Art Education Reform and New Technologies || Interfacing Hypermedia and the Internet with Critical Inquiry in the Arts: Preservice Training

National Art Education Association

Interfacing Hypermedia and the Internet with Critical Inquiry in the Arts: PreserviceTrainingAuthor(s): Karen T. Keifer-BoydSource: Art Education, Vol. 49, No. 6, Art Education Reform and New Technologies (Nov.,1996), pp. 33-41Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3193621 .

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Interfacing Hypermedia and the Internet with Critical Inquiry in the Arts:

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n preparing art education majors to teach in K-12 classrooms, I have integrated hypermedia and the Internet to address the transformation in art criticism from singular, linear, and formalist approaches to postmodern concerns of plurality, nonlinearity, and context. I have developed strategies that have enlivened my students' inquiry and reflection concerning: (a) how context affects meaning, (b) ways to interface disparate interpretations using hypermedia, and (c) how and

BY KAREN T. KEIFER-BOYD

Photo above: String connections prior to developing nonlinear designs in hypermedia. Students in photograph [left to right] include: Dan

Heberly, Elisa Williams, Thomas Castro, Reesa Gabler, Matt Stillwell, Tom Chavez, and Laura Linquist. Photograph by Karen Keifer-Boyd.



An interactive "card" from a hyperdocument created

by future K-12 art teachers.

why to re-present art in a virtual museum. Since the mid 1980s, art educators have developed and practiced strategies for teaching art criticism in the K-12 art classroom. Pedagogical approaches to art criticism have become common training in preservice art education programs across the nation. The Getty Center for Education in the Arts (GCEA), the major catalyst promoting Discipline- based Art Education (DBAE) which included art criticism as one of the four disciplines in its model, provided grants for DBAE training in preservice and inservice programs beginning in the mid 1980s (Delacruz & Dunn, 1995, p. 46). In 1988, the Art Department at Texas Tech University received Getty funding to develop a DBAE preservice program. In the same year the two largest school districts in Oregon received Getty grants for the implementation and development of DBAE theory into practice. I provided art criticism inservice workshops for the Getty-funded art education reform in the Eugene, Oregon, school district in the late 1980s, and I now teach the preservice art criticism course at Texas Tech.

EARLY APPROACHES TO ART CRITICISM IN DBAE PRACTICE

Early approaches to art criticism adopted in DBAE included Broudy's (1972) Aesthetic Scanning technique and Feldman's (1971) four-step model involving description, analysis, interpretation and judgement. Both models were in use before the implementation of DBAE. Both were popular among classroom teachers, especially those who taught art in

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grades K-6 and were not trained as art education specialists. In a 1988-89 report to the GCEA on the 28 elementary schools involved in developing the DBAE model in the Eugene School District, teachers described why they used the Broudy and Feldman models (Keifer-Boyd, 1989). Most important was that these models did not require the teacher to research the art works since both models were designed as phenomenological approaches in which all the answers to the questions could be found within the art work. This was a selling point to teachers who found it hard enough to prepare an art lesson in addition to presentations for other subjects. In Oregon, as elsewhere, there are few art education specialists in elementary schools. The school district had adopted the K- 6 art textbook series, DiscoverArt (Chapman, 1987). 'Teachers noted that the teacher's edition of DiscoverArt

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does not provide historical or contextual information, so unless the teachers research on their own they are only provided with titles, names, and dates" (Keifer-Boyd, 1989, p. 2).

Another reason that teachers were comfortable with the Aesthetic Scanning technique and Feldman's model was that they were organized in a step-by-step sequence. The sequence appeared logical to teachers trained in sequencing their lessons according to Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives. The classroom teachers familiar with Bloom's taxonomy found that there were connections between the order of developed thinking in the taxonomy and that required in Aesthetic Scanning and Feldman's model. Figure 1 shows the relationship between these three models.

In practice young students tended to begin with judgement or interpretation unless teacher-directed questions guided them through description and analysis (Keifer-Boyd, 1989, p. 7).

ART EDUCATION / NOVEMBER 1996

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A "Politics of Display" museum project by Clea Verven, who challenges the predominance of stark white cube

gallery spaces filled with only male-created artworks. (Computer-generated art by Clea Verven. Media:

PhotoShop software and images downloaded from the Internet.)

Inservice training helped teachers ground their students' interpretations in facts found in the work after a thorough description of the work. Descriptions primarily focused on elements of design (e.g., colors, lines, shapes, and textures), which students then analyzed in relation to one another, usually in terms of design principles (e.g., unity, balance, rhythm, and emphasis).

