Art and Geography: Patterns in the Himalaya

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Art and Geography: Patterns in the Himalaya Author(s): Pradyumna P. Karan and Cotton Mather Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 66, No. 4 (Dec., 1976), pp. 487-

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* ANNALS of the Association of American Geographers Volume 66 December, 1976 Number 4

ART AND GEOGRAPHY: PATTERNS IN THE HIMALAYA*

PRADYUMNA P. KARAN AND COTTON MATHER

ABSTRACT. The Himalaya embrace some ancient cultures which have remained geographically and culturally distinct. These cultures are expressed in their vernacular art which, in- contrast to international art, represents both place and culture in the anthropological sense. Vernacular art mirrors historical and geographical forces and it provides insight into social aspirations, and thereby is important in understanding social behavior. Most aspects of the art forms of painting, dance, music, embroidery, architecture, and sculpture are regionally distinct.

THE Himalayan realm is one of the world's richest areas in vernacular art. Distinct

cultural groups settled long ago in the mountains where access to the outside world has not been easy. Although the cultures within the Himalaya have ancient roots and have existed for ages in juxtaposition, they remain distinct from each other even today. This realm ranks as one of the prime places to observe the bearing of cultural groupings and environmental conditions upon vernacular art.

Dr. Karan is Professor of Geography at the Univer- sity of Kentucky in Lexington, KY 40506. Dr. Mather is Professor of Geography at the University of Minne- sota in Minneapolis, MN 55455, and Adjunct Profes- sor at the University of Kentucky.

*We wish to thank local officials and artists in various regions of the Himalaya from Kashrnir to Assam for their help and assistance. In particular we ac- knowledge the help and advice of the late King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuk of Bhutan, and Sir Tashi Namgyal and Palden Thondup Namgyal, former rulers of Sikkim. Sir Tashi, himself a renowned Hima- layan artist, was of considerable assistance in explain- ing and in interpreting the painting, sculpture, music, dance, architecture, and handicrafts of the Himalayan realm. Thanks are due to lamas of Buddhist monasteries, village priests in Hindu and tribal areas of the Himalaya, Islamic artisans in Kashmir, peasants, nomads, merchants, artists, musicians, dancers, and

Art is an esthetic expression of human experience. It represents a distillation of both ex- periential and aspirational aspects of man- kind and a fusion of the environmental and metaphysical realms. Placed in the time-space frame, art may be viewed as either international or vernacular.

International or cosmopolitan modern art is the possession of the global elite. Its style, tran- scending regional and national bounds, is di- vorced from the territorial milieu in which the artists live and work. Within a few years an artistic innovation may sweep to the far reaches of the world. The innovation may represent the discovery of new materials for artistic expression or it may involve old materials whose use for esthetic expression has been made feasible by technological change. This may vary from acrylic paints to laminated woods or specialty

craftsmen whom the authors had the privilege of know- ing in their homeland, and who in the course of their talks and interviews have contributed to the development of ideas set forth in this paper. All the accom- panying photographs were made by the authors during their travels in the Himalaya; we are indebted to Gun- vant Rai, B. K. Narain, V. P. Misra, and S. Lal for permission to photograph art objects for reproduction. Our thanks are due to Sir D. P. Varma, a scholar of Himalayan art and literature, for reviewing this manuscript and offering suggestions for improvement.

ANNALS OF THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS Vol. 66, No. 4, December 1976 ) 1976 by the Association of American Geographers. Printed in U.S.A.

487



488 PRADYUMNA P. KARAN AND COTTON MATHER December

steels. Incorporated with the physical contribu- tion of technological advance is the highly intellectualized imagery that is used to portray ontological perception of experiences and aspirations.

The geographical unmindfulness of international art is one of its most striking features. The influence of a Henry Moore, for example, can sweep across continents, and influence artistic styles in Scandinavia, Japan, or the United States. Cezanne and Gaugin, for in- stance, sent waves of reaction throughout the international art world, and the art mode of Cubism brought forth a veritable artistic revo- lution that found expression in painting, sculpture, architecture, and the industrial arts. In a very real sense international art is an abstrac- tion. It does not spring directly from regional tradition and setting, it is not an expression of culture in the anthropological sense, and it transcends geographical bonds with abandon. This is not to deny that international art may express itself in functional ways, that it may, for example, get inspiration from primitive African art. It may have geographical and sociological linkages which help to explain its areal dispersion from point of origin, but es- sentially it is neither culturally confined nor geographically limited. It springs from an individual genius' intellectualized sense of esthet- ics rather than from an inherited cultural tradition.'

Vernacular or folk art focuses not upon the individual's expression, but upon a group development. It is the product of culture in the anthropological sense and derives inspiration from indigenous tradition and setting. It evolves slowly and it has a geographical base.2 It mir-

1 For a discussion of the dichotomy between the contemporary modern or international art and vernacular folk art from the perspective of the Indian artists, see A. K. Dutta, "Contemporary Indian Art: Search for a New Identity?" Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. II (December 1, 1973), pp. 18-19. During a visit to India in 1973 Andre Malraux, the famous French humanist, disappointed with the sweep of abstract international art in India advised young artists to go back to the vernacular or folk art which derived inspiration from the rich indigenous thought, culture, symbols and signs of India. See A. S. Raman, "Contem- porary Indian Artists," Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. II (August 1, 1974), pp. 13-17.

2 Landscape painting also has a geographical base. See Ronald Rees, "Geography and Landscape Paint- ing: An Introduction to a Neglected Field," Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. 89 (1973), pp. 147-57;

rors strong cultural historical forces and geographical settings. With the sudden and world- wide onslaught of modern technology, there were some indications that vernacular art (which was often and sometimes carelessly re- ferred to as primitive art) might be effaced. Now it appears that numerous modern societies are yearning for more linkages with their contemporary environment and also their past, and are studiously attempting to preserve and indeed to revive nearly lost ties. This is evident in academic curricula, in the establishment of folk-art museums, in governmental programs to foster vernacular art, and in the commercial interest broadly manifested in the vernacular art of both this continent and abroad. Interior designers feature, for example, Indian art, Es- kimo prints, Andean weavings, African wood carvings, Eskimo soapstone sculpture, and Ori- ental jade figurines.

Vernacular art bears directly upon geography since it represents both culture and place. It is of particular significance to students of historical and contemporary cultural geography because it reveals physical and nonphysical environmental factors which have melded through time in the crucible of human experience. More- over, it provides insight into a society's aspirations and thereby helps to explain social behavior. The Himalayan realm is one of the few places on earth with mainstreams of culture that have been next to each other over vast stretches of time and where the forces of fusion have failed to obliterate the individual culture.

THE HIMALAYAN SETTING AND MAJOR CULTURAL GROUPS

The Himalaya mountains extend along the northern fringes of the Indian subcontinent in a series of towering ranges between the great bend of the Indus River near Gilgit in Kashmir and the sharp turn of the Brahmaputra River in Arunachal Pradesh of eastern India (Fig. 1). Originating in the vicinity of Mount Kailas and the sacred Lake Manasarowar, the great Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers hold the entire Hi- malayan region in their arms.3 The Himalaya

"John Constable and the Art of Geography," Geo- graphical Review, Vol. 66 (1976), pp. 59-72.

3 For a discussion of the physical geology and phys- iography of the Himalaya, see D. N. Wadia, "The Himalaya Mountains: Their Age, Origin and Sub- crustal Relations," Himalayan Journal, Vol. 26 (1965), pp. 20-37; A. Gansser, Geology of the Hima-



1976 HIMALAYAN ART 489

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FIG. 1. Himalaya. Location Map.

consists mainly of: 1) the Great Himalaya, a single range with at least fifty peaks over 23,000 feet (7,000 meters), including Mount Everest at 29,002 feet (8,848 meters), Kanchenjunga at 28,146 feet (8,578 meters), Nanga Parbat at 26,620 feet (8,126 meters), and Dhaulagiri at 26,795 feet (8,172 meters); 2) the subordi- nate ranges on the Tibetan side, including the important Zanskar, Ladakh and Kailas Ranges, with elevations up to that of Mt. Kamet at 25,447 feet (7,756 meters) and Mt. Kailas at 22,028 feet (6,714 meters)-where both the Indus and Brahmaputra rise; 3) the Karakoram chain at the western end of the Himalaya with its lofty peak known as K2 or Mount Godwin Austin at 28,287 feet (8,611 meters); 4) the Middle Himalaya, which borders the Great Himalaya on the south with a remarkable uni- formity of heights between 6,000 (1,829 meters) and 10,000 feet (3,048 meters); and 5) the Outer Himalaya, with an average elevation of 5,000 feet (1,024 meters), which is the low- est zone and is contiguous to the plains of India.4 Southward is the piedmont plain, an

layas (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1964), pp. 235-6 1.

