APPENDIX 1

DEVELOPMENTS IN COALUTILISATIONTECHNOLOGY

III most fields of coal utilisation, the development of a new technology requiresseveral stages of scale-up before being offered with normal commercial guarantees.Scale-up factors between stages of 100 (on throughput) are possible althoughvalues are generally less than th is. The terms 'laboratory scale', 'pilot plant scale'and 'demonstration scale' are commonly used to indicate the size of the plant(in order of increasing throughput) but usage varies considerably from countryto country. A demonstration plant will often be of a scale similar to that of asingle stream for projected standard commercial plants. It would be operated,as far as possible, under normal commercial conditions. There is, therefore,some ambiguity between such a plant and a 'commercial prototype', particu­larly when the components of the process are commercially established but itis the configuration that is being demonstrated.

During the 1960s and 1970s , numerous development projects for coal utili­sation technologies were initiated. Based on laboratory or, in some cases, pilot­plant work , many plans or proposals for larger-scale plants were publicised.However, comparatively few have succeeded in progressing beyond the initialphases and , for those that have survived, the delays and cost escalations haveoften been considerable. Since the late 1970s, there has been an increasingreluctan ce on behalf of governments and private industry to make availablethe large sums of money required for demonstration-scale projects, particularlyfor conversion processes where the economics are currently perceived to bemarginal and the technical and financial risks substantial.

In view of these uncertainties, the present summary of the status of new coalutilisation technologies concentrates on developments that are approaching acommercial scale and for which completion is reasonably well assured. It followsthat some promising projects are omitted where these are at present operatingonly on a small scale.

One of the most well-developed of the new coal technologies is atmosphericpressure fluidised bed combustion . Already , some boilers and furnaces are beingoffered with normal commercial guarantees , and others are at a commercialprototype stage. A large number of manufacturers are involved, mainly operatingwithin their 'home' country. The current status of the technology is indicatedin table ALI.

Developments in Coal Utilisation Technology 383

Atmospheric pressure fast bed combustion and pressurised fluidised bedcombustion are at earlier stages of development. Relatively few organisationsare involved and only a small number of pilot plants have so far been operated(see tables Al .2 and AI.3).

Coal gasification is already well established commercially as indicated by thelarge number of plants that have been installed (see table AlA). However, notall of these are currently in use and the main large-scale coal gasification plantsin commercial operation are given in table Al.S .

Of the second-generation gasification processes, the greatest developmentactivity is concentrated on Lurgi-based gasifiers and the Texaco gasifier. Themain projects in the construction or operation phases involving these gasifiersare described in tables A1.6 and A1.7, respectively. Some of the other majordevelopments of coal gasification systems (and related technologies) are shownin table A1.8.

Direct liquefaction is not at such an advanced stage of development as fluidisedbed combustion or coal gasification. The relatively small number of large-scalepilot plants that have been constructed are summarised in table A1.9. All ofthese plants are single-stage processes; two-stage processes are at present opera­tional only on a small scale.

Table Al.l Industrial atmospheric pressure fluidised bed boilers" andfurnaces in operation (1982)b

Number of units" Countries'[ Maximum plant size"(tid coal equivalent input)

Over 50 Chinaf 250

11-50 United Kingdom 100United States 250

Up to 10 Canada 40Finland 75Japan 60Sweden 120West Germany 90

aFast fluidised bed combustors have been excluded from the table (see table Al.2).bSources: Jason Makansi and Bob Schwieger, Fluidized Bed Boilers, Power, August 1982;W. G. Kaye, Fluidised Bed Combustion, paper to Symposium on Modern Coal BurningTechnology for Industrial Boilers, S. Wales Inst, Engrs., Cardiff, June 1982 .CUnits smaller than 3 tid coal input have been excluded from the table, such plants generallybeing experimental.dFluidised bed combustion units have also been built in other countries, including Australia,Denmark, France, India, Israel , Italy, Netherlands, South Africa and Switzerland.eNot all of the units burn coal; the thermal input has therefore been expressed as coalequivalent using the conversion 29.3 GJ equals 1 tonne coal equivalent.fIt is thought that more than 2000 fluidised bed combustion units are in operation inChina .

384 Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology

Table Al.2 Fast f1uidised bed combustor developments"

Organisation(s)

Lurgi/Vereinigte Aluminium Werke AG

Battelle

Conoco/Struthers WellsCorp .

Gulf Oil!Pyropower Corp.

A. Ahlstrom Oy

A. Ahlstrom Oy

Savon Voima Oy!A. Ahlstrom Oy

A. Ahlstrom Oy

Studsvik Energiteknik AB!Generator Industri AB

Location Plant sizeb

(t!d coal equivalent input)

Frankfurt, 4West GermanyLunen, 250West Germany

Columbus, USA 5

South Texas, USA 45

Bakersfield, USA 40

Karhula, Finland 5

Pihlava, Finland 45

Suonenjoki, Finland 20

Kauttua, Finland 200

Nykoping, Sweden 7

aSources: W. Wein, L. Plass and K-H Maintok, Circulating fluid bed technology for efficientcoal combustion, paper to Conf. Coal Technology Europe, Cologne, June 1981 ; Fluidized­bed Combustion-Industrial Application Demonstration Projects , Battelle's MultisolidFluidized Bed Combustion Process, US DOE report DOE/FE/2472-42, Battelle ColumbusLaboratories, October 1979; O. Jones and E. C. Seber, Initial operating experience atConoco's South Texas multisolids FBC steam generator, paper to the Seventh InternationalConference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Philadelphia, Pa., October 1982;J. O. Reardon,Pyroflow-commercial recirculating f1uidised bed combustion, Modern Power Systems ,November 1981, p. 37; F. Engstrom and H. H. Yip, Operating experience of commercialscale Pyroflow circulating fluidized bed combustion boilers, paper to the Seventh Inter­national Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Philadelphia, Pa., October 1982 ; L.Stromberg and P. Wickberg, Fast fluidized bed combustion of coal, paper to the SeventhInternational Conference on Fluidized Bed Combustion, Philadelphia, Pa., October , 1982.bNot all of these units burn coal; the thermal input has therefore been expressed as coalequivalent using the conversion 29.3 GJ equals 1 tonne coal equivalent.

