ‘On the studyofhumanexperience’isanexpositionofhisparticularbrandof phenomenology and how it fits with others who have used this methodology.Inthelasttwochapterssixandseven,headdressesthephenomenonoftranscendenceineverydaylifeandrelationsandlastly where it fits with psychology. In this review, I would like to speak of chapters five and six in a little more detail.

The thirty-two pages of chapter five break open for us Halling’s particularbrandofexistentialphenomenology.Hereheshows,ratherthantells,howattheheartofthiskindofresearchisarelationshipwithone’sfellowresearchersaswellaswiththetopicandtheimportanceoftheplaceofintimacyintheresearchprocess.Indoingso,hecritiquesthestrangleholdoftheprevailingpositioninbothhisownareaofpsychologyaswellastherelatedareasofmedicineandsciencethat‘amatureormoreobjectiveawarenessofanotherpersoninvolves “scientific detachment”’ (p.20).

Hallingadmitsthathehasmadealifetimestudyoftopicsthataremoreoftenignoredbecausetheirintangiblenatureprovestooproblematic to adhere to the conventional understanding of scientific empiricism as observation through measurement and quantification. Methodsused,heasserts,mustbeappropriatetothesubject-matter.Andwhenthesubjectofresearchisascomplex,nuancedandparadoxicalashumanbeings,thenlaboratoriesandcontrolledcorrelational studies and experiments are not, he shows, sufficiently empirical, resulting in generalised findings that are in fact mainly speculativeasfarasapplicationineverydaypracticeisconcerned.HeusesConstanceFischer’sdistinction‘betweenprimarydata,that

is,whatweexperienceandobservedirectly,andsecondarydata,theconclusionswedrawonthebasisofthisdata’(p.56).HegivestheexampleofIQtests.Hearguesthatphenomenologyconformsmuchmoretothecriteriaofempiricaldatasinceitfocusesontheobservationsoftheactualeverydayexperiencesthemselves.Thisisamostwelcomeexpositionofthephenomenologicalmethodforthoseofuswhomustjustifyittoourcolleagueswhospeakdisparaginglyofanywaysofresearchwhichappeartobedealingin‘mereanecdote’.Speaking of method first, I seem to be taking the second route throughthisbook,sonowIwillreturntothebeginning.

Beinginvolvedwithteachingaspectsofcareofthespirittopalliativecareworkers,Iamparticularlyinterestedinthelasttwochapters–Halling’streatmentoftheexperienceofintimacyandtranscendenceineverydaylife.Clarifyingthroughportrayalhowdisillusionment,forgivenessanddeeperappreciationareallaspectsofwaysourexperienceofintimacytakesusbeyondourselvesandintolargerhorizonsofpossibility,Halling’sstories,alongwithhisdialogueswiththepastandcurrentliterature,expertlychartacoursethroughthecomplexandoftenfragilewebofrelationshipspersonalandprofessional.Hischapteronthedisturbedperson’sneedtobeapersonbeforeaproblemhighlightstheneedforrespectinallofourencounters.Butitisthesixthchapteron‘Interpersonalrelationsandtranscendence’thatisthejewelinthecrownforme.

ThiswordiscentraltotheworkIamengagedinwithmystudents.Itis,however,moreoftenseenasesoteric,other-worldlyortooreligiouslyentrappedtobeofmuchuseintheirpractice.ButHalling, while acknowledging these problems can exist, identifies itsappropriatenessinhisaccountstoshowthatparadoxicallyitalsoappearstobefundamentaltohumanliving–‘forthemomentthen’,heinvitesus,‘letmesuggestthattranscendenceisakintoopenness,amovementtowardthenew,andisthusakeyfeatureinourhumanity’(p178).Hedoesthisthroughhisstoriesofthree

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differentexperiences(oflove,ofdisillusionmentandhealing,andofforgiveness),andhighlightshowtranscendenceineverydaylifeisvisibleinthem.Hethenintroducesustootherimportantwriters,philosophers, psychologists and theologians as he reflects on both the meaningsandmisunderstandingsoftranscendenceoverawiderangeofscholarship.Thisisexcitingstuff,asHallingshowshowtomovebetweenscholarshiptheoryandeverydayexperience,respectingboth,critiquingbothandclarifyingboth.Inthisway,hedemonstratestheuseofall-roundvisionofatopicthatcangrounditandprovideuswithmuchneededbalance.

Havinggonethroughthischapteragain,IamnowofftogooncemorethroughtheearlychaptersandrecordwherethecontentsresonatewithmyownpersonalandprofessionalexperiencewhileIconsiderhow to apply my findings to my everyday life and practice. I would recommendanyonewhoisinvolvedinthehelpingandteachingprofessionstodothesame.ThisisonebookIknowwillnotjustgatherdustonpeople’sshelves.Itisfartoopracticalandreadabletodothat.

