APIMONDIA SYMPOSIUM 2018, ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIAethioapiboard.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/APIMONDIA... · 2019. 6. 21. · APIMONDIA – Dr Peter Kozmus Dr. Peter Kozmus, Vice President

0

APIMONDIA SYMPOSIUM

2018 ADDIS ABABA

ETHIOPIA

SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS

ETHIOPIAN APICULTURE BOARD (EAB)

ORGANIZED AND PRINTED WITH

FINANCIAL SUPPORT FROM ATA AND

NORAD

1

Contents

Executive Summary 2

Message from the President of Ethiopian Apiculture Board 3

Committee Members 5

Welcome Messages 8

Program of the Symposium 10

Presentations by Sector Actors 25

Keynote Speeches 29

Presentations in Working Groups 33

Topic 1 Papers Pollination and Food Production 34

Topic 2 Papers Threat to Pollinators and to their perfomances 85

Topic 3 Papers Environmental Serveces and Climate Chnage 123

Topic 4 Papers Commercialization and Transformation of Beekeeping 160

Presentations in Final Plenary Session 253

Plenary Closing Session 256

Papers scheduled for presentation but were not presented 258

Contacts Addresses Websites 322

2

Executive Summary

The APIMONDIA Symposium 2018 was held in Addis Ababa with the title ldquoThe role of

bees in food productionrdquo and with the theme ldquoSignificance of beesrsquo pollination in

improved food productionrdquo It is only for the second time that such event was hosted in

Africa in the organizationrsquos 130 yearsrsquo history The conference enjoyed distinguished

and large audience of scientists researchers beekeepers and development partners

from around the globe The numbers show that 991 apiculturists from 25 countries -12

of them African countries- attended the symposium

Three keynote speeches and 48 paper presentations were made under four topics

More presentations were accepted but could not be presented owing to administrative ndash

mainly visa and budgetary ndash problems encountered by the participants All accepted

papers and summaries of the welcome messages and sector presentations are included

in these proceedings

The topics of the Symposium were ldquoPollination and food productionrdquo ldquoThreats to

pollinators or to their performancerdquo ldquoEnvironmental service and climate changerdquo and

ldquoCommercialization and transformation of beekeepingrdquo Results of various studies and

experiences of those who had hands-on experience were shared Discussions and

debates were lively in all groups and all participants have taken something out from the

symposium Areas of concern such as indiscriminate usage of agro-chemicals at large

were shared among participants and recommendations were forwarded to curb

identified problems

The way forward especially for Africa was pointed out The need to create awareness

about the role of pollinators in food production and the threats pollinators are facing

from various factors such as agro-chemical usage monoculture diseases and parasites

and population growth have been stressed and discussed in depth

Sector actors presented themselves and during the closing ceremony presented a

number of female beekeepers with awards for their outstanding achievements which

included service giving and extension activities Finally the requirements to undertake

migratory beekeeping for pollination improvement and ldquoan extra glass of honeyrdquo were

highlighted based on the experience of the worldrsquos migratory beekeepers

It is the hope of the organizers of the Symposium that participants will share the

knowledge and experience gained from this symposium to colleagues and beneficiaries

and make improvements in their areas It is also expected that researchers will gain a

number of ideas for further investigations

3

Message from the President of the Ethiopian Apiculture Board

On behalf of the Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB) it has been my

great pleasure to present to you the Proceedings of the

International APIMONDIA Symposium which was held in Ethiopia

at Addis Ababa from Nov 30 to Dec 4 2018 on ldquoThe importance

of beesrsquo pollination to increase food productionrdquo This

substantial role of bees in Africa has often been neglected or not

well understood

With Ethiopia being the leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa and among

the top producers in the world with a wide variety of honey including monofloral and

regionally branded honeys and a largely untapped potential we decided to take a lead

in highlighting the beneficial role of bees and other insects not only in creating income

through apicultural products but also in improving the food supply for our nations

through pollination

Ethiopia is a land of the origin of mankind due to various hominid fossil discoveries

Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia and the African Union and is often called the

African Capital due to its historical diplomatic and political significance for the

continent The headquarters of the African Union and the United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa both are found in the city

Established by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations in 1958 and

located at the centre of Addis Ababa the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)

Conference Centre combines admired architectural elegance with the very latest

technology ndash the ideal site for our International APIMIONDIA Symposium

In addition to the beauties of Addis Ababa the Symposium has offered an excellent

opportunity for experience sharing and networking in various aspects and latest

developments in the beekeeping world And this worked extremely well with the over

900 delegates and speakers from 25 countries of the globe The Symposium included

an exhibition event that ranin parallel in the GHION Hotel Compoundrsquos beautiful Green

Garden for the display of different bee products coming from all over the world We

welcomed over 130 exhibitors who were displaying their products - another opportunity

for experience sharing and discussion among the participants of the Symposium

exhibitors and the public at large

With warm Ethiopian hospitality and excellent facilities the International APIMONDIA

Symposium 2018 at Addis Ababa turned out to be great success and unforgettable

experience We are proud to say that participants acquired sufficient experience from

4

the Symposium with regard to the pollination role of beesrsquo in increasing food production

that contributes a lot to minimize the food supply gaps

Let me close in stating that the event would not have happened ndash and these

Proceedings would not have been printed ndash without the support of the Ministry of

Agriculture and Livestock Resources of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

the Agricultural Transformation Agency development partners such as SNV Ethiopia

OXFAM GB GIZ and others ndash too many to mention them here We are grateful as well

to our partners APIMONDIA and APITRADE AFRICA for the support of the event in

particular and the apicultural sector in general

On behalf of the National APIMONDIA Symposium Organizing Committee (NASOC)

Hailegiorgis Demissie

President Ethiopian Apiculture Board

5

Apimondia Symposium 2018 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

APIMONDIA Symposium 2018 Organizing International Committee

Mr Philip McCabe President

Mr Peter Kozmus Vice-president

Mr Riccardo Jannoni-Sebastianini Secretary-General

Dr Lukas Garibaldi President of the SC on Pollination and Bee Flora

Dr Norberto Garcia President of the SC on Beekeeping Economy

Mr David Mukomana President of Regional Commission for Africa

Mr Hailegiorgis Demissie President of Ethiopian Apiculture Board

APIMONDIA Symposium 2018 on the Role of Bees in Food ProductionScientifc

Committee



Mr Bosko Okello APITRADE member

Dr Amsalu Addie Holeta Bee Research Center member

MrGemchis Legesse Ethiopian Society of Apicultural Sciences member

Dr Juergen Greiling EABSenior advisor member

Mr Kibebew Wakjira Holeta Bee Research Center member

Dr Tekeba Nega EMDIDI memebr

Local Organizing Committee Members

1 National APIMONDIA SYMPOSIUM Organizing Committee (NASOC)

NASOC Chair

Mr Hailegiorgis Demisew EAB president

NASOC Committee Members

Dr Amsalu Bezabih HBRC Holeta National Bee Research Coordinator

COMMITTEES

6

Mr Mulufird Ashagrie Ex-Apimonidia Regional Commission for Africa

Mr Negash Bekena Secretary GM of EAB

Mr Demisew Wakjira MoA Honey amp Silk Directorate Director

Mr Solomon Dagnew MoA Advisor to the Minister

Mr Dendana Chemeda MoTI Agro-processing Directorate Director

Mr Assefa Amaldegn ATA Honey Sector Project Coordinate

Mr Alemseged Gkidan EHBPEA Manager

2 Sub-Committees Under the NASOC

Fund Raising Committee Chair

Mr Mulufird Ashagirie Ethiopian Apiculture Board

21 - Fund Raising Committee Members

Mr Hailegiorgis Demissie Board Chairman Ethiopian Apiculture Board

Mr Demisew Wakjira Ministry of Agriculture

Dr Amsalu Bezabih HBRC Holeta

Mr Asefa Amaldegne ATA (Agriculture Transformation Agency)

Mr Negash Bekena General Manager Ethiopian Apiculture Board

Dr Juergen Greiling Senior Advisor Ethiopian Apiculture Board

Mr Hailu Kebede Rehobot Promotion (PCO)

22- Participants Mobilization Committee Chair

MrHailu Kebede Rehobot Promotion (PCO)

Participants Mobilization Committee Members


Mr Mulufird Ashagrie Ethiopian Apiculture Board


Mr Dendena Chemeda MOI (Ministry of Industry)

Mr Alemseged GKidan EHBPEA

Dr Belay GMichael Private consultant


7

23 - Event Promotion Committee Chair

Mr Hailu Kebede Rehobot Promotion

Event Promotion Committee Members



Mr Solomon Dagne MoA


24 - Logistic and Hospitality Committee Chair

Mr Talila Keno Planning Head Ethiopian Apiculture Board

Logistic and Hospitality Committee Members


Mr Tamiremariam WMeskel Ethiopian Apiculture Board


Mr Tewodros Kebede MAK LINK Technology

25 - Finance Committee Member Chair


Finance committee members


Mrs Alem Getachew Ethiopian Apiculture Board


Mrs Enani Kebede HBRC Holeta

Ms Abinet Fekadu Ethiopian Apiculture Board

________________________

Mr Philip McCabe has been a strong advocate and supporter of the APIMONDIA

SYMPOSIUM 2018 held in Ethiopia but unfortunately he died on the 20th of October 2018 It

has been a great loss for APIMONDIA but we will carry out on his work and follow his example

8

Welcome Messages

APIMONDIA ndash Dr Peter Kozmus

Dr Peter Kozmus Vice President and Acting President of APIMONDIA expressed great

pleasure for being able to attend the Symposium in Addis Ababa Dr Kozmus vowed to

follow the examples of the late APIMONDIA President Philip McCabe and pointed out

the plan to commemorate him on 7th of December 2018 by beekeepers

Bees have a crucial role in food production according to Dr Kozmus and that is

especially true in Ethiopia He stated that ninety percent of beesrsquo potentials is yet to be

tapped and said it is still difficult as usual to be a beekeeper globally for various

reasons such as loss of interest from youngsters to join the profession He also pointed

out global warming and environmental changes pesticides and bee diseases to be

major challenges in apiculture

Dr Kozmus expressed the immense importance of Symposia and Congresses in being

platforms for listening to new results from researchers and scientists in apiculture and

stressed the need for knowledge transfer to beekeepers

He also had something to say about the book lsquoNo bees No lifersquo which he co-authored

with 65 other contributors He said the book discussed beekeeping in Africa in 350

pages The book influenced the decision to mark May 20th as World Bee Day

Dr Kozmus concluded his welcoming remarks by wishing all participants a successful

symposium

ATA ndash Khalid Bomba

The third welcome message was delivered by Khalid Bomba Chief Executive Officer at

Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) Having welcomed attendees to the

symposium Mr Bomba said the symposium wouldnrsquot have been possible without the

participation and hard work of various partners and he thanked them all

Khalid Bomba said that bee keeping is as ancient as Ethiopia and that beekeeping is

part of the countryrsquos culture 2 million of her citizens being beekeepers According to Mr

Bomba bees contribute to the special taste of Ethiopian coffee In addition to its

commercial benefit apiculture remains important in the country in ensuring food

security employment biodiversity forest conservation and environmental protection

Mr Bomba expressed his hope that Ethiopia will get a lot of inputs from the Symposium

essential for its apiculture modernization effort and his expectation that the Symposium

will suggest solutions to key issues in apiculture such as the production

commercialization branding and technology development

9

He concluded his remarks by thanking APIMONDIA and the Ethiopian Apiculture Board

(EAB) for making the Symposium happen and called upon the next speaker HE Umar

Hussen Federal Minister of Agriculture and Livestock Resources (FMoALR)

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Resources ndash HE Umar Hussen

HE Umar Hussen expressed pleasure to address the second APIMONDIA Symposium

hosted on Africarsquos soil in the institutionrsquos 130 years history and said that the Symposium

signals Ethiopia and Africa are ready to participate in APIMONDIA activities The

minister said that the exhibition part of the symposium is as important as the

presentation and discussion parts for experience sharing and learning

HE Mr Uman Hussen warned that bees are in danger and that all actors have to be

brought around the table and deal with current issues in apiculture Having thanked all

actors for making this happen HE the Minister said the government of Ethiopia honors

such concerted effort

The Minister then told participants of the Symposium that Ethiopia is interested to bid for

the 2023 APIMONDIA Congress

He finally wrapped up his remarks wishing that the Symposium will be a success and

that there will be enough deliberation time

10

Program for the APIMONDIA Symposium 2018

Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Time amp

Day

Title amp Presenter Venue Duration Session

Manager

Day -0 Thursday 29 November 2018 GHION

GREEN

PARK

800-

1300

Registration of exhibition

participants

300rsquo Event organizer

Day -1 Friday 30 November 2018 UNECA

Con-

ference

Hall

800-

1000

Registration of congress participants 120rsquo Event organizer

1000-

1030 Tea Coffee Refreshment Foyer 30rsquo

Room

No1

Plenary - Opening Speeches

Welcome messages Room

No 1

MC

___________

Ato Mulufird

Ashagrie

EAB

1030-

1045

Hailegiorgis Demissiendash President of

the Ethiopian Apiculture Board

(EAB) ndash Welcome message

15rsquo

1045-

1100

Dr Peter Kozmus - Vice - President

of APIMONDIA - Welcome message

15rsquo

1100-

1115

Khalid Bomba- Director General

Agricultural Transformation Agency

(ATA)ndash Welcome message

15rsquo

11

1115-

1130

HE Umar Hussen ndashMinister of

Agriculture amp Livestock Resources

(MoA) of the FDRE - Opening

remarks amp official opening

15rsquo

1130-

1230

HE Umar Hussen - Official opening of the

Api-Expo (Exhibition) at GHION Green Park


1230-

1430 Lunch break 120rsquo

Group Sessions 1 - 4 Keynotes 1

2 4

Room

No 1

Topic 1 Pollination and Food

Production

Room

No 1

Prof Samina

Qamer

(Feisalabad

Pakistan)

1430-

1500

Keynote Speech Topic 1 Pollination and

Food Production ldquoUnderstanding the

causes of low pollination in cropsrdquo

By ndash Prof Dr Saul Cunningham

30rsquo

1500-

1515

Discussion 15rsquo

1515-

1545

Presentation 11 amp discussion

Impact of Pollinator Services on Global

Food amp Nutrition Security 20252050

By - Manfred J Kern

30rsquo

1545-

1615


Overview of Insect Pollinators in

Sustainable Agriculture Planning

Unexploited Opportunity in Ethiopia

By ndash Tolera Kumsa

30rsquo

1615-


12

Room

No 5

Topic 2 Threats to pollinators or

to their performance

Room

No 5

Dr Tolera Kumsa

HBRC w

Dr Juergen

Greiling

1430-

1515

Panel discussion ldquoThreats to Pollinators or

to their Performancerdquo

Dr Juergen Greiling EAB Dr Abebe

Jenberie Bahir Dar University Alemayehu

Gela HBRC amp session participants

45rsquo

1515-

1545


Selection of Apis mellifera for hygienic

behavior vis-a-vis mite and disease

incidence after five decades of its

introduction in India

By - Mohammed Mustafa Ibrahim

30rsquo

1545-

1615


Defense mechanisms of Ethiopian

honeybee (Apis mellifera jementica)

against varroa mite (Varroa destructor)

By ndash Haftom Gebremedhn

30rsquo

1615-

1645 Tea Coffee Refreshment 30rsquo

1645-

1715


Monoculture intensification as a threat

for apiculture current state review

By ndash Addisu Bihonegn

30rsquo

Room

No 3

Topic 3 Environmental Service and

Climate Change

Room

No 3

Ato Taye Negera

HBRC

1430-

1500


Bee forage diversity in Ethiopian flora amp

its implication for apiculture development

30rsquo

13

By ndash Admassu Addi

1500-

1615

Q amp A 45rsquo

1615-


Room

No 2

Topic 4 Commercialization and

Transformation of Beekeeping

Room

No 2

Ato Tatek

Tesfaye SNV

1430-

1500

Keynote Speech Topic 4

Commercialization and Transformation of

Beekeeping

Title Beekeeping for Poverty Alleviation

and Livelihood Security

By ndash Dr Amssalu Bezabih

30rsquo

1500-

1515

Discussion 15rsquo

1515-

1615


Pollen the perfect food for the bee but

also for humans

By - Peter Gallmann

60

1615-


Day -2 Saturday 1 December 2018 UNECA

Conferenc

e Hall

Room

No1

Plenary - Short messages Room

No1

Ato Dendana

Chemada NASOC

830-

845

ATA ndash DrPavlos Troulis ldquoThe need for the

transformation of the beekeeping sector

15rsquo

14

in Ethiopia amp expanding market linkage ndash

ATArsquos contributionrdquo

845-

900

SNV ndash Wr Yetnayet Girmaw ldquoLessons

from SNVrsquos Apiculture Development

Programmerdquo

15rsquo

900-

915

ICIPE ndash Dr Workneh Ayalew Honeybees

and other commercial insects for economic

prosperity and environmental healthrdquo

15rsquo

915-

1030

Discussion 75rsquo

1030-


Group Sessions 1 - 4 Keynote 3

Room

No2


Production

Room

No 2

Ato Gemechis

Legesse ESAS

11 00-

11 30


Effect of honey bee pollination on the

fruit setting and yield of Brassica spp

crop Pakistan

By ndash Samina Qamer

30rsquo

1130-

1200


Old secrets about secretions of the

honeybee

By - Peter Gallmann

30rsquo

1200-

1230


Facts about insects negative and

positive roles of insects in human

livelihood

By ndash Emana Getu

30rsquo

1230-


15

1400-

1430 Presentation 16amp discussion

ldquoHow to Prepare a Business Plan for Bee

Productsrsquorsquo

By ndash Tigist Zegeye

30rsquo

1430-

1500

Presentation 17 amp Discussion

ldquoRole of honeybee pollination on the

yield of agricultural crops in Ethiopiardquo

By- Tura Bareke

30rsquo

1500-

1530

Discussion Research needs to quantify

pollination effects QampA

30rsquo

1530-


Room

No3



Room

No3

Dr Admassu Addi

HBRC

930-

1000

Presentation 2 4 amp discussion

Hot and sort after Body temperature

correlates with pheromone production in

honey bee workers

By - Abdullahi A Yusuf

30rsquo

1000-

1030

Discussion Q amp A 30rsquo

1030-

1100 Tea coffee Refreshment 30rsquo

1100-

1130


Assessment on the effects of

agrochemical applications on honeybee

production in selected zones of Tigray

Region Northern Ethiopia

By ndash Guesh Godifey

30rsquo

1130-

1230

Discussion Q amp A

16

1230-


1400-

1430

Presentation 2 6

Density and distribution of nesting sites

of honeybees in the Dinder Biosphere

Reserve Sudan

By - Lubna Hassan

30rsquo

1430-

1500


Underpinning the impacts of on-going

agro-chemical use on honeybees in

North-Western Ethiopia The overview of

lsquozero-sumrsquo strategyrdquo

BY ndash Abebe Jenberie

30rsquo

1500-

1530

Discussion Agrochemical application

threat QampA

30rsquo

1530-

1615 Tea Coffee Refreshment

45rsquo

Room

No 5

Topic 3 Environmental Service

and Climate Change

Room

No 5

Dr Workneh

Ayalew ICIPE

930-

1000

Keynote speech Topic 3 Environmental

Service and Climate Change

Insect pollinators and pollination

services in changing environments

By - Prof Dr Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter

30rsquo

1000-

1030

Discussion 30rsquo

1030-

1100 Tea Coffee Refreshment 30

17

1100-

1130


Proximate composition and antioxidant

power of bee pollen collected from moist

Afromontane forest in southwest

Ethiopia


30rsquo

1200-

1230


Beekeeping benefits to communities

with challenging environments

By - Kerry Clark

30rsquo

1230-


1400-

1430

Presentation 35 amp discussion ldquoThe status of honey quality produced in Gedebano Gutazer Wolene Central Ethiopiardquo By ndash Akalework Gizaw

30rsquo

1430-

1530

Discussion QampA 30rsquo

1530-


Room

No 1



Room

No1

Wr Yetnayet

Girmaw SNV

930-

1000


Building a honey value chain in Ethiopia

strong enough to face international

competition

By ndashGemechis Jaleta

30rsquo

18

1000-

1030

Presentation 43 and discussion

Honey and Geographical Indications (GI)

Why is honey a good pilot product for the

implementation of geographical

indications labeling in Ethiopia

By ndash Degefie Tibebe

30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130


Enzyme activity amino acid profiles and

hydroxymethylfurfural content in

Ethiopian monofloral honey

By - Abera Belay

30rsquo

1130-

1200


Production and composition analysis of

stingless bees honey from West Showa

zone of Oromia region Ethiopia

By - Alemayehu Gela

30rsquo

12 00 ndash

1230


1230-


1400-

1430


Challenges of beekeeping and honey

trade among smallholder beekeepers and

SMErsquos in Africa

By ndash Chibugo Okafor

30rsquo

1430-

1500


Integration of African youths in

apiculture for food security and wealth

creation

30rsquo

19

By - Adeyemo Yusuf Adeniyi

1500-

1530


1530-


Day -3 Sunday December 2nd 2018

Room

No1

Plenary -Short messages

Room

No1

Ato Demisew

Wakjira MoA

with

Dr Abebe

Jemberie

BD University

830-

845

OXFAM in Ethiopia ndashMr Gezahegn Kebede

ldquoFemale Beekeepers collaborating with Bees as

Guardians of Food Securityrdquo

15rsquo

845-

900

GIZ ndashDr Juergen Greiling Apiculture a

tool for SLM amp biodiversity protection

15rsquo

900-

915

APIMONDIA - Mr Riccardo Jannoni ndash

Sebastianini ldquoAPIMONDIA ndash a vision of

international beekeepingrdquo

15rsquo

915-

930

QuestionsComments Discussion Way

forward learning amp application

15rsquo

Group session - Group 4 - In two

parallel groups



20

Room

No2

Subgroup -14 Room

No 2

Ato Yeshitila

Eshete EMDIDI

930-

1000


Beekeeping management practices and

gap analysis of different agro-ecological

zones of Tigray region Northern

Ethiopia


30rsquo

1000-

1030


Strengthening extension service

delivery the lead beekeeper model of

ASPIRE

By ndash Yetnayet Girmaw

30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130


Glycemic index of Ethiopian monofloral

honey

By - Abera Belay

30rsquo

11 30-

1200


Queen excluders enhance honey

production in African honey bees Apis

mellifera by limiting brood rearing during

peak nectar flow

By ndash Nuru Adgaba

30rsquo

12 00 ndash

12 30

Discussion QampA

30

1230-



21


Room

No 3

Subgroup - 24 Room

No3

Dr Ueli Mueller

GIZ-BFP

930-

1000


SAMS - international partnership on

innovation in smart apiculture

management services

By ndash Kibebew Wakjira

30rsquo

1000-

1030


The role of cooperative beekeeping in

hillside rehabilitation areas for rural

livelihood improvement in northern

Ethiopia

By ndash Teweldemedhn Gebretinsae

30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130


Assessment of colony carrying capacity

and factors responsible for low

production and productivity of

beekeeping in Horro Guduru Wollega

Zone of Oromia Ethiopia


30rsquo

1130-

1200


Beekeeping in rural developmentrdquo

By - Peter Keating

30rsquo

1200-

1230


Potential new income from payment for

pollination services biocontrol agent

vectoring and agro-tourism in Ethiopia

compared with current practices for

30rsquo

22

Canadian beekeepers

By - James White

1230-


Room

No1

Plenary Session Room

No1

Prof Lucas

Alejandro

Garibaldi

APIMONDIA

1400-

1430

Elise Nalbandian -OXFAM in Ethiopia

ldquoGROW Campaign and Award to Female

Food Producersrdquo

30rsquo

1430-

1450

Nuru Adgaba - EAB Promoting the role

of bee pollination in crop production

and ecosystem functioning under local

conditionsrdquo

20rsquo

1450-

1515

David Mukomana - APIMONDIA Regional

Commissioner for Africa ldquoWhere to for

Africardquo

25rsquo

1530-


Room

No1

Plenary Official closing Room

No1

Mr Riccardo

Jannoni-

Sebastianini

APIMONDIA

with

Hailegiorgis

Demissie

EAB

1600-

1610

Negah Bekena - NASOC lsquorsquoThanks amp way

forward ldquo

10rsquo

23

1610-

1630

Judge group ldquoAwards female individuals

regions amp companiesrdquo

(Female Beekeepers Food Heroes Award)

20rsquo

1630-

1645

Harun Baya - APITRADE AFRICA ldquoA bright

future for apiculture in Africardquo

15rsquo

1645-

1700

Peter Kozmus - APIMONDIA Closing 15rsquo

Day -4 Monday 3 December 2018

930-

1700

Technical Tours

Options 1 Holetta Bee Research Centre

HBRC apiary site

2 City tour city apiary site a processorrsquos

exporterrsquos plant

Event Organizer

Day 5 Tuesday 4 December 2018

Extended tours

Different options for choice as per the

taste interest time and availability of the

participants have been arranged

PEGUMEN was our partner to promote

the selected sites The arrangement was

expected to be made by this tour

operator

PAGUMEN Travel

EXHIBITION

Days 1

ndash 3

Friday 30 November 2018 ndash

Sunday 2 December 2018

0800-

1700

Exhibition at GHION Green Park

24

Presentations by Sector Actors

This section gives short descriptions of the presentations by sector actors

25

ATA ndash Dr Pavlos Troulis

The presentation of this sector actor the Agricultural Transformation Agency was

entitled ldquoThe need for the transformation of the beekeeping sector in Ethiopia and

expanding market linkage ATArsquos contributionrdquo

The presenter Dr Pavlos Troulis started the presentation by illustrating the various

actors in the apiculture ecosystem ranging across sectors He said the apiculture VC

provides capacity building at the production level infrastructure and marketing He then

went on discussing focal areas mission vision and the unique model of enterprise

development of the Ethiopian Agribusiness Acceleration Platform (EAAP)