Developments in Coal Utilisation Technology

Table A1.3 Pressurised fluidised bed combustion pilot plants"

385

Organisation(s)

National Coal Board (CURL)

Argonne National Laboratory

New York University

General Electric

Warsaw University

Curtiss Wright

Natal University

NCB (lEA Grimethorpe) Ltd./UK, West German, USA governments

American Electric Power/STAL-Laval/Deutsche Babcock

Location

Leatherhead, UK

Argonne, USA

New York, USA

Malta , USA

Warsaw, Poland

Wood Ridge, USA

Durban, South Africa

Grimethorpe, UK

Malmo, Sweden

Plant size(s)(t/d coal input)

20,5 ,0.5

0.2

20

1.5

10

100,5

5

250

so

aSource: S. A. Miller et 01. , Technical Evaluation: Pressurised Fluidized Bed CombustionTechnology , Argonne National Laboratory, Prepared for US DOE under contract no.W-31-109-ENG-38, Report no. ANL/FE-81-{i5, 1982.

Table AlA Commercial coal gasifiers installed''

Type

WellmanWilputte

Woodall-Duckham/GIWellman IncandescentFoster-Wheeler Stoic

Lurgi

Winkler

Koppers-Totzek

Number of units

Over 600Over SO

Over 100Approx. 30

3

142

70

54

Size range(t id coal input per unit)

0.3-753-15

60-10015-1003O-{i0

60-{i00

150-1000

300-{i00

aThe data refer to gasifiers installed; many have now been taken out of service. Source:Robert A. Meyers (ed .), Coal Handbook , Marcel Dekker, New York , 1981.

386 Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology

Table A1.5 Large-scale commercial coal gasification plants in operation"

Type Number of plants

Lurgi/Fischer-Tropsch 3

Lurgi/ammonia 2

Winkler/ammonia 3

Koppers-Totzek/ammonia 12

Koppers-Totzek/methanol

Location(s)

South Africa

PakistanKorea

IndiaTurkeyYugoslavia

GreeceIndiaSouth AfricaThailandTurkeyYugoslaviaZambia

South Africa

Size (total coalconsumption, tId)

50000

450

1000

10000

70

aSources: Chemistry of Coal Utilisation, second supplementary volume, Wiley, New York,1981 ; L. Grainger and J. Gibson, Coal Utilisation: Technology, Economics and Policy,Graham and Trotman, London, 1981.

Table A1.6 Lurgi-based gasification system developments"

Type Organisation Location

Air-blown Lurgi Steag Liinen,gasifiers (5)/ West Germanycombined cycle

British Gas-Lurgi British Gas Westfield, UKslagging gasifier

British Gas-Lurgi British Gas Westfield, UKslagging gasifier

Ruhr 100 gasifier RuhrkoWe/ Dorsten,(high-pressure Ruhrgas/Steag West GermanyLurgi)

Lurgi gasifiers American Natural Resources Great Plains, USA(l4)/SNG

Plant size(t/d coal input)

1700

350

600

170

aSources: A. Baker and M. Teper, Synfuels Development Outside North America, AmericanNuclear Society Conference, Los Angeles, 1982 ; T. Wett, Synfuels Offer Challenging Future,Oil and GasJournal, June 1981 ; L. Grainger and J. Gibson, Coal Utilisation: Technology,Economics and Policy , Graham and Trotman, London, 1981.bThe coal for this plant is a lignite.

Developments in Coal Utilisation Technology 387

Table Al.7 Texaco-based gasification system developments"

Type Organisation(s) Location Plant size(t/d coal input)

Texaco gasifier Texaco Montebello, USA 15

Texaco gasifier Ruhrkohle/ Oberhausen-Holten, 150Ruhrchemie West Germany

Texaco gasifier/ Tennessee Valley Muscle Shoals, USA 200ammonia synthesis Authority

Texaco gasifier/ Dow Chemical Plaquemines, USA 400power generation(air blown)

Texaco gasifier/ Tennessee Kingsport, USA 800acetic anhydride synthesis Eastman

Texaco gasifier/ S. California Cool Water, USA 1000combined cycle Edison and others

aSources: A. Baker and M. Teper, Synfuels Development Outside North America, AmericanNuclear Society Conference, Los Angeles, 1982; D. R. Simbeck and A. 1. Moll, SyntheticFuels from Coal: An Important Source of Energy, World Coal, Jan,fFeb. 1982; T. Wett ,Synfuels Offer Challenging Future, Oil and GasJournal , June 1981 .