4 P. P. Karan, "Geographic Regions of the Hima- laya," Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. 3 (July 1966), pp. 5-25. For geography of the Himalayan realm, see S. C. Bose, Geography of the Himalaya (New Delhi: Na- tional Book Trust, 1972); P. P. Karan and W. M. Jenkins, The Himalayan Kingdoms: Bhutan, Sikkim

extension of the plains of northern India, lo- cally known as the Terai in the west and Duars in the eastern Himalaya.5

Four distinct cultural groups penetrated the relatively isolated geographic environment of the Himalaya.6 People of the Hindu (Indian), Lamaist Buddhism (Tibetan), Islamic (Af- ghan-Iranian), and animistic (Burman or Southeast Asian) cultures arrived in waves from the south, north, west, and east, making the Himalaya their home and imprinting their arts and cultures on the Himalayan environment (Fig. 2).7 The cultures were preserved and

and Nepal (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1963); P. P. Karan, Nepal: A Cultural and Physical Geography (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1960); idem, Bhutan: A Physical and Cultural Geography (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1967); Jacques Dupius, L'Himalaya (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1972).

5 For the human occupance of the Terai, see L. R. Singh, The Terai Region of U. P.: A Study in Human Geography (Allahabad: Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, 1965).

6 Gerald D. Berreman, "Peoples and Cultures of the Himalayas," Asian Survey, Vol. 3 (1963), pp. 289- 304.

7 Marie-Therese de Mallmann, "Arts du Tibet et des regions Himalayennes," Arts Asiatiques, Vol. 21 (1970) pp. 71-89; Madanjeet Singh, "Mystique of Himalayan Art," Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 12 (1975), pp. 13-17; idem, "Unknown Treasures of Himalayan Art," Unesco Courier, Vol. 22 (February, 1969), pp. 14-25; idem, Himalayan Art (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society Ltd., 1968).




HIMALAYA \ TIBETAN CULTUE_

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FIG. 2. Himalaya. Map of cultural regions, regional patterns of painting, and regional patterns of dance.




nurtured in these Himalayan valleys while they were being modified markedly by outside influences at their places of origin in the Indian, Afghan-Iranian, and Southeast Asian areas and were being effaced in Tibet by the obtrusion of a new ideology.8

The principal features of the Hindu culture such as the Indo-Aryan languages, art forms, and settled agriculture, entered the Himalaya from the Indian plains to the southY9 Distinc- tive features of the Lamaist culture such as the Tibetan language, art, sculpture, and a combination of pastoralism and settled agriculture encroached upon the Himalaya from the Ti- betan plateau to the north.'0 Buddhist monasteries, located in secluded places but within easy reach of the main trans-Himalayan trade routes, developed as centers of religious life where artistic and intellectual expression and culture flourished. Major Buddhist monasteries with great works of art are located in the high valleys of such rivers as the Sutlej, Ganges, Jamuna, Kali, Bagmati, Kosi, Manas, Raidak, and Brahmaputra, which flow through the mountains from north to south in gorges often 9,000 to 15,000 feet (2,743 to 4,572 meters) deep. Pilgrims and traders still wend their way along the steep valley trails to reach monasteries such as the Thyangboche in the inner re- cesses of the mountains (Fig. 3). The monasteries emerged as institutional nodes with works of art based on native culture.

From Iran and Afghanistan came major features of Islamic culture, including the non-Indic Aryan languages, art forms associated with the Moslems, and irrigated, settled agricultural forms and pastoralism." -The animist cultural features associated with the Burman or South- east Asian area such as the Tibeto-Burman languages, art forms associated with the indigenous religious systems (distinct from the great religions of Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism),

8 For details, see S. C. Bose, Land and People of the Himalayas (Calcutta: Indian Publications, 1968). For the relationship between ideology and landscape in Tibet, see P. P. Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Ken- tucky, 1976).

9 H. Bhattacharya, Cultural Heritage of India (Hollywood, California: Vedanta Press, 1961).

10 P. Carrasco, Land and Polity in Tibet (Seattle: University of Washington, 1959), pp. 4-5.

11 W. C. Smith, Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis (New York: Russell and Russell, 1972).

and shifting agriculture entered the Himalaya from the east.'2

The Himalaya thus presents a complex cultural pattern with four major cultures encroach- ing upon the area-from different directions. In general, people of the Hindu culture are dominant in the sub-Himalaya and the middle Hima- layan valleys from Jammu to Nepal. To the north, people of Lamaist Buddhist culture inhabit the High Himalaya from Ladakh to north- eastern India. In central Nepal, in an area from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,829 to 2,439 meters) and occasionally up to 10,000 feet (3,048 meters), the Indian and Tibetan cultures have in- termingled, producing a combination of Hindu and Tibetan traits. This intermediate zone between the Hindu and Tibetan cultures in Nepal forms a distinct cultural region.'3 Elsewhere in the Himalaya the Hindu and Lamaist Bud- dhist cultures meet each other directly without any transitional zone. Eastern Bhutan and As- sam Himalaya are inhabited by people whose culture is similar to those living in northern Burma and Yunan. People of western Kashmir have a culture similar to the inhabitants of Iran and Afghanistan.

The art forms, infused during periods of polit- ical expansion or cultural and religious inter- change, have become permanently established as regional groups. Each regional group originated from stylistic models deeply rooted in the religious canons of Islam, Hinduism, and Bud- dhism. Inspiration for patterns and designs came also from natural elements such as the ripples on the surface of a mountain stream, clouds, rainstorms, wings of the butterflies, the markings on a snake, the interlacing of leaves and branches against the sky, and the colors of the rainbow. These styles have been reproduced by generations of Himalayan artists. Various elements which infiltrated regional art in the Himalaya rarely produced a combination of forms. Rather, each style flourished and a regionalism of art has been maintained. The distinctive regional patterns of Himalayan art were

12 C. Von Furer-Haimendorf, Himalayan Barbary (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1956).

13 The ethnography of the Magar people of this region is described in John T. Hitchcock, The Magars of Banyan Hill (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966). The distinctive folk art of the Newar inhabitants of this area is described by Susan Peterson, "Folk Art of Nepal," Craft Horizons, Vol. 27 (March- April, 1967), pp. 36-39.




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FIG. 3. Monasteries such as this one at Thyangboche, located at 12,715 feet (3,873 meters) near Khumjung in Nepal, are the focal points of art and cultural life in Buddhist Himalaya. The walls and ceilings are decorated with religious paintings. People who must make great efforts to extract a living from an inhospitable environment often spend much time and money on artistic representation. Many of the frescoes at Thyangboche are of considerable esthetic merit.

recognized as early as the seventeenth century by Taranatha, a Tibetan historian, who identi- fied four artistic schools in the Himalaya-the Eastern School (in Eastern Himalaya), the Madhyadesh School (in Central Himalaya), the Western School (in Kumaon and Punjab Hi- malaya), and the Kashmir.14

REGIONAL PATTERNS OF PAINTING IN THE HIMALAYA

Regional artistic characteristics of painting have been influenced by the Buddhist and Hindu pantheon of deities, the Islamic traditions of Iran, and the awesome physical setting of the remote valleys and high peaks. In the relative

14 Taranatha, Taranatha's Geschichte des Bud- dhismus in Indien. Aus dem tibetischen uebersetzit von Anton Schiefner (St. Petersburg, Russia: Eggers, 1869). The original Tibetan manuscript was held at St. Petersburg; a facsimile copy of the Tibetan text in the library of the Namgyal Institute of Tibetology was consulted in this research.

isolation of cloistered valleys, the distinctive regional styles of painting have been preserved, each style characterized by a magnificence and beauty of its own. The paintings objectify the artistic cognition of a people of their physical environment and their cultural values.

Islamic Painting of Western Kashmir

Islam, which forbids representation of ani- mate nature in art, has generally condemned image painting as sacrilege. The orthodox Mos- lem in the Himalaya usually displayed artistic consciousness in calligraphy by transcribing the texts of the Holy Book. Calligraphy became a religious duty and assumed a higher place than image painting. This theological prohibi- tion was obeyed by the orthodox Sunni Moslems of the Arab nations, but it was generally ignored by the Sia Moslems of Persia (Iran).