Margaret ByrneDoctoral candidate

Centre for Research in Education, Equity and WorkUniversity of South Australia

BOOK REVIEW

Rebalancing the social and economic: learning, partnership and place

Chris Duke, Mike Osborne and Bruce Wilson (eds.)Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE),

2005ISBN: 1 86201 270 9, 202 pages

Thisbookbringstogethercondensed‘hottopic’papersbycontributorstothePascalObservatory.ThePascalObservatorywasestablishedjointlybytheRoyalMelbourneInstituteofTechnology(RMIT)andStirlingUniversities,inpartnershipwithregionalgovernmentsinVictoria,AustraliaandtheUnitedKingdom,followinganOECDConferenceonLearningRegionsconductedinMelbournein2002.ChrisDukeisDirector(HigherEducation),NIACE,UKandProfessorofRegionalLearningandPartnerships,SchoolofSocialScienceandPlanning,RMITUniversity.MikeOsborneisProfessorofLifelongEducationandHeadoftheDivisionofAcademicInnovation

202 Errol Lawson Book review 203

andContinuingEducation,UniversityofStirling,Scotland.BruceWilsonisProfessorofOrganisationandWorkDesignandHeadoftheSchoolofSocialScienceandPlanning,RMITUniversity.

ThePascalObservatoryisaninternational,strategicinformationtrackingandsharingserviceonthethreerelatedissuesofplacemanagement,socialcapitalandlearningregions.Itaspirestosupportsustainablenational,regionalandcommunitydevelopmentbasedonexperienceandevidenceofwhatworks.Itaimstoinformthearchitectsofsocialpoliciesand,asthetitlesuggests,redressthecurrentimbalancebetweentheeconomicandthesocialdriversofgovernmentpolicyandpractice.

ThisaspirationhasarisenfromtheexperiencesofthosecountriesthatadheretoTraditionalEconomics(Beinhocker2006)thattherearemanyunintendedconsequenceswhensocialoutcomesarenotfactoredintotheirpoliciesandpractices.

The‘hottopic’papersdescribeprojectsfromseveralplacesthatdemonstratethatitispossibleforleaderstoinstalsocialoutcomesastheirprimeaimandmanageeconomicoutcomesasameanstoachievingfavourableandsustainablesocialoutcomes.ContributionsfromCanada,Australia,Scotland,Ireland,Finland,UnitedKingdomandSouthAfricaalldrawtheconnectionbetweenlifelonglearningandsocialandeconomicpoliciesandpracticesinarangeofplaceseachpresentingadifferentsocial,historicalandnaturalenvironment.Veryeffectively,thiscollectionshowsthatthedriversofcommunitymanagementcanbepositivesocialoutcomes,lifelonglearningandtheformationofsocialcapital,andthateconomicoutcomescanbethemeanstoends,nottheendsinthemselves.Butitistheverydiversityoftheplacesthatcloudsthatmessage.Nounifyingtheoryemergesthatcouldansweropponentsofchangewhocouldsaythatthecasestudiesshownomorethanthatpeoplewhoarewellconnectedandexperiencedcanperformwondersinasupportive

environment.Thereisnoindicationinthepapersthattheexperiencesofthecasestudiesarebeinggeneralised.

ThatisthechallengethatthePascalObservatoryneedstoaddress.Perhapstheyhavesincethepublicationofthisset.Thesepapersrepresentaprogressreportuptill2004/2005.Howeverthemostobvioussignofadoptionofanewparadigmwillbewhenthemakers,implementersandtargetsofpolicyuselanguagethatincorporatestheoriesdescribingsustainablesocialoutcomesasanemergentpropertyofeconomicpractice;theoriesthatdonotcommitthemistake of ‘one size fits all’ but accommodate the diversity that is the verycornerstoneofsustainabilityandsurvivability.

TheEditorsinvitereaderstovisitthePascalObservatorywebsite.Thisreviewerdidandfoundnotonlytheunabridged‘hottopic’papersbutalsorecentpapersandnoticesofconferenceswhichshowtheprogresssincethepublicationofthisbook.BroadeningthereviewthentotheworkofthePascalObservatory,IfoundthatPascalisgrowing,takinginmembersfromAsiaandtheformerUSSRandhasbuiltfurtheritsrecordofcasestudies.However,foracommunitythathas its roots in lifelong learning, I am surprised to find no mention oftheimportanceoflanguageinthelearningprocess.Thechallenge,as noted above, remains the development of a unified model of a balancedsustainablecommunity–amodelthatincorporatesalanguagethatcanbeusedasthevehicleforlearningandapplyinganeweconomicsparadigmbyallpartieswithaninterestinsocialandeconomicpolicy.ThePascalObservatorycouldconsiderextendingtheirmulti-disciplinaryapproachtoincludetherapidlydevelopingfield of network science that may offer such a model. Here is a body of knowledgewhichprovidesthemeanstodescribeandtosomeextentmanagethebehaviourofComplexAdaptiveSystems(Watts2004).

WouldIrecommendbuyingthebook?Probablynot,eventhoughthepapersarewellwritten,interestingandinformative;themorerecentmaterialonthewebsiteismoreinterestingandinformative,

204 Errol Lawson

andIwouldrecommendthatanyoneinvolvedwithsocialpolicyandpractice,economics,lifelonglearningandthediversityofplaceaccepttheeditors’invitationandvisitthePascalObservatorywebsite(www.obs-pascal.com).

References

Beinhocker,E.D.(2006). The origin of wealth: the radical remaking of economics and what it means for business and society,Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.

Watts,D.J.(2004).Six degrees of freedom: the science of a connected age,Vintage,UnitedKingdom:RandomHouse.

Errol Lawson BE, PhDAdjunct Associate Professor

Defence and Systems InstituteMawson Lakes Campus


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