ATTRIBUTES OF QUALITY IN SELECTED SOMALI HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS:

AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS

By

MOHAMED ABUKAR ZUBEYR

Project Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Management

Graduate School of Management International Islamic University Malaysia

2011

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this Project Paper and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a Project Paper for the degree of Master of Management*.

~~o~r Hazilah Abd

Supervisor

This Project Paper was submitted to the Graduate School of Management, IIUM and is accepted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Management*.

PROF. DR. ARIF HASSAN Deputy Director Graduate School of Management lntem1tion11 1111mlc University Malaysia

[bk Prof. Dr. Arif Hassan Project Paper Examiner

This Project Paper was submitted to the Graduate School of Management, ITIJM, and is accepted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Management*.

PROF. OR. A"IF HASSAN Deputy Directo, Graduate School of Management lnt!:"mJtional 1,1amic University Malavsi~

Prof. Dr. Arif Hassan Chairperson Project Paper Committee Graduate School of Management ITIJM

* Your programme.

11

Name Matric Number

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT

Mohamed Abukar Zubeyr G0925083

I hereby declare that this research is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references and a bibliography is appended.

St'

Signature ... ~:t?················ Date ... 1 .... 0Ut~.~.1

© Copyright by Mohamed Abukar Zubeyr and International Islamic University Malaysia

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DEDICATIONS

To my mother, Maryan Sufi Munye

for the in-depth love, motivation, dua, prayer, care and sympathy.

There is no one like mother. (I love you)

And

To my father, Abukar Zubeyr Haji Yusuf

for the love, support and incessant inspiration.

What I can easily recall about my father since my primary school till now is that

whenever we talked he would ask before anything else "How are your studies?"

I believe my mother and him are the main forces behind my achievements and progress

in my studies.

May Allah bless them

Aarniin

IV

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, all praises is to our Almighty Allah (SWT) for giving me the strength, knowledge and wisdom to successfully complete this dissertation. Secondly, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Noor Hazilah Abd Manaf, for the remarkable support and guidance she showed me throughout the writing of this dissertation. Without her helpful supervision, advise, inspiration and empathy as well as compassion, I would not have been able to complete this dissertation successfully. May Allah (SWT) bless her and her family.

I would also like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to Professor Dr. Arif Hassan, for teaching me research methodology. Taking the course with him has increased my understanding, which has enabled me to write this dissertation in the most academic manner. Besides, I am sincerely grateful to Dr. Abideen Adewale who supported and motivated me, as well as providing me with great research materials for my data analysis.

I would also like to show my gratitude to Brother Abdirahman Mohamed Anas who assisted me in distributing, collecting and sending back the questionnaires whilst I was in Malaysia and to all those who gave him a hand in this great task. A heartfelt appreciation to Mogadishu University, SIMAD, Benadir University and all the respondents in general.

Moreover, I am truly indebted and thankful to the library of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), as well as the Graduate School of Management (GSM) and its staff especially Sister Raja Nur Sabrina Raja Ahmad Shah, for providing me with the necessary facilities, infornrntion resources and also favorable climate that boosted my morale to carry out this dissertation contentedly. I would also like to extend my appreciations to my colleagues; Brother Sheik Mujaahiid El Bheekharry, Sister Fatima Zahraa Alaoui Mdaghri, Sister Fatoumata Sillah and Sister Zainab Abdurahman Sheikh Ismail for their grateful contributions and kind support.

Last but not the least, I owe sincere and earnest thankfulness to my beloved Mother, Father, Grandparents, Brothers, Sisters, Uncles and Aunts for their support, motivation, dua and prayers; without which I would not have had this opportunity to write my dissertation. May Allah bless them. Finally, my sincere thanks and gratefulness go to all my friends who have helped me in one way or the other to successfully write this dissertation. Once again, thank you.