388 Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology

Table A1.8 Other major gasification-related developrnents''

Type Organisation Location Plant size(t/d coal input)

Kilngas gasifier Illinois Power Co.] Wood River, USA 600retrofit power Allis Chalmersgeneration

High-temperature Rheinbraun Frechen, West Germany 70 b

Winkler gasifier

High-temperature Rheinbraun Cologne, West Germany 800 b

Winkler gasifierImethanol

U-gasgasifier Institute of Gas Chicago, USA 6Technology

Westinghouse Westinghouse Waltz Mill, USA 30gasifier

Molten iron Sumitomo/Kamasaki Kashima, Japan 60gasifier

Humboldt gasifier Kloeckner Maxhuette, West Germany 10

Saarberg-Otto Saarbergwerke Volkingen, West Germany 260gasifier

Shell gasifier Shell Harburg, West Germany 150

Mobil synthesis New Zealand New Zealandprocess Synthetic Fuels Corp . C

aSources : A. Baker and M. Teper, Synfuels Development Outside North America, AmericanNuclear Society Conference, Los Angeles, 1982 ; D. R. Simbeck and A. J. Moll, SyntheticFuels from Coal: An Important Source of Energy, World Coal, Jan ./Feb. 1982; T. Wett,Synfuels Offer Challenging Future, Oil and GasJournal , June 1981.bThe size of the high-temperature Winkler plants is based on a lignite feedstock quoted on adry basis.cThe Mobil demonstration project in New Zealand uses natural gas as the feedstock; thedesign production capacity is 1650 tId of gasoline.

Developments in Coal Utilisation Technology 389

Table A1.9 Main direct liquefaction pilot plants''

Process type Organisation(s) Location Plant size(tId coal input)

SRC 1 GulfOill Wilsonville, USA 6Southern Services

SRC 1 Mitsui Omita , Japan 5

SRC 2 GulfOill Fort Lewis, USA 50Pittsburg & Midway

Exxon Donor Solvent Exxon Baytown, USA 250

H-Coal Hydrocarbon Cattletsburg, USA 250Research Inc .

Ruhrkohle Ruhrkohle/Veba Bottrop , West Germany 200

Brown Coal Nippon Brown Latrobe Valley, 50Liquefaction Coal Liquefaction Australiaj'

Co.

aSources : A. Baker and M. Teper , Synfuels Development Outside North America , AmericanNuclear Society Conference, Los Angeles, 1982 ; D. R. Sirnbeck and A. J . Moll, SyntheticFuels from Coal: An Important Source of Energy , World Coal, Jan./Feb. 1982.bThe coal input to the Latrobe Valley plant refers to dried brown coal.

APPENDIX 2

ECONOMIC DATA FORSELECTED PROCESSES

The uncertainties in economic data for coal-based processes have already beendiscussed in chapter 8. While acknowledging the difficulties, an attempt is madehere to present economic data, drawn largely from the literature, on a compara­tive basis for two aspects of coal utilisation technology .

In table A2.l , data on a representative selection of coal conversion processesare given. The costs assume mature technologies with plants located at NorthAmerican greenfield sites. The designs are based on bituminous coal and this isthe only energy input crossing the plant boundary (except during start-up).There are no energy co-products other than as indicated . The scale of the plantslies in the range 0.6 to 10 GW(thermal) of coal input.

The efficiencies are based on higher heating values. For the processes otherthan Fischer-Tropsch and Exxon Donor Solvent, the values were calculatedusing the NCB's ARACHNE process flowsheeting system according to a con­sistent set of ground-rules.

The capital costs are expressed in mid-1982 United States dollars and havebeen revised from the literature data using the Chemical Engineering plant costindex as necessary. The capital costs include a 15 per cent contingency androyalties at 2 per cent of the basic capital cost. Interest during construction,working capital and start-up costs are excluded . The costs are quoted per kW ofrated output capacity.

Data on industrial boiler costs are given in table A2.2 . The values refer toUnited Kingdom sites and include ancillaries such as fuel (and ash) handlingand the stack . The costs have been revised to mid-1982 money values from theliterature data using the Chemical Engineering plant cost index.

Tab

leA

2.1

App

roxi

mat

eco

sts

and

effi

cien

cies

ofco

alco

nver

sion

proc

esse

sa Eff

icie

ncy

Cap

ital

cost

(%)

($/k

Wou

tput

)

38.6

880

36.7

1000

40.6

800

42.5

850

79.4

430

70.9

600

63.2

720

57.9

910

52.1

1190

43.7

1070

62.8

835

Pow

erge

nera

tion

Pulv

eris

edfu

el(n

ofl

uega

sde

sulp

huri

satio

n)Pu

lver

ised

fuel

(flu

ega

sde

sulp

huri

sati

on,r

egen

erab

le)

Pres

suri

sed

flui

dise

dbe

dco

mbu

stio

n(s

uper

char

ged

boile

rcy

cle)

Gas

ific

atio

nco

mbi

ned

cycl

e(B

ritis

hG

as-L

urgi

slag

ging

gasi

fier

,142

5°C

,wat

er-c

oole

dga

stu

rbin

e)

Proc

ess

Liq

uid/

fuel

sM

etha

nol-

fuel

grad

e(T

exac

oga

sifi

er,I

CI

met

hano

lsy

nthe

sis)

MT

G(T

exac

oga

sifi

er,

ICI

met

hano

lsy

nthe

sis,

Mob

ilM

TG

)F

isch

er-T

rops

ch(T

exac

oga

sifi

er,S

ynth

ol)

H-C

oal

Gas

ific

atio

nM

ediu

mca

lori

fic

valu

ega

s(B

ritis

hG

as-L

urgi

slag

ging

gasi

fier

)S

ubst

itut

ena

tura

lgas

(Bri

tish

Gas

-Lur

gisl

aggi

ngga

sifi

er,H

CM

met

hana

tion

)H

ydro

gen

-fu

elgr

ade

(Tex

aco

gasi

fier

,low

tem

pera

ture

shif

t)