EAAP aims to have demonstrably transformed the apiculture value chain by mid-2020

according to the presenter The four core services to drive enterprise and industry-wide

acceleration and the three programme areas along with the achievements gained under

each track were explained in the presentation

Dr Pavlos said that ATA wants to create a sustainable long term model to link four key

stakeholders namely RuSACCos input suppliers beekeepers and processors and

increase overall productivity in apiculture He ended his presentations by discussing the

different solutions that EAAP will deliver according to the type of actor in the sector

SNV ndash Wro Yetnayet Girmaw

The sector presentation entitled ldquoLessons from SNVrsquos apiculture development programrdquo

was presented by Yetnayet Girmaw Agriculture Sector Leader at SNV Ethiopia Having

introduced SNV Ethiopia and its general profile Yetnayet pointed out that Ethiopia is

endowed with natural resources for beekeeping and that it has 10 to 12 million colonies

and more than 18 million beekeepers with an annual production potential of approx

500000 tons and 50000 tons of honey and wax respectively out of which less than

20 are actually utilized

The presentation then mainly discussed the ASPIRE program of SNV which stands for

ldquoApicultural Scaling-Up Programme for Income and Rural Employmentrdquo and its pre-

decessor programme BOAM (Support to Business Organizations and their Access to

Markets) their intervention approaches and the key results achieved by SNVrsquos long

standing investment in the Ethiopian apiculture sector She listed out the lessons

learned from the programme such as the critical need for governmentrsquos support on the

one hand and beekeepingrsquos contribution to sustaining the investments in area closures

and afforestation on the other

Yetnayet stated that the way forward involves smallholder beekeepersrsquo transformation

and a comprehensive approach which among other things appreciates the multiple roles

of apiculture strengthening the private sector role dealing with quality and bee health

issues and scaling up for higher impact

26

ICIPE ndash Dr Workneh Ayalew

The third sector actor presentation was by Workneh Ayalew (PhD) of the International

Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) entitled ldquoHoneybees and other

commercial insects for economic prosperity and environmental healthrdquo Having briefly

discussed ICIPErsquos mission its overall goal and its environmental health theme Dr

Workneh pointed out the key features of insects ICIPErsquos work in commercial

beekeeping utilization of stingless bees for honey production and crop pollination and

commercial silk production were highlighted in his presentation Dr Workneh went on

discussing the roles insects can play in improving food and nutritional security waste

management and concluded his presentation by thanking donors directly providing

financial support to ICIPE

GIZ ndash Dr Juergen Greiling

Dr Juergen Greiling Integrated Expert and Senior Advisor to EAB made a presentation

on ldquoApiculture a tool for SLM and biodiversity protectionrdquo GIZ has been supporting the

development effortsin Ethiopia since 1964 and is currently engaged in three priority

areas namely Labor-Market-Oriented Education and Training Sustainable Land

Management Agriculture and Food Supply (ldquoThe Sustainable Use of Rehabilitated

Land for Economic Development (SURED) Programmerdquo)and Biodiversity Protection

(ldquoThe Biodiversity and Forest Programmerdquo (BFP)

GIZ has currently got more than 100 international and more than 600 national staff plus

Integrated Experts who work directly with partner organizations In his case the partner

organization is the Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB) an organization which is closely

working with the SURED and BFP programs Dr Greiling went on discussing these two

projects - SURED (Sustainable Use of Rehabilitated Areas for Economic Development)

and BFP (Biodiversity and Forestry Program) the concepts behind them and their

objectives and status The experience gained shows that apiculture contributes

substantially to household income and while it serves as an extra income if treated as a

stand-alone it offers the potential to create employment if treated in an integrated

manner ndash for instance by using rehabilitated sites for forage and vegetable production

including beekeeping Intensification of apiculture and up-scaling are also highly

justified Dr Greiling concluded his remark by suggesting that interested individuals

listen to a presentation by Teweldemedhin Gebretinsae (The role of cooperative

beekeeping in hillside rehabilitation areas for rural livelihood improvement in northern

Ethiopia) for more information

OXFAM ndash Gezahegn K Gebrehana

Ato Gezahegn K Gebrehana Country Director at Oxfam in Ethiopia presented a paper

entitled ldquoFemale beekeepers collaborating with bees as guardians of food securityrdquo He

started his presentation by listing out the excuses made by the society to exclude

27

women from engaging in beekeeping and the imbalances created because of other

constraints beyond the excuses According to Ato Gezahegn it is the belief of OXFAM

that improving the status of women within the household and at the community level

would deliver significant improvements to agricultural production food security child

nutrition health and education Hence the intervention named ACTION was

commenced to introduce a new business model for honey value chain development and

contributedto canceling out the imbalances between men and women Ato Gezahegn

went on discussing the rationale behind choosing women for beekeeping the project

intervention areas and the project strategy Initial stages of the intervention and details

of what has been done such as capacity building making the environment bee friendly

and formation of cluster level association were listed out in the presentation The key

lessons learned and challengesconstraints faced in terms of inputs production

marketing financial access management amp organization and policy were also

discussed in the presentation Ato Gezahegn then highlighted the opportunities in

apiculture such as Ethiopiarsquos inclusion in the list of countries allowed to export honey to

the EU the high potential of the region for beekeeping and natural resource

management efforts of the government The presentation was ended by pointing out the

similarity in the behaviors of women and bees in their cooperation and collaboration as

guardians of food security

APIMONDIA ndash Riccardo Jannoni ndash Sebastianini

Riccardo Jannoni - Sebastianini Secretary General of APIMONDIA made a

presentation entitled ldquoAPIMONDIA- a Vision of International Beekeepingrdquo In his

address he provided basic background information about bees and features of

apiculture and went on discussing the relationships among mankind bees and the

environment He highlighted what he called lsquocritical issuesrsquo for bees and apiculture and

discussed what the future should be and the possible role of APIMONDIA in that

regard An important feature would be the creation of a (like this one) focused

publications for discussion analysis and periodic exchange of experiences promotion

of strategic working groups the definition of integrated intervention protocols and

sustainable actions and active involvement of governmental political and social

institutions He stated thatAPIMONDIA is trying to implement a range of initiatives in

Africa He pointed at the experience from other countries to attract the youth to

apiculture such as summer camps to attract interest and the need to work with

politicians to ensure that beekeeping is reflected in the educational and vocational

curricula of countries

Mr Jannoni - Sebastianini ended his presentation by expressing his hope that

Ethiopiarsquos bid to host the 2023 APIMONDIA congress will be successful

28

Keynote Speeches

This section discusses the keynote speeches made under each of the four topics

29

Title - ldquoUNDERSTANDING THE CAUSES OF LOW POLLINATION IN CROPSrdquo

Presenter - Saul Cunningham Email saulcunninghamanueduau

The presenter illustrated an example of an Australian farm where bee hives were

present and there was a higher yield closer to the hives whereas the yield got lower as

it gets further from the hives There is a 17 yield improvement near the hives further

away there was still pollination but it was not maximized

Under-pollination is common in agriculture according to Dr Cunningham and the

reasons are shortage of pollinators and pollen quality

Dr Cunningham then went on discussing a study his team made on the almond industry

in Australia and explained the methodologies used and the results obtained Some of

the conclusions made are pollinator shortage occurs when large fields of crops replace

pollinatorrsquos habitat bees mostly move short distances when foraging even when bees

are at high density effective outcrossing might be rare and achieving maximum

pollination might be very difficult This demonstrates that the optimum outcome in terms

of profit is sometimes less than maximum yield This is the context for the idea that you

do not always ldquochase the maximumrdquo

Title - ldquoThreats to pollinators or to their performancerdquo (Panel Discussion)

Presentor - Dr Juergen Greiling Email Juergengreilingcimonlinede

The presentation was meant to be panel discussion stimulation Dr Greiling started

stating the seriousness of the threats by citing an example from South Africa where

several million bees died after being exposed to a mixture of molasses and ant poison

While the sweetness of the molasses attracted the bees the intense poison killed the

bees in a short time Having described controversial issues such as ldquoAfrican wayrdquo vs

frame hives ldquotraditionalrdquo vs ldquoimprovedrdquo he invited panel colleagues for statements and

views and the audience for feedback questions and discussion

Dr Abebe Jemberie from Bahirdar University took the stage and described how bees

are threatened by a lot of factors These factors include habitat degradation the

introduction of non-native species to an environment diseases and pests misuse of

agrochemicals intensity of farming and poor nutrition Combination of these factors are

affecting bees according to Dr Abebe and if things continue this way pollinators will

perish by 2035 And if pollinators perish so will human kind because the food we eat

depends on beesrsquo pollination

Participants forwarded questions and comments Issues raised mainly revolved around

the indiscriminate usage of agro chemicals usage of banned or controversial

chemicals varoa mite and knowledge and awareness by beekeepers as well as crop

producers The need for a disciplined and systematic usage of pesticides and integrated

30

pesticide management was raised as well The usage of pesticides in Ethiopia was

called lsquoharmful to both the crops and the beesrsquo

Suggested solutions include separating of beekeeping areas wherein there will be no

crops or chemicals and lessening the damage of chemicals by keeping bees safe in

their hives

Title - ldquoInsect pollinators and pollination services in changing environmentsrdquo

Presenter - Prof Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter Emai ingolfsteffanuni-wuerzburgde

Professor Steffan-Dewenter talked about the combined risks of climate and land use

change with of focus on his research experience in Africa He introduced the global

threats of pollinator diversity andtheir functional role for the pollination of crops and wild

plants A focus on the Western honeybeeApis mellifera addressed the dual character

of honeybees as managed and wild-living species the dependence of foraging

distances on floral resources and future climate change driven risks for honeybees and

their interactions with floral resources and parasites

His conclusions were that climate change and habitat loss are major risks for pollinator

diversity and ecosystem services and that pollinator diversity matters due to

complementarity of species traits higher resilience against extreme weather events and

buffering of risks due to species extinctions or local population declines He emphasized

that yield gaps occur due to lack of pollinators but that also other ecosystem services

such as biological pest control and soil quality need to be integrated in novel

approached for ecological management of bee-friendly agro-ecosystems

Title - ldquoBeekeeping for poverty alleviation and livelihood securityrdquo

Speaker - Dr Amsalu Bezabih (Apiculture and Senior Beekeeping researcher and

expert) Email amsalubyahoocom

Dr Amsalu started his keynote speech by explaining that the problems of

underemployment and environmental degradation have been major causes of

widespread poverty Furthermore poor yield and continuous environmental pollution

were mentioned as contributing factors

One of the major strategies of alleviating poverty according to Dr Amsalu is to design

agricultural technologies requiring low input One of those is beekeeping with its minimal

land requirement and less competition for resources needed by livestock and crop

The speaker discussed the importance of value addition and mentioned bee products

other than honey and wax as adding value for medicine cosmetics high nutrient foods

and beverages He also explained how income can be generated from making and

selling beekeeping equipment and other secondary products and renting out bee

colonies for pollination The income generated from beekeeping activities can be used

31

to pay for social services such as education electricity health and transport alleviating

poverty in effect

Dr Amsalu discussed the positive impact of beekeeping on the health of the

environment crop production food production and sustainable livelihood In

conclusion he said that beekeeping is the bestldquoglobal fit ldquo for the alleviation of poverty

and the provision of sustainable livelihoods to many small-scale farmers and other rural

and non-rural people

Various questions were raised including how bees could be productive in highly

degraded areas Dr Amsalu explained that the adaptation skill of bees is the key for

that

32

Presentations in working groups

In the presentations the idea was to include full papers but this was not possible in

some cases and only abstaracts were included

All contributions are included as received from the authors (no editing was done)

33

Topic 1 - Pollination and Food Production

34

Impact of Pollinator Services on Global Food amp Nutrition Security 2025 2050

Manfred J Kern Managing Director agriExcellence eK Germany

Email ManfredKernagriexcellencede

Global Symbol for Pollination (Bissier 1937)

ldquoDo we have enough fruits and vegetables to meet global health need by 20252050rdquo

ldquoWhat global health risk factors can be tackled by fruits and vegetables (400 gday)rdquo

ldquoWhat levels of income will trigger the consumption of fruits and vegetablesrdquo and ldquoWhy

pollination services (commercial pollinationwild pollinators) are essential to safeguard

the increasing future demand for fruits and vegetablesrdquo These are cardinal questions

which must be answered properly and in time

Improvements in future agriculture are key requisites for safeguarding food and nutrition

security in 2025 and 2050 Global crop production will have to be doubled between

1995 and 2025 due to population increase modified eating habits increased calorie

meat and vegetable consumption (fig 1) (Kern M 1998 2011 2012)

Fig 1 Global Food-Forecast 1995-2025

35

Between 2015 and 2050 the production of food crops fruits vegetables stimulants and

nuts will have to be more than doubled in order to feed 93 billion people living on earth

(fig 2) (Kern M 2016a)

Key factors which have to be considered are loss of arable land caused by

urbanization industrialization desertification water shortages shrinking resources

climate change species extinction pollination services increasing purchasing power

changes in eating habits increasing vegetable and meat consumption increasing pet

food market renewable energy economic disparities political instabilities migration

global trade new cutting edge technologies in agriculture digital information systems

and last but not least lsquoblack swansrsquo such as epidemics pandemics agro-terrorism

(Kern M 2016b) and earthquakes or wars

Fig 2 Global FoodCrop Production-Forecast 2015-2050

Demand and supply of global agricultural food production is often calculated on the

basis of calories and protein only Fruits and vegetables are hardly addressed or

neglected although the impact on human health is well known but not well reflected

Beside the demand and supply issues the actual purchasing power of the population

and the GDP (Gross Domestic Market) per capita are key prerequisites for healthy

nutrition Below $US 5000 a year subsistence foods such as cereals fats oils and

vegetables dominate in the diet Above $US 5000 a year some of these foods are

replaced by dairy-products and meat Above $US 15000 a year health and nutrition

factors eg high-quality fresh fruits and vegetables are key factors for consumers

These trends are still relevant everywhere in the world (fig 3)

36

Fig 3 Trigger Levels of GDP per Capita for Different Types of Food

An assessment of global demand for fruits and vegetables between 2015 and 2050

shows that there is currently a total deficit of -83 of which -23 is due to suboptimal

utilization of the level recommended by WHO for the consumption of fruits and

vegetables (400 gcaputday) -33 to post- harvest losses and -25 to lsquohidden

hungerrsquo issues By 2050 total demand of fruits and vegetables will have increased by

more than 200 (fig 4) Siegel et al (2014) claimed that by 2050 that there will be a

growing gap between supply and demand for fruits and vegetables in low income

countries over the course of time

37

Fig 4 Assessment of Global Demand for Fruits and Vegetables 2015-2050

At the present time agricultural crop production is mainly based on self-pollination (eg

wheat corn rice) and 35 percent on pollination by insects birds and bats (eg fruits

vegetables nuts beans stimulants) For reference a fruitful survey concerning the

dependence of crops on insect pollination is given by Stathers (2014) (fig 5a 5b)

Fig 5a Dependence of Crops on Insect Pollination

38

Fig 5b Dependence of Crops on Insect Pollination

39

Reflecting the trend during the last 50-year period agricultural production independent of animal pollination has doubled while agricultural production requiring animal pollination has increased fourfold (UNEP 2010) By 2050 crops independent of animal pollinators will increase by factor two and crops dependent on animal pollinators will increase by a factor of three (fig 6) Calculations and forecasts in this vision paper have been based on around 600 actual lead papers and books from different fields in order to assess the demand and value of pollination services in global agriculture by 2050

Fig 6 Assessment of Global Animal Independent and Dependent Crop Pollination

196020102050

For everyone it should be crystal clear that pollination services are key processes providing foodnutrition security and wider ecosystem stability Furthermore that different insect groups from Hemiptera Coleoptera Lepidoptera Hymenoptera and Diptera are responsible for the pollination of crops fruits and vegetable which means that pollination services rendered by non-bees are comparable with those provided by bees (Rader et al 2016) The global value of pollination services performed by insects such as bees bumblebees hoverflies butterflies and beetles has been calculated by several authors at $US 150 ndash 250 billion per year This is close to 10 percent of the global value of agricultural production In 2009 WHO claimed that low fruit and vegetable intake (below 400 gcaputday) is globally one of the leading risk factors contributing to mortality Lim et al (2012) estimated that low fruit and vegetable intake contributes to approximately 160 million disability-adjusted life years and 17 million deaths worldwide annually It is becoming increasingly evident that cardiovascular diseases gastrointestinal cancer and diabetes are closely linked to unhealthy nutrition

40

By 2050 the global economic impact of pollinators related to cost savings in the field of human health will be $US 735-811 billion (23 Global GDP) (Springmann et al 2016) (fig 7) Nevertheless up to now the gigantic value of pollination by animal pollinators as a key mechanism for sexual reproduction of the worldrsquos wild and cultivated flowering plants as well as the role of pollinators as ecosystem architects and their contribution to the beauty of nature cannot be assessed in terms of economic statistics

Fig 7 Global Economic Impact of Pollinators 2016

This global value of pollination services is endangered by anthropogenic disturbances

For example Winfree et al (2009) have described more than 130 bee responses to

anthropogenic disturbances the major factors being habitat loss landscape change

agricultural landscape change incorrect use of pesticides increasing human land use

introduction of alien species parasites pathogens pandemics global trade

beekeeping and transport and climate change Finally key critical issues are 1

increasing human land use 2 habitat loss 3 parasites pathogens pandemics 4

climate change For further reference an actual assessment report on pollinators

pollination and food production is given by Potts et al (2016)

As described pollination is an ecological and economic key process and pollinators are

keystone species providing vital ecosystem services today and in future Consequently

the restoration of pollination services and pollination fauna is an essential task for

humankind

A broad selection of global regional and national governmental and non-governmental

initiatives relevant to pollinators and pollinator services has been provided by Gill et al

(2016)

41

Some other actions are pointed out here In 2016 the University of Vancouver in

Canada started the first commercial beekeeping program for students with the aim of

bolstering British Columbiarsquos beekeeping industry by providing training that will allow the

students to meet the provincersquos growing pollination demands (British Columbia

Government 2015)

In Ireland sixty-eight governmental and non-governmental organizations have agreed

on a shared plan named ldquoAll-Ireland Pollinator Plan 2015-2020Junior Version 2015-

2020rdquo that identifies 81 actions to make Ireland pollinator friendly (National Biodiversity

Data Centre 2015)

In Germany 2016 a new institute for bee protection was opened at the Julius Kuumlhn-

Institute in Braunschweig (Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants 2016) The

main task is to investigate honeybees bumblebees and wild bees for damage or

poisoning caused by direct or sub-lethal effects of pesticides and other agricultural

substances and to advise the Federal Government on issues of pollinator risk reduction

During 2016 the German food distributor company EDEKA was providing seeds ldquoSeeds

for flowering the South-West of Germany and to help pollinatorsrdquo free of charge to every

customer in order to help pollinators Schools and private groups installed so called

insect hotels for wild pollinators on a lot of locations country wide

Information and education programs are under way in developing countries to

demonstrate not only that bees are important for honey production but that the

pollination function of bees and other pollinators is vital for the quality of crops fruits

and vegetables

Last but not least let us have a look at the action ldquoWithout Place ndash Without Time ndash

Without Bodyrdquo of the artist Wolfgang Laib carried out in 2009 Mounds of rice and pollen

(mounds not to climb on) were arranged in a very unusual and impressive way (fig 8)

Fig 8 Wolfgang Laib ldquoWithout Place ndash Without Time ndash Without Bodyrdquo

42

This work of art is very inspiring because food and pollen are key prerequisites for life

And pollen ndash thatrsquos DNA

Examples of affirmative actions to affirming diversity are on the way and a new key

challenge in front of us is named ldquoOrchestrating Diversityrdquo This means to manage

uncertainty complexity and diversity in appropriate time or in other words to facilitate

and enable vital DNA transfer in nature

Final Food for Thought DNA transfers are under heavy fire Since we know that only

good pollination ensures high quality of fruits and seeds let us facilitate and enable

essential DNA transfers in our world

Kern M 2017modified after Carl Alwin Schenck 1917 and Kuan-tzu300 BC

If you want fruit for one day then go and collect it outside in nature

If you need your fruit in the next few months then grow vegetables

If you want to cultivate fruit for one year then sow grains

If you want to cultivate fruit for decades then plant trees

If you want to cultivate fruit for centuries then educate human beings

If you want to cultivate fruit for thousands of years then build up democracy

But if you want to cultivate fruit for eternity then learn to love the created world

References

1 Bissier J (1937) 37 Befruchtungssymbol I (Cista)httpspicclickdeJulius-

Bissier-Befruchtungssymbol-Poster-Kunstdruck-Bild-80x60-cm-

251485900157html

2 BissierJ(1938)Frucht

httpwwwschlichtenmaierdelogicioclientschlichtenmaierfullphppage_id=we

rkampwerk_id=2055amponline_id=52

3 British Columbia Government (2015) New KPU beekeeping program creates a

buzz British Columbia Government News March 2015

httpsnewsgovbccastoriesnew-kpu-beekeeping-program-creates-a-buzz

4 Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants Julius Kuumlhn-Institute (2016) New

Institute for Bee Protection at Julius Kuumlhn-Institute Braunschweig Germany

April 1 2016httpswwwjulius-kuehnde

5 Gallei N Salles J Settele J and Vaissere BE (2009) Economic valuation of

the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline Ecological

Economics 68 810-821

6 Gill RJ Baldock KCR Brown MJF Cresswell JE Dicks LV Founain

MT Garratt MPD Gough LA Heard MS Holland JM Ollerton J

Stone GN Tang CQ Vanbergen AJ Vogler AP Woodward G Arce

AN Boatman ND Brand-Hardy R Breeze TD Green M Hartfield CM

OrsquoConners RS Osborn JL Phillips J Sutton PB and Potts SG (2016)

Protecting an ecosystem service approaches to understanding and mitigating

43

threats to wild insect pollinators Advances in Ecological Research 53 chapter

22

7 Potts SG Imperatriz-Fonseca VL Ngo HT Biesmeijer JC Breeze TD

Dicks LV Garibaldi LA Hill R Settele J Vanbergen AJ Aizen MA

Cunningham SA Eardley C Freitas BM Gallai N Kevan PG Kovacs-

Hostyanszki A Kwapong PK Li J Li X Martins DJ Nates-Parra G

Pettis JS Rader R and Viana BF (eds) Summary for policymakers of the

assessment report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on pollinators pollination and food

production Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Bonn Germany 36 pp

8 Kern M (1998) Feeding the World A Wider Perspective Interview made by

Sartorius P Future the Houmlchst Magazine 198 24-28

9 Kern M (2011) Public Hearing on the Subject of ldquoGlobal Nutritionrdquo 35th Session

of the Committee on Food Agriculture and Consumer Protection of the German

Bundestag 17th Legislative Period April 4th 2011 Berlin Germany

10 Kern M (2012) Food Security at the Crossroads ndash A Wake up Call ISPSW

Strategy Series Focus on Defense and International Security Issue No 178

February 2012 httpwwwisnethzchisnDigital-

LibraryPublicationsDetailid=136536

11 Kern M (2016a) A close look into the future of global agriculture ndash an eye on

pollination services Session Interactions between Pollination Services and

Agricultural Practices XXV International Congress of Entomology Orlando

Florida USA September 25-30 2016

12 Kern M (2016b) Global Epidemics Pandemics Terrorism Risk Assessment

and European Responses ISPSW Strategy Series Focus on Defense and

International Security Issue No 462 May 2016

httpswwwethzchcontentspecialinterestgessciscenter-for-securities-

studiesenservicesdigital-librarypublicationspublicationhtml8eb73603-658c-

4c48-a55e-e530239cea18

13 Lim SS et al (2012) A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and

injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions 1990ndash

2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet

380 2224-2260

14 National Biodiversity Data Centre (2015) All-Ireland Pollinator Plan 2015-2050

NBDC Ireland httpwwwbiodiversityirelandiewordpresswp-

contentuploadsAll-Ireland20Pollinator20Plan202015-2020pdf

15 Rader R Bartomeus I Garbaldi LA Garratt MPD Howlett BG Winfree

R Cunningham SA Mayfield MM Arthur AD Andersson GKS

44

16 Bommarco R Brittain C Carvalheiro LG Chacoff NP Entling MH

Foully B Freitas BM Gemmill-Herren B Ghazoul J Griffin SR Gross

CL Herbertsson L Herzog F Hipoacutelito J Jaggar SKleinA-M Kleijn D

Krishnan S Lemos CQ Lindstroumlm SAM Mandelik Y Monteiro

VMNelsonW Nilsson L Pattemore DE deO Pereira N Pisanty G

PottsSG Reemer M Rundloumlf M Sheffield CS Scheper J Schuumlepp Chr

Smith HG Stanley DA Stout JC Szentgyoumlrgyi H Taki HVergara CH

and WoyciechowskyM(2016)Non-bee insects are important contributors

toglobal crop pollinationPNAS 1131 146-151

17 Siegel KR Aliz MK Srinivasiah A Nugent and RAand Narayan KMV

(2014) Do We Produce Enough Fruits and Vegetables to Meet Global Health

Need PLOS 98 1-7

18 Springmann M Mason-DrsquoCroz D Robinson S GarnettT Godfray HCJ

Gollin D Rayner MBallonPand Scarborough P (2016) Global and

regional health effectsoffuture food production under climate change a

modelling study Lancet 387 1937-1943

19 Stathers R (2014)SchrodersndashThe Bee and the Stockmarket Research

PaperAn overview ofpollinator decline and its income and corporate

significanceSchroders London UK January 2014

20 Steenkamp J-BEM (1996) Dynamics in consumer behaviour with respect

toagricultural and food products inWierengaB GrunertKG Steenkamp J-

BEMWedel Mand van Tilburg A (eds)Agricultural marketing and consumer

behaviour in a changing world Proceedings of the 47th

Seminar ofthe European

Association ofAgriculturalEconomistsWageningen 13-15 March 15-38

21 United Nation Environment Program UNEP (2010) UNEP Emerging Issues

Global honeybee colony disorders and otherthreatsto insectpollinators UNEP

Nairobi Kenya 2010

22 Welch RM and Graham RD (1999) A new paradigm for world agriculture

meeting human needs-Productive sustainable nutritious Field Crops Research

60 1-10

23 Winfree R Aguilar R Vaacutesquez DP LeBuhn G and Aizen MA (2009) A

meta-analysis of beesresponsesto anthropogenic disturbance Ecology 908

2068-2076

24 Source Behl RK Khatodia S Kern MJand Merbach W Proceedingsof

the 7th

International Seminar on Genetic and Natural Resourcestowards Food

Energy Environment and Livelihood November 27-29 292016 Mahatma

GandhiHaus Goumlttingen Germany Agrobios (International) 95-105 2018

45

Overview of Insect Pollinators in Sustainable Agricultural Planning The

Neglected Component

Tolera Kumsa

Oromia Agricultural Institute Holeta Bee Research Centre Email

tolekumeyahoocom

Abstract

Sustainable agriculture is a function of natural ecosystems outcomes than specific

agronomic practices Food security food diversity human nutrition and food prices all

rely strongly on animal pollinators The expansion of pollinator-dependent crops

together with the declining scenario of the pollinators and their habitat recently raises

concerns of possible yield reduction Pollination services are rarely considered as

agricultural input to be managed in the same way as fertilizers in pollinators-dependent

crop managementIn this paper we present an overview of the importance of pollination

in sustainable agricultural planning We also emphasized to discuss on the global

pollination perspectives and related with the current situation of pollination perception in