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Declaration and Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Dedications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1v Acknowledge1nents . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . v Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . v1 List of Tables................................................................................. v111 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1 1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 1 1.1 Research Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 2 1.2 Research Questions . .. . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 3 1.3 Research Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 4 1.4 Significance of the Study......................................................... 4 1.5 Outline of the Dissertation ........................................................ 6

CHAPTER 2: CONTEXT OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 8 2.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 8 2.1 Somalia - History and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 8 2.2 Stages of Education in Somalia - Colonial Era to Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.3 Background of the Universities . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 13

2.3.1 Mogadishu University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 14 2.3.2 SIMAD.............. .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . ........ 15 2.3.3 Benadir University ........................................................ 16

2.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................. 19 3.0 Introduction........................................................................ 19 3.1 Background ......................................................................... 19 3.2 Quality and Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 .2.1 Importance of Quality in Higher Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.2.2 Models of Quality in Higher Education ................................ 25 3.2.3 Factors Influencing Higher Education Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . ... 27

3.3 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................... 32 4.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 4.1 Research Design and Framework . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 32 4.2 Research Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2.1 The Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.2.2 The Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... 35

vi

4.2.3 Pilot Test . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .... . . . . ... 36 4.2.4 The Respondents ........................................................... 37

4.2.4.1 The Population .......................................................... 37 4.2.4.2 The Sample ............................................................... 38

4.2.5 Data Collection Method ................................................... 39 4.2.6 Data Analysis ............................................................... 39

4.2. 6.1 Reliability of the Instrument ......................................... 40 4.2. 6.2 Data Analysis Strategy ................................................ 41

4.3 Chapter Summary ................................................................... 42

CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH FINDINGS.............................................. 43 5.0 Introduction.......................................................................... 43 5.1 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . ... 43 5.2 Differences in Perception between Groups ..................................... 49

5.2.1 Gender and Overall Quality in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 49 5.2.2 Age grouping and Overall Quality in Higher Education ............. 51 5.2.3 Level of Study and Overall Quality in Higher Education ........... 53 5.2.4 University/Institute and Overall Quality in Higher Education...... 54 5.2.5 Faculty/Specialisation and Overall Quality in Higher Education.. 56

5.3 Assessing Factors Influencing Quality in Higher Education ................. 59 5.3.1 Correlation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 60 5.3.2 Regression Analysis ....................................................... 62

5.3.2.J Multicollinearity ........................................................ 62 5.3.2.2 Multiple Regression Analysis ........................................ 63

5 .4 Chapter Summary .................................................................... 66

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION............................... 68 6.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 68 6.1 Discussion . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . . 68

6.1.1 Students' Perception on Quality in Higher Education . . .. . . . . ....... 69 6.1.2 Differences in Perception across Demographic Variables .. .. .. ... .. 70 6.1.3 Factors Influencing Quality in Higher Education ...................... 73

6.2 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . .. 73 6.3 Limitations and Research Contributions .. . .. . .. . . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. ..... . .. .... .. 74 6.4 Suggestions for Future Researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .... 76 6.5 Conclusion............................................................................. 77

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . ... 79

APPENDIX A: The Map of Somalia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. APP 1 APPENDIX B: Survey Questionnaire .................................................... APP 2 APPENDIX C: List of Current Functioning Higher Education

Institutions in Mogadishu............................................... APP 6

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO & DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

Table 4.1: Reliability Statistics .......................................................... 41

Table 5. la: Profile of Respondents ...................................................... 44

Table 5. lb: Factors of Quality in Somali Higher Education ......................... 46

Table 5.2: Gender and Overall Quality ................................................. 50

Table 5.3a: Age Grouping and Overall Quality ........................................ 52

Table 5.3b: Level of Study and Overall Quality ....................................... 53

Table 5.3c: University/Institute and Overall Quality .................................. 54

Table 5.3d: Faculty/Specialisation and Overall Quality ............................... 57

Table 5.4: Correlations Results ......................................................... 61

Table 5.5: Multicollinearity Problems .................................................. 63

Table 5.6: Multiple Regression Analysis Results .................................... 64

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ABSTRACT

There is a growing concern regarding the quality in higher education within the context of global economy and the challenges to remain competitive in a global front. Education is an important element for national economic growth, particularly for a developing nation like Somalia. Thus, it is important that quality is assured in the education system. The aim of this dissertation is to study the attributes of quality in Somali higher education institutions from the students' perspective as consumers of higher education; as well as explore potential factors that may contribute further towards improvements of quality in Somali higher education. For the purpose of this study, three factors that are deemed relevant in providing quality in Somali higher education have been identified. They are known as Academic Curriculum, Academic Staff and Facilities. A total of 200 students from selected higher education institutions in the Mogadishu area, the capital city of Somalia serve as the present sample of the study. The data is collected through a self­administered questionnaire and the analysis of the data has been done using SPSS software program (Version 16). According to the findings, the quality of Somali higher education institutions is moderately good even though this issue received increased inquiry and public dispute. The perceptions of the students differ significantly across demographic variables particularly according to University/Institute and Faculty/Specialisation. Moreover, the correlation analysis proves a strong positive association between academic curriculum, academic staff, facilities and overall quality in higher education. On the other hand, the regression analysis shows further that academic curriculum, academic staff and facilities are strong predictors of quality in Somali rugher education.