~ <:;) :::s ~ ;:;. IS' ~ 'C" ... ~ a ~ ~

aSou

rces

:Pr

oces

sfl

owsh

eetin

gst

udie

sus

ing

the

NC

B's

AR

AC

HN

Esy

stem

;The

Cos

tofL

iqui

dF

uels

from

Coa

l,E

cono

mic

Ass

essm

entS

ervi

cere

port

...E

3,lE

AC

oal

Res

earc

h,L

ondo

n;T

heE

cono

mic

so

fG

asfr

omC

oal,

Eco

nom

icA

sses

smen

tSe

rvic

ere

port

E2/

80,l

EA

Coa

lR

esea

rch,

Lon

don;

Tec

h­ni

cal

Ass

essm

ent

Gui

de,

Ele

ctri

cPo

wer

Res

earc

hIn

stit

ute

repo

rtE

PRI

P-24

10-S

R,

May

1982

;Pre

lim

inar

yA

sses

smen

to

fAlt

erna

tive

PF

BC

Pow

erP

lant

Syst

ems,

Ele

ctri

cPo

wer

Res

earc

hIn

stit

ute

repo

rtE

PRI

CS-

1451

,Ju

ly19

80;C

oal-

Fir

edP

ower

-Pla

ntC

apit

al-C

ostE

stim

ates

,Ele

ctri

cPo

wer

Res

earc

hIn

stit

ute

repo

rtE

PRI

PE-1

865

,May

1981

.

W \0 .....

392 Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology

Table A2.2 Typical costs for industrial boilersf

Fuel Boiler type

Coal Fire-tube boilers(one combustion chamber)

Fire-tube boilers(two combustion chambers)

Water-tube boilers(packaged)

Water-tube boilers(site-fabricated)

Oil Fire-tu be boilers(one combustion chamber)

Fire-tube boilers(two combustion chambers)

Water-tube boilers(packaged)

Water-tube boilers(site-fabricated)

Cost ($/kW)

1 to S to 10 to 20 to 40MWSMW 10MW 20MW 40MW and above

66

7S

242

313 280

2S 17

17

120 106

123 110 9S

aSource : The Use of Coal in Industry, The Coal Industry Advisory Board, InternationalEnergy Agency, DECO, Paris, 1982.

APPENDIX 3

ABBREVIATIONS

Some common abbreviations used here and elsewhere in the literature on coalutilisation technology are given below.

BTXCHPCLMCOMCWMdafDCFdmmfFBCFGDLCGLPGMCGMHDPAHPFPFASNGSRC

--- Benzene , Toluene and XyleneCombined Heat and Power

- Coal-Liquid MixturesCoal-Oil Mixtures

- Coal-Water Mixtures-- dry ash-free

Discounted Cash Flow- dry mineral-matter-free-- Fluidised Bed Combustion

Flue Gas Desulphurisation- Low Calorific Value Gas

Liquefied Petroleum GasMedium Calorific Value Gas

-- MagnetohydrodynamicsPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

-- Pulverised FuelPulverised Fuel AshSubstitute Natural Gas

- Solvent Refined Coal

APPENDIX 4

UNITS

In general , the units used in the present text have been limited strictly to thoseof the SI system although, for conven ience, derived units such as bar (lOs N/m2

)

for pressure and °c for temperature are also employed where appropriate .The fundamental units of mass, energy and power are the kilogram (kg),

joule (J) and watt (W), respectively. In the present context of fossil fuel con­sumption, however , the tonne (t) is often used as the unit of mass with massflow rates expressed as tonnes per hour (t/h), tonnes per day (tid) or tonnes peryear (t/a). The prefixes kilo (k), mega (M) and giga (G) are used to indicatemultiples of 103, 106 and 109 respectively (for example, million tonnes per yearmay be denoted by Mt/a).

The following approximate equivalents may be used for 'off-the-cuff calcu­lations.

Energy

0.1055 GJ1.055 GJ1.024 GJ29.3 GJ

45 GJ =6 GJ

39 GJ1.1 GJ

Power

1 thermI million BTUs1000 lb steam (from and at 100 0 C)1 tonne coal (equivalent)1 tonne petroleum (products)1 barrel petroleum (products)1000 m3 natural gas1000 ft3 natural gas

Note that in each case the MW values are thermal-not the electrical equivalent.

105.5 MW = 1 therm per second0.2931 MW = 1 million BTUs per hour0.2844 MW = 1000 lb per hour of steam (from and at 100 °C)

8.1 MW = 1 tonne per hour coal (equivalent)0.34 MW = 1 tonne per day coal (equivalent)930 MW = 1 million tonnes per year coal (equivalent)12.5 MW = 1 tonne per hour petroleum (products)0.52 MW = 1 tonne per day petroleum (products)1430 MW = 1 million tonnes per year petroleum (products)