The Persian artistic tradition was introduced into the western Himalaya by the Mogul rulers of India. Gifted with keen artistic tempera-




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FIG. 4. A representative example of Mogul painting, a royal portrait. The calligraphy on the margins represents the materialization of the Holy text of Islam.

ment, the new rulers defied the religious ban. Rising above the restriction, they gave protection to the art of painting as a court accomplish- ment. The sympathetic attitude of the Mogul emperors such as Akbar encouraged local artists to do image painting under the Persian masters in the Vale of Kashmir with enlightened patronage.15 Some of the local Hindu artists who acquired characteristics of the Persian school carried them into stylistic features of the Hindu art. The Persian concept is apparent every- where in Kashmir although some Hindu features mingle with the Persian style. The indigenous Hindu tradition asserts itself in a new realism, in greater vigor, in a more natural representation of distance and atmosphere, and in the increasing employment of Hindu characters, costume, architecture, and foliage.

15 The Arts of India and Nepal: The Nasli and A lice Heeramaneck Collection (published by October House Inc. for Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., 1966), pp. 100-03.

. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

FIG. 5. A royal hunt. The Mogul artists depicted adventures of the nobles and other aristocrats.

The impact of Moguls on the art of Kash- mir is not confined just to the illustration of manuscripts of Persian classics, chronicles, and tales. Portraiture, scenes of hunting, animals, and birds were favorite subjects (Figs. 4 and 5). Artists in the Mogul court had no association with the common man so they seldom represented any facet of ordinary life (Fig. 6). Mogul painting of Kashmir is very aristocratic in outlook and it is entirely disdainful of demo- cratic folk appeal. The Moguls loved blossoms and plants in bloom, and artists have contin- ued to portray beautiful and novel things in the regional tradition of the Vale of Kashmir (Fig. 7).

Lamaist Painting The unique imagery of Lamaist Buddhism

characterizes painting in the Tibetan culture area of the Himalaya.h Two types of Lamaist

16 Blanche Christine Olschak in collaboration with Geshe Thupten Wangyal, Mystic Arts of Ancient Tibet




t + +@tofal+ nA-+ ;s?* * B 0 9 -;-- *

FIG. 6. A Mogul court scene. Ruler, smoking water pipe, attended by a prince and a nobleman. Court scenes such as these are prominent in Mogul art.

imagery which express Tibetan culture are the imagery of apotheosized lamas and saints, and the imagery of terrifying deities.17

Each Himalayan Buddhist monastery has its pantheon of lamas; some lamas are deified and others are glorified simply as saints. Most of them are idealized as divine figures rather than reasonable likenesses of the persons portrayed (Fig. 8). Buddhism, with its emphasis on the illusory nature of the phenomenal world, dis- courages portrayal of the physical likeness of a person."'

A peculiar feature of Lamaist art is the gro- tesque and bizarre forms of terrifying deities painted by the artists on the Thangka, or scroll paintings, on cotton cloth (Fig. 9). These im-

(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973). For an example of secular Tibetan art, in contrast to the religious style, with its strict iconographical norms, see B. C. Olschak, "The Art of Healing in Ancient Tibet," Ciba Symposium, Vol. 12 (1964), pp. 129-34.

17 F. Sierksma, Tibet's Terrifying Deities: Sex and Aggression in Religious Acculturation (The Hague: Mouton, 1966).

18D. Barrett, "The Buddhist Art of Tibet and Nepal," Oriental Art, Vol. 3 (1957), pp. 90-95; S. Kramrisch, "Art of Nepal and Tibet," Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin (Spring, 1960), pp. 23-38.

FIG. 7. Flowers were popular subjects in Mogul art.

ages, which have been interpreted as a release from psychic and cultural tensions, illustrate the fears of people who reside in an inhospitable physical environment.1

The consistent order and harmony in the design of mandala structure is the most complex and complete expression of the Tibetan's perception of cosmic reality.20 The mandala's design is geometrically precise, and its colors

19 R. Bartholomew, "Tibetan Thangkas," The Times of India Annual (1967), p. 30; Valrae Reynolds, "Thangka Art," Art News, Vol. 73 (March 1974), pp. 109-11. For psychological interpretations of artistic productions, see A. Bader, "Psychotics and Their Paintings: The Human Soul Laid Bare," Ciba Sym- posium, Vol. 6 (1958), pp. 152-55; and G. Clauser, "Painting as a Remedial Factor in Psychotherapy," Ciba Symposium, Vol. 8 (1960), pp. 13-22.

20 The symbolism of the mandala is discussed in G. Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala, with Special Reference to the Modern Psychology of the Subconscious (London: Rider, 1961); D. Snellgrove, Buddhist Himalaya (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1957), p. 154.




FIG. 8. The wall paintings in monasteries such as this one in Thimphu, Bhutan, depict legends of Bud- dha's life as well as other deities. The main large figure is always the focal point toward which the smaller divinities flock. The central figure is painted in a static ritual pose. As the scenes spread out on the wall there is more and more movement felt to compensate for the rigidity of the principal divinity. The paintings and the murals echo both the faith and a fanciful percep- tualization of their environment.

are always strong and luminous. To the Tibetan Buddhist the phenomenal world is one of chaos and tension and the mandala is an attempt to project order and harmony into that world (Fig. 10). It is an effective and graphic visualization of a world that exists in the mind of the Tibetan.

Hindu Paintings of the Southern Himalaya Designs derived from the Hindu religion

dominate the paintings of southern Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal, and Nepal Himalaya. The worship and adoration of a personal deity, common among Hindus, form the inspiration for paintings which symbolize the mutual longing of God and the human soul.2' One principal theme of the Hindu artists has been the love story of Krishna and Radha, as representing

21 R. K. Kaushal, Himachal Pradesh: A Survey of the History of the Land and its People (Bombay: Minerva Book Shop, 1965), pp. 77-80; M. S. Rand- hawa, "Vaishnavism Inspiration of Rajput Painting," Marg, Vol. 17 (June, 1964), pp. 4-7.

FIG. 9. A thangka, an example of scroll painting on cotton cloth. The lion-headed goddess Simhavak- tra, on the lotus throne, is surrounded by four of her retinue arranged in the form of mandala.

God and individual soul, in union and separa- tion (Fig. 1 1). The Hindu artist also desired the religious truths to appeal to society and he drew his imagery from everyday life, thus cover- ing a larger field than the Buddhist and with a different approach than the Moguls. Hindu artists brought Krishna and Radha down to the level of ordinary persons by humanizing them in paintings. Thus, the Hindu Himalayan painting is really a visualization of the life of the common people, their work and play, their joys and sorrows, their beliefs and customs, and their home and field life, in the background of their religious faith; it is an "immediate expression of the Hindu view of life . ..the product of a whole civilization. "22

Paintings of the Himalayan hill states such as Kulu, Guler, Chamba, Mandi, Bilaspur, and Kangra (now in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh) are given the generic name, 'Pahari'

.23T

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22 A. Coomaraswamy, Raiput Painting (New York: Oxford University Press, 1916), p. 14.

23 C. M. N. Sahay, "Indian Miniature Painting," Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 25-41. The word




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FIG. 10. Beautiful frescoes of cosmic mandalas (spheres) adorn the walls in the dzongs (monastery-castles) of Thimphu and Paro. They depict the origin and development of the uni- verse according to the Buddhist texts. Mandalas are painted on the outer walls of temple gates such as this one at Thimphu to make the devotees entering the temple aware of the nature of the phenomenal world. This is the message of these psychograms, once considered mythological fantasy but now regarded by philosophers as essential in understanding the way in which Tibetan culture anticipated reality and relativity in its own unique way. Harmony, a well- ordered symmetry in space, is ascribed to the network of energies called the cosmic "wind."

is sublimated, and passion is enobled and sug- gested with great tenderness. Sex is not allowed to lose the quality of subtlety and refinement.24 The recurring subject matter is woman restless with longing for her lover. Incidental objects (clouds, rain, lightning, storm, trees, flowers, pictures, birds, and animals) are used to suggest a crisis (Fig. 12). A girl standing against a

'miniature' in this context refers to size which may range up to a full page folio.