IX

1.0 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The notion of quality particularly in higher education institutions is getting popular and

the role of service quality for higher education received an increasing attention in recent

years. There are growing concerns about the quality in higher education within the

context of the global economy and the challenges to remain competitive in a global front.

Johnstone (2001) mentions that higher education is deemed important to national

economic growth and for individuals to prosper. Thus, it is important that the quality is

assured in the education system.

In this regard, higher education institutions should ensure that all services are well

managed in order to enhance consumer's perceived quality. Students are considered as

the "primary customers" of a university as they are the direct recipients of the service

provided by the university. Student-perceived service quality turned out to be an

extremely important issue for the university and the management. Although there is

consensus on the importance of quality in higher education, the identification of the

attributes or factors of quality in higher education is a challenge to both researchers and

practitioners. This also includes the challenge to indentify and to implement the right

measurement particularly in gaining better understanding on quality issues from students'

perspectives (Brochado, 2009). This can be pertained to the great disputes regarding the

1

notion of quality in higher education among researchers in the culture and perception

context through various researches done in the past.

The concept and discussion of quality in higher education is too broad and cover

many different aspects. Due to limited resources and time, this study will only focus and

explore certain attributes regarding to the quality in higher education in Somalia from the

perspective of their students as the primary stakeholders.

Before going into the literature review, problem statement, research questions and

research objectives as well as the significant of the study will be discussed first in the

following sections.

1.1 RESEARCH PROBLEMS

The subject of quality in higher education is quite a popular area for a number of

researchers (i.e. quality in higher education) in recent years (e.g., Kwan, and Ng, 1999;

Srikanthan and Dalrymple, 2008; Sahney, Banwet and Karunes, 2004; Pounder, 1999;

Chen, Sok and Sok, 2007; Brochado, 2009). The quality management that has been

applied and adapted in higher education sectors is the reason behind this though it was

earlier known to have originated and developed in the manufacturing industries.

Even though there are numerous studies related to quality in higher education that

have been conducted in various parts of the world, however, such area of study is lacking

in some countries like Somalia (Kistan, 1999; Kwan and Ng, 1999; Brochado, 2009;

Chen et al., 2007). There are only limited studies that have been carried out especially

after the collapse of the Somali Central Government (Yasin and Tilson, 2009; Cassanelli

2

and Abdikadir, 2008). Thus, this study aims to fill the gap in the need for research related

to the attributes of quality in Somali higher education institutions.

This research is trying to explore three factors of quality which are Academic

Curriculum, Academic Staff and Facilities. These factors will be evaluated in order to

explore the level of quality in higher education in Somalia. To fulfill the aim of this

research, students of higher education institutions will be the respondents, and quality

will be viewed from their perspectives because students are deemed as the most

important primary stakeholders (Cheng and Tan, 1997; Quinn et al., 2009).

1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study aims to address the following research questions:

1. What is the perception of students on the quality of education they received based

on the three factors which are academic curriculum, academic staff and facilities?

2. Are there any differences in perceptions among the students on overall quality in

relation to gender, age, level of study, university or institute they are enrolled,

faculty of study and status of study?

3. Are there any relationships between the factors of academic curriculum, academic

staff and facilities and the students' perceptions in overall quality in education?

3

1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

One of the main purposes of this study is to examine the quality in higher education in

Somalia. The study attempts to measure students' perceptions on quality in the regard of

academic curriculum, academic staff and facilities of Somali higher education as well as

their overall perceptions of quality in higher education. In addition to that, this study also

aims to explore the differences in perceptions across the demographic variables. Finally,

the study attempts to identify the relationships among the continuous variables namely

academic curriculum, academic staff, facilities and overall quality in higher education.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The rapid dissemination of quality orientation especially in the developed countries and

around the globe in general has been one of the main issues in quality management today.

Quality is now being emphasized by majority of organisations whatever it might be. A

number of organisations even regarded quality as a basis of their greatest competitive

advantage and as the benchmark of their overall success. Given this notion, the study is

concerned with the attributes of quality in higher education and the study is also directed

to explore such attributes on quality. Within the context of Somalia, it is pertinent to

explore attributes of quality in the higher education institutions as well as the students'

perceptions.