69 MW = 1000 barrels per day petroleum (products)

395Units

190 MW = 1 million barrels per year petroleum (products)450 MW = 1 million m3 per day natural gas

1240 MW = 109 m3 per year natural gas12.8 MW = I million fe per day natural gas

35 MW = 109 ft3 per year natural gas

The conversion factors have been derived mainly from the Digest of UnitedKingdom Energy Statistics 19fJl (H.M.S.O., London).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. H. Lowry (ed.), Chemistry of Coal Utilisation, vols. 1 and 2, Wiley, NewYork,1945H. H. Lowry (ed), Chemistry ofCoal Utilisation, Supplementary Volume, Wiley,New York, 1963Martin A. Elliot (ed.), Chemistry of Coal Utilisation, Second SupplementaryVolume , Wiley, New York, 1981D. W. van Krevelen, Coal: Typology Chemistry Physics and Constitution, ElsevierPublishing Co., Amsterdam, 1961G. J. Pitt and G. R. Millward (eds .), Coal and Modern Coal Processing: AnIntroduction, Academic Press, New York, 1979L. Grainger and J. Gibson , Coal Utilisation: Technology, Economics and Policy ,Graham and Trotman, London, 1981N. Berkowitz, An Introduction to Coal Technology , Academic Press, New York ,1979Robert A. Meyers (ed.), CoalHandbook , Marcel Dekker , New York, 1981Douglas M. Considine (ed.), Energy Technology Handbook , McGraw-Hill,New York, 1977C. Y. Wen and E. Stanley Lee (eds.) , Coal Conversion Technology , AddisonWesley, Reading, Massachusetts , 1979I. Howard-Smith and G. J. Werner , Coal Conversion Technology, Noyes DataCorp ., Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1976I. G. C. Dryden (ed .), The Efficient UseofEnergy, IPC Science and TechnologyPress, Guildford, Surrey, 1975Carroll L. Wilson (ed.), Coal: Bridge to the Future , Report of the World CoalStudy (WOCOL), Ballinger Publishing Co., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980The Coal Industry Advisory Board, The Use of Coal in Industry , InternationalEnergy Agency, OECD, Paris, 1982Larry L. Anderson and David A. Tillman, Synthetic Fuels from Coal: Overviewand Assessment, Wiley, New York , 1979J. R. Howard (ed.), Thermal Applications ofFluidised-bed Technology , AppliedScience Publishers Ltd., Barking, Essex, 1982D. G. Skinner, The Fluidised Bed Combustion ofCoal, Mills and Boon, London ,1971Fluidised Bed Combustion ofCoal, National Coal Board, Hobart House , London,1980D. Anson, Fluidised Bed Combustion of Coal for Power Generation,Progress inEnergy Combustion Science, vol. 2,1976, p. 61

Bibliography 397

W. C. Patterson and R. Griffin, Fluidised-bed Energy Technology: Coming to aBoil, Inform Inc., New York , 1978Joseph Yerushalmi, Circulating Fluidised Bed Boilers, Fuel Processing Tech­nology,S (1981) 25Gas Making and Natural Gas, BP Trading Ltd ., Brittanic House, Moor Lane,London , 1972P. Nowacki, Coal Gasification Processes, Noyes Data Corp., Park Ridge, NewJersey, 1981H-D. Schilling, B. Bonn and U. Krauss, Coal Gasification: Existing ProcessesandNew Developments, Graham and Trotman, London, 1981P. Nowacki (ed .), Coal Liquefaction Processes, Noyes Data Corp ., Park Ridge,New Jersey, 1979Liquid Fuels from Coal, National Coal Board, Coal Research Establishment,Cheltenham , 1978J. Gibson and D. H. Gregory, Carbonisation of Coal, Mills and Boon, London,1971O. K. Foo and E. M. Jamgochian, Assessment of Coal-Liquid Mixtures in Co­operating lEA Countries, Report MTR·83W87-D4, The Mitre Corp , Mclean,Virginia, June 1983R. Brown, Environmental Effects of Coal Technologies: Research Needs, TheMitre Corp. , Washington, D.C., 1981Commission on Energy and the Environment, Coal and the Environment,H.M.S.O., London, 1981A New Guide to Capital Cost Estimating , The Institution of Chemical Engineers,Rugby, 1977Technical Assessment Guide, Report P-2410-SR, Electric Power ResearchInstitute, Palo Alto, California, 1982

In addition, reports on a range of coal utilisation topics are published by theTechnical Information Service and Economic Assessment Service of lEA CoalResearch, Lower Grosvenor Place, London .

INDEXAcetylene 182Acid gas removal and sulphur recovery

amines 130Benfield 131,133Claus 132-135general description 129-130high-temperature desulphurisation

processes 131-132hot carbonate 131liquid-phase oxidation 132-133physical absorption 131-13 2Rectisol 131Selexol 131Stretford 133tail gas treatment 133-135

Acid rain 300-301,303Activated sludge 129,323-324Active carbons 271,286-287,324Air heater design 75Alkali metal salts 67-68, 161Amine processes , see Acid gas removal

and sulphur recoveryAmmonia

aqueous effluents 128-129, 139,321-324

production data 166,386-387removal from gases 129synthesis 151-152

Antisolvent 206Aqueous scrubbers 127,298-299,

321Arge 37, 146, 165Ash 8,46,58,74,85-86,93,

108-109,124,237-239,296,324-326

Ash agglomerating regime, seeGasifiers

Ash fusion temperature 7, 58, 93,109,123-124

Ash handling 245,247Ash sintering 7,49,67,108Asphaltenes 195,197,198Assisted settling 203 , 204, 206AvCo process 182

Bag filters 56, 127,298-299Baum Jig washing 9Beehive ovens 33Benfield process , see Acid gas removal

and sulphur recoveryBenzene , toluene and xylenes (BTX)

33,183-184Benzene-soluble material (BSM) 320Benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) 320Benzole 33Bergius process, see Liquefaction

processesBiological oxygen demand (BOD) 322Black Mesa pipeline 240Blast furnaces 377-379Boilers

A-type 88dry-back 88D-type 87fire-tube 87-90,374-378,392fluidised bed designs 93-98gas-fired 90-93locomotive 96-97oil-fired 90-93packaged 88pumped circulation 88shell 87site-fabricated 88vertical shell 95water-tube 87-88 ,374-378,392