24 W. G. Archer, Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills, Victoria and Albert Museum Monograph, No. 3 (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1952); idem, "Pahari Miniatures: A Concise History," Marg, Vol. 28 (March, 1975), pp. 3-44.

background of an impending storm represents the passionate mood of woman pining for her lover.25

Other themes in Hindu Himalayan painting also come from the vast range of Hindu religious thought and mythology. Among the artists of Garhwal Himalaya (Uttar Pradesh) and Nepal Himalaya, the Ramayana of Tulsidas, the Bhagvata Purana, dealing with the life of Krishna, and Gita Govinda, the symbolical love

25 V. S. Agrawala, "The Romance of Himachal Painting," Roop Lekha, Vol. 20 (1948-49), pp. 89-90. M. S. Randhawa, Kangra Valley Painting (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1954), p. 4.




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FIG. 11. The love story of Krishna and Radha is one of the main themes of painting in the Punjab Hills. In this scene Radha is reluctant to surrender to Krishna. Beyond the garden railing is a flowering cypress tree and birds in flight silhouetted against the night sky.

song for Krishna, are popular themes for paintings.

In Mithila, the ancient cultural region located in the Terai of eastern Nepal and cen- tered upon Janakpur, there is a distinct artistic tradition represented by paintings done on mud walls by the village women. Favorite subjects are gods and decorative floral and ornamental patterns on the walls of a corridor or of the Gosain-Ghar (room) where the family deity is worshipped (Fig. 13). Hindu festivals such as the Chhath (worship of Sun God), the Chauth Chand (the fourth day of the Hindu month of Bhadra about August-September), Dassehra (worship of goddess Durga in late September), and Diwali (worship of goddess Lakshmi in October) provide the main occasions for the painting. None of these surpass the intricacy and exuberance of the designs done inside a kowar-the bridal chamber at

VI A

FIG. 12. A portrayal of love in Pahari painting. A lady with four attendants on the terrace waiting for her lover. The gathering storm reflects the lady's un- ease as along the banks of the river each bird has found a mate.

FIG. 13. Paintings on mud-walls of "Gosain-Ghar" or God's room in a home in the Mithila cultural region of southern Nepal. Home-made colors from veg- etable matter are mixed with oil and water and ap- plied with a brush made of grass.




FIG. 14. Decorative paintings inside a Kowar of the newlyweds.

the bride's home where the newly married couple reside for at least a few days after the wedding (Fig. 14). Some of the designs interpret physiological facts with considerable can- dor.26

In Mithila, the birthplace of Sita-the epit- ome of Hindu womanhood as portrayed in Ramayana-local women artists have developed a distinct regional style of painting known as Madhubani art.27 The hallmark of the style is the distinctive portrayal of the human face as being roughly oval, with a sharply pointed nose tilted upward, smooth rounded jaw line, and full, wide eyes. The paintings, depicting scenes from the lives of Ram and Sita, have free-hand line drawings without the restrictions of geometry and proportions. Each painting is embellished with stylized local flowers and bird motifs which form an intricate border. To- day Madhubani art represents a cultural tradition of painting just as ancient as the land called Mithila.

Painting in the Southeast Asian Culture Area

Much of the beauty of tribal art and culture still survives in the mountainous country of the eastern Himalaya.28 As compared to the Is-

26 Interview with Sri Sitaram Misra, B. L. Yadav, and Ram Lochan Misra at Janakpur, Nepal.

27 C. Y. Gopinath, "Madhubani Paintings-An An- cient Art Form," Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 12 (June 1, 1975) pp. 13-16.

28 Verrier Elwin, The Art of the Northeast Frontier of India (Shillong: North-east Frontier Agency Ad- ministration, 1959).

FIG. 15. Dragon painted on wood, an example of Monpa art of eastern Himalaya.

lamic, Hindu, and Tibetan areas the painting of the tribal region of the eastern Himalaya dis- plays less sophisticated esthetic sense and a less complex medium of expression. The most common form of art in Arunachal Pradesh is the drawing on wood (Fig. 15). At the house entrance are some crude and simple drawings on a wooden frame, with some dots and length- wise lines displayed in an unsystematic way. Figures and lines are drawn usually with the liquid of lingchong (pine-resin), the essence of which gives black dye.

These drawings are associated with socioreligious rites. They serve in a way to declare in explicit but symbolic form the desire of the individual who performs the ceremony to attain certain heights. Among the Akas, for example, when a man aspires for some material goals in life, he performs a religious rite to appease the deity who can bless him with the desired end. On the last day of the ceremony, the person performing it, or someone on his behalf, who may have acquired some special skill in the work, draws symbolic designs at the entrance of the house. The performer of the ritual expresses his yearnings through these figures and prays to the presiding deity for success or fortune in the desired sphere.

REGIONAL PATTERNS OF DANCE

In most of the Himalaya the dance has come to be generally regarded as an art form meant to enkindle emotions expressive of religious sentiments. Religion, however, does not always provide the inspiration for dances. In the Hi- malaya, the Buddhists, the Hindus, and the ani-




mists have used dancing in the propitiation of the spirits of Nature. For example, a number of epidemic diseases have their own presiding deities. Whenever there is impending danger of an area being affected, people gather to offer prayers and perform ritual dances to please the gods. The rain dances emphasize the ritualistic character of dancing; other dances depict the harvesting of crops, symbolizing life in its struggle for existence.

Dance in the Indic Culture Area

The dances of the Indic culture area of the Himalaya represent the major moments in the life of the cultural group and in the existence of the individual.29 This may range from the col- lective exuberance associated with the hunt and harvest festivals to the poignant personal feel- ings at moments of birth, marriage, or death of a loved one.

The earliest known codified work on the dance is the Natya Shastra, by Bharata Muni, which was written somewhere between the second and fourth centuries A. D. Bharata Muni refers to four regional variations of the art of dancing in India: Avanti, Dakshinatya, Pan- chali, and Odha-Magadhi. In the Himalaya regionalism in dance is expressed in the distinctive Kathak dance of Himachal Pradesh and Garh- wal Himalaya, the cosmic-dance of Siva in Nepal Himalaya, and folk dancing throughout the Hindu Himalaya.30

The Kathak (meaning a narrator of Kathas or epic Hindu stories) dance represents a rich and varied record of traditions and ideas. A community of musicians and dancers, known as Kathakas, from whom this style of dancing gets its name, danced on festivals and participated in daily temple rituals. As unsophisticated vernacular art it has religious and spiritual roots. Moslem invasions brought in new influences on the Kathak dance of the southern Himalaya. The Moslem royalty and nobility extended patronage to Kathak dancing as a form of social entertainment. As the dance shifted from

29 Ragini Devi, Dance Dialects of India (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1972); R. S. Gupta, "Language of Dance in India," Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 9 (January 1, 1972), pp. 18-20.

30 For a brief discussion of regionalism in Indian dance, see Kapila Vatsyayan, "Indian Dance," A rts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 48-55.

the temples of gods to the courts of Moslem rulers it swung toward sensualism.

The cosmic-dance of Siva, which visualizes the unity of Being, radiates all movement within the cosmos, and lifts humanity from temporal to eternal realities. The dance of Krishna and Radha, the Eternal Lovers, symbolizes complete oneness of soul and body, expressing the embodiment of spiritual love leading the soul, in the process of dancing, on the path of libera- tion. The dance in the Indic culture of the Hi- malaya is the vehicle for communicating the dominant Hindu concepts of man's faith.

Folk dancing in the Terai originated in the hunt and harvest festivals of the ancient Aryan ancestors of the local population. Demons, spirits, and gods were invoked or appeased through dances. Present-day folk dancers of the Terai exhibit much of this ancient heritage; they dance for sheer fun, for the fertility of crops, for luck, for protection, and for sum- moning and dispelling the forces of nature. The dances are characterized by joys and sorrows of life, a sense of lightheartedness, and under- currents of gratitude or fear for supernatural powers.

Various Hindu castes such as the Ahirs, Kahars, Chamars, and the Dhobis have their own repertoire of dances to celebrate a wedding or the birth of a child. These are purely folk dances, characterized by elemental directness, spontaneity, and sincerity.