The importance of this study can be viewed from two major aspects. The first

aspect is from the theoretical point of view in which the study is concerned on an area

addressed by many authors such as Chen et al., (2007); Pounder, (1999); and Hill, Lomas

4

and MacGregor, (2003). The concepts and practices of quality in higher education, as

evidenced by a number of researchers, have only come into existence recently

(Srikanthan and Dalrymple, 2008; Quinn, Lemay, Larsen, and Johnson, 2009). Though

this has been adopted earlier (prior- l 990s ), it was superficial in comparison to the

manufacturing sector. During the post-1990s period, the focus of quality in higher

education has considerably increased because of the dynamism, i.e. competition, pressure

and demand for quality by the stakeholders in the sector (Srikanthan and Dalrymple,

2008).

Therefore, this present study aims to extend the literature as there are only few

prior studies, such as the work of Yasin and Tilson (2009) and Cassanelli and Abdikadir,

(2008) carried out in Somalia on quality and education. Given the dearth of research

conducted on Somali higher education system, this study will fill the void and

consequently contribute to the body of knowledge.

From the practical point of view, the results obtained from this study will be

significant for the development of higher education institutions in Somalia. Education is

an important component of nation building and economic growth as well as for human

capital development and individuals to prosper. This study will help to provide insights

on how higher education institutions in Somalia will be able to appreciate the needs for

quality orientation. Students' perceptions on quality in higher education based on the

three factors mentioned above may assist higher education institutions to realise the room

for improvement, and consequently, develop strategies and approaches for quality

improvements.

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1.5 OUTLINE OF THE DISSERTATION

This study is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 starts with a brief introduction to the

core issues of the dissertation. It is then followed by the description of the basic research

problem along with the details of the research questions and objectives. The remaining

part of the chapter highlights the significance, and outline of the dissertation.

Chapter 2 discusses background infonnation about the context which this study

is conducted, the educational system of Somalia from the colonial era till present as well

as issues pertaining to quality of education in different periods. This chapter also provides

a brief background about the three higher education institutions which are the units of

analysis of this particular study.

Having clear insights about the basic idea of this study, Chapter 3 critically

reviews and discusses prior studies that have been conducted to provide an overview of

the developments that have taken place in this area of study. In this section, reviews from

either descriptive or empirical academic literatures conducted in different contexts and

cultures pertaining to quality in higher education institutions are carried out.

Chapter 4 presents the research framework or design together with the research

methodology adapted in this study. It will highlight the units of analysis, the population,

the sample selected, the sampling procedure, the construction of the research instrument

as well as issues pertaining to reliability and validity, and finally the methods adapted to

collect, manage, and analyze the data.

Chapter 5 focuses on the findings and analysis (results) of the survey and finally

Chapter 6 provides the discussion on the results of the study along with its implication

6

and the limitation. This is followed by the conclusion based on the results of the survey

and research carried out by the author.

7

CHAPTER TWO

CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The main aim of this chapter is to highlight the context under which this study is

conducted. To achieve this purpose, this chapter is designed into several sections. The

first section discusses the history and background of Somalia. The second section touches

the education of Somalia from the colonial era till present. The third section emphasizes

on the profile of the three universities selected as units of study for this particular

dissertation. Finally, the last section 4 recaps the whole chapter.

2.1 SOMALIA - HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Somalia is located in Northeast Africa, in the region known as the Horn of Africa.

Somalia covers a land mass of 637,657 square kilometers on the east coast of Africa

(Hare, 2007). Somalia borders Djibouti to the northwest, Ethiopia to the west and Kenya

to the southwest. According to a population estimation made in July 2009, there are about

9.8 million Somalis (CIA, 2010). Despite sharing common language, culture, religion

(Islam), the people of Somalia are deeply divided among various clans. The population in

Somalia, both nomads and semi-nomads depend on agriculture and livestock for their

livelihood and these are considered as the most important sectors accounting for about

40% of gross domestic product (GDP) and about 65% of export earnings (Hare, 2007).

N.B. The map of Somalia is attached in the appendix A.

8

During the colonial period, treaties reached by the international community

officially partitioned Somaliland among three competing European powers: Britain, Italy,

and France. The French captured the northwest region, currently known as Djibouti; the

British occupied the northern and southeastern regions while Italians took over the

regions in the south to the northeast. During its independence from these forces in 1960,

British and Italian Somaliland were united and the two became the independent Republic

of Somalia. French Somaliland decided to remain independent and form a separate nation

under the name of Djibouti (Stiftung, 2008; historyworld.net).