Ethiopia We also indicated the priorities areas that require attention including

documentation of pollination requirements of crops quantification of their pollination

deficit and assessment of farming practices that enhance synergies between pollinators

and crop production Strategic coordination among agricultural researchers and

conservation scientists need to develop joint efforts to design and implement plant-

pollinator community restoration to maintain sustainable agriculture We conclude that

understanding the dynamics of how agricultural landscapes contributed to enhance

long-term ecological stability as a solution to enhance pollinator diversity for higher crop

yields and discuss ways to promote the sustainable pollination practices that increase

food security

Key words Sustainable agriculture pollinators pollination food security

46

1 Introduction

Globally agricultural land is continuing to expand and agricultural practices continue to

intensify to meet rising food demands (Pretty 2008 Pretty and Bharucha 2014) Meeting

the growing demand in the amount and diversity of food while dealing with increasing

environmental degradation is a major challenge (Garibaldi et al 2009) Farmers are

advised to intensify their production through efficient application fertilizer and pesticides

to reduce yield gaps (Motzke et al 2015) These approaches increases short-term

yields with long term disadvantages such as environmental degradation and ecological

services disruption (Tscharntke et al 2005 Garibaldia et al 2011) The systems

imposes tradeoff for agriculture production such as between cultivated area and habitat

for pollinators between pesticide application and pollinators health and between

monoculture and diversified resources for pollinators (Holzschuh et al 2007)

In sustainable agriculture pollination is the key ecological functioning enhancing food

security and yield stability through linking of ecosystem with agricultural production

(Kevan 1999 Dicks et al 2013 Ollerton 2017 Sutter et al 2017) Food security food

diversity human and animal nutrition and food prices all rely strongly on animal

pollinators (Klatt et al 2014) Insect pollination enhances the reproduction and genetic

diversity of 80 of the plant species (Fontaine et al 2006) To maintain and increase

agricultural yields better conservation and management of pollinators is critically

important to food security for low income farms Pollination services in agriculture

represent possibly one of the greatest areas of interaction between natural systems and

agricultural systems (Figure 1) Agricultural biodiversity holds a wide diversity of

organisms that contribute toward crop productivity and sustainability (Sharma and Abrol

2014)

47

Figure 1 A diagrammatic representation of the pollinator interaction between natural ecosystems and

agricultural systems adopted from Donaldson (2002)

Recent research showing that children living near conserved areas of Africa tend to

have more nutritious diet than children living in areas with less conserved areas (Brittain

et al 2014 Ickowitz et al 2014) demonstrates that insect-pollinated plant provide

important nutrients for human health Many fodder crops used for cattle breeding

depend on insect pollination that the loss of insect pollinators can also indirectly affect

the production of livestock in agriculture (Van der Sluijs and Vaage 2016) The primary

data projected from 200 countries found that fruit vegetable or seed production from 87

of the leading global food crops is dependent upon animal pollination (Klein et al 2007)

Insect pollinators both managed and wild have become a focus of global scientific

political and media attention because of their apparent decline affects crop performance

and yield (Melin A et al 2014 Bretagnolle and Gab 2015 Samnegaringrd et al 2016

Ollerton 2017)

Ecological services occur at agricultural landscape supporting agricultural production

however neglected when designing agricultural management practices (Pretty and

Bharucha 2014) Regardless of its potential pollination services in developing countries

such as in Ethiopia lacks financial extensional and technological support even though

the country retain the highest diversity of native and domesticated plant species Better

policies and plans should be implemented to fully exploit insect pollination potential in

sustainable agricultural productivity This will done through developing integrated

48

agriculture through incorporating pollinators as crop production factors and designing

conservation strategies that sustain pollinator diversity and abundance essential for the

production of important food crops

2 Role of insect pollination in sustainable agriculture

Agriculture is the worldrsquos largest managed ecosystem accounting for approximately 50

percent of the terrestrial land surface (Kearns et al 1998 Foley et al 2005) Improving

livelihoods through higher crop yields while reducing negative agricultural impacts is

important for achieving food security and reducing levels of poverty (Garibaldi et al

2016) Historically demands for increased crop production has been satisfied by

expansion of cultivated areas and yield improvements through genetic innovation

increased external input (fertilizer herbicides and pesticides) and new agricultural

practices (Aizen et al 2009 Garibaldia et al 2011 Motzke et al 2015) The system

involves high risk to agricultural landscape due to pollinator reduction (Motzke et al

2015) The combination of insect pollination fertilizer application and weed control

additively increased crop yield however fertilizer application and weed control alone

could note compensate for pollination loss Reduction in pollinator abundance is limiting

crop yield at global scale and is the most important driver of yield through facilitating

agricultural landscape management (Garibaldi et al 2009 Isaacs et al 2017)

Yields of pollinator-dependent crops are more variable to the extent that the shortage of

pollinators is affecting the stability of agricultural food production (Garibaldia et al

2011) There is critical need to develop and expand sustainable agriculture production

on existing agricultural land while assuring long term ecological and economic benefits

for local farmers Integrated insect pollination is an ecological service stabilizes

agricultural yields over the long term and promotes diet diversity under low levels of

technology (Suso et al 2016 Burkle et al 2017 Ritten et al 2017)

The 2016 IPBES thematic assessment on pollinators pollination and food production in

the past 50 years shows that the volume of agricultural production dependent on animal

pollination has increased by 300 (Lumpur 2016) The expansion of pollinator-

dependent crops in both developed and developing worlds together with reports of

worldwide pollinators decline leads to serious concern to yield gaps and decreasing

stability of agricultural production (Garibaldi et al 2009) Pollinator-dependent crops

generate larger income in lower cultivated area compared to non-pollinator-dependent

crops (Ashworth et al 2009) It was suggested that pollinatorrsquos shortfalls would produce

lower annual growth in yield for pollinator-dependent crops but a higher growth in

cultivated area to compensate the lower crop yield (Figure 2)

49

Figure 2 Shows the mean of the annual relative growth in yield and cultivated area for crops

differing in their pollinator dependence The lines are linear regressions taking each crop as a replicate

In parenthesis is the number of crops within each group adopted from Garibaldi et al (2009)

3 Agro-ecological intensification increase crop yield

Sustainable agriculture is depends on the need to develop technologies and practices

that do not have adverse effects on ecological services accessible to farmers and leads

to sustainable food production (Pretty 2008) Ecological intensification of

agroecosystems either maximizing yield or replacing external inputs through the

enhancement of ecological process sustaining crop production (Tamburini et al 2017)

Biological diversification can be a first step in promoting ecological intensification by

hosting more pollinators insect predators through reducing the herbicide application

without considerable yield losses (Wan et al 2018)

Currently agriculture has become more pollinator dependent because of a

disproportionate increase of pollinator dependent crops (Aizen et al 2008 Harvey et al

2008 Kovacs-Hostyanszki et al 2017) If the trend towards favoring cultivation of

pollinator-dependent crops continues the need for the pollination service will greatly

increase The ecological intensification of agriculture represents a strategic alternative

to enhance pollinatorrsquos distribution by promoting biodiversity beneficial to sustainable

agricultural production (Kovacs-Hostyanszki et al 2017) It means making smart use of

naturersquos functions and services at field and landscape scales to enhance agricultural

productivity

50

Habitat enhancement of agricultural land increasing agricultural productivity through

promoting diversified pollinators (Altieri 2002 Chaudhary et al 2013 Melin A et al

2014 Burkle et al 2017 Rolando et al 2017 Wan et al 2018) Maintenance and

restoration of hedgerows and other vegetation features at field borders increases

heterogeneous habitats and important for harboring diversified pollinators and may

provide to be a cost effective means of maximizing crop yield (Nicholls and Altieri 2012

Garibaldi et al 2016) The species richness of annual and perennial flowering

vegetation was positively related to pollinator abundance and associated with enhanced

agricultural production (Norfolk et al 2016)

The stability of pollinator communities over time and crop productivity strongly rely on

pollinator diversity complementarity and redundancy In tropics small-scale farmlands

and home-gardens are intensively managed with multipurpose native and non-native

trees shrubs and herbs frequently integrated with annual and perennial crops (Kremen

and Miles 2012 Wratten et al 2012) Diversifying farming promotes ecological

intensification in stallholder agricultural system (Rolando et al 2017) In Ethiopia free

pollination services mitigate yield gaps of pollinator-dependent crops where small-scale

farmers rely on wild insect pollinators Home-gardens management system support high

number of pollinators important for the yield increments in smallholder gardens but the

practices has not been properly quantified

4 The global perspective of pollination service

Over the past decades the international communities have increasingly recognized the

importance of pollinators as an agricultural input through supporting agroecosystem

conservation (Cromwell et al 1999) The issue of pollination is cross-cutting through

many policy domains including the regulation of chemical polices agricultural policies

conservation polices and environmental policies (Van der Sluijs and Vaage 2016) The

implications of pollinator decline have led to substantial attention and has sparked the

formation of global policy framework for pollinator through the international Pollinators

Initiatives (IP) within the Convention Biological Diversity (CBD) (Byrne and Fitzpatrick

2009 Dicks et al 2013) There are now regional Pollinators Initiatives (PI) and

conservation legislation capitalizing the resources being directed towards pollinator

research and public understanding on utilization of pollinators on which conservation

actions can be based(Dicks et al 2013)

Recognizing the dimensions of pollination crisis the CBD has made the conservation

and sustainable use of pollinators as a priority (Sharma and Abrol 2014) The CBD

under the International Pollinator Initiative (IPI) plan to promote the conservation

restoration and sustainable use of pollinator diversity in agriculture through monitoring

pollinator decline and its causes and assessing the economic value of pollination

(Byrne and Fitzpatrick 2009) For these reasons initiatives such as African Pollinator

51

Initiatives (API) North American Pollinator Initiatives (NAPI) European Pollinator

Initiatives (EPI) and Oceania Pollinator Initiatives (OPI) all are focused on conserving or

mitigating threats to insect pollinators and working on pollination services for

sustainable agriculture (FAO 2007) The initiatives set priorities to improve pollination

awareness through integrating agriculture into the healthy functioning of agro-

ecosystems (Byrne and Fitzpatrick 2009 Burkle et al 2017)

Restoration of heterogeneous habitat of native herbaceous flowering plants within field

margins enhance pollinators diversity and abundance as the same time protect soil

against soil erosion (Chaudhary et al 2013 Melin A et al 2014) In America adaptive

modifications initiated by agriculturists horticulturists and foresters to minimize the

negative impacts on pollinators (Palmer et al 2009) In Europe agricultural production

is more reliant upon pollination services and the declines in insect pollinators have

raised concerns about the supply of pollination services For this reasons EU

agricultural policies have developed to encourage pollinators conservation for

sustainable agricultural production (Breeze et al 2014)

In India government has designed conservation strategy to make agriculture more

sustainable through developing conservation agriculture technology (Chaudhary et al

2013) The technology encourages formulating pollination research and development

enhances the synergies among agriculture livelihoods and biodiversity conservation In

China there is widespread decline of natural pollinators together with the increasing

demand of pollination services for deciduous fruits which replacing insect pollination to

hand pollination (Allsopp et al 2008) In Africa evidence suggests that pollinator decline

contributing to pollination limitation (Rodger and Balkwill 2004 Byrne and Fitzpatrick

2009) Data used to assess and address this phenomenon are uneven Crop pollination

data from sub-Saharan Africa remains deficient even though the continent still retain the

highest diversity of native and domesticated plant species (Ren et al 2014)

Unfortunately the problem is further aggravated by the fact that the region has the

largest populations to feed

5 Pollination concern in Ethiopia

Farmers in Ethiopia directly reliant on insect pollinators for food supply however the

knowledge on pollination is poor (Samnegaringrd et al 2016) Wild and managed

pollinators provide free ecosystem service without getting recognition from farmers

Study conducted on famers perception on insect pollination in agricultural crops

suggested that 77 had no knowledge about pollination and farmers described wild

pollinators as crops pest (Misganaw et al 2017) Research finding has indicated that

pollinators decline threatens the agricultural production in Ethiopia The extent of this

impact has recently been highlighted by Samnegaringrd et al (2016) that severe pollen

limitation has occurred across heterogeneous agricultural landscape The study result

52

indicated that 91 of yield increment was obtained through supplementation of honey

bee colonies pollination (Samnegaringrd et al 2016) It suggests that crop fields with high

pollinatorrsquos diversity and abundance resulted in sufficient pollen deposition for higher

crop yieldIn contrast it was shown that wild insect visitation alone significantly

increased yield by twice as much as honeybees did suggesting wild pollinators provide

more effective crop pollination (Melin A et al 2014)

Evidences of pollinatorrsquos scarcity inferred from the continuing declining of honeybee

colonies and honey production have received much attention (Axel et al 2011) The

situation is referred from simple hive inspection such as declining of honey and pollen

accumulation declining of brood production in the hive and decreasing of swarm

occupation rate in the hives Honey production depends on bee floral conservation that

determines colony nutrition and overall colony success (Axel et al 2011) In addition

butterflies and moths are the wild indicators of ecosystem and used as model

organisms to study the impact of climate change and habitat loss (Ghazanfar et al

2016) Wild insects for which we donrsquot have population data (notably butterflies) are

overwhelmingly declining in agricultural landscape

Flowering plant species that can be grown in hedgerows fallows lands and habitats

adjacent to the farms provides nectar pollen and nesting for wild pollinators (Kovacs-

Hostyanszki et al 2017) For instance Bidens and Guizotia species are weedy species

widely grown nearby uncultivated patches of land in Ethiopia as important refuges for

many pollinators (Fichtl and Admasu 1994) The abundance of these species can

sustain pollinators in exchange for crop pollination increase honey yields and improving

the socio-cultural value (Bretagnolle and Gab 2015) Unfortunately the weedy species

are currently under threats due to habitat alteration and intensive use of herbicides

which affect the diversity and abundance of insect pollinators but not yet documented

The crop breeding system is determined by the degree of dependency of plants on

pollinators (Palmer et al 2009 Calderone 2012) In Ethiopia agriculture and rural

development had developed strategies for cereals pulse oilseed vegetables and fruit

crops in different agroecology (Taffesse et al 2012) The strategies are not incorporated

pollinators as agricultural factor and agriculture planning of Ethiopia has not yet

received adequate recognition Moreover agronomists neglected the significance of

insect pollination in the crop yield analysis The oil crops improvement program is not

integrated with insect pollination as production factor in order to improve the yield to a

desirable level For instance niger (Guizotia abyssinica) is an oil crop indigenous to

Ethiopia contributed to food security (Geleta and Ortiz 2013) Research findings have

shown that the crop is self-incompatible and pollination by insects has an important

factor contributing to yield increment (Geleta and Ortiz 2013 Dempewolf et al 2015)

The current yield decline is unknown for agronomist but possibly because of a decline

of pollinators brought by local environmental degradation Moreover the national

53

biodiversity developed strategy for sustainable biodiversity conservation (Husen et al

2012) the concept has not clearly incorporated pollination as important ecological

services

6 Future direction

61 Understanding the management of pollinator in sustainable agriculture

A lot of research has characterized that the synergy between crop production and

pollination service is important to meet sustainable agriculture (Garibaldi et al 2011

2016 Suso et al 2016) Better understanding of pollinators and its interactions to

agroecosystems ensure ecosystem health and improve human livelihoods Few studies

have empirically investigated how pollination networks are affected by changes in

landscape in Ethiopia (Fetene and Habtewold 2016 Misganaw et al 2017) Agricultural

development programs and plans need to recognize and take steps to integrate these

efforts into decision-making that influence pollination Policies in favors of pollinators

that promote biological diversity and limit the use of pesticides should be implemented

Documenting and sharing the pollination information with scientists and policymakers

are imperative

62 Capacity building

Advocating agricultural system that integrate agriculture and environmental services into

food production (Pretty 2008)The importance of pollination for the productivity and

health of agricultural crops should be demonstrated through experimenting with various

crops Building capacity in different sectors is important not only to raise awareness of

pollination but also to deploy technical information on pollinators and the role of animal

pollination for crop production Synthesizing the combined knowledge of growers

extension workers and conservation agencies scientists and NGOs through data

collection and make it accessible to the users

63 Mainstreaming

Pollinator should be mainstreamed into agroecosystem research and policies At

national level a strategy for the integration of pollination and pollinators into national

biodiversity strategies and action plans is paramount Practices that support the

conservation of natural habitat and mixed farming initiatives should be supported

Effective strategies to incorporate bees in to national food security plan the conservation

of agrobiodiversity for sustainable agricultural production Farmers can help to maintain

pollinator abundance diversity and health by using practices that integrate local and

scientific knowledge by diversifying farms to make food resources for pollinators

Collaboration among national and international organizations academic and research

bodies to mainstream the existing traditional knowledge into research will help to guide

future plans and funding towards the areas where pollination research is likely to have

54

real impacts in agricultural landscape (Dicks et al 2013 Kovacs-Hostyanszki et al

2017)

55

7 Conclusion

Pollination is a biological process in agricultural system which can intensify

agricultural production and serve as excellent areas of research and development as

sustainable agricultural solutions Insect pollination integrated with other agricultural

management should be considered as an agronomic factor to be managed in

agriculture systems to achieve sustainable agricultural production Several gaps and

limitations have been identified in setting strategies of crop breeding programs and

research associated with pollinator-dependent crops Works is still required to

identify agricultural management practices that can increase pollination services and

thus yield of pollinator dependent crops To achieve the intention through evidence-

based decision-making concerned agencies such as government university and

private sector partners including international partners should work together to

prioritize and address critical knowledge gaps in pollination management practices

Agricultural researcher and conservationist should work together to guide policies to

support plant-pollinator interactions to create more sustainable agricultural practices

8 References

Aizen M A L A Garibaldi S A Cunningham and A M Klein 2008 Long-term

global trends in crop yield and production reveal no current pollination shortage

but increasing pollinator dependency Curr Biol 18 1572ndash1575

Aizen M A L A Garibaldi S A Cunningham and A M Klein 2009 How

much does agriculture depend on pollinators  Lessons from long-term trends in

crop production Ann Bot 103 1579ndash1588

Allsopp M H W J De Lange and R Veldtman 2008 Valuing Insect Pollination

Services with Cost of Replacement PLoS One 3 e3128

Altieri M A2002 Agroecology The science of natural resource management for

poor farmers in marginal environments Agric Ecosyst Environ 93 1ndash24

Ashworth L M Quesada A Casas R Aguilar and K Oyama 2009 Pollinator-

dependent food production in Mexico Biol Conserv 142 1050ndash1057

Axel D A Cedric O Jean-Francois H Mickael V Bernard and L Conte

2011 Why enhancement of floral resources in agro-Ecosystems benefit

honeybees and beekeepers pp 371ndash388 In Ecosyst Biodivers

Breeze T D B E Vaissiegravere R Bommarco T Petanidou N Seraphides L

Kozaacutek and et al--- 2014 Agricultural policies exacerbate honeybee pollination

service supply-demand mismatches across Europe PLoS One 9 e82996

Bretagnolle V and amp S Gab 2015 Weeds for bees  A review Agron Sustain

Dev

Brittain C C Kremen A Garber and A M Klein 2014 Pollination and plant

56

resources change the nutritional quality of almonds for human health PLoS

One

Burkle L A C M Delphia and K M O Neill 2017 A dual role for farmlands

Food security and pollinator conservation Ecological solutions to global food

security mini-review J Ecol 105 890ndash899

Byrne A and U Fitzpatrick 2009 Review article bee conservation policy at the

global regional and national levels Review article Apidologie 40 194ndash210

Calderone N W2012 Insect pollinated crops insect pollinators and US agriculture

Trend analysis of aggregate data for the period 1992-2009 PLoS One 7

e37235

Chaudhary N Y S Saharawat and V Sivaram 2013 Conservation agriculture 

An option to enhance pollinators and sustainability World J Agric Sci 9 210ndash

213

Cromwell E D Cooper and P Mulvany 1999 Agriculture biodiversity and

livelihoods issues and entry points Nat Resour Perspect

Dempewolf H M Tesfaye A Teshome A D Bjorkman R L Andrew M

Scascitelli S Black E Bekele J M M Engels Q C B Cronk and L H

Rieseberg 2015 Patterns of domestication in the Ethiopian oil-seed crop Evol

Appl 8 464ndash475

Dicks L V A Abrahams J Atkinson J Biesmeijer N Bourn and et al---

2013 Identifying key knowledge needs for evidence-based conservation of wild

insect pollinators  a collaborative cross-sectoral exercise Insect Conserv

Divers 6 435ndash446

Donaldson J 2002 Pollination in agricultural landscapes a South African

perspective pp 97ndash104 In Kevan P Imperatriz Fonseca V (eds)

Pollinating Bees - Conserv Link between Agric Nat

FAO 2007 The plan of action of the African pollinator initiative

Fetene S and T Habtewold 2016 Effects of herbicide application in wheat crops

and on honeybee populations in Ethiopia

Fichtl R and A Admasu 1994 Honey Bee Flora of Ethiopia Margraf Verlag

Weikersheim Germany

Foley J A R Defries G P Asner C Barford G Bonan and etal--- 2005

Revied global consequences of land use Science (80- ) 309 570ndash575

Fontaine C I Dajoz J Meriguet and M Loreau 2006 Functional diversity of

plant-pollinator interaction webs enhances the persistence of plant communities

PLoS Biol 4 0129ndash0135

Garibaldi L A M A Aizen S Cunningham and A M Klein 2009 Pollinator

57

shortage and global crop yield Commun Integr Biol 2 37ndash39

Garibaldi L A L G Carvalheiro B E Vaissiegravere B Gemmill-herren J

Hipoacutelito B M Freitas H T Ngo N Azzu A Saacuteez J Aringstroumlm J An B

Blochtein and et al--- 2016 Mutually beneficial pollinator diversity and crop

yield outcomes in small and large farms Science (80- ) 351 388ndash391

Garibaldi L A I Steffan-Dewenter C Kremen J M Morales R Bommarco S

A Unningham and et al--- 2011 Stability of pollination services decreases

with isolation from natural areas despite honey bee visits Ecol Lett 14 1062ndash

1072

Garibaldia L A M A Aizena A M Kleinc S A Cunninghamd and L D

Hardere 2011 Global growth and stability of agricultural yield decrease with

pollinator dependence PNAS 108 5909ndash5914

Geleta M and R Ortiz 2013 The importance of Guizotia abyssinica (niger) for

sustainable food security in Ethiopia Genet Resour Crop Evol 60 1763ndash1770

Ghazanfar M M F Malik M Hussain R Iqbal and M Younas 2016 Butterflies

and their contribution in ecosystem A review J Entomol Zool Stud 4 115ndash

118

Harvey C A O Komar R Chazdon B G Ferguson B Finegan D M Griffith

M Martiacutenez-Ramos H Morales R Nigh L Soto-Pinto M Van Breugel and

M Wishnie 2008 Integrating agricultural landscapes with biodiversity

conservation in the Mesoamerican hotspot Conserv Biol 22 8ndash15

Holzschuh A I Steffan-Dewenter D Kleijn and T Tscharntke 2007 Diversity

of flower-visiting bees in cereal fields Effects of farming system landscape

composition and regional context J Appl Ecol 44 41ndash49

Husen A V K Mishra K Semwal and D Kumar 2012 Biodiversity Status in

Ethiopia and challenges pp 31ndash79 In Bharati K P CA and KP (ed)

Environ Pollut Biodivers New Delhi India

Ickowitz A B Powell M A Salim and T C H Sunderland 2014 Dietary

quality and tree cover in Africa Glob Environ Chang 24 287ndash294

Isaacs R N Williams J Ellis T L Pitts-Singer R Bommarco and M

Vaughan 2017 Integrated Crop Pollination Combining strategies to ensure

stable and sustainable yields of pollination-dependent crops Basic Appl Ecol

22 44ndash60

Kearns C A D W Inouye and N M Waser 1998 Endangered mutualisms The

conservation of plant-pollinator interactions Annu Rev Ecol Syst 29 83ndash112

Kevan P G1999 Pollinators as bioindicators of the state of the environment 

species activity and diversity Agric Ecosyst Environ 74 373ndash393

58

Klatt B K A Holzschuh C Westphal Y Clough I Smit E Pawelzik and T

Tscharntke 2014 Bee pollination improves crop quality shelf life and

commercial value Proc R Soc 281 2013ndash2440

Klein A M B E Vaissiegravere J H Cane I Steffan-Dewenter S A Cunningham

C Kremen and T Tscharntke 2007 Importance of pollinators in changing

landscapes for world crops Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 274 303ndash313