Dance in the Southeast Asian Culture Area Tribes of the eastern Himalaya region, such

as the Monpa, Dafla, Apa Tani, Akas, and Mishmis, are so imbued with the concept of the unity of life and the unfettered nature around them that they regard nature as the mantle of divinity itself.3' Their dances, therefore, are dedicated to nature worship. Festivals related to seasonal variations provide occasions for dancing. The dances are of simple gestural form; the footwork, though swift and rhythmic, is characterized by abrupt leaps and bounds. The body itself glides with remarkable ease in circles, and the arms move sideways to weave delightful patterns of the gentle breeze playing with the soft ripples of the quietly flowing mountain streams.

31 S. G. Burman, "NEFA (North East Frontier Agency)-The Land and Its Peoples," India Quar- terly, Vol. 19 (1963), pp. 344-69.




>

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FIG. 16. Lama dances at Gangtok, Sikkim. Wearing large black hats and acoat adorned with thunderbolts, and dried skulls, they call forth the deities. An orchestra accompanies the dance and marks the dancer's steps.

These aboriginal people believe in the sacred and fertilizing power of human blood. Head- hunting practices have ceased to exist but the ritual of sacrifice still survives with an animal proffered in place of human beings. Sacrifice is the occasion for a great deal of dancing among the tribal inhabitants. War dances, a survival of the martial past, symbolize events which the aboriginal tribes desire to be successfully ac- complished. The tribes have a rich variety of dances which are mostly warlike in character and present abstract conceptions of the hunt. A fantastic and extravagant imagination comes into full play in the dramatization of the thrills and surprises of the duel in the dance form. Dance in the Tibetan Culture Area

The mask dances of the Tibetan cultural group in the high Himalaya from Ladakh to

Bhutan present motifs with unsophisticated forms of folk expression. These dances have cultural and artistic significance as well as social and recreational values. A variety of dancing masks represents divine and supernatural beings such as demons and evil spirits, animals, and men.82 Some of the dancing masks are made up of paper pulp and others of wood. The beat of the drum starts slowly, and as the dance proceeds, the tempo rises and the rhythm becomes more frenzied. The entire performance is a deliberate symbolic representation of the struggle against the hazards of life (Fig. 16).

32 G. Tucci, Tibet: Land of Snows (New York: Stein and Day, 1967), pp. 133-34; Siegbert Hummel, "Boy Dances at the New Year's Festival in the Region of Dri-cu-ron, North Nepal," East and West, Vol. 24. New Series Nos. 3-4 (1974), pp. 363-64.




Tibetans in the Darjeeling area have a form of duet dance in which two persons form one character in order to portray the character of the Himalayan yak. The dancer in front holds the mask while his partner moving in unison immediately behind manages to wag the tail. Dance in the Islamic Cultural Area

In the Kashmir Himalaya dancing in the palaces of feudal chiefs became a form of sala- cious entertainment marked by the visual physical charms of the dancer as she lustily whirled to sensuous music. During the period of Moslem rule the emphasis in dancing shifted from the spiritual to the physical and courtesans took to dancing as an easy means to gain favor of the Mogul lords. In the Moslem Vale of Kash- mir dancing became a tabooed art for respect- able persons; it maintained classical purity only in those parts of the western Himalaya which enjoyed greater protection from Moslem invasions because of geographical seclusion and in some valleys due to sustained patronage from the successive generations of the Hindu ruling families.

Rural peasants perform traditional folk dances such as the ihoomar and khattak; the movements reflect traits considered "good" in the regional culture.33 In contrast to the West where upright body posture denotes honesty and dances such as Spanish flamenco and classical ballet emphasize a sense of verticality, lift- ing upwards, and a desire to overcome the pull of gravity, the folk dancing of Kashmir empha- sizes a down body posture. The movements reflect modesty, which is a most desirable social trait in this culture. In the folk dancing of Kash- mir "lifted" posture often depicts overweening pride or comic pomposity. An upward look among the dancers in serious contexts may indi- cate looking to heaven.

REGIONAL PATTERNS OF MUSIC

The Hindu Cultural Area In the Hindu Himalaya every song or piece

of music is set in some raga.34 Literally, raga

33 For examples of folk dances from the Islamic area, see Reginald Massey, "Dancers from Pakistan," Dancing Times, Vol. 65 (1975), p. 535.

34 Emmie Te Nijenhuis, Indian Music: History and Structure (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); Walter Kauf- man, The Ragas of North India (Bloomington: Indi- ana University Press, 1968).

is something which colors the mind with a certain definite feeling-a wave of passion or emo- tion. In a special sense, raga is a tonal composi- tion of musical notes with a form of peculiar significance. The peculiar conception of raga, one of the basic principles of the system, has no exact parallel with other systems of music in the world. Hindu music expresses a certain feeling or mood and reflects the inspiration of the southern Himalayan people.

Specific seasons and hours of the day and night are fixed for the performance of different festivals, religious rites and ceremonies. Ini- tially there were six ragas and they were associated with the six seasons of the year. They were Bhairava (summer), Megha (rainy), Pan- chama (autumn), Nat-Narain (early winter), Shri (winter), and Vasanta (spring) ragas which were meant to be sung in their respective seasons. Raga Bhairava, associated with the festival for the worship of Siva, became the melody of summer time (April and May) re- minding men of the anger of Siva, the God of Destruction. Megha, meaning cloud, is the melody of the rainy season representing the exuberance of joy among the agricultural people with the coming of the rains. Shri, which is a name of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, is sung in the winter season soon after the harvest. Vasanta raga, arousing emotions of joy and hilarity with the appearance of blossoms, is the song of the spring or vasanta season. Similarly, raga Pan- chama is allocated to the autumn months and raga Nat-Narain to the early winter season.

Apart from the traditional association of ragas with seasons, additional ragas are derived from geographical place names and regions, from the names of specific groups of people, from cult and cult worship, and from names of gods and goddesses which have been added to provide a rich and colorful musical form in the Hindu Himalaya. The ragas emerge as the suggestive sound pictures of the various envi- ronments; each raga reflects the mental perception and awareness of the physical and cultural milieu.

All forms of Hindu music such as the Dhru- pad, Thumri, and Dadra-each characterized by a set of distinctive ragas-are prevalent in the Himalaya (Fig. 17). Each form has its own region of popularity depending upon the historical and social traditions.




HIMALAYA \ TIBETAN MUSIC

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REGIONAL PATTERNS OF EMBROIDERY

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REGIONAL PATTERNS OF ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

FIG. 17. Himalaya. Map of regional patterns of music, regional patterns of embroidery, regional patterns of architecture and sculpture. (Based on field reconnaissance and literature review.)




The literary content of Dhrupad, the most favored melody in the Hindu courts of the former Punjab Hill states, is based on the traditions, symbols, and imagery of Hindu mythology. It is characterized by a spirit of regal majesty and grandeur which reflected the mood of the princely courts. Dhrupad was originally a melody into which were woven the prevalent folk musical patterns. Most hill states songs generally recount "tales of romantic love or of heroism."35

Thumri is characterized by erotic subject matter, and soft notes and is associated with southern parts of the Himalaya adjacent to the Ganges valley.36 Thumri moved into the Hi- malaya after it was developed in the area near Lucknow and Banaras and was influenced strongly by local folk music such as the Kajari and Chaita which catch the seasonal moods of summer and the rains, respectively. The dominant theme of the songs in Thumri is love in all its aspects.

Bhajan and Kirtans, a kind of dramatic so- nata based on the various episodes from the life of Ram, Sita, Krishna, and Radha are the two most popular forms of religious music in the Nepal foothills.37 In Himachal Pradesh the raga system of the Indian music has inspired a special style of paintings called Ragamala (or modes in music) painting.38 These paintings are illustrations of poems which describe or evoke the mood of the raga. Thus, the three arts- music, poetry, and painting-are involved in the production of Ragamala paintings. These paintings are extremely complex to interpret due to a lack of unanimity among musicologists, poets, and painters about the exact melody or musical structure, precise verbal imagery, and artistic iconography represented. The two paintings of Todi Ragini, one in sophisticated style and the other in folk tradition, are attempts to portray the spirit and character of the melody or raga (Figs. 18 and 19). Todi Ragini, represented by a charming woman in an open land-

35 Gerald D. Berremen, Hindus of the Himalaya: Ethnography and Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 262.

36Prem Lata Sharma, "The Origin of Thumri," in Aspects of Indian Music, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: 1970), pp. 73-85.