Break-even conditions 347,354,356Briquetting 249-250, 284-286British Gas-Lurgi slagging gasifier,

see gasifiersBy-product recovery ovens 33

Capital costs , see CostsCarbon dioxide, see EnvironmentCarbon fibres 287Carbonisation 248-249,280,283,285Catalytic cracking 218-220Catalytic reforming 222Cement and brick kilns 378-379Cetane number 224, 227

Index 399

Chain grate stoker, see StokersChemical cleaning 303-304Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 322Chemicals

direct liquefaction 218 , 227economics 380-381history of the chemical industry

33-34synthesis processes 142, 164 ,

166-167Chevron Coal Liquefaction Process

(CCLP), see Liquefaction processesChlorine in coal 7, 67 , 3 16Ch1oropheno1s 322Circulating fluidised beds 40 ,62Cities Service-Rockwell process,

see HydropyrolysisClaus process, see Acid gas removal

and sulphur recoveryCoal

classification 3-7composition 2consumption 11-14formation 1-2handling 243-247preparation 7-10,237-239,303production 11reserves 7-19structure 3trade 14-17transport 239-242

Coal-fired diesel engines 239,263-265,278,366-367

Coal-fired locomotives 266 ,366Coal-fired ships 265-266 ,366,367Coalification 1-6Coal-liquid mixtures 259-260,265 ,

376-377Coal-oil coprocessing 288Coal-oil mixtures 238,263 ,278,280,

357-358,376-377Coal-water mixtures 238,260-262,

278 ,280,357-358,376-377COED process , see PyrolysisCOGAS process, see PyrolysisCoke manufacture 11,29,280-286Coke ovens

beehive 33by-product recovery 33modern design 280-281

Coking behaviour of coals 6,280-283Com bined cycles

economics 353-357,391

gasification 158-163pressurised fluidised bed combustion

74-80, 162-163Combined heat and power 99-100,

257, 277~278,358-359,365Combined processes 287-292Commercial prototype 382Compressed air energy storage, see

Power generationConditioning 85Conservation

by efficiency improvements , seeEfficiency

by energy price increases 363of coal by nuclear substitution

288-292of oil and natural gas by coal

substitution, see Substitutionby coal

Costs , see also Economicscapital costs 336-337,390-392energy costs 337initial costs 338-339, 343operation and maintenance costs

337,343Crude oil 34, 168 ,349-350,362Cycles

combined, see Combined cyclesexhaust-fired 75, 77-78simple gas turbine 75-76supercharged boiler 75,78-80waste heat boiler 75-77

Cyclone furnaces 26Cyclones 56,68, 126,298-299

Debt-equity ratio 348Deep washing 238 , 260Demand model, see Energy modelsDemonstration scale 382Dense medium washing 9, 237Density separation devices 207Diesel fuel, see Liquid fuelsDigest 186 ,193-194,203Disaggregation 351Discounted cash flow (DCF) 339-348Distillation 203-204 ,214-215District heating 256-257 ,305 ,

358-359,371Domestic appliances 253-256Domestic heating market 248-257,

370-373Downcomer pipe 88Dry deposition 300

400 Index

Duff 252Dust and grit 296-297

Economicsdesign considerations 331-335economic assessment methods

335-348economic data 390-392economics for final consumers

364-392economics of coal conversion

processes 352-364Economies of scale 333Efficiency

boiler 50-51coal-fired ships and locomotives 266combined heat and power 277combustion in domestic appliances

256combustion in fluidised beds 48-58,

65, 70conversion to gas 153-155,289,391conversion to liquid fuels 229 ,391effect on economics 337-347electric vehicles 369-370heat pump 372particulate collection 298-299power generation 74-79,159-161,

274 ,275,353,391sulphur retention and removal

48-58,65,70,302-305underground gasification 233-234

Electric vehicles 369-370Electricity demand

domestic heating 370-373industrial heating 380off-peak 372-373power and light 365transport , see Electric vehiclesvariation 21,279,354

Electricity generation, see Powergeneration

Electrode carbons 287Electrostatic precipitators 56, 127,

298-299Elutriation 40 , 43, 48Energy

cost component in coal processes337

models 349-352supply systems 349types of demand 19-24

Enrichment 317

Environmentcarbon dioxide 310-314catalysts 329land 329-330liquid effluents 128-129,139,

321-324nitrogen oxides 65 ,274 ,306-310particulate matter 296-299solid residues 324-328sulphur 23, 299-305thermal pollution 329visual impact 330water 330

Extract 186,188,196 ,198,202Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS) process ,

see Liquefaction processes

Fast fluidised bed systems, seeFluidised bed com bustion

Filtration 206-207Fines burn -up bed 57Fire-tube boilers, see BoilersFischer-Tropsch process , see Lique-

faction processesFixed-bed gas producers , see GasifiersFlue gas desulphurisation (FGD)

classification of processes 271economics 353,357,391environmental implications 303-304,

309lime/limestone scrubbing 267-269non-regenerable processes 269-270regenera ble processes 270-271sludge 327

Fluidisation 26,39-42, 113Fluidised bed combustion (FBC)

atmospheric pressure FBC boilers38,47-58,73-74,93-98,280,383

atmospheric pressure FBC furnaces38,59-62,98-99,383

chemical reactions 42-46economics 353-358,375-379,391fast fluidised bed systems 38,40,

62-67,384history 25-28incinerators 67,99industrial applications 80-100power generation applications 71-80pressurised fluidised bed combustion

38,67-71 ,74-80,278,385solid residue 327-328

Index 401

F1uidisingvelocity 53Formed coke 284-286Froth flotation 9,237-238,260Fuel cells, see Power generationFuel gas, see Low calorific value gasFurnaces 38 ,59-62,67,98-99,