Kovacs-Hostyanszki A A Espindola A J Vanbergen J Settele C Kremen

and L V Dicks 2017 Ecological intensification to mitigate impacts of

conventional intensive land use on pollinators and pollination Ecol Lett 20

673ndash689

Kremen C and A Miles 2012 Ecosystem services in biologically diversified

versus conventional farming systems benefits externalitites and trade-offs

Ecol Soc 17 1ndash23

Lumpur K2016 Summary for policymakers of the thematic assessment on

pollinators pollination and food production IPBES

Melin A R M M J and D JS2014 Pollination ecosystem services in South

African agricultural systems S Afr J Sci 110 1ndash9

Misganaw M G Mengesha and T Awas 2017 Perception of farmers on

importance of insect pollinators in Gozamin District of Amhara Region Ethiopia

Biodivers Int J 1 1ndash7

Motzke I T Tscharntke T C Wanger and A Klein 2015 Pollination mitigates

cucumber yield gaps more than pesticide and fertilizer use in tropical smallholder

gardens J Appl Ecol 52 261ndash269

Nicholls C I and M A Altieri 2012 Plant biodiversity enhances bees and other

insect pollinators in agroecosystems A review Agron Sustain Dev

Norfolk O M P Eichhorn and F Gilbert 2016 Flowering ground vegetation

benefits wild pollinators and fruit set of almond within arid smallholder orchards

Insect Conserv Divers 9 236ndash243

Ollerton J2017 Pollinator diversity  distribution ecological function and

conservation Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 48 353ndash376

Palmer R G P T Perez E Ortiz-Perez F Maalouf and M J Suso 2009 The

role of crop-pollinator relationships in breeding for pollinator-friendly legumes 

from a breeding perspective Euphytica 170 35ndash52

Pretty J2008 Agricultural sustainability Concepts principles and evidence Philos

Trans R Soc Biol Sci 363 447ndash465

Pretty J and Z P Bharucha 2014 Sustainable intensification in agricultural

systems Ann Bot 144 1571ndash1596

59

Ren Z H Wang P Bernhardt and D Li 2014 Insect pollination and self-

incompatibility in edible andor medicinal crops in Southwestern China a global

hotspot of biodiversity Am J Bot 101 1700ndash1710

Ritten C J C Bastian J F Shogren T Panchalingam M D Ehmke and G

Parkhurst 2017 Understanding pollinator habitat conservation under current

policy using economic experiments Land 7 1ndash13

Rodger J G and K Balkwill 2004 African pollination studies  where are the

gaps  Int J Trop Insect Sci Vol 24 5ndash28

Rolando J L C Turin D A Ramiacuterez V Mares J Monerris and R Quiroz

2017 Key ecosystem services and ecological intensification of agriculture in the

tropical high-Andean Puna as affected by land-use and climate changes Agric

Ecosyst Environ Ecosyst Environ 236 221ndash233

Samnegaringrd U P Hambaumlck P A Hamba D Lemessa S Nemomissa and K

Hylander 2016 A heterogeneous landscape does not guarantee high crop

pollination p 20161472 In Proc R Soc B 283

Sharma D and D P Abrol 2014 Role of pollinators in sustainable farming and

livelihood security pp 379ndash411 In Gupta R W R J van V A G (eds)

Beekeep Poverty Alleviation Livelihood Secur

Van der Sluijs J P and N S Vaage 2016 Pollinators and global food security

The need for holistic global Stewardship Food Ethics 1 75ndash91

Suso M J P J Bebeli S Christmann C Mateus V Negri M A A Pinheiro

de Carvalho R Torricelli and M M Veloso 2016 Enhancing legume

ecosystem services through an understanding of plant-pollinator interplay

Review Front Plant Sci 7 201600333

Sutter L P Jeanneret A M Bartual G Bocci and M Albrecht 2017

Enhancing plant diversity in agricultural landscapes promotes both rare bees

and dominant crop-pollinating bees through complementary increase in key

floral resources Italy

Taffesse A S P Dorosh and S Asrat 2012 Crop production in Ethiopia 

Regional patterns and trends Food Agric Ethiop Prog Challenges

Tamburini G F Lami and L Marini 2017 Pollination benefits are maximized at

intermediate nutrient levels Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 284

Tscharntke T A M Klein A Kruess I Steffan-Dewenter and C Thies 2005

Landscape perspectives on agricultural intensification and biodiversity -

Ecosystem service management Ecol Lett 8 857ndash874

Wan N Y Cai Y Shen X Ji X Wu X Zheng W Cheng J Li Y Jiang X

Chen J Weiner J Jiang M Nie R Ju and T Yuan 2018 Increasing plant

diversity with border crops reduces insecticide use and increases crop yield in

60

urban agriculture Elife 7 e35103

Wratten S D M Gillespie A Decourtye E Mader and N Desneux 2012

Pollinator habitat enhancement benefits to other ecosystem services Agric

Ecosyst Environ 159 112ndash122

Effect of honey bee pollination on the fruit setting and yield of Brassica spp

crop Pakistan

Samina Qamer1 Farkanda Asad2 Muhammad Samee Mubarik3 Tayyaba Ali4

Tahira Yasmin5 Email saminabeegmailcom

Department of Zoology Government College University Faisalabad

Pakistan1234

National IPM Programme Department of Plant and Environmental Protection

National Agricultural Research Centre Park Road Islamabad5

Abstract

Sarson is one of the important oil seed crops which are cultivated on large areas in

Punjab Pakistan during November to February months It is an significant means of

nectar and pollen for pollinators In order to estimate the effects of pollination on fruit

setting no of seeds siliqua and average weight of 1000 seeds produced by

honeybeersquos visits were correlated with open and unopen pollinated sarson plants A

research was carried out with three treatments (i) Pollinators and bees visits to open

field (ii) plants confined with honeybees and (iii) plants confined without honeybees

(control) Measurements were taken about no of seeds set their weight and

productionplot The no of seeds produced pod and total yield was considerably

different between the treatments however non-significant alteration in seeds weight

was detected It was concluded that visits of honeybees at the time of 5 flowers

initiation plays a vital role in seed set and seed yield in mustared crop as well as

honey production

Keywords Pollination Brassica spp honeybee seed production

Corresponding Author Samina Qamer

Corresponding Author email saminabeegmailcom

Introduction

Brassica spp is commonly known as Sarson is the second main oilseed crop of

Pakistan after cotton Its cultivation in Indus valley of sub-continent dated back about

300BC as a fodder crop Itrsquos a winter or ldquoRabirdquo crop grown on a 307000 hectares

area with 233000 tonnes annual production in Pakistan (USDA 2015) Mustard and

Rapeseed seed crops are enrich source of oil and protein Their seeds contain 46-48

oil along with 20-25 of protein (Hasanuzzaman et al 2008) The protein age is

61

436 in whole seed meal with complete amino acid profile Rapeseed foodstuff is an

outstanding forage for animals as well

Rapeseed is a cross-pollinated crop In cross -pollination plants require pollen to be

transferred from the anthers to the stigma of either same or different flower This is

fastening phenomenon for the growth of seeds and fruits in angiosperm plants Like

other inputs such as Seed Fertilizer and Irrigation pollination is also vital for the

better production and is rather inevitable for fruit production (Khan and Chaudhry

1988) About 80 of all angiosperm plant species have specialized part for

pollination by various pollinating agents mostly insects (Ascher and Rasmussen

2010) At the same time adequate number of pollinating means are required for

better pollination and seed yield The bright yellow color of rapeseed flowers are

quite attractive for beersquos visits in search of nectar and pollen which in turn results

into florets cross-pollination Therefore bees are the most efficient pollinators of

several cultivated and wild flowers because of its unique biology and behavior The

major importance of rearing honeybees is pollination besides other hive products

(honey wax etc) which are of lesser value (Verma 1990)

Scientific investigations endorsed the importance of bees in increasing of crops yield

and its quality like fruits vegetable seeds spices oilseeds and forage crops (Thapa

2006 Irshad and Stephen 2012) According to an estimate yield of bees pollinated

crops contribute between $57- $19 billionyear to the US economy (Morse and

Calderone 2000) and $217 billionyear worldwide (Gallai et al 2009) The proper

techniques of using pollinators specifically honeybees and other insects are of basic

importance (Sihag 2000) Hence this study was piloted to understand the effect of

pollination on rapeseed yield

Materials and Methods

The study was carried out during November-December 2017 The experiment was

laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications and

three treatments (i) bees and other pollinators visits open fields (T1) (ii) plants caged

with bees (T2) and (iii) plants confined without bees (T3) (control) The study area

was subdivided into plots of equal size (3 x 2 m2) maintaining 05m and 1m distance

between plots and replicates respectively Each plot had 5 rows at 35 cm distance

Sarson seeds available to farmer were spread in the field on 15 October 2017 by

hand sprinkling method All plots under study received the same agronomic

managements such as manual hoeing weeding application of fertilizer (Tallstar) and

farmyard manuring After twenty-eight days after sowing the seeds the crop reached

5-10 flowering stage Then cages covered with muslin cloth were set up in field

plots (T2) and (T3) Moreover two bee hives of Amellifera L with two- frame bees

(nucs) queen brood and eggs were set up in plots T1 and T2 on iron stand one feet

above the ground level Bee colonies were given supplemental feeding of 50 sugar

syrup twice a week during the experimental period Plastic bowls with few wooden

62

pieces were used as source of water for bees To keep clean water supply these

bowls were replaced every after two days

Observation of Brassica spp visitorrsquos (foraging bees and other pollinators)

During the whole flowering period observations were conducted to see the no of

honeybees and other insect pollinators searching for nectar in the open plots for 15

minutes daily At 900 1100 1300 and 1500 hours data was recorded

Total seed production and yieldplot

When crop reached its maturity 20 ripped pods were selected randomly from each

treatment plot for manual counting of no of seedspod After that the seeds were

detached from pods and crop yield was calculated plot by weighing 250 seeds from

each plot of each treatment The weight of the seed (1000 seeds) were determined

and stated as 1000 seed weight

Statistical analysis

Statistical mean standard deviation and ANOVA was performed using SPSS version

7

Results and Discussion

Sarson or Brassica compestris and its various hybrid varieties are being cultivated

mostly on the agricultural land of Punjab and Khaber Pakhtoon khawa According to

agricultural statistics conducted 2014 the mustard crop stands second in terms of

cultivated area (hectare) production (tons) and yield (kgha) after sunflower It

contributed 13 in local edible oil production followed by cotton seed (63) and

sunflower (16) (Amjad 2014)

Mustard is globally well recognized main oilseed crop mostly dependent upon cross

pollination phenomena for fruit and seed production However the concept is not well

adapted in Pakistan The outcome of the present study indicated that the honeybees

were the most prominent and frequent (Fig1) pollinators of sarson flower during

different times of a day as compared to other insects Diversity of pollinators has also

been described previously (Ali et al 2011 Radar et al 2012 Woodrock et al 2013

Garrat et al 2014) The maximum activity of bees and other insects was at its peak

at 1100hr and minimum during early morning hours This might be due to

environmental factors like light intensity temperature and rainfall This fluctuations in

abundance of bees and other insectsrsquo pollinators has been observed by Devi et al

2017

63

Seed production treatment plot showed the impact of pollination highest (Fig2) in

plots where plants were not confined within cages and open for all types of insects

pollinators followed by caged plants with honeybees The least seed

productiontreatment was found in caged or no pollinators plots The current findings

are in conformity with the previous studies by Singh et al 2004 Tara and Sharma

2010 Jaukar et al 2012 Stainely et al 2013 Goswami and Khan 2014 Devi et al

2017 These authors emphasized the significant improvement in seed setting in open

sarson flowers subjected to pollinators and bees as compared to controlled

treatments (insectsbees excluding treatments)

900hrs 1100hrs 1300hrs 1500hrs

bees 6 21 16 9

others 5 18 16 6

6

21

16

9

y = 04x + 12 Rsup2 = 00058

0

5

10

15

20

25B

ees

and

oth

er p

olli

nat

ors

Time of a day (hrs)

Fig1No of bees and other pollinators visited at different timesday

bees

others

Linear (bees)

T1 T2 T3

Series1 289 281 190

289 281

190 y = -495x + 35233 Rsup2 = 08102

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

See

ds

po

d

Treatments

Fig2 noof seeds producedtraetment plot

Series1

Linear (Series1)

64

The data of the current experiment revealed that seed setting pod and weight of

1000 seeds were also considerably higher 16 and 15 seedspod in open plots trials

and caged plants with bees respectively Noteworthy decreased (8) in seedspod

were found in no pollinators trials (control) These results are similar to Kumari et al

2013 Garrat et al 2014 and Devi et al 2017 In the same way seed weight of 1000

seeds was maximum (33g) in unchecked open pollinated plots Whereas least 1000

seed weight was noticed in plots under cage without any pollinators or honeybees

Garratt et al 2013 Kamal et al 2015 and Devi et al 2017 expressed the same

trends

Conclusion

The study clearly point out that pollinators and honeybees like Apis mellifera L

being effective pollinators of mustard crop at bloom period The cross pollination

process caused an increase in seed set seed yield pod and 1000 seed weight The

T1 T2 T3

Series1 16 15 8

16 15

8 y = -4x + 21 Rsup2 = 08421

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18A

vera

ge n

oo

f se

eds

po

d

Fig3 No of seedspod from different tratments

27 25

18 y = -045x + 32333 Rsup2 = 09067

0

05

1

15

2

25

3

T1 T2 T3

wei

ght

of

10

00

see

ds

pd

(g)

Treatments

Fig41000 seeds weightpod collected from different treatments

Series1

Linear (Series1)

65

minimum seed set seedpod and 1000 seed weight was detected in case of

pollinatorsrsquo exclusion In this way benefits of pollination towards society includes

increase in food security improvement in livelihood due to quality production of crops

and conservation of biodiversity in agroecosystem

References

Ali M Saeed S Sajjad A Whittington A 2011 In search of the best pollinators

for canola (Brassica napus L) production in Pakistan Applied Entomology and

Zoology 46 353ndash361

Amjad M 2014 Status Paper ldquoOilseed Crops of Pakistanrdquo Plant Sciences Division

Pakistan Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Islamabad

Ascher JS and Rasmussen C 2010 Bee species list for Pakistan FAO Rome

Devi1 M Sharma HK ThakurRK BhardwajSK RanaK Thakur M and

Ram B 2017 Diversity of Insect Pollinators in Reference to Seed Set of Mustard

(Brassica juncea L) IntJCurrMicrobiolAppSci 6(7) 2131-2144

Garratta MPD Costona DJ Truslovea CL Lappageb MG Polceb C

Deana R Biesmeijer JC Pottsa SG 2014 The identity of crop pollinators helps

target conservation for improved ecosystem services Biological Conservation

169128ndash135

Gallai N Salles JM Settele J and Vaissiegravere BE 2009 Economic valuation of

the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline Ecol Econ

68 810 ndash 821

Goswami V and Khan MS 2014 Impact of honey bee pollination on pod set of

mustard (Brassica juncea L Cruciferae) at Pantnagar The Bioscan 9(1) 75-78

Hasanuzzaman M Karim M F and Ullah M J 2008 Growth dynamic of

rapeseed (Brassica campestris L) cv SAU Sarisha-1 as influenced by irrigation

levels and row spacing Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2(4) 794-

799

Irshad M and Stephen E 2012 Pollination constraints in hill fruit farming system of

Pakistan UNEPGEF-FAO project Islamabad pp 32

Jauker F Bondarenko B Becker HC Steffan-Dewenter I 2012 Pollination

efficiency of wild bees and hoverflies provided to oilseed rape Agricultural and

Forest Entomology 14 81ndash87

Kamel SM Mahfouz HM Blal A ElFatah H Said M and Mahmoud MF

2015 Diversity of insect pollinators with references to their impact on yield production

of canola (Brassica napus L) in Ismailia Egypt Pesti And Phytomed 30(3) 161-

168

66

Khan BM and Chaudhry MI 1988 Comparative assessment of honey bees and

other insects with self pollination of Sarson in Peshawar Pak J Forest 38 231-

237

Morse RA and Calderone NW 2000 The value of honey bees as pollinators of

US crops 2000 Bee Culture 28 1-15

Rader R Howlett BG Cunningham SA Westcott DA Edwards W 2012

Spatial and temporal variation in pollinator effectiveness do unmanaged insects

provide consistent pollination services to mass flowering crops Journal of Applied

Ecology 49 126ndash134

Singh B Kumar M Sharma A K and Yadav L P 2004 Effect of bee pollination

on yield attributes and seed yield of toria (Brassica campestris var toria) in Pusa

India Envir And Ecol 22(3) 571-573

Stanley D Gunning D Stout J 2013 Pollinators and pollination of oilseed rape

crops (Brassica napus L) in Ireland ecological and economic incentives for

pollinator conservation Journal of Insect Conservation 1ndash9

Sihag R C 2000 Management of bees for pollination In M Matska L R Verma

S Wongsiri K K Shrestha and U Partap (eds) Asian Bees and Beekeeping-

Progress of Research and Development Proceedings of Fourth Asian Apicultural

Association International Conference Kathmandu March 23-28 1998 Oxford and

IBH Publishing Company Private Limited New Delhi India

Singh C Singh P and Singh R 2010 Modern techniques of raising field crops

3rd edition Oxford and IBH Publishing Company Private Limited New Delhi India

Thapa R B 2006 Honeybee and other insect pollinators of cultivated plants A

review J Inst Agric Anim Sci 271-23 View

Thakur S S and Karnatak A K 2005 Impact of insecticides and mode of

pollination on yield components of Brassica campestris with assessment of

insecticidal toxicity influencing behaviour of Apis mellifera L Thesis (PhD

Entomology) submitted to GBPUA and T Pantnagar - 263 145 (US Nagar)

Uttarakhand India

Tara JS and Sharma P 2010 Role of honeybees and other insects in enhancing

the yield of Brassica campestris var Sarson Halteres 1(2) 35-37

Verma L R 1990 Beekeeping in integrated mountain development Economic and

scientific perspectives ICIMOD senior fellowship Series No 4 Oxford and IBH

Publishing Company Private Limited New Delhi India

Woodcock BA Edwards M Redhead J Meek WR Nuttall P Falk S

Nowakowski M Pywell RF 2013 Crop flower visitation by honeybees

bumblebees and solitary bees behavioural differences and diversity responses to

landscape Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 171 1ndash8

67

Old Secrets about secretions of the honeybee By Dr Peter Gallmann Food and Nutrition Scientist (ETHSFT) Emeritus Director of the

Swiss Bee Research Centre Agroscope Liebefeld Email petergallmannicloudcom

Bee products are secretions

The food scientist wonders about how the bees store highly complex raw foods

Pollen one of the most complete perfect foods (human nutritional view) but also

Honey and Royal Jelly are stored or applied under completely non-food compliant

conditions (36oC and humidity of more than 90) And yet they remain stable

In the course of its development the bee has learned to find collect and utilize the

most effective products in nature with highest nutritional value and with antiseptic

effects From this it produces highly complex secretions and mixtures which it

specifically applies in the hive All bee products are at last secretions of bees or

secretions of plants mixed with complex bees secretions These secretions and their

effects contained miracles for human but lot of it is scientifically clarified today

A little example In Europe where the bee has to survive the cold winter the bees

that hatched in the fall eat much larger quantities of beebread (fermented pollen

mixed with honey and secretions) This results in an extension of their lives by a

factor of four This is vital for a hive because it can raise no brood during wintertime

The October bee therefore raises new brood in February while a bees life otherwise

ends after 30 days Applied to humans this leads to the myth of life extension

A look back in the history of humanity reveals that humans in all ancient cultures as

far back as written documents exist (more than 4000 years) have used many bee

products for a wide variety of applications

Utilizing bee products = Apitherapy

The common term for the application of bee products is apitherapy It derives from

the Latin name for bee = Apis and Therapeja the Greek word for ldquoserverdquo or ldquobe of

userdquo Falsely therapy today is often translated as healing Apitherapy is a well tried

holistic health supporting process that uses bee products to maintain or restore good

health It serves for well-being

Today we know most of the reaction mechanisms of bee products and their effects

on human health or in some cases even against diseases It is amazing that these

effects are not used more widely in modern medicine However these are natural

products and they cannot be patented But the pharmaceutical industry applies

extracts of bee products in conventional medicals

To take a closer look at bee products many-sided reactions lets take the example of

honey Even as a food honey is a very versatile product Honey is not just honey

Honey varies in appearance taste but also in its effects due to the origin (mono-floral

honey flower honey honeydew honey) And so honey is widely used in the food

industry such as clarification of fruit juice prolonging the shelf life of foods

preventing the age-staining of foods adding to dairy products pasta juices sauces

68

and so on In addition honey is used when grilling meat Rubbing meat with honey

prevents the formation of cancerous benzene over the fire

In Switzerland we have an Apitherapy Association (founded in 2006 by Gallmann

Bogdanov and Cherbuliez) Its aim is to support research in this field and to gather

and make available the knowledge on effects of bee products on health and well-

being The Association annually pursues further education in bee products Within

the scope of such course two full days per 1 of the six bee products (see figure) is

used

Figure the 6 common bee products In the Apitherapy you can sometimes see additionally

the hive air whole bees and larvae

At Apimondia with limited time for the presentation we have to focus on one product

Letrsquos look at Honey the most harvested bee product All other products (Figure 1)

Pollen Perga (beebread) Royal Jelly wax Propolis as well as the venom also have

special effects again Each of these substances would be worth a separate

presentation

Miracle effect of honey a) History of honey application

The fame Greece medic Hippocrates about 2500 years ago said Honey cleanses

wounds and ulcers softens hard lip sores heals carbuncles And further back in

history the first written mention of the medical honey application is found in Sumerian

ancient scriptures (about 4000 years ago) ldquoMix river mud with a little honey and mix

with hot cedar oil for wound treatmentrdquo Also the ancient Chinese attributed honey-

specific effects

bull Honey affects the lung spleen and intestinal meridians

bull Supports digestion

bull against coughing

All the applications mentioned in historical papers are listed in Table 1

69

In the Ebers Papyrus (Egypt 3500 Years ago) honey is an ingredient in 147 recipes

for external and internal applications Especially treated are wounds ulcers

abscesses and baldness

Table 1 Honey Applications

Disinfection

Wounds

Laxative

Diuretic

Cough

Eye balm

Mouth ulcers

Sore throat

Snakebite

Stomach pain

The story thus shows impressively how honey was widely used All the great

physicians of antiquity from Hippocrates to Galen to Paracelsus used honey in their

formulas (1) How is it that this success story of honey stopped Actually everything

ended around 1930 with the discovery and application of Penicillin It urges old

healing methods more and more into background

b) Specific reactions of Honey

The main reactions of honey are antibacterial anti-oxidative and prebiotic And most

effective is the combination of those three reactions Some reactions are very

complex and therefore safe against development of a resistance (no resistant

microorganisms) The antibacterial effect of Honey is based on at least 4 effects

1 ongoing production of hydrogen peroxide (in contact with water) by the enzyme

glucose oxidase Hydrogen peroxide is a common medical for disinfection

2 high acidity (pH 39 - 43)

3 high osmotic pressure

4 special antibacterial plant substances eg Polyphenols

The anti-oxidative effects are based on electron supplying substances in honey

which act as electron supplier to prevent radical formation Radicals in this sense are

atoms that lose an electron In humans this is mainly due to cell aging but also due

to stress and smoke fumes dust as well as pesticides and heavy metals

Prebiotic effects of Honey help to keep a balanced intestinal bacterial flora With all

the chemical and physical processes that honey contains you could call honey a

miracle cure Of course there are some interesting applications to show

c) Application of Honey for human health

1 Internal application

First of course comes the incredible perception of honey or of different honeys in

the mouth Honey smells good and tastes good But even foods that have been

70

treated with honey are perceived differently Honey is a tasty food which provides

energy from this optic above all It delivers these in a format that is especially prized

in endurance sports And then come all the health-promoting effects

Disinfecting and probiotic effects work on the whole digestive system starting in the

mouth with dental hygiene and anti-inflammatory effects on the mucosa Effects

continue in the esophagus and then in the stomach There honey is the only known

effective agent against stomach ulcer (inhibits the growth of helicobacter pylori (2))

And the honey which is diluted till there has effects against some hazarded bacteria

and supports with its prebiotic function the development of probiotics especially

Lactobacillus bifidus bacteria

2 External application

Skin treatment

Honey cleanses the skin from the inside out With the osmotic pressure it pulls

lymph through the skin to the outside and thus also deposits in the subcutaneous

tissues Practical applications are honey pad or honey massage

But honey also works especially with inflamed skin The honey pad is an effective

remedy for acne treatment But also brown spots of the skin (often due to aging)

dissolve with honey however this treatment needs a lot of pads and patience

Wound healing

In wounds honey works wonders as the following list of effects shows

bull Physical barrier in wounds prevents cross contamination (viscosity)

bull Osmolarity draws fluid (lymph) from the tissue under the wound (cleaning

wound from inside)

bull Wound dressing does not stick in wound (viscous properties of honey)

bull Honey prevents or destroys biofilms

bull Honey reduces wound odor (bacteria break down sugars instead of proteins)

bull Honey acts anti-inflammatory reduces swelling as well as increased

temperature and local pain

bull Honey promotes the growth of fibroblasts Wound heals evenly and less

scarring

bull Honey acts as a wound dressing antiseptic and removes existing dead tissue

in wounds

Today it is known that wounds that are difficult to heal or not heal as they are known

in diabetics (Foot fluke foot syndrome) or even those with antibiotic-resistant

bacteria can be cured with honey In Europe some hospitals started to apply honey

in such cases (3)

3 Other applications

There is also a long list of additional handy honey applications Some are mentioned

here

71

bull Support of chemotherapy

bull Acetylcholine reduces the heart rate dilates narrowed coronary arteries

hypotensive

bull Lips herpes

bull Genitals viruses

bull Muscle cramps

The list could be extended with eye drops nose drops and hair treatment and more

There are also honey shampoo on the market Such knowledge would be based on

experience There are even indications for specific mono-floral honey such as

chestnut as a cardiovascular stimulant buckwheat as a digestive lavender for

wound treatment and for burns and many more (1)

In itself the absence of scientific validation or confirmation is not a problem The use

of honey in everyday life is without risk and cheap compared to medicines Scientific

validation of the old traditional experience is almost impossible due to the fact that it

es a natural product which varies in composition and because natural products

cannot be patented

Not every type of honey is healthy

A variety of flowers produce antibodies to protect against pests These are also

found in nectar and pollen in certain plants The Grayano toxin of rhododendron

species is well known This honey was already used as a weapon in wars So in 67

a Chr In the campaign of the Roman Consul Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus against the