37 A. A. Blake, "Kirtan in Bengal," Indian Art and Letters, New Series, Vol. 21 (1947), pp. 34-40.

38 Pratapaditya Pal, Ragamala Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1967).

I' U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'

FIG. 18. Todi Ragini represents a transposition of one of the modes or raga of Indian music into paintings. This one illustrates the sophisticated style.

scape, entrances the deer in the neighboring pastures by the music. The imagery derived from folk stories is expressive of a woman whose youth has inspired love among the young lovers who cluster around her. Both of these Ragamala paintings are characterized by a sen- sitive appreciation of the regional landscape, flowers and trees, the lyrical grace of animals, and the portrayal of abandon in women.

Music in the Islamic Culture Area

Kheyal, a modified Indic musical form dominant in the Kashmir valley, is less rigorous, less bound by rules and enjoys greater flexibility in its exposition than the Hindu Dhrupad. It con- veys the idea of imagination.39 With greater freedom in the matter of improvisation and tonal structure, Kheyal easily developed and prospered in the romantic and sensuous atmosphere of Mogul courts and became a popular

3'" Jaideva Singh, "The Evolution of Khayal," in Aspects of Indian Music, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: 1970), pp. 86-96.




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FIG. 19. Folk style painting reflecting the pastoral environment of the Himalayan valleys.

new style in music in the Vale of Kashmir. Ghazal9 originating in the Lucknow area, represents Moslem influence. The intense emo- tional appeal of the Ghazal depends on its suc- cessful rendering with correct accent and a good voice.

Kawwali and Mercia are the counterparts of Kirtan and Bhajan for the Moslems. Mercia is the song describing the battle in which the grandsons of the Prophet were killed. It is chanted in a recitative manner in the mornings during the Moharram festival. Kawwali is distinguished by its quick and lengthy passages up and down the scale and well-punctuated cho- ruses emphasizing the main theme of the song.

Music in the Southeast Asian Culture Area The folk songs and music of the eastern

Himalaya lack the restraint of established classical varieties of Hindu musical forms. The words of the songs are simple and precise, adorned with homely similes and metaphors. Among the Akas, a tribal group in Kameng

FIG. 20. In the Uchi, the religious center of the Tashi Cho dzong in Thimphu Valley of Bhutan, a monk beats a drum held in his left hand. The drum is adorned with religious symbols.

district, a most popular song is brjhva. It is sung on festive occasions and on journeys from one village to another. During marriage ceremonies songs and music are played by the people of the bride's village to express their humility and respect for the wedding guests. Among the tribal youths love-lyrics are a most popular form of music. Boys and girls play music and sing love-lyrics expressing their emotions individually and secretly behind the bushes in the solitary corners of the neighboring woods.

Music in the Tibetan Cultural Area

The popular songs and music of the Tibetan cultural area blend the concepts of Lamaism and the legends of the Buddhist epic.4" For example, they treat the three levels of the world, each inhabited by its own deities, the different realms of nature each with its representative animal (such as the white lion of the glaciers), the four lokpalas (guardian gods of four directions), and the four legendary kings ruling over

40 Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Folk Songs from Gyantse and Western Tibet, 2nd rev. ed. (Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae Publishers, 1966).




FIG. 21. A horn, made of a human thigh bone, used in Buddhist monasteries.

the four points of the compass. The songs are supposed to protect the area through their religious powers. They express the wisdom of the elders and lend sanction to the social and world order, the structure of the environment and that of the groups inhabiting it. To the accompaniment of whistles and shouts the full-throated carefree songs of the Tibetan herders are similar to those of the Spanish shepherds.

In the monasteries the monks blow horns, conch shells, and beat drums and cymbals during the chanting of sacred prayers (Fig. 20). The horn is generally blown on one note only and is easy to play. The majority of the monks run their fingers along the script while they chant and play music. A small horn, carved from a human femur, hollowed out and shaped to a mouthpiece at one end, is common topmost monasteries in the Tibetan cultural area (Fig. 21). From each of the whole range of instru- ments the monks usually play only one fre- quently repeated and toneless note.

REGIONAL PATTERNS OF EMBROIDERY HANDICRAFTS

Handicrafts are a major element in the cultural heritage of the Himalayan people. Like other manifestations of Himalayan art, handicrafts are products of the material and spiritual environment. In their varied forms the handicrafts reflect a religious-philosophical idealism, and an imagination that draws upon the physical and cultural milieu of the mountains. Crafts- men, while striving for beauty, do not lose

FIG. 22. An embroidery motif from Kashmir. Flowers and tendrils of the cypress tree have been used to produce the pattern.

touch with the physical, cultural, and experi- ential environment.

The principal designs or decorative motifs on Himalayan handicrafts have been derived from three sources: the Islamic ornaments or designs in which all natural forms are reduced to con- ventional arabesques or ingenious geometric patterns; the more exuberant and imaginative Hindu form, which uses animals and human figures with greater freedom; and the Lamaist Buddhist traditions filled with rituals and sym- bolisms of Tibetan Buddhism. These traditions can be seen in textile embroidery designs, metal work, jewelry, pottery, wood, horn, ivory, and




~~~~~ -4 FIG. 23. The craftsmen in Kathmandu, Nepal

have excelled in fine metal work. Fine specimens representing various deities in the Hindu and Buddhist pantheon are made for decoration of the altars. The faces are always moulded in perfect proportion and display a beautifully serene expression. The iconography of these art forms reflects many aspects of the Hindu and Buddhist symbolism.

other crafts (Figs. 22-24).41 The hereditary Hindu craftsman, protected by caste traditions, and Moslem craftsmen accustomed to occupa- tional traditions, continue to transmit the traditional arts and crafts in original form from father to son.

Embroidered textiles and carpets are the most common handicraft and they illustrate regionalism derived from the physical and cultural characteristics of the area. The distinct forms of art-fabrics have been preserved as a result of several factors. Prescriptions of rigid social codes, particularly among the Hindus of the Himalaya, have ordained styles of decoration, color, and designs for various occasions and different communities. Marriages, festive seasons, and sacred ceremonies require the use of particular clothes in various colors by various religious and caste groups. Color has great symbolic value such as among the Hindus of the Himalaya, for whom colors symbolize concrete and abstract eldments. Green stands for youth

41 Pratapaditya Pal, "Bronzes of Nepal," Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 31-37; Pushpa Sundar, "Wood Carving," Indian Horizon, Vol. 23 (1974), pp. 33-39. For a discussion of regional varieties in toys, a highly developed folk art, which reflect geographical and cultural influences, see Anne Winter, "India's Toys: In Variety and Style, They Reflect Every Facet of This Complex Culture," Craft Hori- zons, Vol. 16 (December, 1956), pp. 32-36.

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and life. Red is the color of joy and happiness, or passion, virility, and strength. Yellow symbolizes cheerfulness, intellectualism, and the life- giving rays of the sun. Blue symbolizes peace, the atmosphere, the sky, as well as heaven. Purple stands for wealth and material posses- sions. The designs range from the geometric ar- rangements of dots, squares, zigzags or circles to floral animaln, and religious motifs.42

Islamic Embroidery Handicrafts The shawl embroidery of Kashmir vividly il-

lustrates the impact of nature (Fig. 25). Floral

42 John Erwin and Margaret Hall, Indian Embroi- deries (Ahmedabad: Calico Museum of Textiles, 1975); Mulk Raj Anand, "Embroidery," Marg, Vol. 28 (December, 1974), pp. 30-33; Kamala Dongerkery, "Place of Embroidery in Indian Crafts," Marg, Vol.




FIG. 25. Floral pattern on the embroidered Kash- mqir shawl. motifs, majestic mountains, shimmering lakes, birds, and luscious fruits, all find a place in Kashmir embroidery.43 Local and Persian influences have blended in the distinctive leaf and flower patterns on the Kashmir carpets. Car- pets intended for use by the Moslems as prayer

~~~' ~ 4

mats are of the Mihrab (arch) type (Fig. 26).4 The "Tree of Life" is covered with flowers; the earth is represented by the triangular mound of builders, beneath which a straight line is sometimes drawn to depict a river.

Islamic prayer is directional, and orientation in the direction of Mecca or the qibla is essential. The liturgical focus of the mosque is a prayer-niche (Mihrab) in the wall facing Mecca. The portrayal of this niche in embroidery design distinguishes prayer-rugs from other

17 (March, 1964), pp. 69-70; Kamaladevi Chattopad- hyaya, "Origin and Development of Embroidery in Our Land," Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), pp. 5-10.