156,374,377-380,383-384

Gas cleaning 126-128Gas lighting 28Gas oil, see Liquid fuelsGas turbines 74-80,159-162Gasification, see also Gasifiers

application to SNG manufacture152-156

chemical reactions 101-108classification of gases 140-142economics 359-361gas processing 124-142gasifier designs 108-1 24history 28-31industrial gases 156-157power generation applications

157-163solid residue 328synthesis of liquid fuels and

chemicals 142-152,164-167Gasifiers

ash agglomerating regime 108British Gas-Lurgi slagging 118, 121,

154,160,386,391cyclic water gas 29development programmes 385-388dry ash 108fixed-bed gas producers 117-119

156 ,379-380,385 'High-temperature Winkler 118

122,388 'Koppers-Totzek 29-30,109,115,

118,120-121,385-386Lurgi 29-30,37,113,118,120-121,

154,385-386Ruhr 100 Lurgi 118,121 ,154,386Shell 118,122,388slagging 108SteagLurgi 118,121,386Texaco 118,122,160,387,391third generation 121-123,154-155

388 'Winkler 26,29-30,114,118-119,

121,385-386Gasoline , see Liquid fuels

Green-field site 332,373-375Greenhouse effect 308, 311, 314

H-Coal process, see Liquefactionprocesses

Heat pumps 371-372Heat-only boilers 256 ,358High calorific value gas, see Substitute

natural gasHigh carbon monoxide methanation

144High-temperature desu1phurisation

see Acid gas removal and sulphurrecovery

High-temperature Winkler gasifier,see Gasifiers

H-Oil 209,211Hot carbonate processes, see Acid gas

removal and sulphur recoveryHydraulic conveying systems 247Hydrocracking 192 , 194,220-221Hydrofining, see HydrotreatmentHydrofraccing 232Hydrogasification 102,107,112-113,

115, 154-156Hydrogen

aircraft fuel 367donor solvents 188-189economics 359-361,391economy 359production data 166production for liquefaction 211-214road vehicle fuel 367-370role in liquefaction 192-194

Hydrogenation, see LiquefactionHydropyro1ysis

Cities Service-Rockwell process118,122,183 ,186

operating conditions 183-184rapid pyrolysis, comparisons with

184-186reactions 180, 182-183

Hydroskimming 21Hydrotreatment 192,193,215-217

222 '

Ignitluid 26Industrial gasifiers, see GasifiersIndustrial heating market 80-100Initial costs, see CostsInk from coal slurries 241Inso1ub1es 195,211-214

402 Index

Kerosine , see Liquid fuelsKerr-McGee de-ashing process 204Koelbel synthesis reactor 146-147Koppers-Totzek gasifier , see Gasifiers

Laboratory scale 382Liquefaction, see also Liquefaction

processes and Liquid fuelschemical reactions 196-203classification of processes 171-173direct route 172,228-230,361economics 362-364,391history 31-37hydrogenation 187, 192-203hydropyrolysis, see Hydropyrolysisindirect route 164-167,173 ,

228-230,362pilot plants 389process configurations 208-211product applications and properties

222-228pyrolysis, see Pyrolysisrefining coal-derived liquids 214-222solids separation 203-208solvent extraction 186-192

Liquefaction processesBergius 35 ,191,193 ,202,208 ,

209,210Chevron Coal Liquefaction Process

(CCLP) 209 , 211Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS)

209,214,362,389Fischer-Tropsch 36-37,146-147,

164-167,228-229,362,386 ,391H-Coal 209,210,362,389,391Lummus Integrated Two-Stage

Liquefaction (ITSL) 209,211Methanol-to-gasoline (MTG)

149-150,164-167,362,368,391

Mobil 37,149-150,165-167,228-229,388,391

National Coal Board Liquid SolventExtraction (NCB LSE) 209,211 ,214

Pott-Broche 35,193,209,210,211Ruhrkohle 202,209,210,362,389single-stage 193-194SRC1 209 ,210,389SCR2 202,209,210,389two-stage 193-194,362Zinc Chloride 200

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), seeLiquid fuels

Liquid effluents, see EnvironmentLiquid fuels

boiler fuel 21-22,227-228chemistry of 168-170diesel fuel 227domestic heating applications 370gas oil 169 ,214-221,380industrial applications 373-375jet engine fuel 225-226kerosine heating oil 226liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

170 ,224-225markets for 19-23motor spirit 21-22,225naphtha 32,169,214-222,381properties 222-224sulphur control aspects 304-305

Liquid-phase oxidation, see Acid gasremoval and sulphur recovery

Load-duration curve 354-355Location, effect on economics

332-333 ,360,363-364Long-range transport (LRT) 300-301 ,

303Low calorific value gas 101, 112, 141 ,

152-153 ,156-157,228,232,278,304,358-361

Lummus de-ashing process 204Lummus Integrated Two-Stage Lique­

faction (ITSL) process , seeLiquefaction processes

Lurgi gasifier, see Gasifiers

Macerals 2, 190Macroeconomic models 352Magnetohydrodynamics (MHO),

see Power generationMature technology 333-334Medium calorific value gas 101, 112,

141,156-157,304,359-361,381,391

Methacoal 242Methanation 102,107,143-145Methanol 147-149,164-167,

368,386,391Methano1-to-gasoline (MTG) process ,

see Liquefaction processesMicronised fuel 238 ,264Middlings 8,303Mineral matter 2,46 ,48,55 , 171 ,