Pontic King Mithridates VI (4) In Europe pyrrolizidine alkaloids are important as

such defence substances Large-scale occurrence of certain plants should be

avoided by the beekeeper These are Echium vulgare and Eupatorium cannabium

(5)

Conclusion

Honey tastes good and supports our health There are cases where honey is the

solution if the medication does not work Honey is easy and pleasant to use

Generally bee products but specifically honey can also play an important role in

health care in regions or situations where optimal medical care is not available

In Ethiopia where the bees are of great importance and appreciation the broader

use of bee products is obviously becoming more and more discussed and

recognized I would like to conclude with a personal experience that I was recently

allowed to do here in the country As a neutral evaluator I had to judge a large bee

project I included all concerned partners beekeepers farmers villagers suppliers

and also affected state agencies such as regional and zonal responsible for

livestock And in the discussion with the Zonal Livestock responsible came without

my intervention his amazing and for me absolutely central statement

As a next step we should consider whether and how to expand the bee product

range and use these products in health centers

72

I wish a lot of success with such an important project in my opinion and I would like to

support if I can

Literature

1 Bogdanov S et al ALP forum 4 Swiss confederation (2006)

2 AL Swayeh O et al Hepato-Gastroenterology 45 (19 297-302) 1998

3 Tages-Anzeiger 26022018 35

4 Naturalis historia (Plinus) and Materia Medica (Pedanios Dioscurides)

5 Luchetti M Unerwuumlnschte Pflanzeninhalsstoffe in Bienenprodukten

chweizerische Bienenzeitung 012018 11-13

73

Facts about insects negative and positive roles of insects in

human livelihood

Emana Getu (PhD) Entomology Professor Addis Ababa University College of Natural and

Computational Sciences PO Box 30526 Email egetudegagayahoocom mobile +251

911019166

Abstract

Insects are the most abundant and diverse animals on earth So far about 15 million

species of animals known to science Nearly about 1 million of them are insects

Insects are categorized under harmful beneficial and free living based on their value

in terms of livelihood Insects either serve as pests of crops vectors of plants or

animal diseases Some insects are beneficial to humans either by providing

ecological services such as pollination decomposing soil organic matter biological

control and trimming plants among other things The role insects play in terms of

biological control is immense Insects also have commercial values by providing food

substances like honey and substances having commercial values such as beeswax

and propolis produced by honey bee silk by silk worm dying material by cochineal

scale to name few When one compares the harmful and beneficial sides of insects

the beneficial side is much more out ways the harmful side of insects Integrated pest

management is the recommended environmentally safe and economically feasible

method of minimizing the negative impact of harmful insects There are ways of

conserving beneficial insects so that they are exploited sustainably for the

improvement of the livelihood of human being Both the harmful and beneficial

aspects of insects are not clear to non-entomologists to the extent they should be

particularly the beneficial aspects For example people appreciate the role of honey

bees mainly in terms honey and beeswax the produce However the role of honey

bee in terms of pollination is 20 times greater than the products they provide to

human being In this review detail roles of insects in livelihood of mankind will be

discussed at large which I hope change peoplersquos outlook for insects

74

How to Prepare a Business Plan for Bee Products Tigist Zegeye

Tigist Business and Investment Consultancy Service Email metigistgebregmailcom

Abstract Agricultural products which benefit from beesrsquo pollination as well as ldquobee productsrdquo in a

narrower sense (such as honey beeswax and others) lend themselves to processing and

value addition The Ethiopian government is keen to support such agro-processing

approaches and assists investors in getting started However among the preparation and

implementation of any business writing up a business plan is the most important component

to be undertaken by the entrepreneurs

In fact writing a good business plan is the first amp best thing to do before engaging in the

actual business Apart from providing general guidance and direction a business plan tells

each unit of the business what to do in the case of a certain scenario of internal or external

crisis So any business person should create a business plan to achieve the entrepreneurial

goals

A clear and compelling business plan provides entrepreneurs with a guide for building a

successful enterprise focused on achieving their personal and financial goals It can also

help persuade others including banks to invest in what the entrepreneurs are creating

A businessplan will help to analyze the potential markets for the business to establish the

size of the potential market to identify the companyrsquos initial needs to determine the start-up

cost and to present and explain the financial data All in all it helps to organize all the

relevant information about the business

Every start-up or ongoing business owner should know the importance of the business plan

how to prepare it and what elements should be included in it Who should prepare it And to

whom should it be presented

Effectively separating the businessrsquo unique approach to each of these headings will organize

our plan in a way which investors find useful

Title page and Table of contents

Executive summary

General Company Description

Products and Services

Marketing Plan

Operational Plan

Management and Organization

Financial Plan

Role of honeybee pollination on yield of agricultural crops in Ethiopia

Tura Bareke and Admassu Addi

Holeta Bee Research Center Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Ethiopia

E-mail trbarekegmailcom or tura_berakeiqqoorg

Mobile +251920287173

75

Abstract

Pollination is a critical link in the functioning of ecosystems and it improves the yield of

agricultural crops Insect pollination is an essential input in the production of agricultural

crops grown world-wide Of the approximately 300 commercial crops about 84 are insect

pollinated Honeybees are responsible for 70-80 of insect pollination This indicated how

much honeybees are the most efficient insect pollinators of cultivated crops and wild flora in

agricultural systems The reason is that honeybees can be managed and relatively easy for

humans to keep and move them around their agricultural area for pollination They have well

developed mechanism of communication to exploit their environment The value of additional

yields obtained by pollination service rendered by honeybees is 15-20 times more than the

value of all hive products put together Studies conducted in Ethiopia have also proven the

role of honeybee pollination in improving the yield and quality such as Malus sylvestris

Allium cepa Guizotia abyssinica and Vicia faba The yield increment was varied from 335-

84 among the above crops due to honeybee pollination However unwise pesticide

applications become the main problem for some crops in Ethiopia This is due to low level

understanding of the value of pollination on the yield of agricultural crops Therefore

attention should be given for the legal protection of honeybees and other insect pollinators

especially protecting the honeybees from pesticide poisoning developing pollinatorsrsquo

conservation policy the idea of crop pollination should be included in national crop

production strategic plan and awareness creation should be given to the society about the

value of crop pollination

Key words Pollination honeybee yield crops pesticide

Introduction

Pollination is an essential ecosystem service that enables plant reproduction More than

75 of leading food crops depends on animal pollinators (Klein et al 2007 Khalid et

al 2012) Of the approximately 300 commercial crops about 84 are insect

pollinated (Richards 1993 Williams 1996) Among these honeybees are substantially

important in worldrsquos agricultural economy in that 35 of the worldrsquos food production

relies on pollinators of which the honeybee accounts for 70-80 which is the largest

portion (Greenleaf amp Kremen 2006 Klein et al 2007 Winfree et al 2007) This is

attributed to the body structures social and instinctive behavioral characteristics of the

honeybee Honeybees are regular visitors of the flowers to be pollinated They can visit

many flowers and plants per unit time As well as honeybees have a well-developed

communication system that enables individual bee to be alerted to the needs of the

colony and to the location of suitable food source The pollinating potential of a single

honeybee colony becomes evident when it is recognized that its bees make up to 4

million trips per year and that during each trip an average of about 100 flowers are

visited (Free 1993) These indicates that pollen or nectar gatherers spend much less

76

time at each flower (Sharma et al 2001) which means that they visit more flowers per

unit of time thereby increasing their effectiveness as pollinators These extraordinary

activities of the honeybee play an important role in its function as a successful insect

pollinator The value of additional yields obtained by pollination service rendered by

honeybees is 15-20 times more than the value of all hive products put together

The vast forest area and mountains of Ethiopia hosts a large number of honeybee (A

mellifera) colonies (Fichtl and Admassu 1994 Admassu et al 2014) Hence

honeybee has a great potential in raising the productivity of cross-pollinated as well as

other crops those need insects for their pollination Many farmers in Ethiopia invest in

fertilizers pest control crop rotation and other management activities However the

role of crop pollinators in crop pollination is totally neglected by crop growers of

Ethiopian Unfortunately both managed honeybees and wild pollinators have been

contributing on raising the productivity of crops without the knowledge of growers

(Admassu et al 2014) Accordingly the Economic value of pollinators for some

agricultural crops was estimated to be 8152 million dollar in Ethiopia In the absence of

the pollinators this value may drop by 16 (Getachew in press data)

In general a lot of crops are benefited from honeybees Some of them are listed below

From oil crops some of them are oil crops Guizotia abyssinica (Niger) Linum

usitatissimum (Talba) Brassica carinata (Rafu) Carthamus tinctorius (Suf) Sesamum

indicum and Arachis hypogea (groundnut) pulses (Vicia faba (Faba bean) Medicago

sativa (Alfalfa) Lathyrus sativus and chick pea (Cicer arietinum) pea (Pisum sativum)

Lentis culinaris (Misir) and horticultural crops (Apple (Malus sylvestris) Allium cepa

Orange (Citrus aurantium) Lomi (Citrus aurantifolia) Papaya (Carica papaya) Mango

(Mangifera indica) Avocado (Persea americana) Coffee (Coffea arabica) Water

melon Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) (Fichtl and Admassu 1994 Admassu et al

2006 Admassu et al 2014 Haftom and Alemayehu 2014 Tura et al 2018)

The effect of pollination on yield and quality of some of these crops have been reported

(Admassu et al 2006 Haftom and Alemayehu 2014 Tura et al 2018) showing that

honeybee pollination plays a great role in the countryrsquos crop production Managing

honeybees for crop pollination have a significant role for the improvement of agricultural

crop yield in terms of quality and quantity Thus the main aim of this review paper is to

provide information about the role of honeybee pollination on yield of some agricultural

crops and main challenges to pollination in Ethiopia and to indicate future direction

Honeybee pollinated crops in Ethiopia

Although pollination research in Ethiopia is at infant stage several studies have been

conducted on some of the agricultural crops such as Niger Onion Apple and Faba

bean

77

Guizotia abyssinica (Niger) is one of the oilseeds crop grown in Ethiopia It has an

extremely low harvest index due to shattering Inputs such as fertilizer promote

vegetative growth rather than increase seed yield (Getinet and Sharma 1996) Niger is

self-incompatible crops that required honeybees and other insectsrsquo cross-pollination It

provides both nectar and pollen for insect pollinators especially for honeybees (Fichtl

and Addi 1994) Because of these rewards it is highly visited by honeybees

Figure 1 Pollination of Niger

The effect of honeybees as pollinator on Niger seed yield oil content and germination

capacity was tested Accordingly seed yield increment ranging from 43-80 has been

obtained Around Holeta (Central Ethiopia) the maximum seed yield was 6

quintalhectare (Admassu and Nuru 2000 Admassu et al 2012) using honeybee as

pollinator of Niger while 167 quintalhectare was obtained in Tigray Northern Ethiopia

(Haftom and Alemayehu 2014) This yield differences have recorded because of

agroecology soil type variation and other environmental factors In addition to seed yield

increment honeybee pollinated plots have higher of oil content and better germination

performance (Admassu and Nuru 2000) This indicated how much honeybees are

contributing to seed yield increment of Niger

Allium cepa (Red onion) is one of the important condiments and vegetable crops grown

in Ethiopia It is among the crops that need pollinators Inadequate pollination of the

onion results low seed yield and low germination capacity (Admassu et al 2006) Wind

has little effects on onion pollination because of sticky pollens Although other insects and

78

solitary bees have importance on onion pollination honeybees are the most valuable

ones Onion flowers have ample nectar and pollen That is why onion flowers are so

attractive for honeybees

Figure 2 Pollination of Onion

In Ethiopia the effect of honeybee pollination on seed yield of onion had been estimated

Study conducted by Admassu et al (2006) showed that the yield obtained from the plots

caged with honeybee pollination was the highest with the mean yield of 175 quintal

hectare followed by plots left open under a natural condition with the mean yield of 10

quintalhectare The lowest mean yield (5 quintalhectare) was recorded for the plots

excluded insect pollinators With regard to 1000 seed weight there was no significant

difference in all treatments The seed yield increment ranging from 41-84 has been

obtained This indicated how much honeybees are contributing to seed yield increment of

this valuable crop

Apple (Malus sylvestris) is one of the cash and high-value crop in highlands of the

country Apple production is expanding in most highlands of Ethiopia at level of

smallholder farmers However the production in quantity and quality of fruit yield was low

in the absence of honeybee pollination Most apple varieties are self-incompatible and

need insect pollination especially honeybee pollination (Delaplane and Mayer 2000

Khalid et al 2012 Tura et al 2018) Hence integration of honeybee with apple orchard

is important to boost the quality and quantity of fruit yield Study conducted by Tura et al

(2018) indicated that honeybee pollination increases the yield of marketable apple fruit

yield by 50 and improve fruit yield increment by 455 due to honeybee pollination

The average marketable apple fruit yield per individual tree is 32 kg if caged with honey

bees and 22 kg for trees open to all insect pollinators Thus if an individual apple

farmer would have 100 trees that are supplied with honeybees during the flowering

season a total marketable apple fruit yield of 320 kg is expected In comparison the total

production from the same tree population is estimated to be 220 kg if providing free

79

access to all insect pollinators By introducing honeybee colonies to apple orchards of

ANNA variety and by maintaining other management practices such as weeding

watering and pest control constant the total annual yield increment for this individual

grower is 100 kg per 100 trees If a kilogram of apple would be valued 40 Ethiopian Birr

(ETB) the total financial loss of each grower by not using honeybees as pollinators is

4000 ETB per 100 apple trees Although there is yield record for honeybees flies and

butterflies are also considered to be the major insect pollinators next to honeybees for

apple flowers (Tura et al 2018)

Figure 3 Apple flowers and fruits

Faba bean (Vicia faba) is one of the most important pulse crops in Ethiopia and stands

first among the highland pulses In Ethiopia faba bean grows mainly for human

consumption as it is an important protein source in the diet of the poor (Keneni and

Musa 2003) It is an allogamous or have a mixed mating system with both self- and

cross-pollination (Free 1970)Inadequate pollination is a major constraint to the potential

yields of faba bean crops It has heavy and sticky pollen that cannot be released into the

air Thus faba bean cross-pollination demand insect pollinators for the transferring of

pollen grain from a flower to another flowerHoneybees are the main insect pollinators of

faba bean Admassu (unpublished data) reported that pollinating faba bean using

honeybees increased the crop yield by 335

80

Figure 4 Flowers and fruits of faba bean

Challenges of honeybee pollination

Various causes of honeybeersquos decline have been reported throughout the world due to

degradation of habitats unwise application of pesticide and climate change (Kearns and

Inouye 1997) Even though there is no concrete information about honeybee decline in

Ethiopia reports from the different stakeholders indicated that there was a decline of

honeybee colonies due to pesticide application and deforestation The clearing of forest

and bushes in Ethiopia have a significant impact on honeybee population and its species

richness (Aizen et al 2009) The habitat shrinkage not only affects the honeybee

abundance but also can cause scarcity of bee forages which is detrimental for survival and

honey production (Klein et al 2006)

Currently there is increasing compromise that pesticides have significant impact on honey

production in Ethiopia (Kerealem et al 2009) due to pesticide application problem poor

seed set of onion the death of honeybees in the hives andabandoning of beekeeping

There are different pesticides used by crop growers in Ethiopia which can poison the

honeybees and influencing the bee health The most widely used brands of pesticides in

Ethiopia were Malathion 50 penetrate 50 Ethiothoate 40 Agrothoate 40

Diazion60 EC Dimethoate40 EC Ethiolathion 50 and herbicides like 24-D Due to

misapplication of these chemicals honeybee mortality and causing reduction of honeybee

colonies which eventually results in a reduction of bee products and crop yield (Bezabih

2010) On the other hand lack of awareness creation about the value of crop pollination is

another key factor to do more on this area

Conclusion

Pollination is an important ecosystem services and honeybee is valuable pollinator It has a

great adaptive capacity as it is found almost everywhere in diverse climates Pesticides

application during the flowering of the target crops should be avoided and to ensure the

protection of honey bee health Farmers should use eco-friendly pesticides or organic

81

pesticide derived from plant extract and integrated pest management practice should be

promoted for control of pests in their agriculture field However low level understanding of

the value of pollination is affecting the yield of agricultural crops Therefore a lot has to be

done on the contribution of honeybee and other insect pollinators in boosting crop yield and

to solve the challenges they are facing

Future direction

bull Attention should be given for the legal protection of honeybees and other insect

pollinators especially protecting the honeybees from pesticide poisoning

bull Developing pollinators conservation policy

bull The idea of crop pollination should be included in national crop production

strategic plan

bull Awareness creation should be given to the society about the value of crop

pollination

bull Capacity building to develop skilled human power to do more on this area

References

1 Admassu A Gizaw E Amssalu B Debissa L (2006) The effect of honeybee

pollination on seed yield of Allium cepaJournal of Ethiopian Society of Animal

Production 6(4) 79-73

2 Admassu A Nuru A (2000) Effect of honeybee pollination on seed yield and oil

content of Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) In Proceedings of the First National

Conference of Ethiopian Beekeepers Association June 7-8 1999 Addis Ababa

Ethiopia pp 67-73

3 Admassu A Tura B Kibebew W Wongelu E (2012) Participatory evaluation

on the effect of honeybee pollination on Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) seed yield in

West Shoa Zone (Gemechis L Kibebew W Amssalu B Desalegn B

Admassu A (eds)) In Apiculture research achievements in Ethiopia Oromia

Agricultural Research Institute Holeta Bee Research Center 2012 Holeta

Ethiopia pp 50

4 Admassu A Kibebew W Amssalu B Ensermu K (2014) Honeybee forages of

Ethiopia Addis Ababa United Printers

5 Aizen M A Garibaldi L A Cunningham S A Klein AM (2009) How much

does agriculture depend on pollinators Lessons from long-term trends in crop

production Ann Bot 103 1579ndash1588

82

6 Bezabeh A (2010) Toxicity effects of commonly used agrochemicals to

Ethiopian honeybees Unpublished Holeta Bee Research Center Holeta pp 13

7 Delaplane KS Mayer NF (2000) Crop Pollination by Bees CABI Publishing

Wallingford

8 Free JB (1970) Insect pollination of the crops London

9 Free JB (1993) Insect pollination of crops (Second edition) Academic press

London UK

10 Fichtl R Admasu A (1994) Honey bee flora of Ethiopia The National

Herbarium Addis Ababa University and Deutscher Entwicklungsdieenst Mergaf

Verlag Germany

11 Getinet A Sharma SM (1996) Niger Guizotia abyssinica (L f) Cass

Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops 5

Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research GaterslebenInternational

Plant Genetic Resources Institute Rome

12 Greenleaf S S Kremen C (2006) Wild bees enhance honey beesacute pollination

of hybrid sunflower Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 13890ndash13895

13 Haftom G Alemayehu T (2014) Effect of honeybee (Apis mellifera) pollination

on seed yield and yield parameters of Guizotia abyssinica (L f) African Journal of

Agricultural Research 9(51) 3687-3691

14 Kearns CA Inouye DW (1997) Pollinators flowering plants and conservation

biology much remains to be learned about pollinators and plants Bioscience 47

97-366

15 Keneni G Musa J (2003) Review of Faba bean (Vicia faba) Genetics and

breeding Research in Ethiopia Progresses and Lesson of a decade Paper

presented to 2nd National workshop on food and forage Legumesin Ethiopia 22-

26 September Addis Ababa Ethiopia

16 Kerealem E Tilahun G Preston TR (2009) Constraints and prospects for

Apiculture Research and Development in Amhara region Ethiopia Livestock

Research for Rural Development

17 Klein A M Steffan-Dewenter I Tscharntke T (2006) Rain forest promotes

trophic interactions and diversity of trap-nesting Hymenoptera in adjacent

agroforestry Journal of Animal Ecology 75 315ndash323

83

18 Klein A M Vaissiegravere B E Cane JH Steffan-Dewenter I Kluser S Peduzzi P

(2007) Global Pollinator Decline A Literature Review Ecology for a crowded

planet Science 304 1251ndash1252

19 Khalid A K Khawer J A Asif R Muhammad S Khalida H A Muhammad S

Muhammad A U (2012) Pollination Effect of Honey Bees Apis mellifera L

(Hymenoptera Apidae) on Apple Fruit Development and its Weight Persian Gulf

Crop Protection 1(2) 1-5

20 Richards KW (1993) Non-Apis bees as crop pollinators Rev Suisse Zool 100

807ndash822

21 Sharma H K Gupta JK Thakur JK (2001) Pollination Studies on Apple and

Pear In Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Tropical Bees

Management and Diversity and Fifth Asian Apicultural association Conference

Chiang Mai Thailand 19-25 March 2000 pp 275-280 IBRA

22 Tura B Admassu A Kibebew W (2018) Role and Economic Benefits of Honey

beesrsquo Pollination on Fruit Yield of Wild Apple (Malus sylvestris (L) Mill) in Central

Highlands of Ethiopia Bee World 95 (4) 113-116

23 Williams I H (996) Aspects of bee diversity and crop pollination in the European

Union In (Matheson A Buchmann S L OToole C Westrich P Williams I H

(eds)) The Conservation of Bees New York Academic Press 1996 pp 63ndash80

24 Winfree R Williams N M Dushoff J Kremen C (2007) Native bees provide

insurance against ongoing honeybee losses Ecol Lett 10 1105ndash1113

84

Topic 2 Threats to pollinators or to their

performance

85

SELECTION OF Apis mellifera FOR HYGIENIC BEHAVIOUR VIS-A-VIS MITE AND DISEASE INCIDENCE

Mohammed Mustafa Ibrahim1 R K Thakur2 K M Kumaranag2 and Yendrembam K Devi3

1Division of Entomology ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute 2ICAR-AICRP on Honey Bees and Pollinators New Delhi-110012

3Department of Entomology College of Agriculture Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana-

141004 Punjab E-mail mrmustafa1982gmailcom

Abstract The present investigation was carried out at apiaries maintained by Project Coordinating

Unit All India Coordinated Research Project on Honey Bees and Pollinators at different

locations in the states of Himachal Pradesh and Haryana India during 2014-17 In depth

studies on selection of Apis mellifera for hygienic behavior vis-a-vis mite and disease

incidence were carried on seven colonies selected by screening fifty maintained colonies

based on levels of Varroa mite infestation Defense responses were tested using freeze pin-

killed broods artificial mite and disease infestation infection Overall mean per cent removal

of the dead broods across methods showed that population of two colonies exhibited

maximum mean per cent removal (100) and had highest significant differences in

comparison to other colonies which showed lower ability in removing dead larvae and pupae

Pin-killed brood and artificial mite infestation proved to be good techniques for natural

selection of hygienic colonies amongst all other assays undertaken Also observations were

recorded on the damaged mites and the maximum mean number of fallen mites observed

ranged between 34-187 mites Moreover highest mean per cent corresponding to damage

to mite (leg and body part) was found in populations from colonies which showed highest

significant differences in comparison to colonies with less defensive behavior towards Varroa

mite infestation The studies indicated considerable variability in per cent removal between

the different hygienic behavior assays in different A mellifera colonies Further variability

also existed within the same colony during study Variations also existed for the same

treatment and location in different agro-climatic zones of the two states Besides even

defensive response studies showed high variability in per cent degree of fallen damaged

mites damaged mite leg body parts between the different bee populations tested

Therefore further studies at the genetic level of both Apis mellifera and Varroa mite using

molecular tools are needed for understanding the reasons behind the behavioral variability

observed during the present studies

Key words Honey bee Apis hygienic mite disease

86

Defence mechanisms of Ethiopian honeybee (Apis mellifera jementica) against

varroa mite (Varroa destructor)

Haftom Gebremedhn13 Amsalu Bezabh 2 Lina de Smet1 Dirk Cde Graaf1

1Laboratory of Molecular Entomology and Bee Pathology Ghent University Krijgslaan 281

S2 9000Ghent Belgium 2 Holeta Bee Research Center Ethiopia 3Tigray Agricultural

Research Institute Ethiopia Email1 haftushyahoocom

Abstract

Worldwide Varroa destructor has been enlisted as one of the factors in honey bee colony

losses Unlike to the western bees the mite has minimum impact in African bees However

little is known about the defense mechanisms that enable African bees to co-exist with the

mite without beekeepersrsquo intervention Hence this study was designed to investigatethe

defence mechanisms of Ethiopian bees (Apis mellifera jementica) against the mite The

study was conducted in the primary honey producing region of Ethiopia Tigray region

Varroa mite reproduction hygienic and grooming behaviour of the local bees were examined

in a total of 24 honeybee colonies The influence of brood cell size (larger and smaller cell

size) combs age (new and old) colony source (splitting and swarm) and hive type

(traditional and framed hive) on the levels of varroa infestation was also determined Age of

brood combs and colony source had an influence on the levels of the mite (plt005) Old

brood combs and colonies established through splitting had higher levels of mite infestation

compared with a new brood combs and colonies established through a swarm catching

respectively The hygienic behaviour of the local bees at 24 hr was 922 and it had a

negative association with the levels of mite in adult bees (r= -058 plt001) and worker bee

brood cells (r=-072 plt0001) The fertility of varroa mite in the local bees was 6015

however only 1880 of the mother mites produced viable female offspring Thus the mite

has low reproductive success in the local bees Our results highlights that the level of varroa

mite in the local bees is low This could be due to the beekeepersrsquo management practices

such as removing entire honey combs using swarm catching as colony source and nesting

colonies in traditional hives high absconding swarming and hygienic behaviour of available

honeybee race However our result did not find any evidence about the contribution of

grooming behaviour and small-brood cell size of worker bees in limiting the growth of mite

populationThus to restrain the growth of varroa mite instead it is recommended to remove

old brood combs and to maintain colonies which have high hygienic behaviour However it is

not recommended to use small cell size as a prevention method of varroa mite

Key words Cell size Combs age Swarming Varroa mite Fertility Hygienic behaviour

Grooming behaviour

87

Monoculture Intensification as a Threat for Apiculture Current

State Review

Addisu Bihonegn1

1Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research Center (SDARC) POBox 62 Sekota