43 Nelly H. Sethna, Shal: Weaves and Embroideries of Kashmir (New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Private Lim- ited, 1973).

44 James Dickie, "The Iconography of the Prayer Rug," Oriental Art, Vol. 18 (1972), pp. 41-49.

aidx'

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FIG. 26. Islamic prayer rug with floral design (Courtesy H. Khan, Srinagar).

kinds of carpets. The prayer rug is always directional in pattern and symmetrical along a single longitudinal axis. Its embroidered design echoes the architecture of the mosque in linear terms.

Embroidery Handicrafts in the Hindu Culture Area

Embroidery in Himachal Pradesh and Kumaoun Himalaya is usually called Chamba style and it has been influenced by Pahari painting. The characteristics are easily distinguished by the pictorial and geometrical designs which depict themes borrowed from Pahari paintings. Scenes of Krishna's life, dances, and ancient legends are reproduced in warm, vivid colors in the tradition of Kangra paintings. Embroi- dery is used to adorn various articles such as scarves, caps, fans, linen, and blouses (Fig. 27). The patterns are simple and go with the




FIG. 27. Krishna, shown in the center of this Chamba Rumal, is a popular figure on the embroidery of the Hindu culture area. Four scalloped arches, each with a woman, are separated by cedar trees. Bold leaves and flowers decorate the border.

prevalent folk style of painting in which flowers and trees are drawn without sophistication.45

Phulkari, which means "flowering work," is a spectacular style of embroidery associated with the Outer Himalaya in Punjab and Ku- maoun. The motifs are largely floral and geometrical (Fig. 28). Phulkari has a large number of patterns and each pattern has a special name based on the motif. This form of Punjab

45"Chamba Rumal," Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), pp. 19-21.

and Kumaoun Himalaya embroidery is often mentioned in the literature and folk songs of the area.46

Religious motifs such as the sankha (conch shell), surja (sun), chandrama (moon), and

46 "Bagh and Phulkari: Punjab," Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), p. 19. For a discussion of the role of symbolical, psychological, and physical factors which influence the use of colors in textile handicrafts in various parts of India and Himalaya, see Nancy Kenealy, "India's Crafts Today: Color," Craft Horizons, Vol. 19 (July-August, 1959), pp. 29-30.




FIG. 28. A floral embroidery design used on scarfs in the Punjab Himalaya.

trishul (trident), enter the embroidery of the Terai and Middle Himalaya in Nepal. This area remained isolated from the courtly pomp and show of Mogul rulers and it retained a traditional folk style using available materials. Kashida embroidery of the Nepal Terai has a large variety of designs universally used for personal garments. Sujani style of Terai is used in quilts and covers and illustrates natural sur- roundings through free-flowing representations of trees, flowers, and animals. Kantha, an embroidery in the Duar (piedmont) of eastern Himalaya, has designs of human and animal figures, flowers, and foliage.

Southeast Asian Hill Culture Embroidery The embroidery of eastern Himalaya reflects

the dual influences of Indian and Burman cultures, as well as the tribal traditions of the aboriginal population. The embroidery is extremely delicate and it is commonly prepared on the phaneyk, a type of sarong worn by women. The pattern commonly used is the circular design, one circle joining the other. It is a design inspired by circular swirls of the water and natural objects such as the flower buds.

Another striking example of embroidery is the black chaddar (bed spread) with embroidered animal motif in thick cotton thread which is popularly called the Naga chaddar. This motif was derived from hunting exploits and was originally worn by the Angami Nagas.

47 B. K. Barua, "Weaving in Assam," The Assam Quarterly, Vol. 2 (April, 1962), pp. 45-49.

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ar4

FIG. 29. On festive occasions the women in Sik- kim wear a long-sleeved silk jacket, hat, and richly- striped apron. Note the matching floral design on the umbrella handle.

Embroidery in the Tibetan Culture Area

Buddhist Himalaya people weave as their ancestors did in Tibet. In Ladakh, northern Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan weaving is a house- hold art. On such occasions as the New Year celebration or the anniversary of the founding of a monastery, when the entire population of a valley is dressed in new clothes and has come to participate in the event, the local weaving art may be noticed in the festival costumes (Fig. 29). Each high Himalayan valley has its own distinct weaving patterns. For example, in Bumthang in central Bhutan, unscoured sheep's wool is used in different colors to weave the famous "Bumthang blankets" with yellow stripes and floral pattern. Black Bumthang blankets of wool with yellow, red, and white floral crosses, which afford protection against the extreme winter cold, are widely used as a garment or skirt in central and eastern Bhutan. The pattern consists of a broad striped design with stylized floral motifs.48

48 B. C. Olschak, "Bhutanese Weaving," Palette (Sandoz, Basel), No. 24 (1966), pp. 3-8.




FIG. 30. Woolen cloth with striped pattern and flower motif is used for women's clothing in Bhutan. Two silver shoulder clasps hold this garment together. The top of the silver clasp is decorated with symbols, often gilded, showing the wheel of the law, the lotus flower, and dragon.

In Bhutan the blanket with striped pattern forms the typical woman's garment (Fig. 30). The longitudinal striped pattern in which the golden flower design is prominent is used in men's garments. Flower designs and symbols of Bhutanese culture also gleam from the brightly painted pillars of the unnailed, timber-framed buildings and bridges. In north Sikkim the floral pattern is used on the special bedstead, which is similar to the sofa for sitting. The ground shade of beige or blue is employed to set off the bright flowers and foliage motifs (Fig. 31).

Carpet weaving in northern Himalaya is es- sentially a folk art.49 The most popular kind is the small saddle carpet on which every element of ornamentation has a symbolic meaning, bringing good fortune or providing protection. Carpet designs often show several or all eight of the lucky Buddhist symbols of good fortune either singly or in groups. One of the oldest

49 Philip Denwood, The Tibetan Carpet (Warmin- ster, England: Aris and Philips Ltd., 1974).

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FIG. 31. A floral pattern decorates the bedstead cover in this picture taken at the palace of the Chogyal of Sikkim in Gangtok. Raw silk produced in the southern regions of Sikkim has been used to make the garment for the Chogyal's sister. It is decorated with floral patterns and ornamental fillets with the swastika which symbolizes good fortune. A Tibetan carpet with flower medallion design covers the floor.

decorative motifs on carpets in Bhutan is the single large swastika on a border of separate or interlaced swastikas.50

PATTERNS OF ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

The distinctive Himalayan cultures are splen- didly realized in folk architecture and sculpture (Fig. 32). As the principal visible record of the religious, aesthetic and material environ- ments, folk architecture and sculpture vividly express the various cultures-even colonialism (Figs. 33 and 34).

The Hindu Cultural Area In the southern parts of the Punjab, Kuma-

oun, and Nepal Himalaya the Hindu temple is a common landscape feature but it does not con- tain a large shelter to accommodate a congre- gation of devotees (Fig. 35). The Terai in east-

50 B. C. Olschak, "Tibetan Carpets," Palette (San- doz, Basel), No. 27 (1967), p. 7.




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FIG. 32. The drawings on these round storage buildings adjacent to homes in western Terai in Nepal are associated with socioreligious rites. In symbolic form they signify that they wish to be blessed to remain free from evil influences.

ern Nepal with its tradition of wooden houses and thatched huts offers some new and interest- ing architectural modes in the Chandimandapa (literally, porch of goddess Chandi) and temples.i' This alluvial region has widespread clay

51 Mary Shepherd Slusser and Gantamavajra Vijra- carya, "Two Medieval Nepalese Buildings: An Archi- tectural and Cultural Study," Artibus Asiae, Vol. 36 (1974), pp. 169-218. For details of Indian temple styles, see K. V. Sundra Rajan, Indian Temple Styles:

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3,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r. FIG. 34. Rest houses in Paro, Bhutan, a later de-

velopment by the Bhutanese government. The living quarters are less elevated than in the colonial rest house and there are structural differences such as tie absence of nails and more use of masonry in this later type, but the overall similarity of architectural style and functional purpose is striking in the two types.

deposits suitable for brick manufacture. The Terai mason uses molded bricks to beautify temples and multiplies the number of pavilions and spires to make them imposing. Residential structures, however, gradually evolved which used wood and bamboo. This distinctive Terai

The Personality of Hindu A rchitecture (Delhi: Mun- shilal Manoharlal, 1972).