Although Mittler (1989) extended Feldman's model to include historical aspects, internal analysis of what is observed in the work is theoretically based in three art traditions (i.e., Imitationalism, Formalism, and Expressionism). Should the questioning strategy change if the work is not based in the aesthetic criteria that the inquiry directs? Contextual criticism, which engages in social issues expressed in the art, is more suited to postmodern art than Mittler's, Feldman's, or Broudy's models.

CHANGES IN THE ART DISCIPLINES

Clark, Day, and Greer (1987) posited that "in DBAE, content validated by scholars/artists is drawn from the four disciplines" (p. 159). Howard Risatti (1987) asserted that art criticism "seeks to inform and educate people (including artists) about art by providing insights into its meaning so as to increase the understanding and appreciation of art and to illuminate the cultural and societal values reflected in it" (p. 219). Risatti also described two types of critical discussion which involve internal and external analysis, stating that external analysis includes historical, psychological, political, and ideological contexts (1987, pp. 222- 223). Scholars/artists involved with art

NOVEMBER 1996 / ART EDUCATION

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ROLE - RE lVERSAL ^^^^^^ . *^r v?^ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I^B A "Politics of Display" museum

project by Dan Heberly, who chal-

lenges whether original art has

more value and integrity than

appropriated and manipulated

images. Computer-generated art by

Dan Heberly. Media: PhotoShop

software and images downloaded

from the Internet.

A "Politics of Display" museum

project by Charles Pierce, who

challenges the idolization of a few

artists, rather than the appreciation of the multitude of artists.

Computer-generated art by Charles Pierce. Media:

PhotoShop software and images downloaded from the Internet.

I ART EDUCATION / NOVEMBER 1996

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criticism have validated external analysis or sociology of art as prevalent and accepted approaches. Sociology of knowledge has become more common in academia in general, as feminism, ethnic studies, and post-colonial criticism have transformed cultural studies (Wolff, 1993, pp. 144-145). Influential art critics such as those presented in Re-visions in Art Criticism (Smagula, 1990), or texts such as Context and Criticism (Kissick, 1993), and Pluralistic Approaches to Art Criticism (Blandy & Congdon, 1991), represent changes in the discipline of art criticism itself.

In 1988, most public school teachers in Eugene, Oregon, found that they lacked time to research external factors surrounding artworks. Today, teachers are engulfed by postmodern educational thought. The banking concept of teaching in which teachers "deposit" knowledge for students to memorize is fading as teachers become "midwives" who bring forth students' ability to research and critically evaluate. Postmodern educational practice may encourage students to search the "information super highway" in order to construct understanding from a range of sources. Teachers who advocate multiculturalism question knowledge passed down as reality or truth. Educational theory and practice are shifting from a belief in a complicated but singular reality (i.e., modernism) to one which tries to comprehend how shifting, contradictory realities coexist, collide and interface (i.e., postmodernism).

Postmoder critical theory and practice originated in the 1960s from the need to find art criticism models that would reveal the intent of pop art, conceptual art, and ecofeminist art, and that could be used to understand art of cultures with perspectives differing from the aesthetic theories embedded in the expert-defined masterworks of

European tradition. The characteristics of ecofeminist art defy formal analysis. Ecofeminist art is participatory, involves making relationships rather than objects, emphasizes interrelationships as an ongoing process, tends to favor long term projects, and focuses on issues of local, ecological, and social transformation (Gablik, 1991; Orenstein, 1990). Since the mid 1970s, formalist interpretation has yielded to more expansive critical approaches based in feminism, semiotics, and deconstruction. As art disciplines change so must art education.

PLURALISTIC AESTHETICS AND NEWER TECHNOLOGIES

Art teachers are seeking ways to introduce students to artworks created in the past 45 years, to women artists systematically removed from art history texts in the 20th century (Parker and Pollock, 1981), and to art from cultures not considered in most art history texts (Congdon, 1987; Rodman, 1982; Vlach & Bronner, 1983). Teachers also need to incorporate new vocabulary and concepts to discuss art made from digital and film/video technologies. Color, line, and shape are no longer the building blocks for art created with newer technologies, nor with some of the directions in art discussed above, such as ecofeminism. In computer art there are conceptual differences in terminology for design elements (ohnson, 1996). A point is the invisible location where gridlines cross in computer art. Line in an oil painting is different from a digital vector line which may be moved, scaled, rotated, or copied as a unit. Depending on the computer program, lines may be connected bit-mapped pixels or vector segments. Pattern is usually referred to as area-fill or texture maps in computer art.