Ethiopia Email addbeshgmailcom

Abstract

Pollinators and plants are co-evolutionary and interdependent Monoculture is an agricultural

practice of producing or growing a single crop or plant species over a wide area and for a

large number of consecutive years Monoculture is characterized by a low fallow ratio and an

intensive use of inputs such as capital labor pesticides and chemical fertilizers to raise

agricultural yields thereby increasing farmersrsquo income and reducing poverty Expansion of

agricultural land has created an increased need for pollination that is not being easily met In

this regard honeybees (genus apis) are the main actors in maintenance of biodiversity as

they are effective pollinators and beneficial insects involved in crop pollinations Monoculture

helps to produce mono-floral honey with distinctive flavor or other attribute fetching a

premium market value Bee pollination in monoculture results in a higher number of fruits

berries or seeds give a better quality with better weight of produce and protect the crops

against pests However the intensive management of the crop field and use of agro-

chemicals has a disastrous effect on the weeds and hedgerows used as nest and

contaminate potential feed source of bees and thereby resulted in massive colony death and

bee population decline Unwise and intensive application of pesticides for long could affect

the beersquos pollination efficiency population and productivity of bees and crops Moreover

Bees become limited to foraging single crop and they lack their ability to collect diversified

feed source withstand different diseases and pest attack Localized pollinators decline result

due to wide scale losses of biological diversity that limit seed and fruit production and disrupt

food supplies Thus the beekeeping sector is in threat due to monoculture and its

intensification Therefore it is advisable to maintain the balance between interdependent

mutual benefit and ecological equilibrium of honeybees and plants diversity alternatives that

provide nectar and pollen feed and nest resources Most significantly there is an urge to

create awareness on the magnified significance of bees as pollinators and on the

consequences due to their decline for the beekeepers crop farmers Development and

Extension Agents higher officials and policy makers

Key words Monoculture intensification pollination colony decline food production

1 Introduction

Global human population growth is putting greater pressure on agricultural

production (Tilman et al 2001) There is concern over how to meet the increasing

demand for food while at the same time safeguarding ecosystems and biodiversity

(Beddington 2010) Land under agricultural production has to be more intensively

managed to increase yields andor more land will have to be converted to agriculture

(Tilman D Balzer C Hill J Befort BL 2011)

88

Expansion of agricultural land has created an increased need for pollination that is

not being easily met In an effort to meet the need for pollination efficiently most

agricultural fields are pollinated by managed colonies of A mellifera that are kept or

even rented by farmers specifically for pollination (Luesman 2011)

The value of bees in the pollination of crops and wild plants is incalculable (Litaer

2009 Solomon amp Aluri 2013) An estimated one-third of the food we eat is pollinated

by bees Without pollinating insects fruits vegetables and field crops would be

defunct leading to extreme economic hardship for the farm and food industry and

resulting in rising food costs (Malhotra 2014)

Many both quantitatively and qualitatively have documented the role of bees in

pollination in agroecosytems for increasing the crop yields Unfortunately the

increasing monoculture practices intensification of cropping systems growing use of

agrochemicals and rapid deterioration of natural areas are collectively contributing to

a gradual decline in pollinator bee populations (Litaer 2009)

Crop monocultures sacrifice floral diversity and consequently diversity of pollinating

insects over large areas Cultivated fields surrounded by simple habitats (ie other

monocultures) have significantly fewer bees than crops surrounded by uncultivated

land (Nicholls amp Altieri 2013)

Losses of diversity of foraging flowers bring to less susceptibility of bees and other

pollinators in danger of loss of disease and pest resistance that also convey

potential impact on honeybee behavior physiology and distribution as well as on the

evolution of the honeybeesrsquo interaction with diseases (Le Conte amp Navajas 2008)

There may be price increases following a loss of pollination at the national scale

which may increase the revenues for producers that continue production of the crop

regardless of a reduction in productivity due to a loss of pollination services (Hein

2009)

Through this review therefore there will be assessing the contribution of bees and

their challenges they face during monoculture intensification targeting the population

decline production and productivity decline and biodiversity sustainability due to

habitat destruction

Therefore the objective of this review is to

Assess different research finding conclusions and recommendations made on

monoculture intensification

Compile evidences on the current knowledge of importance of bees as

pollinators

Show cast the challenges the bees and other pollinators face due to


89

Show the gaps that need prompt research and development interventions

2 Literature Review

Biodiversity and Beekeeping

Plant-animal interactions are very vital for sustaining biodiversity Bees use pollen as

a protein source and nectar as an energy source Different bees have different

pollinating abilities depending on the floral density and characteristics such as size

shape color scent access to floral rewards quality of pollen and nectar etc

(Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

The flower-feeding activity of honey bees have been found to have an important role

in sustaining and multiplying a number of flowering species in effect resulting in the

enrichment of biodiversity (Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

Increasing the overall diversity of pollinators to encourage for example the presence

of both managed honeybees and wild bees has recently been shown to improve

pollination success and fruit production in almond orchards (Brittain et al 2013b)

21 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a function of web of interactions taking place between plants and

animals The interactions between them are very complex intricate and function in

association with the abiotic environment (Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

Biodiversity is measured as the number of different plant and animal species found in

a certain unit area Biodiversity is highest in tropical forest areas and lowest in the

Arctic High biodiversity is related to the high age of the ecosystem and a stable

environment A stable environment creates the possibility of development of

specialization and use of narrow ecological niches The explanation of the high

biodiversity in tropical forests can be as the speciesrsquo efforts to avoid attack by

diseases and pests (Bradbear 2009)

22 Role of bees in Biodiversity

Without bees there would be no flowering plants and without flowering plants there

would be no bees Without bees biodiversity would not be so great (Bradbear 2009)

Bees and birds require food throughout the year Bees are recognized as the most

important pollinators in almost all ecosystems where flowers occur Their precise

roles in pollination are not well documented (Solomon amp Aluri 2013) This

necessitates the availability of floral sources throughout the year For this different

plants should bloom at different times so that bees get food year-long Perennial

plants play a vital role in sustaining bees while annuals and short-lived plants which

usually appear during rainy season provide additional amount of food (AJ Solomon

Raju 1999)

90

The main insect group involved in managed pollination are the bees and in particular

the honeybee (genus Apis) (Hein 2009 Solomon amp Aluri 2013) They have several

positive characteristics such as foraging behaviour foraging rate foraging range

flower constancy and colony strength which make them as general pollinators


As different flowers have different floral configurations with varying amounts of floral

rewards bees should use different handling behaviours to harvest them It is in this

context the flowers bees and birds have developed and evolved certain

characteristics over a period of time for their mutualistic dependence This has

contributed to the richness and perpetuation of biodiversity The specific pollinators

are assured of a meal from that plant which they alone can feed But if one side of

the relationship breaks down to say by the non-availability of pollinators the other

side (the plant) is doomed if the latter lacks the alternative systems of reproduction


The leading pollinator-dependent crops are vegetables and fruits followed by edible

oil crops stimulants (coffee cocoa etc) nuts and spices The area covered by

pollinator-dependent crops has increased by more than 300 percent during the past

50 years (Van Valk amp Koomen 2009)

23 Pollination and Pollinator Bee Populations

A rapidly increasing human population will reduce the amount of natural habitats

through an increasing demand for food-producing areas urbanization and other land-

use practices putting pressure on the ecosystem service delivered by wild

pollinators At the same time the demand for pollination in agricultural production will

increase in order to sustain food production (Van et al 2009)

A range of studies have shown that pollination makes a very significant contribution

to the agricultural production of a broad range of crops in particular fruits

vegetables fibre crops and nuts (Mburu amp Hein 2006)

Honeybees are known to be vulnerable to a range of threats including habitat loss

reduced foraging opportunities irresponsible pesticide use genetic lsquopollutionrsquo from

honeybee races adapted to very different climates and a wide range of diseases

many of them recently introduced through human intervention Interactions between

two or more of these challenges can overwhelm susceptible bee populations

threatening the health of honeybees and placing the economic stability of commercial

beekeeping and pollination operations in jeopardy (Malhotra 2014)

In conclusion it seems clear that agriculture ndash and therefore food production ndash is

becoming more pollinator-dependent over time At the same time there are clear

indications of some significant losses of wild and domesticated pollinators Recent

ldquowarning signalsrdquo of the tensions between pollinator population decline and crop

yields may exist in the observed increases in producer prices (Lautenbach et al

2012)

91

In recent years beekeepers have experienced high colony losses worldwide and in

Europe overwintering losses of around 40 per cent are common The economic

impact of the loss of honeybee colonies in parts of the Northern Hemisphere is

already proving significant (Malhotra 2014)

24 Intensification

The United Nations forecasts the world population will increase by one third from

2013ndash 2050 (Wu amp Li 2013) Population increases have resulted in extensive forest

clearing for agricultural use overgrazing and exploitation of existing forests for fuel

wood fodder and construction materials Forest areas have been reduced from 40

percent a century ago to an estimated less than 3 percent today (Tekalign 2010)

The economic transformation currently also has profound implications for global

resource demand and environmental conditions As countries shift from largely

agrarian to industrial economies their demand for food energy and natural

resources will increase with rising income (Wu amp Li 2013)

Rapid population growth has led to a change from traditional to intensive agricultural

systems (Asem 2010) About 7000 plant species have been cultivated for food

since agriculture began about 12000 years ago Today however only about 15

plant species and eight animal species supply 90 of our food (Asem 2010)

Agriculture around the world will face tremendous pressure for intensification over the

next 50 years(Wu amp Li 2013)

Agricultural intensification is a production system conventionally characterized by a

low fallow ratio and an intensive use of inputs such as capital labor pesticides and

chemical fertilizers to raise agricultural yields thereby increasing farmersrsquo income

and reducing poverty (Wu amp Li 2013)

Agriculture is expected to meet growing demands for food and fiber At the same

time agriculture is also expected to provide increased animal welfare and more

ecosystem services and play a major role in producing renewable energy including

bio-energy These new demands will intensify competition for land around the world

and will put the role of agricultural intensification at the center stage (Wu amp Li 2013)




even rented by farmers specifically for pollination Beekeepers have an increasingly

important role in preserving colonies as evidence shows declining populations

(Luesman 2011)

241 Monoculture

Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop or plant

species over a wide area and for a large number of consecutive years in the

temporal and not the spatial sense (Cook amp Weller 2004 Wikipediaorg 2014a) It is

widely used in modern industrial agriculture and its implementation has allowed for

92

large harvests from minimal resources In forestry monoculture refers to the planting

of one species of tree Monoculture plantings provide great yields and more efficient

harvesting than natural stands of trees (Wikipediaorg 2014a) Monocultures can

lead to the quicker spread of pests and diseases where a uniform crop is susceptible

to a pathogen(Cook amp Weller 2004)

242 Benefits of Monoculture

Growers that practice crop monoculture generally do so for economic reasons The

selected crop is the most profitable and any profitability loss from yield declines are

less than that which occurs from any rotational options available In these situations

the ability to minimize the losses associated with monoculture can provide the best

option to increase productivity and profitability (Cook amp Weller 2004)

Bee pollination in monoculture not only results in a higher number of fruits berries

or seeds it may also give a better quality of produce and the efficient pollination of

flowers may also serve to protect the crops against pests The better weight due to

sufficient pollination arises from the development of all seeds in a fruit (Bradbear

2009)

Honeys occur in many different variations in taste and colour depending on the

source of the nectar Honey flavours range from mild and sweet to strong and

pungent Honey colours range from black to white Flavour colour and composition

are influenced by the source of the nectar Honey from bees which collect most of

their nectar from a certain type of flower is called monofloral honey (CBI 2009)

Monofloral honey is a type of honey which is valued because it has a distinctive

flavor or other attribute due to its being predominantly from the nectar of

one plant species While there may never be an absolute monofloral type some

honeys are relatively pure due to the prodigious nectar production of a particular

species such as citrus (Orange blossom honey) or there may be little else in bloom

at the time (Wikipediaorg 2014b)

Consumer preferences for honey show many similarities between countries (CBI

2009) This type is believed to be the best type of honey and has a high market

value as it has a distinctive flavour owing to the floral origin The higher-quality

monofloral and single-origin honeys are sold as packerrsquos brands in both

supermarkets and specialty shops (CBI 2009 Ogaba M 2010)

Although scientific research has not been able to confirm many of the claims on the

medicinal properties of honey there are many people who believe in it (CBI 2009)

Production of specialty (major monofloral) honey identified for their medicinal value

andor the highest mineral contents of all honeys is main benefit in the monoculture

production (Bradbear 2009 CBI 2009 Wikipediaorg 2014b)

93

243 Limitations of Monoculture over Beekeeping

Food production in industrialized countries worldwide consists mainly of large-scale

monocultures Intensified farm management has expanded at the cost of semi-

natural non-crop habitats Semi-natural habitats provide important resources for wild

pollinators such as alternative sources of nectar and pollen and nesting and

breeding sites (Van et al 2009) Especially in the United States many of these

intensively cultivated agricultural areas are completely dependent on imported

colonies of managed honey bees to sustain their pollination (Mariken Kjoslashhl et al

2011)

Honey bees are the most valuable pollinators for agricultural and natural plants They

have several positive characteristics such as foraging behaviour foraging rate

foraging range flower constancy and colony strength which make them as general

pollinators The honey bees have become the primary source of pollination in

agricultural ecosystems in almost all countries (Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

When large-scale monocultures dominate with few flowering plants overall low plant

diversity and large-scale use of herbicides and pesticides destructive practices that

limit bee-nesting ability as well as pressure from a number of natural diseases and

parasites bees may find it difficult to find adequate food and make industrial

agriculture one of the major threats to pollinator communities globally (Greenpeace

Research 2013)

2431 Honeybee Population Decline

Some species of plants and bees have developed a close interdependence in

connection with pollination Such a mutual adaptation and interdependence between

a plant and pollinator is a result of a long and intimate co-evolutionary relationship

(Bradbear 2003 Sankul 2008) as one biological unit over past million years

Both honeybees and flowering plants are interdependent for their life cycle and

biology Flowering plants- arboreal shrubs herbs climbers bushes weeds etc

provide nectar and pollen the sole food of honeybees The forests also provide

shelter to honeybees Forests are therefore permanent natural abodes of the

honeybees The honeybees reciprocate their obligation by offering pollination service

to the flowering plants assuring formation of large quantity of good quality seed and

thus maintaining genetic diversity and continuation of the plant species (Sankul

2008)

In industrial agricultural areas there is high potential for exposure of pollinators to a

mixture of agrochemicals including insecticides herbicides fungicides and others

(Greenpeace Research 2013) Herbicides may affect bees by limiting the food

resources available to them and to other pollinators especially if the large-scale crop

monocultures typical of industrial agriculture are also present (Brittain and Potts

2011)

94

Changes in land use and agricultural and apicultural practices have resulted in

declining populations of native bee and managed bee populations at a time when

greater crop diversification and consumer demand for high quality produce and

variety of food particularly fruit and vegetables demands a greater variety of bee

species for pollination (Richards amp Kevan 2002)

There is a growing evidence of localized declines of pollinators due to symptomatic

results of wide scale losses of biological diversity Pollinator declines limit seed and

fruit production and disrupt food supplies (Aizen amp Harder 2009 Hein 2009

Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

The value of pollination services are highest in the global context parts of North

America East Asia and Europe all contain regions where the value of pollination can

be as high as $1500 per hectare (Lautenbach et al 2012) That is money that

farmers and society at large will be losing if pollinators were to decline in those

regions (Greenpeace Research 2013)

The decline of pollinators threatens agricultural production and the extent of this

impact has recently been highlighted by the collapse of honeybee colonies Although

the general problem of pollinator decline has beendiscussed in several books and

publications there is still value in obtaining regional perspectives on the extent of the

problem and what is being done about it (Donaldson 2002) No regional national or

international monitoring programmes exist however to document whether insect

pollinator decline is actually occurring It is therefore difficult to quantify the status of

bee communities or estimate the extent of any declines (Donaldson 2002 Lebuhn et

al 2013)

2432 Agricultural Practices

Typically yields decline starting in the third or fourth year of the monoculture

although some yield decline may occur already in the second year of monoculture

Because of these yield declines crop monoculture is commonly considered as not

sustainable (Greenpeace Research 2013)

Broad flower types exhibiting particular reward patterns as to attract particular kinds

of pollinators characterize natural pollination systems Different kinds of flowers of

varying phenologies attract different visitors cementing the mutualisms and by

implication tending to make flowers increasingly specialist and visitors more and

more selective (Willmer 2011) Such co-evolutionary processes have been

interrupted in modern agro-ecosystems dominated by a uniformity of flowers with

similar sizes shapes and colors These flowers usually bloom massively in

synchronous periods only lasting a few weeks so that peak numbers of pollinators

are needed in a short time The floral diversity formerly provided by hedges weed

patches field margins and uncultivated land that could sustain abundant and diverse

pollinator assemblages to cover such periods have been eliminated in intensive

agricultural systems (Nicholls amp Altieri 2013)

95

Agricultural intensification has led to a more homogenous landscape characterized

by large crop fields and fewer non-cultivated habitats In this context many weed

species within and around fields offer many important requisites for beneficial insects

such as pollen or nectar as well as microhabitats that are not available in weed-free

monocultures Removal of weeds that provide forage for pollinators is a major factor

in the decline of native pollinators in agro-ecosystems (Nicholls amp Altieri 2013)

The introduction of new tillage practices (reduced minimum or non-tillage)

commonly causes changes in the composition and abundance of weed species

present in cropping systems In arable crops such as soybean and maize weed

population shifts were observed when conventional tillage systems were changed to

non-tillage Annual grass populations usually increase in non-tillage systems

whereas decreased populations of annual dicotyledonous weeds have been

associated with non-tillage which in turn may reduce floral resources for pollinators

On the other hand tillage practices that create special soil cover conditions influence

pollinator abundance (Nicholls amp Altieri 2013)

2433 Agro- Chemicals Usage

Heavy reliance on a broad spectrum of pesticides by agriculturists poses a major

threat to pollinators (Solomon amp Aluri 2013) Bees are living hazardous lives as

farmers all over the world use more synthetic pesticides Environmental pollution by

pesticides continues as an increasing problem especially in the tropics and

subtropics It arises from the development of large-scale cultivation of single crops or

monocultures (Bradbear 2009) Over and erroneous usage of pesticides greatly

influences the actual coverage area of applied pesticides jeopardizing pollinator-

inhabiting areas (Solomon amp Aluri 2013)

The increased use of exotic cultivars of crops is often accompanied by increased use

of pesticides When these plants are growing under new environmental conditions

they are often attacked by pests to which they are not adapted and that problem is

often approached by using more pesticides (Bradbear 2009) Pollinators especially

honeybees often are killed in large numbers by insecticides They also accumulate

other pesticides in their bodies and hives Herbicides affect indirectly through the loss

of forage and wild flowers important for maintaining some bee populations (Solomon

amp Aluri 2013)

When bees are in agricultural areas they often collect their nectar and pollen from

cultivated plants ndash from fields with oil seeds orchards or vegetable gardens Farmers

are treating these same areas with pesticides and herbicides Most of these

chemicals are poisonous for bees and some are extremely dangerous both for bees

and for people If they are spread even in very small amounts over a blooming field

they can result in serious destruction of many bee colonies (Bradbear 2009)



Herbicides may affect bees by limiting the food resources available to them and to

96

other pollinators especially if the large-scale crop monocultures typical of industrial

agriculture are also present (Greenpeace Research 2013 Brittain and Potts 2011)

Pesticide poisoning of honeybees is a serious problem for beekeepers especially

near areas of intensive agricultural crop production Pesticides work in two ways to

reduce bee populations First many pesticides necessary in crop production are

highly toxic to honey bees Second the use of herbicides reduces the acreages of

attractive plants for the bees to forage on (Collison 2004) Most pesticide problems

stem from human error such as accidents carelessness in application and

deliberate misuse despite label warnings and recommendations (Richards amp Kevan

2002)

Colonies may be completely destroyed by a pesticide but more commonly only field

bees are killed Loss of field bees can be serious because it greatly hinders the

ability of the colonies to build up strong populations which is the beekeeperrsquos most

vital key to successful honey production or pollination If the field force is destroyed

by pesticides the whole colony will be weakened and may remain weak for some

time the queen may reduce egg laying or be killed by the workers and the colony

may fail to survive the winter produce a crop of honey or be useful for crop

pollination (Collison 2004 Karazafiris et al 2010)

2434 Single Flora Dependency

Monocultures that produce only one kind of flower during a peak time bees are not

able to feed themselves and their progeny Bees can go hungry as a result of a

diversity of factors mostly related to industrial agriculture practices herbicides that

reduce the diversity of wild plants in and around farms and the expansion of

agriculture that removes field margins borders hedges and so on that hold a

diversity of plants around farms (Greenpeace Research 2013)

Habitat manipulations associated with agriculture often adversely affect availability of

both food sources and nest sites creating a double problem for native pollinators

(Richards amp Kevan 2002) Honeybees are susceptible to a variety of diseases and

environmental threats some of which have increased significantly during the past

decade Pollinator decline and pollen limitation both reduce seed and fruit production

in plants(Garrido-Bailoacuten et al 2013) reduces honey production and agricultural

production (Imperatriz-fonseca Saraiva amp Jong 2006)

3 Summary

There is a strong relationship between pollinators and plants with the principle of

mutual benefit that bees get their food and nest from plants and plants benefit from

pollination service of the bees

Bees are efficient pollinators and they provide more than 83 of the food plants

pollination service About one third of all plants or plant products eaten by humans

depend directly or indirectly on bees for their pollination The role of bees in

97

maintaining the biodiversity stability is innumerable The population growth creates

high demand for consumable goods and food items Producers have to intensify their

production this in turn needs more bees for pollination service However the

intensification brings monoculture Monoculture though it can be helpful for its

economic reason quality of produce production of monofloral honey of distinctive

flavor and high medicinal value monoculture for its intensification requires high

demand of chemical use mechanized farming and intensification of lands that were

allocated for other purposes

Changes in land use with the introduction of new tillage practice resulted changes in

the composition and abundance of weed species limit the availability of alternative

sources of nectar and pollen removal of weed and annual grass population

destruction of nesting sites pressure of natural disease and pests and overall

declining populations of honeybees The conversion of land to agriculture results in a

net loss of wild vegetation to support pollinators reducing nesting sites and less-

varied microhabitats for egg laying and larval development

Chemicals when used in agricultural fields of pollinator dependent monofloral crops

may affect bees by limiting the food resources available to them pesticides are

highly toxic to honey bees and reduce bee populations or in some cases complete

destruction reduces the diversity and acreages of attractive plants for the bees

Monoculture increases crop production and profitability (Cook amp Weller 2004) but

adversely affect both food source availability and diversity and honeybee population

The bees will be susceptible to variety of diseases pests and environmental threats

decline in honey and agricultural production

The pollination problem is relatively new and needs due attention at this early stage

Since pollinator scarcity is the main factor responsible for inadequate pollination

solutions to this lie in increasing the number of pollinators This can be done by

conserving populations of natural insect pollinators by promoting integrated pest

management and making judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides

however the most practical and preferred solution to increase the number of

pollinators would be by promoting manageable species of honeybees for pollination

There is need to formulate policies that include pollination as an integrated input to

agricultural production technologies Other challenges include strengthening

research and extension institutions and human resources development

4 Recommendations

From the above review I recommend the following points

Awareness creation have to be delivered on the magnified significance of

bees as pollinators and on the consequences due to their decline for the

beekeepers crop farmers Development and Extension Agents higher

officials and policy makers

98

There should be maintenance of bees and their biodiversity and need to find

a way to improve pollinator-dependent crop yields in a sustainable manner

aimed at interdependent mutual benefit and maintenance of ecological

balance

Maintain flowering plants- arboreal shrubs herbs climbers bushes weeds

and other plant alternative that provide nectar and pollen feed and nest

resources around andor nearby crop fields on the hedgerows

Implement migratory beekeeping when the monoculture field crops are not in

bloom and other pollen and nectar sources are available at ample quantity

and quality to sustain the bees production and health

There should be safe use of pesticides to protect honeybee population from

danger of decline (or complete collapse) and pesticides labeling should

include information of toxicity to bees time of application and dosage

There should be strict control over pesticide application mainly in periods of

flower bloom through setting andor implementation of protective legal frames

and their application accordingly

Research should focus on the extent trend and economic losses acquire to

the rural livelihood and national economy due to monoculture driven pesticide

application

5 References

AJ Solomon Raju ldquoThe status of pollinators and biodiversity in Asia An Overviewrdquo 1999 J Palynol 35-36 53-71

Aizen M A amp Harder L D (2009) Report The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees Is Growing Slower Than Agricultural Demand for Pollination Current Biology 19(11) 915ndash918 doi101016jcub200903071

Asem S O (2010) Biodiversity and climate change in Kuwait International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management 2 68ndash83 doi10110817568691011020265

Beddington J (2010) Food security contributions from science to a new and greener revolution Philos Trans R Soc B 365 61ndash71 (doi101098 rstb20090201)

Bradbear N (2003) Beekeeping and Sustainable livelihoods Rome Italy

99

Bradbear N (2009) NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS A guide to the services provided by bees and the sustainable harvesting processing and marketing of their products In Bees and their role in forest livelihoods Rome Italy

Brittain C amp Potts SG (2011) The potential impacts of insecticides on the life- history traits of bees and the consequences for pollination Basic and Applied Ecology 12 321-331

Brittain C Williams N Kremen C amp Klein A-M (2013b) Synergistic effects of non-Apis bees and honey bees for pollination services Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 280

CBI (2009) THE HONEY AND OTHER BEE PRODUCTS MARKET IN THE EU CBI 1ndash32 Retrieved from httpwwwfepatorgarfileseventos759630pdf

Collison C H (2004) Beekeeping Basics (Maryann Frazier Ed) West Virginia and the USDA cooperating Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium

Cook R amp Weller D (2004) In defense of crop monoculture New Directions for a Diverse Plant In New Directions for a diverse planet (Ed) Proceeding of the Fourth International Crop Science congress (pp 1ndash11) Brisbane Australia Retrieved from httpcropscienceorgauicsc2004pdf1128_cookrjpdf

Donaldson J S (2002) Pollination in Agricultural Landscapes A South African Perspective (Henning 1985) 97ndash104

Gallai N Salles J Settele J amp Vaissiegravere BE (2009) Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline Ecological Economics 68 810-21