191,200,203-206 ,229,237-239

Index 403

Minimum fluidising velocity 39Mobil process, see Liquefaction

processesMoisture 2, 58, 85-86Motor spirit, see Liquid fuelsMud drum 87

Naphtha, see Liquid fuelsNational Coal Board Liquid Solvent

Extraction (NCB LSE) process ,see Liquefaction processes

Natural gas 19..,23,30-31, 152,349-350,370-371,373-376 ,380

Net Present Value (NPV) 341 ,347Nine-tenths rule 334Nitrogen in coal 3 ,7,42-43,102,

215-217,306,307,315Nitrogen oxides, see EnvironmentNon-fossil derived hydrogen 291-292Nuclear energy

as an energy source 349-350electricity generation 353-357gasification using nuclear heat

288-291hydrogen production 291-292

Nuclear heat gasification 288-291

Occidental process , see PyrolysisOctane number 224-225Oiling 282Oils, formation in hydrogenation

195-197Olefins 146,149-150,165-166,

217-218,227,380,381Open-bed design 68 ,71,76Operation and maintenance costs,

see CostsOver-hydrogenation 196Oxo-synthesis 150-151 , 166Ozone 306-308

Particulate matter, see EnvironmentPayback time 346,364,370Peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) 306-308Phantom coal liquids 21Phenols, in aqueous effluents 128-129,

321-324Phenosolvan 128,139,323Physical absorption processes, see

Acid gas removal and sulphurrecovery

Pilot plant scale 382

Pioneer plant 333-334Pipeline gas, see Substitute natural gasPlasma pyrolysis, see PyrolysisPneumatic conveying systems 245-247Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAH) 230 ,319-321PONA analysis 168Pott-Broche process, see Liquefaction

processesPower generation

compressed air energy storage 279economics 352-357fluidised bed com bustion systems

73-80fuel cells 275-277gasification systems I 57-163 ,

280,357magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)

272-274pulverised fuel systems 71-73refurbishing 279,357repowering 280retrofitting 163,279-280self-generation 365statistical data 11-14underground gasification 235

Preasphaltenes 195-198Pressurised fluidised bed combustion,

see Fluidised bed combustionProducer gas, see Low calorific value

gasPulverised fuel ash (PFA) 325-326Pulverised fuel combustion 25-26 ,

71-73,265,353-357,375-379,391

PyrolysisCOED process 180COGAS process 118, 122, 180Occidental process 180operating conditions 177-179plasma pyrolysis 182process configurations 171,

179-181rapid pyrolysis 176-177reactions 101,107,174-176,248

Radioactivity 318-319Ranch style 74Rapid pyrolysis, see Pyrolysis and

HydropyrolysisRate of return 341,348,364,365Real terms 341

404 Index

Rectisol , see Acid gas removal andsulphur recovery

Refurbishing, see Power generationRemote extraction 231-237Repowering, see Power generationRetrofitting 163,279-280,374Riddlings 85Ruhr 100 Lurgi gasifier, see GasifiersRuhrkohle process, see Liquefaction

processes

Selexol , see Acid gas removal andsulphur recovery

Self-generation, see Power generationSeyler classification 3-5Shell gasifier, see GasifiersShift reaction 102,107,135-137Silica ratio 7Slag 7,108-110,114,120,123-124Slurry pipelines 240-242Smog

photochemical 307smoke-based 294

Smoke 248, 256 , 296-297Smoke box 88Smoke point 224-225Smoke tubes 88Smokeless fuels 248-253 ,297,371Smoke-reducing appliances 253-256 ,

297Solid residues , see EnvironmentSolution, of coal 186, 194, 203Solvent extraction 186-192Solvent refined coal (SRC) 209,

210 ,227-228,304Sparge pipes 56Spherical agglomeration 238Sprinkler stoker, see StokersSRCI and SRC2 processes , see

Liquefaction processesStamp charging 282Stand-alone configurations 163Standpipes 56Static energy model, see Energy

modelsSteag Lurgi gasifier, see GasifiersSteam drum 87Stokers

applications 374-379chain grate stoker 25,83-86classification and description 81-86history 25

improved designs 257-259sprinkler stoker 25,81-82,84-86underfeed stoker 25,82,84-86,

258Stretford, see Acid gas removal and

sulphur recoverySubstitutenaturalgas 101,112,141,

152-156,167,225 ,234-235,289,304-305,359-361 ,371 -372,379-381,391

Substitution by coal 21-22,94,357,374-380

Sulphate haze 301-302Sulphur

environmental effects, seeEnvironment

in coal 3,7,102,299,315removal by coal preparation

237-239 ,303removal during gas processing

129-135,157,162removal from combustion gases, see

Flue gas desulphurisationretention during coal-water mixture

combustion 260retention in fluidised bed com­

bustors 44-46 , 162,303retention in gasifiers 103, 132

Supercritical gas extraction 191-192Syncrude 210 ,229Synfuels 23Synthesis gas, see Medium calorific

value gasSynthesis technologies, see GasificationSynthol 28,37,146-147,165,391

Tail gas treatment, see Acid gasremoval and sulphur recovery

Tall stack policy 302 ,304Tar 28-29,31-34 ,119-120,125 ,

174,296Tempering 85Terminal velocity 40Texaco gasifier, see GasifiersThermal cracking 217-218Threshold limit values (TLVs) 317,

320Time-marching energy model, see

Energy modelsTime-phased energy model, see

Energy modelsTotal dissolved solids (TDS) 326

Index 405

Trace specieselements 315-316gases 319general , see Environment

Turbidity , of water courses 322Two-stage combustion 309

Underfeed stoker, see Stokers

Underground gasification 231-236

Washout 300Water-tube boilers, see BoilersWinkler gasifier, see Gasifiers

Zinc Chloride process , see Lique­faction processes