FIG. 33. The rest house (Dak Bungalow) was a product of colonialism introduced by the British. Lo- cated in eastern Terai, at the edge of the foothills, their purpose was to accommodate high civil servants on official business. Living accommodation is on the elevated second floor. The style is reminiscent of the old colonial edifices built for similar purposes in the tropics of both the Old and New Worlds by the British, Dutch, and other western European colonial powers.

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FIG. 35. Durbar Square at Bhatgaon, Nepal. The palace is on the right; the statue of Bhupatindra Malla ( 1696-1722), the builder, is in left center. The arts of terra cotta and woodwork are among the most notable artistic achievements in the Kathmandu Valley, which means the Valley of Wooden Temples, where buildings are lavishly decorated with tunals or carved brackets. The palace of Bhatgaon is a masterpiece of Hindu- Buddhist art and architecture.




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FIG. 36. This large work of art at Buddha Nilkan- tha, near Kathmandu, showing Vishnu sleeping on a bed of snakes in the symbolic cosmic ocean, connotes profound serenity and peace. Over five meters long, this seventh century sculpture of Vishnu lies in a tank fed by a natural spring. Grandiose art devoted to the Hindu gods produced some massive sculptures in the Kathmandu Valley. Brahmin priests are shown performing the ritual worship.

architecture is particularly shown in the sloping roof, curved eave, and a pointed arch style.+2

In the Hindu sculpture of southern Hima- laya, a wide range of Vishnu and Siva images appear from the Punjab to the Nepal Himalaya (Figs. 36 and 37).5 Bhairawa is another common deity in Hindu architecture; the club and skulls in the hands of Bhairawa symbolize death (Fig. 38). A sculpture depending greatly for its expression on the religious ideals requires little jewelry, but the little that is tolerated is only to further reveal the philosophical being in the outer form.

Architecture and Sculpture of the Tibetan Culture Area

In Buddhist Himalaya chortens and stupas dominate the landscape and serve as symbols

52 For details on regionalism in architecture, see H. Sanyal, "Regional Religious Architecture in Bengal: A Study in the Sources of Origin and Character," Marg, Vol. 27 (March, 1974), pp. 31-43.

53 Often the images of Vishnu are set in a tank-a unique architecture of water which in areas of Hindu cultural influence underwent elaborate development into forms combining beauty and utility. John Nico- lais, "Water Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley," Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (September-October, 1974), pp. 62-67.

of the passing away of the Buddha into Nirvana (Figs. 39 and 40). The shrine itself reminds the devotees of the Great Teacher as an omniscient reality.54 The stupa is a massive hemispherical relic mound, crowned by a stone umbrella and surrounded by a balustrade. It was originally a simple burial mound of earth and bricks erected over fragments of bones and ashes of a holy personage. Following this custom, the ashes of Buddha, after his Great Departure, were enshrined within such tumuli. The relief compositions adorning the stupas and chortens narrate stories mainly from the life of Buddha or from the legends of his incarnations. Under the patronage of lamas, sculpture in Tibet entered a phase of intense creativity with religion as the principal source of inspiration (Fig. 41).

Architecture and Sculpture in the Islamic Culture Area

'The Islamic architecture and sculpture of Kt.tirmir Himalaya is characterized by the neatly defined outline and the geometric proportion of interior space. The Islamic Law, based on the Koran, forbade any sculptural decoration; the only plastic embellishments in which the Moslems indulged were the carving and paintings of texts from the Holy Book and the use of Persian and Arabic geometrical and floral motifs (arabesques) for surface decoration. The artists represented geometrical and floral motifs in endless combinations and with remarkable aesthetic sense. The Moslem builders in South Kashmir showed a great structural ingenuity in coordinating the main elements to form a unified and pleasing architectural com- position.

Religious architecture in Islamic Kashmir consists of mosques which fulfill the practical needs of a religion which advocates community worship and mausoleums, the finest expressions of Islamic architecture in the Vale of Kashmir. The mausoleums are almost always situated in the center of a beautiful garden, giving an im- pression of serenity and peace.55

54 P. Pal, The Art of Tibet (New York: The Asia Society, 1969), p. 44; Philip Denwood, "Bhutanese Architecture," Asian Affairs, Vol. 58 (February, 1971), pp. 24-33; Gelongma Karma Kechiog Palmo, "Mantras on the Prayer Flag," Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies, Vol. 1 (1973), pp. 168-69.

*5 For the role of environment in the Mogul landscape architecture, see Mulk Raj Anand, "The Treat- ment of Environment by the Mughals," Marg, Vol. 26 (December, 1972), pp. 3-8.




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FIG. 37. Entrance to the Hindu Temple of Pasupatinath (Lord of the Animal World) viewed from the bank of Bagmati. Siva, the god of this Nepalese national shrine, is symbolized by the productive and creative Linga, or Phallus. It is in this symbolic form that Siva is worshipped in the Temple of Pasupatinath. On the banks of Bagmati flanking the temple, the Hindus carry out their ritual ablutions on stone steps. Washing for the purification and expiation of sins is a ritual to the Hindus in Nepal and elsewhere.

The Southeast Asian Hill Culture Area

Tibeto-Burman villages are made up of several long-houses containing a number of patri- lineally related families. The houses are raised on piles and are made of bamboo in contrast to the stone houses of the Buddhist Himalaya, and the mud brick houses of most of the Hindu Himalaya and South Kashmir.

Architecture is influenced by the abundance of bamboo groves which provide the material

for house building. Cane, which is common in the forests, furnishes material of great utility for home building. The Aka house, for example, is a long bamboo and cane structure raised on a platform, about six feet above the ground and divided into two compartments by a partition wall (Fig. 42). The space between the platform and the ground serves as a shed for pigs and goats. The roof is usually thatched, sup- ported by bamboo sheets.




FIG. 38. Bhairawa in Kathmandu's market place. Originally, a "fearful" form of Hindu god, Bhairawa is wrathful, but protective in spirit, the emanation of divine omnipotence, and slayer of demons.

CONCLUSION

Vernacular art forms are largely products of a group's behavior within the context of specific traditions and environmental settings. The regional patterns of Himalayan art were recognized three centuries ago by Taranatha, a Ti- betan historian. Contact between the ancient cultures in this realm was minimized for long periods in the past by physical isolation. In more

FIG. 39. A chorten in Gangtok, Sikkim, surrounded by prayer flags with sacred mantra painted on them. Chortens such as this one mark the route of pilgrims bound for the holy places of Buddhism in the Himalaya. Among the relics of various kinds depos- ited in the hollows of the edifice are clay figurines representing images of deities, and sacred inscriptions.

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FIG. 40. This huge, hemispherical stupa in Kath- mandu Valley is a striking example of religious architecture. At the top of the spire is a canopy. Four gi- gantic pairs of eyes are painted on the base of the spire. These represent the wisdom of Buddha, manifested on all sides by his all-seeing eyes. Originally, this decoration was probably intended to protect the building from the "evil eye" or the machinations of evil spirits.

FIG. 41. This impressive sculpture of Padamsamb- hava in Gangtok, who brought Buddhism to Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan in the eighth century, evokes the presence of the great saint of Lamaism. Considered as the central transcendent of Buddha, he is represented in paintings and sculpture throughout the Tibetan culture area. He is dressed in his religious gown and wears the characteristic headdress with ear- lappets turned up. His tiara-like cap is crowned by a thunderbolt, topped by a peacock feather that symbolizes purity from sin. On the front of the cap is the twin-symbol of sun and moon, emphasizing his perfect comprehension. Sitting in the posture of meditation, he holds the thunderbolt scepter and the skullcap with the base which is filled with the Water of Life. A trident with skulls is a special feature of this representation.




FIG. 42. Aka house This long bamboo and cane structure is representative of the residential architecture of the eastern Himalaya.

recent times, however, intercultural contact has prevailed in many places and yet the regionalism of Himalayan art has persisted. It is true that Pahari culture in the central Himalaya has

embraced significant elements of both the Lamaist and Indic traditions, but that fusion has constituted simply an enrichment of the regional cultural pattern of the Himalaya in a variety of art forms.

Himalayan art is strongly vernacular, not international in character. One may wonder why vernacular art has persisted here, why it persists in many other regions and on other continents and in areas like the American Southwest which are not isolated and in which there is the constant impact of international art. Those questions of necessity must remain un- answered until geographers and other students of culture address themselves further to the de- velopmental aspects of regional art.



Documents

Art and Geography: Patterns in the Himalaya