Garrido-Bailoacuten E Higes M Martiacutenez-Salvador A Antuacutenez K Botiacuteas C Meana A hellip Martiacuten-Hernaacutendez R (2013) The prevalence of the honeybee brood pathogens Ascosphaera apis Paenibacillus larvae and Melissococcus plutonius in Spanish apiaries determined with a new multiplex PCR assay Microbial Biotechnology 6(6) 731ndash9 doi1011111751-791512070

Greenpeace Research (2013) Bees in Decline A Review of Factors that put Pollinators and Agriculture at Risk (Vol 1 p 48) Amsterdam Netherlands

Hein L (2009) The Economic Value of the Pollination Service a Review Across Scales (Tansley 1935) 74ndash82

Imperatriz-fonseca V L Saraiva A M amp Jong D De (2006) Bees as pollinators in Brazil Assessing the Status and Suggesting Best Practices In Vera Lucia Imperatriz-Fonseca A M Saraiva amp D De Jong (Eds) Workshop on Satildeo Paulo Declaration on Pollinators Plus 5 Forum Sao Paulo Brazil Conservation International - Brazil

100

Jaime Nickeson (2014) Honey Bee Net Objective Retrieved January 26 2015 from httphoneybeenetgsfcnasagov

Karazafiris E Tananaki C Thrasyvoulou A amp Menkissoglu-Spiroudi U (2010) Pesticide Residues in Bee Products In Pesticides in the Modern World - Risks and Benefits Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Greece

Lautenbach S Seppelt R Liebscher J amp Dormann CF (2012) Spatial and Temporal Trends of Global Pollination Benefit PLoS ONE 7 e35954

Le Conte Y amp Navajas M (2008) Climate change impact on honey bee populations and diseases Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics) 27(2) 485ndash497 499ndash510

Lebuhn G Droege S Connor EF Gemmill-Herren B Potts SG Minckley RL Griswold T Jean R Kula E Roubik DW Cane J Wright KW Frankie G amp Parker F (2013) Detecting Insect Pollinator Declines on Regional and Global Scales Conservation Biology 27 113-120

Litaer C (2009) Impact of beekeeping on forest conservation preservation of forest ecosystems and poverty reduction XIII World Forestry Congress Buenos Aires hellip Retrieved from httpcommunityeldisorg59d3bb5dLietaer Impact of beekeeping on forest conservation preservation of forest ecosystems and poverty reductionpdf

Luesman C 12 (2011) Determining the Feasibility of Implementing a Beekeeping Cooperative in the Bloomington- Normal Illinois Area (No paper 8) (pp 1ndash29) Retrieved from httpdigitalcommonsiwueduenvstu_seminar8

Malhotra A (2014) International Innovation Disseminating Science Research and technology (Bee breeding) Tropical Forest Retrieved from httpwwwtropicalforestcomWest-Wales-Breeding-Projectpdf

Mariken Kjoslashhl Nielsen A amp Stenseth N C (2011) Potential effects of climate change on crop pollination In POLLINATION SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE Roma Italy

Mburu J amp Hein L G (2006) Economic Valuation of Pollination Services Review Methods Roma Italy

Nicholls C I amp Altieri M A (2013) Plant Biodiversity Enhances Bees and Other Insect Pollinators in Agroecosystems A Review Agronomy for Sustainable Development 33 257ndash274 doi101007s13593-012-0092-y

Ogaba M (2010) Household poverty reduction through beekeeping amongst uganda rural women In Apimondia Kampala Uganda

Richards K amp Kevan P (2002) ASPECTS OF BEE BIODIVERSITY CROP POLLINATION AND CONSERVATION IN CANADA In Pollinating Bees-The

101

Conservation Link Between Agriculture and Nature (Ministry o pp 77ndash94) Brasilia

Sankul S (2008) ldquo ROLE OF APICULTURE IN INCREASING CROP YIELDS IN HORTICULTURE rdquo Workshop Held on 28th November 2008 At Sakhar Sankul Shivajinagar Pune 411 005 Maharashtra State Horticulture and Medicinal Plants Board

Solomon J amp Aluri R (2013) Biodiversity A Function of Plant-Animal Interactions in the Eastern Ghats Forest Ecosystem International Journal of Chemical Environmental amp Biological Sciences 1(2) 345ndash347

Tekalign M (2010) The Role of Area Exclosures for Biodiversity Conservation and its Contribution to Local LivelihoodsThe case of Biyo-Kelala Area Exclosures in Adarsquoa Wereda Addis Ababa University

Tilman D Balzer C Hill J Befort BL (2011) Global food demand and the sustainable intensification of agriculture Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 20 260ndash20 264 (doi101073pnas1116437108)

Van H Valk D amp Koomen I (2009) CLIMATE CHANGE AND CROP POLLINATION In POTENTIAL EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND CROP POLLINATION (pp 1ndash12)

Wikipediaorg (2014a) Monoculture Retrieved January 27 2014 from httpenwikipediaorgwikiMonoculture

Wikipediaorg (2014b) Monofloral honey Retrieved January 20 2015 from httpenwikipediaorgwikiMonofloral_honey

Willmer P (2011) Pollination and floral ecology Princeton University Press Princeton

Wu J amp Li M (2013) Land Use Change and Agricultural Intensification Key Research Questions and Innovative Modeling Approaches Available at httpwwwpimcgiarorgfiles201312Wu_Land_Use_Change_and_Ag_Intensificationpdf

102

Hot and sort after Body temperature correlates with pheromone

production in honey bee workers

Abdullahi A Yusuf1 Nikita Venter1 Christian Pirk1

1Department of Zoology and Entomology University of Pretoria Private Bag X20 Hatfield

0028 Pretoria South Africa Presenting author e-mail aayusufzoologyupacza

Abstract

Social communication within the honeybee hive is controlled and regulated by different cues

Key among which include those of chemical origin However other cues such as

temperature are present and being used within the hive but little is known about the

influence these have on pheromonal communication Using behavioural observations

infrared thermal photography and gas chromatographic techniques we studied the possible

roles body temperature could play in pheromone communication amongst workers bees in

the hive We found that body temperature is strongly correlated with the production of 10-

hydroxydecanoic acid (10-HDAA) and 9-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (9-HDA) which are

precursors of worker and queen dominant signals respectively Furthermore the ratios of

queen-like pheromones were positively correlation with mean body temperatures whilst

those of worker-like showed negative correlations Thus body temperatures play a key role

in pheromone production and the establishment of dominant hierarchies in honeybee

workers

THEME Honeybees and other social insects

PRESENTATION Oral

103

Assessment on the effects of Agrochemical Applications on Honeybee

production in Selected zones of Tigray Region Northern Ethiopia

Guesh Godifey1 Amssalu Bezabeh2 Hailu Mazengia3 Yayneshet Tesfay4

1Tigray AgriculturalResearch InstituteMekelle Agricultural Research Center Apiculture and

sericulture Research Case Team

PO Box 492 Mekelle Tigray Ethiopia gueshgodyahoocom

2Holeta Bee research Center 3Bahrdar University Department of Animal Production and Technology 4ILRI_LIVES project

Abstract

Assessment on the effects of agrochemical applications on honeybee production was

conducted in eastern south-east and central zones of Tigray region from September 2014

up to June 2015 to assess the types of agro-chemicals and their effects on honeybees and

their products Questionnaire survey and observation methods were used for the study In

the questionnaire survey 384 beekeepers (350 male and 34 female) were interviewed From

the total of 384 beekeepers interviewed 523 of them are recognized as pesticides users

Moreover there was significant variation in use of agrochemicals among beekeepers in the

study districts (plt001) Agrochemicals were used for the purpose of pest control (98)

weed control (846) for veterinary use (124) and malaria transmitting anopheles

mosquito repellent (3) According to the respondents the most used brands of agro-

chemicals were Agro- 2-4-D (856) Malathione (737) Karate (39) Dimothoate (33)

Ridomil (289) Mancozeb (278) Dursban (245)Fenithrothion (245) and Diazinon

(228) Majority of the respondents apply the chemicals during the morning time (485)

followed by day time (215) evening (175) and at any convenient time throughout the

day (125) The respondents claimed that within the last four years 219 219 and 34

honeybee colonies were recorded as absconded dwindled and died due to indiscriminate

application of aforementioned chemicals in the study districts respectively Therefore there

should be strong communication between beekeepers and crop growers while spraying It is

important to advise people in selecting and applying less hazardous chemicals to honey

bees before blooming and when honey bees are not foraging in the field

Key words Agrochemicals Effect Honeybee Tigray

Introduction

Beekeeping with its huge potentials to save the natural forests and to earn

subsistence income for the rural poor is one of the agricultural sectors believed to

serve as an instrument for climate change adaptation (FAO 2012) Bees and trees

are interdependent trees provide excellent resources to bees Honeybee is also

believed to play a significant role in the maintaining the ecosystem through

pollination services Of the 100 crop species that provide 90 per cent of the worldrsquos

food over 70 are pollinated by bees (UNEP 2011) The efficiency pollination of

honeybees is due to their great numbers their physique and their behavior of

104

foraging on only one plant species at one time (Bradbear 2009) The well being of

bees are highly dependent upon the conservation of the ecology

Ethiopia has huge potential for beekeeping production because of its endowment

with diversity in climate and vegetation resources offer potentially favorable

conditions for beekeeping Accordingly the country is ranking ninth highest honey

producer in the world and the leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa

(CIAFS 2012)Although thousands of tones of honey were produced every year the

products obtained from the subsector were still low as compared to the potential of

the country (MoARD 2007 Gezahegne Tadese 2012) Among the major factors for

low beekeeping products indiscriminate use of agrochemicals has subsequent effect

on honeybees (Amssalu Bezabeh et al 2012)

In Ethiopia pesticides are used mainly to control migratory pest army worms locust

grain eating birds weeds and other pests Every year on average 1262 tons (More

than 100 types) of agro-chemicals are imported and used (Amssalu Bezabeh et al

2012)When different chemicals are applied to the crops they not only affect the

pests of the crops but also harm the beneficial insects as pollinators predators and

parasites etc

In Tigray region the effect of agrochemical application around the crop field was

reported as the main bottleneck constraints of the beekeeping sectors (Gidey Yirga

and Kibrom Ftwi 2010 Adeday Gidey 2012)However the documentation on types

of agrochemicals and their side effects on honeybees were slight Therefore the

main purpose of this study was to assess the types of agro-chemicals and their

effects on honeybees and their products


Description of the study areas

The study was conducted in six districts of Eastern South East and Central Zones of

Tigray Regional State Atsbi-Womberta Kilte-Awlaelo Degua-Temben Saharti-

Samre Ahferom and Kolla-Temben (Figure 1) The districts were selected based on

their potential for beekeeping agro ecological representativeness and accessibility to

transport facility Atsbi-Womberta and Degua-Temben districts represent highlands

Whereas Kilte-Awlaelo Ahferom and Saharti-Samre districts represented midlands

and Kolla-Temben district represented lowland agro ecologies (MoARD 2009)

105

Figure 1 Location map showing the study area

Data sources and methods of collection

Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in this study Secondary data

were obtained from the reports of Office of Agriculture and Rural Development of the

respective districts Regional Bureau NGOs and other published and unpublished

materials Primary data were collected from sample household beekeepers through

semi-structured questionnaire and field observation The study covered wide range

of information with reference to beekeeping Both qualitative and quantitative data

were generated using semi-structured questioner survey methods

Sampling technique and Sample size determination

A multistage stage sampling procedure was employed to select beekeepers and

honeybee colonies At the first stage three administrative zones were selected using

purposive sampling based on their potential for beekeeping In the second stage two

districts were selected from each zone purposively based on their relative

beekeeping potential and representing to highland midland and lowland agro

ecologies In the third stage three rural kebeles from each district were sampled

using purposive sampling based on their representativeness and transport

accessibility In the fourth stage beekeepers were sampled from all rural kebeles

using simple random sampling technique Sample size for beekeepers was

calculated based on Cochran (1963) as follows

106

n0= Z2pq

e2

Where n0 is the sample size Z2 is the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an

area α at the tails which is 196 e is the desired level of precision (5 ) p is the

estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population which is 50

and q is also 50

Accordingly 64 sampled beekeepers were sampled from each district with sum up

of 384 (350 male and 34 female) total sample size

24 Data management and statistical analysis

The collected data were coded managed and tabulated for analysis using SPSS

software (Version 20 2011) Descriptive statistics such as mean standard deviation

frequency and percentage were used to analyze the data Tukey HSD was used to

separate means and mean differences were considered significant at Plt005

Results and Discussions

Results

Types of crops cultivated in the study areas In the study areas Teff and Maize are the major crops cultivated by almost all

respondents (100) and followed by pulses (903) Barley (810) wheat (761)

Vegetables (662) Sorghum (508) and Fruits (453) respectively (Table 1)Teff

and maize predominantly were grown over a wide range of climates and elevations

other than others cereals

Table 1Types of crops cultivated in the study areas

Crops

Number of respondents () in each study districts

Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Teff 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Maize 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Pulses 55(100) 45(849) 51(100) 31(564) 58(100) 59(100) 299(903

)

107

Crops


Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Barley 55(100) 53(100) 35(686) 31(564) 58(100) 41(695

)

268(810

)

Wheat 55(100) 45(849) 50(98) 2(36) 58(100) 42(712

)

252(761

)

Vegetable

s

15(273) 15(273) 52(981) 34(667) 34(618) 37(638

)

219(662

)

Sorghum 14(255) 34(642) 23(451) 55(100) 29(379) 20(339

)

168(508

)

Fruits 14(255) 34(642) 29(569) 37(673) 17(293) 19(322

)

150(453

)

Application of agrochemicals for As table1 indicated agrochemical sprays are used in all study districts From the total

of 384 beekeepers interviewed 201 (523) are recognized as agrochemical users

However the number of farmers using pesticides varied significantly (plt001) among

the districts and the number was high in Kilte-Awlaelo (766) and low in Atsbi-

Womberta (297) (Table 1)

Table 2Number of respondents using agro-chemicals in the study districts

Districts N Yes No

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Awomberta 64 19 297 45 703

Kawlaelo 64 49 766 15 234

Ahferom 64 46 719 18 281

KTemben 64 35 547 29 453

DTemben 64 31 484 33 516

Ssamre 64 21 328 43 672

Overall 384 201 523 183 477

1199092 48325

P-value 0000

108

Purpose of agrochemicals application

Of those respondents who use agrochemicals 197 (98) indicated that they use it

for pest control 170 (846) indicated that they use it for weed control 6 (3)

indicated that they use it for unti-malaria 25 (124) indicated that they use it for

veterinary uses (Table 2)

Table 3Purpose of agrochemicals used by the respondents

Response Purpose of agrochemicals utilized by respondents

Crop pests

control

Weed control Unti-Malaria Veterinary use

Yes 197(98) 170(846) 6(3) 25(124)

No 4(2) 31(154) 195(97) 177(876)

Types of agro-chemicals used by the respondents

In the current survey result different types of agro-chemicals were listed by the

respondents and information was cross-checked through direct observation and

secondary data sources from the respective study districts According to the

respondents the most used brands of agro-chemicals were Agro- 24-D amine

720gl AE (856) Malathione (Ethiolation 50 EC)(737) Karate (Karate 5

EC)(39) Dimothoate (Ethiothoate 40EC)(33) Ridomil(289)

Mancozeb(278) Dursban (Dursban 48 EC)(245)Fenithrothion (Ethiotrothion

50 EC) (245)and Diazinon (Ethiozinon 60 EC(228) (Table 4) in their order of

sprayed (2011) The main benefit of these chemicals is to solve pest problems there

by increased crop production The nature and function of each chemical is indicated

in (Table 5)

Table 4Types of agro-chemicals and number of respondentsused them in the study

districts

Types of agro-

chemicals

Number of respondents replied

Total Yes No


Agro-2-4-D 167 856 28 144 195

Malathine 143 737 51 263 194

Karate 76 39 119 61 195

Dimethoate 62 33 126 67 188

109

Types of agro-

chemicals


Total Yes No

Ridomil 56 289 138 711 194

Mancozeb 54 278 140 722 194

Dursban 46 245 142 755 188

Fenithrotine 46 245 142 755 188

Diazinon 44 228 149 772 193

Table 5Widely used Agrochemicals in the study areas and their uses

Trade name Common

name

Nature Uses

Ethiothoate 40 EC Dimethoate Pesticides

For the control of Aphids on field

beans stock borer cabbages

and potato

Ethiozinon 60 EC Diazinon Pesticides

For the control of pests of

cereals vegetables and oil seeds

Ethiolation 50 EC Malathion Pesticides

For the control of agricultural

crop pests

Ethiotrothion 50 EC Fenithrothion Pesticides

For the control of different insect

pests of field crops

Karate

5 Ec

Karate Pesticides

Used to control a wide range of

insect pests in different field

crops vegetables and fruits

Dursban

48 EC

Dursban Pesticides

To control termites and other

insects

Agro- 24-D amine

720gl AE

24-D

Herbicides For the control of broadleaf

weeds in wheat barley teff

maize and sorghum

There is an increasing trend of these chemicals application in the study areas in the

last five years of 2010-2014 (Fig 3) Most of the agrochemical was supplied by Office

of Agriculture and Rural Development of the respective districts Licensed venders

are also source of agrochemicals in the study areas

110

Figure 2Trend of widely used agrochemicals in the study areas (by years)

Time of application

According to the result of this survey majority of the respondents apply the chemicals

during the morning time (485) followed by day time (215) evening (175) and

at convenient time (125) (Table 6)

Table 6Time of the day when respondents were applying chemicals on their crops

Time of application Frequency Percentage ()

Morning (up to 900 AM) 97 485

Day time (100 to 300

PM)

43 215

Evening (after 4PM) 35 175

At convenient time 25 125

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

0 0 0 0 0

Tre

nd

Years

Malathin

Fenitrotine

Dimethoate

Dursban

Agro 2-4-D

Karate

Ridomil

Mancozeb

Diazinon

111

Effect of agro-chemicals on honeybees

From the total of 201 respondents who used agro-chemicals in their field crops

about 637 of them reported that their honeybee colonies were affected by

indiscriminate application of these agrochemicals (Table 4)

The effect of agro-chemical spray on honeybee colonies was estimated by analyzing

the number of honeybee colonies dead absconded and dwindled The respondents

claimed that within the last four years 219 219 and 34 honeybee colonies were

recorded as absconded dwindled and died due to indiscriminate application of

aforementioned chemicals in the study districts respectively (Fig 4)

Table 7Effect of agro-chemical application on honeybee colonies

Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 128 637

No 73 363

Figure 3Effect of agrochemical application on honeybee colonies in the last five years

Discussions

The main food crops grown in all study districts were Teff Maize Pulses Barley

Wheat Vegetables Sorghum and Fruits Farmers used different types of

agrochemicals to control crop pests and weeds Most of the farmers used pesticides

to control crop pests This might be due to the highest impact of pest on crop

production reduction Tadesse Amera and Asferachew Abate (2008) indicated that

the average crop loss due to pests was estimated to reach between 17 to 41

13 4 8 9

15 23

58

123

23

41

83 72

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

201112 201213 201314 201415

Val

ues

Production Years

Died Dwindled Absconded

112

annually Furthermore herbicides are becoming the best alternative when labor is in

short of and expensive to remove the weeds by hand (Desalegn Begna 2015)

In Ethiopia the need for agro-chemicals in improved agriculture is increasing and

unwise application of these agrochemicals has a subsequent effect on honeybees

These agrochemicals are used mainly to control migratory pest such as army warm

locust grain eating birds and weeds and other pests in crop production (Amsalu

Bezabeh et al 2012) and may be also harm non-target species and resulted in

toxicity to bees which are pollinators with adverse effects on the production of

certain crops (EPA 2004)

Honeybees are most valuable pollinators of agricultural crops but very sensitive

insects as they are disturbed by the common environmental factor like pollution

(Johnson et al 2010) Honeybees exposed to agrochemicals in different ways

Fischer and Moriarty (2011) indicated older worker beesrsquo forage outside the hive for

pollen and nectar and thus are vulnerable to contact exposure to pesticides during

foraging as well as dietary exposure during collection or ingestion of pollen and

nectar Workers also serve as a vector for bringing contaminants back to the hive

Young workers clean cells and attend brood whereas middle-aged workers do a

variety of tasks mainly within the hive All the young and middle-aged workers queen

and drone can have secondary exposure to pesticides through contaminated food

brought back to the hive

Beekeepers identified indiscriminate applications of pesticides are as major

constraints of beekeeping developments in the study areas The current result is in

agreement with Adeday Gidey (2012) Kerealem Ejigu et al (2009) and Desalegn

Begna (2015) results reported that indiscriminate application in the crop field caused

substantial economic loss in the beekeeping sector In the study districts none of

honeybee disease and pests were treated using drugs intentionally which is similar

with reports in the country by MoARD (2007) Amsalu Bezabh et al (2012)

In the study districts different brands of pesticides are used at the same time andor

different seasons This suggests the intermittent occurrences of different crop pests

that necessitate the applications of pesticides with different brands

According to the study result of Amssalu Bezabeh et al (2012) all commonly used

agro-chemicals except Agro-2 4-D Amin 720A were significantly toxic to Ethiopian

honeybees when ingested with food However Tadesse Amera and Asferachew

Abate (2008) found thatAgro-2 4-D Amin 720A is highly toxic to non target plants

that have a useful function in the ecosystem Forage plants for bee plants that can

be grazed by livestock plants that provide food for birds and other animals in the

ecosystem can be affected Next to Agro-2 4-D Amin 720A Malathine was

commonly used agrochemical by most of the farmers in the study areas It is an

Organophosphorus synthetic insecticide used widely in agriculture and also to kill

insects to protect public health This pesticide is categorized as highly toxic to honey

bees (Janet 2010)Tessega (2009) also reported that pesticide and herbicide

application were the reason for decreases in availability of hive products

113

The majority of the farmersrsquo spray agrochemicals during the morning time preferably

up to 900 AM whereas others use during the daytime and at any time of the day

According to Haftom Gebremedhin (2014) the peak number of bees that coming out

and returned was recorded at 900 AM This indicates that farmers may not have an

appropriate time to spray or low awareness on pesticides application schedules and

its impact on honeybee colonies The current result is supported by Tadesse Amera

and Asferachew Abate (2008) that reported the impact of agrochemicals in Ethiopia

are greatly aggravated by the limited knowledge among users on the toxicological

and chemical properties of these substances Desalegn Begna (2015) also indicated

that pesticides application time was determined by fixing Knapsack renters

Conclusions and Recommendations

Agrochemicals were used for the purpose of pest control weed control for veterinary

use and unti-malaria According to the respondents the most used brands of agro-

chemicals were Agro- 2-4-D Malathione Karate Dimothoate Ridomil Mancozeb

Dursban (245)Fenithrothion and Diazinon Majority of the respondents apply the

chemicals during the morning time in which highly traffic of bees are occurred

The respondents claimed that within the last four years a great number of honeybee

colonies were absconded dwindled and died due to indiscriminate application of

aforementioned chemicals in the study districts

According to the result of this study below are some of the possible suggested

issues that require consideration by any beekeepers plant growers and

development organizations to minimizing the ill effects of pesticides on honeybees

and their products

It would be advisable to apply pesticides at late evening when bees are not

foraging

Beekeepers can temporarily confine their bees to the hives by closing the

entrances but this only be done for a short period of time and where there is

no risk of the colony overheating

Regulatory body that oversees the total supply transportation storage

appropriateness etc of pesticides at all levels should be in place

Crop weed management practices by hand weeding should be capitalized in

the region to protect bees and the environment and to ensure the products

are natural

Initiating community-based bylaws that give full right of supervise and

corrective measures to the community

Integrated Pest management (IPM) should be emphasized

Comprehensive research into the effects of each pesticide on honeybees and

their products is important

114

References

Adeday Gidey Shiferaw Mulugeta and Abebe Fromsa 2012 Prevalence of Bee Lice Braula coeca (Diptera Braulidae) and Other Perceived Constraints to Honeybee Production in Wukro Woreda Tigray Region Ethiopia Global Veterinaria 8 (6) 631-635

Amssalu Bezabeh Alemayehu Gela Taye Negera and Desalegn Begna 2012 Toxicity effects of commonly used Agro chemicals to Ethiopian Honeybees In Proceeding of the 3rd ApiExpo Africa held at the Millennium Hall Addis Ababa Ethiopia and September 26-29 2012 PP 35-44

Bradbear NJ2009 Bees and their roles in forest livelihoods A guide to the services provided by bees and the sustainable harvesting processing and marketing of their products FAO Non-Wood Forest Products 19 FAO Rome

CIAFS (The capacity to Improve Agriculture and Food security)2012 The World Market For Honey Market Survey 1

EPA (Federal Environmental Protection Authority)2004Environmental Impact Assessment Guideline on Pesticides Addis Ababa Ethiopia

FAO 2012 Environment and Natural Resource Management Adaptation to Climate Change in Semi- Arid Environments Experience and Lessons from Mozambique FAO Rome Italy 71P

Gezahegne Tadesse 2012 Apiculture in Ethiopian Agriculture 3rd ApiExpo Africa 2012 26th - 29th September 2012 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Gidey Yirga and Kibrom Ftwi 2010 Beekeeping for Rural Development Its Potentiality and Constraints in Eastern Tigray Northern Ethiopia Agri J 5 201-204

Gizachew Assefa 2011 Pesticide use in Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture Addis Ababa

Haftom Gebremedhn Alemayehu Tadesse and Tesfay Belay2014 Flight intensity of honeybees (Apis mellifera) and its relationship with temperature sunshine hours cloudiness and relative humidity Livestock Research for Rural Development 26 (1)

Janet Lowore2010 PESTICIDES KILL BEES IN ETHIOPIA Bees for Development Journal 106

Janine Kievits Martin Dermine Jose-Anne Lortsch Coralie Mouret and Noa Simon-Delso 2012 Assessment of pesticides risk for bees methods for PNEC measurements 11th International Symposium of the ICP-BR Bee Protection Group Wageningen (The Netherlands) November 2-4 2011

Johnson RM Ellis MD Mullin CA Frazier M 2010 Pesticides and honeybee toxicity ndash USA Apidologie 41 312ndash331