In addition, point, line, pattern, and their subproperties may mean something different when referring to art from various cultures. For example, the ritually designated point or mark in Kongo art signifies contact between worlds (Thompson, 1984, p. 110).' Suspended pattern, a predominate element of African visual art, dance, and music is not commonly taught as a "building block" of art in K-12 art classes. In visual art, suspended pattern refers to accents that are staggered rhythmically throughout the composition without touching one another (Thompson, 1984, p. xvii). It is the "suspension of expected patterning" (Thompson, 1984, p. 221). If you were to ask fifth graders to analyze the relationship of colors in an African- American quilt, and if they found that no two colors were next to each other, they might be able to interpret the meaning of vitality and energy; but only additional contextual information can direct them to consider that this suspended patterning is a crucial concept of life replicated in Mande-related art and architecture.2 On the other hand, under a formalist critique, the variation might appear to clash and have no apparent emphasis. There may be a common set of elements and principles for nonobjective art in the 1950s, another set for Afro-Mexican architects influenced by the Mande traditions, and another for computer artists.

Using only one art criticism model to perceive and discuss all art and using

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universal art terms, fixed in meaning for all cultural groups, is no longer possible when educators teach a broader range of aesthetics and include art created with newer technologies. We need to provide experiences and tools for students to critique the images that surround them. As Feldman (1996) writes, "the main type of art consumed in a home consists of images delivered by television, magazine graphics, and direct-mail advertising" (p. 6). Preservice teachers are learning ways to engage students in multiple models that reveal the richness of art experience and stimulate critical dialogue. The following section describes art criticism experiences that address how context changes meaning, how to apply more than one art criticism model, ways to interface disparate interpretations, and how to re-present art in a virtual museum. The teaching examples are based on the belief that students learn best when engaged in activity.

CONTEXT AND INTERPRETATION

Students-in my courses for general elementary education majors, in courses for students seeking art teacher certification, and in graduate courses for practicing art teachers pursuing a master's degree-use different critical models or strategies applied to one work of art. I developed and successfully implemented the multivocal model from 1990 through 1994 while teaching classes of 70 to 100 students in a visual literacy humanities course that served undergraduates from diverse fields. In this multivocal approach, one group views a slide of the work and applies a formalist method of interpreting and evaluating a

Using only one art criticism model to

perceive and discuss all art and using universal art terms, fixed in meaning for all cultural groups, is no longer possible when educators teach a

broader range of aesthetics and include

art created with newer technologies.

work of art by describing the elements, analyzing the formal properties, interpreting expressive properties, and judging the work according to selected criteria grounded in the analysis and interpretation. Another group interprets the work from a sociocultural and feminist orientation. This group watches a video that places the work within the life experiences of the artist and with reference to the artist's other work. They consider the beliefs and attitudes about art and life that the painting evokes, and they explore the relationship of gender to artistic production and valuing. A third group views the original painting and uses experimental reconstruction, an ethnographic strategy, that involves reenacting the thought and working processes that the artist used when creating the painting. From this experience they are asked to reflect on possible meanings or metaphors for the artist's creative and technical processes. Another group uses a black- and-white reproduction as a guide to build a three-dimensional model emphasizing structure, forms, and patterns. Another group uses a color reproduction to act out the work from multisensory associations. They capture their enactment on video.

Each group creates a poster that conveys the context in which they saw the work, the process that they used to interpret the painting, and their interpretations of the work. Students

present the posters and reflect on how process and context impact interpretation. One student wrote that:

the feminist model used by my group provided a deeper reading of the art than any of the other models. The multiple viewing [of the video] created for me a sense of familiarity and intimacy. Some of the interactive contexts (reading the gallery label) seemed to keep the viewer and the artist away from each other.

Another stated that "the ones that did the watercolors [the experimental reconstruction group] understood more about the actual process of layering." Another noted that "a slide cannot be touched or examined as closely as a print. The artwork in the gallery would give the viewer a sense of the actual brushstrokes and colors, but they would not be able to touch and examine it too closely."

Students learned that each art criticism model accentuated certain types of interpretations while it veiled aspects generated by other models. The disparate yet valid interpretations of one work of art stimulated the utilization of hypermedia as an extension of the poster activity so that the various interpretations could be interfaced in a nonlinear, nonhierarchical way.




Bloom s taxonomy or educational objectives aim to move the student from level one, identifying specific facts, to evaluating in level 6.

Broudy's aesthetic scanning technique guides the viewer in describing the sensory elements and technical properties, analyzing the formal organization, and interpreting the expressive intent in a work of art.