2.2 STAGES OF EDUCATION IN SOMALIA- COLONIAL ERA TO

PRESENT

The education system of Somalia has undergone several stages of ups and downs. During

the colonial regime, the different powers, namely Italy and Britain established different

education systems. In 194 7, in both British and Italian Somaliland, there were very few

elementary schools. There was also a police academy and a school of health for the

Somalis. The percentage of Somalis who got the chance to attend those few educational

institutions was insignificant. For instance, in Italian Somaliland, around 1,265 students

(less than one-tenth of 1 percent of the population) were enrolled; whereas the total

enrollment of students in British Somaliland accounted for 1,200 students only. The low

enrollment level was the result of insufficient space and the Somalis' perception that

colonial education was a tool for oppression to be resisted (Cassanelli and Abdikadir,

2008).

9

In the years prior to independence (1950-1960), Somalia was placed under a

United Nation (UN) trusteeship and the real effort was then made to provide public

education for all Somalis. The UN trusteeship agreement required both Britain and Italy

to expand primary and post-primary educational services in Somalia. This was to

cultivate the Somali nationals to whom the reign of power would be handed for the

independence. The Somalis, who had previously resisted colonial education, embraced

the mandate as a vehicle for modem development, a building block to national unity and

progress. Italy expanded its elementary schools to accept more Somalis students.

During the 1957-1958 school years, nearly 14,000 Somalis were enrolled m

primary schools, a jump from the 1,265 Somalis who were enrolled before the trusteeship

agreement. Italy also set up three secondary schools, a vocational training institute, and a

university institute in Mogadishu to train students in public administration, which has

eventually became the Somali National University in 1970. In the British Somaliland, the

school system was also expanded to provide better educational opportunities for the

Somali people. By 1960, there were 38 elementary schools, 12 intermediate schools,

three secondary schools, and two vocational schools, with a total enrollment of 3,429

students ( education.stateuniversity.com).

By the time of independence in 1960, Somalia consisted of 233 primary and

secondary schools from both British and Italian colonial systems (Cassanelli and

Abdikadir, 2008). With the adoption of Somali language as a medium of instruction in

1972 and an immense literacy movement in 197 4, primary enrolment went up from

28,000 to 219,511 in 1976. This reached a peak growth of 271,704 in 1982. However, in

10

1990 the enrolment rapidly declined to less than 150,000 due to the collapse of the central

government. This case also similar to secondary education that had once attained an

enrolment of about 65,000 declined to less than 40,000 by 1989-90 (Retamal and

Devadoss, 1994).

Higher education m Somalia began in 1954 when the Italian government

established the Institutes of Law, Economics, and Social Studies. The University of

Rome used to provide all the instructional materials, facilities, faculty, and administration

to these institutes. In 1964, the Institutes offered two years of study in Somalia, followed

by two years of study in Italy (Cassanelli and Abdikadir, 2008).

After a military revolution in 1969, all foreign entities were nationalized,

including the Institutes of Law, Economics and Social Studies, which was renamed

Jaamacada Ummadda Soomaliyeed (Somali National University) or SNU. Higher

education has then become available in Somalia through SNU and its six colleges. There

were also seven specialized post-secondary schools, all of which were government­

sponsored. Although various institutions offered instruction in Italian, English, and

Arabic, the main language of instruction at SNU was Italian language. Higher education

in Somalia became standardized and the quality was assured due to direct control of the

government under the Ministry of Education. During this time until 1980, Somali higher

education sector was regarded as one of the major contributors to the economy of

Somalia and a catalyst in the development of human capital. Somalia has become one of

the most impressive educational developments in Africa (Yasin and Tilson, 2009).

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Throughout the 1980s, deterioration in the education system has appeared

dramatically. This resulted in the decline of overall quality in Somali education. Public

allocation for education has declined from 2.2% of GDP in 1975 to 0.3% in 1989 (Yasin

and Tilson, 2009). Among the main reasons are the shift in the development orientation

and the emergence of political anarchy, injustice and inequity, unequal distribution of

wealth, tribalism, and inter-clan antagonism. Inter-clan hostility has always been a source

of conflict for the country and was the reason behind the civil war for almost twenty

years (1991-2010). This has entirely crippled the nation and its education system. As

Yasin and Tilson (2009) pointed out, the decline of educational quality and standards

began in the early 1980s and ended in the disintegration of the state and subsequent

breakout of civil war in 1991.