Feldman's model moves the learer or viewer from describing what is known and visible in the art to judging it based on the evidence from the first 3 steps.

1. Knowledge 1. Identify sensory (art 1. Describe elements) and technical (medium & art process)

2. Comprehension 3. Application

4. Analysis 2. Analyze the formal principles 2. Analyze

5. Synthesis 3. Synthesize-intent 3. Interpret

6. Evaluation 4. Judge

Left, top: Figure 1. The relationship between Bloom's

Taxonomy, Broudy's Aesthetic Scanning technique, and

Feldman's Model. The levels of thinking are considered

by many educators as logical stages for the develop-

ment of intellectual abilities and skills.

Left, bottom: Figure 2. Five different hypermedia path-

ways for organizing and connecting information.

INTERFACING DISPARATE INTERPRETATIONS OF ART

Art criticism can become a collaborative project while it fosters individual critiques. At the beginning of the semester in a course for future K-12 art education specialists, I distribute a questionnaire which asks students to: (a) list questions that they think would enhance understanding of a work of art; (b) list criteria that would be useful to evaluate the worth, value, or quality of an art work; and (c) suggest an artist or artwork that they would like to learn more about. The questionnaire helps limit the selection of artworks and build on student interest. After experiencing the different art criticism methods described in the previous section, individual students reevaluate and revise their initial questions. On a "card" from a software program that allows links between cards, each student types in a question and then researches a response to it. The inquiry may involve manipulating the image itself. It may require reading. Students present the information on their cards to the class. If a student feels that his or her card connects in any way, even through opposition, to another's, they tie themselves to that student with a string. Connections may result from a specific theme that two or more have identified, or from a disagreement on what an element in the work represents, or for other reasons. "Connectivity refers to the idea that all


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These works have been given remoueable labels to allow you, the uiewer, to place each label beneath the work to which you belieue it belongs.

A "Politics of Display" museum

project by Kenna Kiser, who

reveals hidden assumptions about the valuing of abstract art

and devaluing of children's art.

"I have juxtaposed two works of

art, one by a child and one by a

professional artist. By asking viewers to attach the correct

label to each work, I challenge their ability to discern the differ-

ence." Computer-generated art

by Kenna Kiser. Media:

HyperStudio and PhotoShop software and images down-

loaded from the Internet.

things can potentially be joined together to increase their meaning and usefulness... Each connection broadens our understanding of ourselves in relation to the world" (Siler, 1995, p. 27). The process continues until each student has presented a card. The students may be holding several strings which connect to many different students. The classroom looks like a complex spider web.

Students place "buttons" on their card to connect it to other cards. Figure 2 illustrates ways that the cards might connect. When I first attempted to have students use hypermedia technology, their designs were either hierarchical

or associative. The connections became nonlinear when I used the string process. In the early attempts, I had them conceptualize the connections by drawing a map. Students did not like to change their drawings when new insights developed, and they had difficulty imagining nonlinear connections until after the concrete experiences with the strings. Nonlinear construction develops critical thinking skills. Specifically, it enhances one's ability to examine the richness of disparate data, to discover relationships, to synthesize ideas to form new understandings, to imagine new possibilities by transforming existing images, and, especially, to recognize the plausibility of more than one correct answer or response.

When all the students have contributed their cards to the hyperdocument it becomes an interactive program for individuals to explore, for the class to discuss, or for interinstitutional dialogue among students connected via the Internet. High school students visited our university computer lab to interact with the hypermedia programs that the preservice art teachers had designed using the software, HyperStudio. The future art teachers learned to lead critical inquiry of art utilizing hypermedia. This art criticism course exposed students to hypermedia and some to computers in general, and they were surprised that the high school students were already familiar with hypermedia.




RE-PRESENTATIONS IN VIRTUAL MUSEUMS

A postmoder change in art criticism involves taking into account contextual factors involved in interpreting and judging art. Fred Wilson's work in "mining the museum" shows how using the traditional strategies of museum display (i.e., lighting, placement, labels, and juxtapositions) can reveal taken-for- granted assumptions (Corrin, 1993). Based on the works of Wilson (Corrin, 1994), who draws attention to the politics of display, and of Chadwick (1988) and others (Parker and Pollock, 1981) who have written on the politics of representation, preservice teachers in my art criticism course created virtual museums. Students traveled the Internet to museum sites to view art within the museum context. Each student re-created a wall or wing in a virtual museum to challenge existing assumptions.

CONCLUSIONS Changes in the issues and strategies

of art criticism, along with the increased use of computers in both education and society, have challenged preservice training to encompass postmodern concerns of multiple realities. Hypermedia enables a nonhierarchical, interactive presentation of student-generated critical and reflective aesthetic- expressive discourse. Via the Internet we can expand the dialogue to classrooms throughout the world and further broaden our own perspectives.

Karen Keifer-Boyd is an Assistant Professor in Art Education in the Art Department at Texas Tech University in Lubbock. Her e-mail address is: abkkb@ttacs. ttu. edu.

AUTHOR NOTES Kongo refers to the people and their

descendents brought from the west coast of Central Africa to the Americas (Thompson, 1984, pp. 103-108).

2Mande refers to the people and their descendents from Mali and neighboring territories who have influenced certain art traditions in areas including southwestern Mexico and southeastern United States (Thompson, 1984, p. xvi).

REFERENCES Blandy, D., & Congdon, K. G. (Eds.). (1991).

Pluralistic approaches to art criticism. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press.

Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives-The classification of education goals, Handbook I, Cognitive domain. New York: McKay.

Broudy, H. S. (1972). Enlightened cherishing: An essay on aesthetic education. Urbana- Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Chadwick, W. (1988). Women artists and the politics of representation. In A Raven, C. Langer & J. Frueh (Eds.), Feminist art criticism: An anthology (pp. 167-185). New York: HarperCollins.

Chapman, L. (1987). Discover art (2nd ed.). Worcester, MA: Davis.

Clark, G. A, Day, M. D., & Greer, W. D. (1987). Discipline-based art education: Becoming students of art. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21 (2), 129-193.

Congdon, K. G. (1987). Occupational art and occupational influences on aesthetic preferences: A democratic perspective. In D. Blandy & K. G. Congdon (Eds.), Art in a democracy (pp. 110-113). New York: Teachers' College Press.

Corrin, L. (1993). Mining the museum 1. In Getty Center for Education in the Arts, Discipline-based Art Education and cultural diversity: Seminar proceedings, August 6-9, 1992, Austin Texas (pp. 72-75). Santa Monica, CA: The J. Paul GettyTrust.

Corrin, L. G. (Ed.). (1994). Mining the museum: An installation by Fred Wilson. New York: The New Press.

Delacruz, E. M., & Dunn, P. C. (1995). DBAE: The next generation. Art Education, 48(6), 46-53.

Feldman, E. B. (1971). The critical performance. In Varieties of visual experience (pp. 466-485). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Feldman, E. B. (1996). Philosophy of art education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Gablik, S. (1991). The reenchantment ofart. London: Thames and Hudson.

Johnson, M. (1996). A comparative study of terms used in art education and computer graphics to describe the visual properties of images. Studies in Art Education, 37(3), 184-192.

Keifer-Boyd, K. (1989). Report of interviews and observations of selected teachers representing 28 elementary schools in the 4J School District. In M. Harris & C. Cochran (Eds.), Implementing a discipline- based art curriculum in Eugene, Oregon: A second year report of implementation activities to the Getty Centerfor Education in the Arts (pp. 1-24). Eugene, OR: District 4J. (Available from Martha Harris, District Curriculum Coordinator, 200 N. Monroe, Eugene, OR 97403).

Kissick, J. (1993). Art: Context and criticism. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

Mittler, G. A. (1989). Art in focus (2nd ed.). Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe.

Orenstein, G. F. (1990). Reweaving the world. The emergence ofecofeminism. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

Parker, R. & Pollock, G. (1981). Old mistresses: Women, art, and ideology. New York: Pantheon Books.

Risatti, H. (1987). Art criticism in discipline- based art education. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 21 (2), 217-226.

Rodman, S. (1982). Artists in tune with their world: Masters ofpopular art in the Americas and their relation to folk traditions. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Siler, T. (1995). ArtScience: Integrating the arts and the sciences to connect our world and improve communications. In R. Doornek (Ed.), Keynote Address: NAEA, Houston, TXApril 7-11, 1995 (p. 27). Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.

Smagula, H. (Ed.) (1990). Re-visions: New perspectives of art criticism. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Thompson, R. F. (1984). Flash of the spirit: African and Afro-American art and philosophy. New York: Vintage Books.

Vlach, J. M., & Bronner, S. J. (Eds.). (1983). Folk art and art worlds. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press.

Wolff, J. (1993). The social production of art (2nd ed.). New York: New York University Press.




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Art Education Reform and New Technologies || Interfacing Hypermedia and the Internet with Critical Inquiry in the Arts: Preservice Training