When the civil war broke out in 1991, Somalia had already experienced a number

of setbacks including the lack of education in general. This was the beginning of a period

of dark future for Somalis, especially the young generation who were in their course of

study. From 1996, civil society groups, international organisations, and local educators

have recognized the indispensability of higher education and the needs of it for the

society. Somalis began a series of higher education initiatives in response to the growing

number of secondary school leavers seeking to continue their education, as well as to fill

the education gap made by the absence of the central government. The earliest project

were the establishment of Amoud University in Borama zone (North-western part of

Somalia) in 1997 and Mogadishu University established in September 1997. These were

followed by the founding of Hargeisa University in Somaliland (North-western part of

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Somalia) established in 2000, East African University in Bosaaso (North-eastern part of

Somalia) established in October 1999 and Somali Institute of Management and

Administration Development (SIMAD) in Mogadishu founded in November 1999. In the

meantime, small-sized universities have been also established in Mogadishu with the

support from local businessmen and educators, as well as support from the EU, Arab

countries, and Western and Islamic NGOs. Among these universities are Islamic

University, Benadir University (2002), Hamar University, and Indian Ocean University.

With the collapse of the central government, Somali higher education has been

operating without a central agency to regulate or monitor the education system and the

quality of the institutions. Given the circumstances, it is clear that quality in higher

education in Somalia is not yet up to the mark in comparison to international higher

educational institutes. Therefore, it is imperative for this study to explore the baseline for

quality in Somali higher education and to see where it can improve.

The subsequent part of this chapter provides brief insights into the background of

the three respondent institutions namely Mogadishu University, SIMAD, and Benadir

University, where the data collection are carried out.

2.3 BACKGROUND OF THE UNIVERSITIES

This section is meant to provide a comprehensible depiction on three universities, namely

Mogadishu University, SIMAD and Benadir University. These universities are selected

as the units of analysis for this dissertation.

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2.3.1 Mogadishu University

Mogadishu University is a non-profit, non-sectarian and non-state institution of higher

education. It is one of the first universities established in Somalia and the first in

Mogadishu City. It has been established in September 1997 following the collapse of the

central government in 1991. In an interview conducted with Dr. Ahmed Rasheed Hanaffi,

one of the founders of Al-Islah Organisation who is also a senior lecturer at Mogadishu

University, it has been gathered that the idea to establish the University emerged from

Al-Islah Organisation. The organisation is the largest contributor of the University with

the help of some Arab organisations in terms of physical and financial support.

Mogadishu University is also one of the greatest achievements of the people of Somalia

during the civil war. Its vision is to be the premier non-state university in Somalia

dedicated to providing affordable and accessible high quality education. The University's

main objective is presented based on the needs of education especially higher education.

That is why the main purpose of the University is to fill the educational gap created by

the collapsed central government. Accordingly, the establishment of Mogadishu

University also contributed to the production of educated human resources by providing

students the opportunity for higher education and specialisation in various spheres of

science and literature. This is in response to the desperate needs of the country for

educated human resources.

After more than a decade of operation and genuine performance in the educational

sector, Mogadishu University has become one of the universities in Somalia being

recognized in several parts of the world. It is also in a membership association with

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Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World (FUIW), The Association of Arab

Private Institutions for Higher Education, Association of Arab Universities (AARU), as

well as Islamic Universities League.

Operated for almost fourteen years, the University first started with only three

faculties and it is now counting up to seven faculties (Faculty of Sharia and Law, Faculty

of Education, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Faculty of Economics and Management

Sciences, Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology, Faculty of Nursing,

Faculty of Political Science and Information & Journalism) consist of several different

departments or specialisations. It has also expended to some other region like Bosaso in

the North-eastern part of Somalia. This University has produced a great number of

undergraduate students equipped with variety of specialisations (mu.edu.so ).

2.3.2 Somali Institute of Management and Administration Development (SIMAO)

Somali Institute of Management and Administration Development (SIMAD) is among

the most popular large sized higher education institutions in Somalia particularly in

Mogadishu city. Established in November 1999, the University received financial support

from some Somali intellectuals and educators, as well as Arab organisations such as

African Muslims Agency (AMA) for its establishment.

SIMAD is also a non-profit and non-state institution of higher education founded

to resolve the education gap. It has stood for restoring and rescuing the country's

educational system and future generations. Despite this principle purpose, SIMAD was

also established in response to the ever increasing demand for higher education and the

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