115

MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) 2007 Livestock Development Master Plan Study Phase I Report ndash Data Collection and Analysis Volume N Apiculture Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Tessega Belie 2009 Honeybee Production and Marketing Systems Constraints and Opportunities in Burie District of Amhara Region Ethiopia MSc Thesis Department of Animal Science and Technology School of Graduate Studies Bahir Dar University Ethiopia

UNEP2011 Climate Change and Development Adopting by Reducing Vulnerability (CC DARE) Spurs Bee Farming in Ethiopia Charting Local solutions to addressing Food Crisis and unemployment A joint UNEPUNDP program for Sub Afria

Density and Distribution of Nesting Sites of Honeybees in the Dinder Biosphere Reserve Sudan

Lubna M Abdallahsup1 Ibrahim M Hashimsup1sup1 and Siham K Nagisup1sup1sup1 (1)Lubna MAbdallah Wildlife Research Centre Shambat Sudan Corresponding author

(lobnamoh2010yahoocom) (11) Ibrahim M Hashim Sudanese Wildlife Society Sudan (ibrahama35hotmailcom)

(111) Siham K Nagi The National Centre for Research Apiculture Research Department Email (sihamnahalyahoocom)

Abstract

This study was conducted in the Dinder Biosphere Reserve (DBR) during the dry season

2009 and 2010 Colonies of honeybees were counted and the density was determined in the

three ecosystems of the DBR the Maya the Riverine and the Dehra Line transects each

with a maximum length of 500 m were selected randomly in each ecosystem Sixty-four line

transects were sampled All colonies in cavities and feral swarms along the line transects

were counted in 200-m wide and 500-m long plots The density was calculated as the total

bee colonies counted in each transect divided by the area of the plots Three trees species

had high preference by the bees for nesting Habil (Combretum sp)Cuke (Acacia

siebriana) and Higleig (Balanites aegyptiaca) Larger number of honeybee colonies was

encountered in 2009 than in 2010 In 2009 however about 70 of the colonies well

established and 30 absconded In 2010 the numbers of established and absconded

colonies were about equal (52 and 48 respectively) The natural colonies were more

common in tree cavities than in the form of feral swarms

Index Terms- Honeybees Nesting site feral swarms Habil Cuke Higlieg

Ӏ INTRODUCTION

This study was conducted in the Dinder Biosphere Reserve (DBR) which lies at the

southeastern portion of Sudan approximately 400 kilometers from Khartoum It was

established in 1935 and was designated biosphere reserve in 1979 Sennar Gedarif

and Blue Nile states borders it It lies in the clayish floodplain of the Nahr Ad-dinder

and Nahr Ar-rahad at an elevation of 700 ndash 800 m and covers an area of 10000

km2 The boundary continues again up to Lat 12˚ 32 N and Long 34˚ 32 E along

Khor Kennana Finally the boundary slightly diverts to the southeast to Lat 11˚ 55 N

and Long 34˚ 44 E and then gets to the Sudan Ethiopia border [1]

116

The general climate of the DBR is characterized by two seasons the hot humid rainy

season (May ― November) and cool dry season (December ― March) DBR lies in

the zone of north-easterly winds in which rainfall decreases towards the northeast in

the order of 30 mm every 20 km This decrease is responsible for the marked

zonation of the DBR vegetation The northeastern part has the least rainfall (600 -

800 mm) which gradually increases (800 ndash 1000 mm) with distance towards the

southeast The effective rains start in May in the southeast and June in north-east

The normal rainy season is from May to November peaking in August [2]

The vegetation of DBR was classified into four categories flooded grassland open

grassland wood land and riverine forest [3] However three types of ecosystems

were recognized Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca Riverine and Mayas [4]

Fauna and flora have been described in detail [5 6 7 and 8]

To the best of our knowledge no studies were conducted on honeybees in DNP

Therefore this research was undertaken to study the density and distribution of

nesting sites of honeybees (Apis mellifera) colonies in DBR

ӀӀ MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted in Dinder Biosphere Reserve during the dry season in

2009 and 2010 A longer time was spent in the selection and the sampling of the line

transects in 2009 than in 2010 when only the sampling was done Colonies of

honeybees were counted and their density was determined in the three ecosystems

of the Dinder Biosphere Reserve the Maya the Riverine and the Dehra Line

transects each with a maximum length of 500 m were selected randomly in each

ecosystem Sometimes the length of the line transect would be limited by the

boundary of the adjacent ecosystem so the line would be shorter than the normal

length (500 m) Sixty-four line transects were sampled of which 16 were in Riverine

twenty-four in Dehra and twenty-four in the Maya ecosystem For the Riverine

ecosystem the line started at the edge of the river and extended until the edge of the

ecosystem where it was demarcated by tree indicators such as Sider (Ziziphus

spina- christi) and Dom palm (Hyphaene thebaica)

In selecting line transects in the Dehra ecosystem the length of the road was

measured by GPS (Global Position System) and positions of the lines were located

at 2 km intervals along the road The total number of lines sampled was calculated

by dividing the length of the road by 2 km Only 30 of these line transects were

selected randomly and sampled In the Riverine ecosystem however the line

transects started at the bank of the river and ran towards the Dehra ecosystem

Selection of the line transects along the river bank was similar to the selection of the

roads line transects For Maya ecosystem however line transects started at the

edge of the Maya and their directions were selected randomly from north south east

and west Because of the small size of Maya ecosystem only one line transect was

selected randomly from the four directions (north south east or west) and run right

through the centre of the Maya

117

For determining the density of honeybee colonies all colonies in cavities and feral

swarms along the line transects were counted in 200-m wide and 500-m long plots

Honeybees corresponding features (such as bee-eater birds waxes and swarms)

were also recorded The occurrence of colonies and the signs outside the plots were

also recorded The density was calculated as the total number of bee colonies

counted in each transect divided by the area of the plots whereas the corresponding

features were expressed as percentage of occurrence

ӀӀӀ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The distribution of honeybee colonies at the nesting sites in 2009 and 2010 are

shown in Figures 1and 2 Three tree species had high preference by the bees for

nesting namely Habil (Combretum sp) cuke (Acacia siebriana ) and Higleig

(Balanites egyptiaca) Talih ( Acacia seyal var seyal) Sunt (Acacia nilotica)

Sider (Ziziphusndashspina-christi) and Khashkhash (Stereospermum kunthianum)

were preferred to lesser extent Table (1) Preference of nesting trees varied in the

different years In 2009 Cuke was highly preferred followed by Habil and Higleig In

2010 however Habil was highly preferred followed by Higlieg Figure 3 The selection

of the remaining tree species was as follows Talih relatively high in 2010 negligible

in 2009 Sunt and Sider equally selected in 2009 but relatively with low selection

in 2010 and Khashkhash with low selection in 2009 had almost no selection in

2010

Larger number of honeybee colonies was encountered in 2009 than in 2010 Figure

4 In 2009 however about 70 of these colonies well established and 30

absconded The situation was quite different in 2010 the number of the well-

established and the absconded colonies were about equal (52 and 48

respectively) The established colonies were more abundant in tree cavities than in

the form of feral swarms Figure 5 However more feral swarms occurred in 2010 but

the reverse was true in 2009

118

The consensus is that honeybees nest in trees close to water sources in the Riverine

and Maya ecosystems Accordingly it is expected that honey bee colonies are

scarce in the Dehra ecosystem Among the highly preferred nesting trees Cuke

always occurred in the Maya ecosystem and Habil in the Dehra ecosystem [9]

Higlieg however was distributed in both the Maya and Dehara ecosystems The

preference of Cuke by honeybees in 2009 could be attributed to its close proximity

to Maya ecosystem where water prevails

The drought season affects bee colonies in two ways It considerably reduces the

swarming activity of bee colonies as well as the percentage of the established

colonies It is likely that in normal years honeybees set their colonies close to the

sources of water and spend fewer efforts in foraging water food and propllis

collection The reverse is true in drought years where colonies may prevail in Dehra

ecosystem that lies to some extent at a longer distance from water found in few

locations The high number of established honeybee colonies in normal years

indicates that honeybees do not abscond their nests thereby producing more honey

The choice of bee colonies to be established in tree cavities or in feral swarms needs

further investigation There are however more feral swarms in drought years This

could be explained by the fact that the colonies migrate more frequently during the

drought years and so they nest as migratory swarms rather than being well

established colonies nesting in tree cavities It could be concluded that honey bee

swarms prefer establishment in cuke habil and higlieg for unknown reasons

Further research is needed to verify this

119

ӀV CONCLUSION

In conclusion density of bee colonies increases in vicinity of water sources where

they nest in Cuke Habil and Higlieg

V REFERENCES

[1] Anonymous (2005) Management plan for Dinder National Park Sudan Wildlife

Conservation General Administration (CGA) United Nation Environment Program

United Nation Development Program (UNDP) Global Environment Facility and

Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (Sudan) [1] Abdel Hameed

S M and El jack A O (2003) Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS) for Dinder National

Park Sudan HCENR Khartoum A report submitted to Ramsar Secretariat

[2] Abdel Hameed S M and El jack A O (2003) Ramsar Information Sheet (RIS)

for Dinder National Park Sudan HCENR Khartoum A report submitted to Ramsar

Secretariat

[3] Dasmann W (1972) Development and Management of Dinder National Park

and its Wildlife Rep ndash no TA 311 FAQ Rome 6lp

[4] Abdel Hameed S M Hamid A A Awad A N Maghraby M M Osman

O A and Hamid S H (1996) Assessment of wildlife in Dinder National Park by

remote sensing techniques Albuhuth 5(1) 41 ndash 55

[5] Harrison M N amp Jackson J K (1958) The Ecological Classification of the

Vegetation of the Sudan Forest Bull No 2 Khartoum Sudan Pp46

[6] Anonymous (2004) Management plan of Dinder National Park Higher Council

for Environment and Natural Resources(HCENR) and Wildlife Research Center

Khartoum Sudan

[7] Suliman I El (2006) The Distribution Abundance and Habitat Assessment of

Reptiles in Dinder National Park MSc thesis University of Juba South Sudan

[8[Ibrahim M A (2009) Basic Information Towards Management of Guinea Fowl

(Numidia meleagries Linnaeus 1758 in Dinder Biosphere Reserve MSc Thesis

Sudan Academy of Sciences Khartoum South Sudan

[9]Mahgoub KS (2004) Ecosystem Characteristics and Measurements and

Distribution of Some Small Mammals in Dinder National Park MSc thesis University

of Juba South Sudan

120

Underpinning the impacts of on-going agro-chemical use on honeybees in North-

Western Ethiopia The overview of ldquozero-sum strategyrdquo

Asaminew Tassew1 Abebe Jenberie1 Tilahun Gebey2 Kerealem Ejigu3 Amssalu

Bezabih4 and Workneh Ayalew5

1Department of Animal Production and Technology College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Bahir Dar University Bahir Dar Ethiopia

2Director Bees for Development Ethiopia Bahir Dar Ethiopia 3Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) Addis Ababa Ethiopia

4Coordinator Youth Entrepreneurs in Silk and Honey (YESH) Project International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Addis Ababa Ethiopia

5Oromiya Agricultural Research Institute Holleta bee research center Holleta Ethiopia Email amssalubgmailcom

Abstract

Agriculture is at the heart of developing countriesrsquo economy providing the main source of food

export earnings and employment and it remains a principal force in sustaining the operation and

growth of the whole economy However globally an average of 35 of potential crop yield is

lost to both pre-and-post-harvest pests Consequently the use of agrochemicals (chemicals

used against pests) played a significant role in minimizing the loss Worldwide agro-chemicals

consumption reaches about two million tons per year and more than 140000 chemicals are

estimated to be on the market today of which 2 - 4 are in Africa Furthermore Ethiopia is also

consuming 334632 metric tons of agro-chemicals per year by which 16 is formulated in the

country itself Depending on intensity and illegitimate use of DDT Endosulfan 2 4-D

glyphosate and some others on food crops in Ethiopia currently are causing extensive holistic

damage including potential toxicity to humans and the environment In this case currently

various types and forms of agro-chemicals are being used in Ethiopia as a lsquolsquozero-sum

strategyrsquorsquo causing multi-stretched effects on food crops and farm animals themselves The

economic impact of pesticides on non-target species is estimated to worth $8 billion annually in

developing countries alone

With about 68 millions of hived honeybee colonies owned by up to 18 million rural beekeepers

Ethiopiarsquos annual honey and beeswax production is estimated to be over 60000 and 5200 tons

respectively Though the country ranks 9th highest honey producer worldwide un-selected and

misuse of agrochemicals has impacted its contribution significantly and caused a dramatic

pollinatorsrsquo decline However to date there are very few scientific studies quantifying the

toxicity effects of agro-chemicals in the beekeeping industry in the region in particular and the

country at large Consequently killing effects of currently used agro-chemicals in the region are

not yet determined Hence the objective of this study was to underpin perception and negative

effects of agro-chemicals at rural beekeeping Accordingly a study employed at a wider

coverage in the North-Western Ethiopia has confirmed that all enormously applied agro-

chemicals in the region have been proved to kill more than 50 of the tested honeybees This

was also evidenced by the number of dead honeybees in and around a manual chemical

applicator (knapsack sprayer) This emphasizes that inclusive and exclusive different level

experiments and demonstrations shall get emergent attention not only in the region but also at a

national level and similar conditions to notify that pesticides in the market are very dangerous

121

Critically we confirmed that both beekeepers and non-beekeepers have been using agro-

chemicals for crop pest control and similar functions Surprisingly more than 95 of both

beekeeping and non-beekeeping respondents have never practiced Integrated Pest

Management (an alternative pest control mechanism) This also indicates that the role of

stakeholders in supporting and integrating such practice to their agriculture is very minimal

which resulted in excessive use of different agro-chemicals Finally this study has evidenced

that agro-chemicals are putting too much pressure on honeybees which in turn results in

pollinators decline and further low crop and livestock productivity endangering global life

Hence strategies need to be designed and implemented to properly utilize the possible

advantages of agro-chemicals in developing countries Continuous assessment and awareness

creation shall also be a day to day activity to diverge the concentrated effects from the hazards

and act against the lsquolsquozero-sum strategyrsquorsquo that we are practicing

Key words Agro-chemicals Zero-sum strategyCollective action Crop Honeybees Livestock

122

Topic 3 Environmental Service and Climate

Change

123

Bee forage diversity in Ethiopian vegetation and achievements in Ethiopia

Admassu Addi Tura Barekeand Kibebew Wakjira

Holeta Bee Research center Corresponding author E-mail admassuaddigmailcom

Abstract

The high biodiversity of the country is attributed to its wide ranges of altitude and great

geographical diversity This has resulted in the existence of the diverse floral resources of which

majority of them are honeybee floraIn this paper bee forage identification and documentation

were made to determine types of bee plants flowering period and food source offered by the

plants Moreover melissopalynological analysis of honey from different regions of Ethiopia was

analyzed for determination of major and minor honey source plants Accordingly over 1500

species of plant belongs to 105 plant families were identified The growth form analysis of bee

forage utilized by honeybees comprising 416 herb 287 shrubs 217 trees and 8

climbers The majority of bee plant species flowered from September to November and April to

May resulting in two major honey flow periods in the country Melissopalynological analysis of

the honey samples indicated that Schefflera abyssinica Croton macrostachyus Syzygium

guineense Vernonia amygdalina and Coffea arabica contributed for 80 64 86 77

and 75 of the total pollen count respectively and dominant honey source plants from

southwest and southeastern part of the country while Becium grandiflorum Hypoestes forskalii

Leucas abyssinica and Acacia spp a accounting for 71 751 62 and 705 respectively

from northern Ethiopia On the other hand Eucalyptus globulus and Guizotia scabra honey were

from central Ethiopia contributing to 94 of the pollen count Deforestation and Agricultural

land expansion and climate change are the major causes for shrinkage of bee flora and

affecting phenological pattern of bee forages Thus in situ conservation and raising and planting

of seedlings of bee forages should be promoted for sustainable honey production

Key words Bee forages Pollen honey flow pollination

124

Introduction

Ethiopia occupies the major part of the Horn of Africa The country covers

approximately 111 million square kilometers and shares boundary with Eritrea south

Sudan Kenya Somalia and Djibouti The altitudes range from the depressions in the

Afar (120 m below sea level) to the spectacular mountain tops of Ras Dejen in the north

with an altitude of 4620 ml

Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world endowed with rich biodiversity One of these

resources is the natural vegetation These are Afro alpine and Sub-Afro alpine Dry

Evergreen Montane Forest Moist Evergreen Montane Forest Acacia-Commiphora

small-leaved Deciduous Woodland Combretum-Terminalia Broad-leaved

DeciduousWoodland Lowland Semi-evergreen Forest Semi-Desert Scrub Desert and

Aquatic vegetation Most of these vegetation are comprises diversity of bee floral

resources The availability of rich and diversified flora resulted for the existence of

higher population density of honeybees and makes the country one of the 10 largest

honey producers and the 3rd largest beeswax producerrsquos worldwide(Admassu 1996

Fichtl and Admasu 1994 Gezehagn 2007 Gidey and Mekonen 2010) In view of this

the major aim of this paper was to assess the major findings that have been achieved

for the last two decades in area of bee forage research In this review identification

distribution and diversity of bee forages preparation of flowering calendar

characterization and evaluations of herbaceous plants the role honeybees in Agro-

forestry systems were discussed

Vegetation types of Ethiopia in relation to Apicultural importance The vegetation resources of Ethiopia have been classified into twelve major vegetation

types based on Friis et al 2012 These are 1) Desert Vegetation 2) Semi-Desert

Scrub 3) Acacia-Commiphora Bushland and Thicket 4) Acacia-Commiphora Narrow-

leaved Deciduous Woodland and Forest 5) Dry Evergreen Montane Forest 6) Afro

alpine and Sub-Afro alpine vegetation 7) Moist Evergreen Montane Forest and

Combretum-Terminalia8)Broad-leaved Deciduous Woodland and Forest 9) Riverine

vegetation 10) and Fresh-water lakes vegetation 11 and 12 respectively These

vegetation are found in different agro-ecologies of the country Even though each

vegetation types comprises different plant species for apicultural importance but all

vegetation types are not equal importance for honey production due to suitability of

climate and other environmental factors

Desert and Semi-desert vegetation found in Dalol depression extending along the

Eritrean border andSalt-water lakesvegetation in the Afar Depression is characterized by

highly drought tolerant species but limited contribution for beekeeping productiondue to

125

erratic rainfall and extreme drought Relatively Acacia-Commiphora Bushland and

Thickets are better than Desert and Semi-desert vegetation for beekeeping production

which are predominately found escarpment of Afar Oromia Amhara and SNNP and

Somalia regional states at altitude range of 400-1800m This vegetation is also found in

the Eastern Ethiopia along the Awash and Wabeshebele River basin as result the area

remains green throughout year creating suitable condition for apiculture development

The major bee forage species in this vegetation type are Hypoestes forskaolii

AloesppAcacia tortolis Acacia senegal and Acaciabrevispicaare highly adapted for

honey production This area is highly vulnerable to crop production due to moisture

deficit and recurrent drought and beekeeping is alternative livelihood options in this

vegetation types In this vegetation arid and semi-arid honeybees( Am jementica)

have fast and intensive build up and honey storing tendency which are an adaptive

values to cope up with arid to warm lowlands (Chandler 1976)

The central and mountainous chains and some parts of eastern and northern Ethiopia

are covered by Dry Evergreen Montane vegetation This vegetation type represents a

complex system of successions involving extensive grasslands rich in legumes

Ethiopian agriculture is developed inside areas for thousands of years (Zerihun et al

2012) This intensive utilization of the area for agriculture has resulted in loss of forests

and has largely been replaced by bushlands and grasses This vegetation type occurs

in areas between the 1800 and 3000 m The vegetation is relatively suitable for

apiculture due to availability of both natural plant species and cultivated crops such as

oil crops cereals pulses and horticultural crops The major bee forages include Olea

europea subsp cupsidata Eucalyptus globulus Trifolium species Becium grandiflorum

Hypericum revolutum and Guizotia scabra Currentlythis area faces bee forage scarcity

due to high human population and livestock pressure and also intensive application of

pesticide for crop agriculture

Afro alpine particularly Ericaceous belt is potential for beekeeping and occurring mainly

between the 3000 and the 3200 m for most of the higher mountains in Ethiopia The belt

is most notable above the Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains The Ericaceous belt is

physiognomically characterized by the dominance of shrubs and shrubby trees such as

Erica arborea Hypericum revolutum Myrsine melanophloeos and perennial herbs

(Alchemilla haumannii Geranium arabicum Anthemis tigreensis) The Erica arborea

honey is well known in this vegetation but the area is affected by overgrazing and

massive soil erosion

The moist evergreen Afromontane forest occurs mainly in the south-western part of the

Ethiopian Highlands between (1500-2600m) with an annual rainfall between 700 and

2000 mm (Friis et al 2012) The Afromontane rainforests in the southwestern Ethiopia

is one of potential area for commercial and small scale beekeeping production due to a

126

great density of vegetation cover and high honeybee population Bee keeping activity is

major source of income for the community and contributing up to 95 of a householdrsquos

annual cash income (SNV 2011) The major honey producing plant species include

Scheffelera abyssinica Croton macrostachyusCoffea arabica and Vernonia

amygdalina

The Combretum-Terminalia Broad-leaved Deciduous Woodland and Semi-evergreen

low land Forest found in Gambella Bensagule Gumizi Region and along the Tekeze

River basin in Tigray and Amhara regional states at altitudes between 400-450 mThe

commonly known bee forage plant species in this vegetation include Manikila butigii

Terminalia brownii Combretum molle Grewia bicolor Anogeissus leiocarpa

AcaciatortillisAcacia sieberianaHypoestes forskaolii and Ziziphus spp Manllkara

butugihoney is well known from Godere district in region Gambela region

Achievements of Bee flora Research

In field of apiculture identification and documentation of nectar and pollen source plants

are the most limiting factor for honey production In this regard Holeta Bee Research

Center has identified and characterized bee forages growing in different agro-ecological

zones of the country Accordingly more than 1500 bee plant species were identified

belonging to 670 genera and 105 families accounting 10 of the total Flora of Ethiopia

and Eritrea of which 150 trees 340 shrubs and 600 herbs Figure (1)

Figure1The habit of plants identified from different parts of Ethiopia

Among the identified plant families Asteraceae Acanthaceae Fabaceae Rubiaceae

Poaceae Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae are the most frequent families represented

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Tree shrub herb climber

Nu

mb

er o

f th

e sp

ecie

s

Habit

127

by the highest number of species Figure 2The Asteraceae became one of the dominant

family in angiosperm phylogeny due to mode of pollination seed dispersal and adaption

to different ecological niche Moreover this family has attractive flower color enabled the

plant to be pollinated by different insect pollinators including honeybees favoring them

to colonize wide ecological ranges

Figure 2 Percent of species composition and number of genera in rich families in Ethiopia

All the identified plant species are belong to angiosperm and the highest number of

species was collected from Oromia Southern nations and Nationalities People region

Amhara Tigray and Gambela and no collection was made from Somali and Afar

regional states Figure 3 From this result there is need for further extensive bee forage

collection and documentation from Northern Ethiopia and remote areas of Somali Afar

and Benshangul Gumz regional states

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140S

pec

ies

com

po

stio

n

Family

0

50

100

150

200

250

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ecie

s

Region

128

Figure 3 distribution of bee forage in regional states of Ethiopia

Bee forage diversity

The analysis of vegetation data using the Shannon Wiener diversity index revealed that

Oromia has the highest species diversity (397) followed by South nations and

Nationalities People region (37) Amhara (34) and Tigray (25) and Gembella (193)

The species richness also varied significantly among the regions and the same pattern

is followed for the species evenness

Floristic Region Richness H Evenness

SNNP 89 37 082

Oromia 993 39 085

Amhara 79 38 087

Tigray 292 29 08

Benshangul gumuz 603 36 089

Gambella

Harari 0 0 0

Somalia 0 0 0

Afar 0 0 0

Floral calendar of bee forages

Floral calendar is a time-table that indicates the approximate date and duration of the

blossoming periods of the important honey plants (Diver 2002) Flowering calendars

can be applied to various beekeeping management operations such as placing of hives

near to particular crops and deciding the best time for honey harvest or colony

swarming Hence adequate knowledge about bee flora in association with floral

calendar is the prerequisite to initiate bee keeping (Bista and Shivakoti 2001)

Every region in Ethiopia has its own active and dearth periods of short or long duration

depending on intensity of rainfall The majority of bee plants flower after the heavy rainy

season in July through September and most of the Ethiopian highlands are colored with

golden-yellow flowers of Bidens spp Guizotia spp and Trifolium spp with many different

colors (Fichtl and Admassu 1994 and Tessega 2009) Following the flowering period

the end of October and early November is the major honey flow period in central and

northern parts of the Ethiopia On the other hand in south west and south eastern parts

of Ethiopia the major honey flow period occurred during MayndashJune

Bee forage performance evaluation

An attempt of screening major bee forage source plants has been performed on the

most common herbaceous plants existing in highlands and mid altitudes of the rift

129

valley was evaluated around based on germination rate number of flower heads per

plants foraging intensity of honeybees and duration of flowering Accordingly Guizotia

scabra Guizotia abyssinicaBrassica carinata and Caylusea abyssinica were found more

potential for highlands and Echium plantaginium Becium grandiflorum Melilotus alba

and Fagophyrum esculentum in semi-arid parts of rift valley of central Ethiopia (Tura

and Admassu 2018)

The role of beekeeping in natural forest and agroforestry conservation

The significance of apiculture in agro forestry and vegetation characterization and

assessing the contribution of apiculture in household livelihood improvement was

studied by (Debissa 2006) Accordingly this survey the majority of the beekeeper

households (839) are growing and conserving plants for their honeybees and other

economic uses There is a higher plants diversity and the honey yield has increased by

4 fold (411) and the revenue increased by 576 folds (576) Therefore integration of

beekeeping technology with conservation of forest will enhance the income of

household and encourages planting of bee forages which directly contributes for

sustainable forest managements

Bee forage development and conservation

Conservation of forest biodiversity

Ethiopia is facing rapid deforestation and degradation of its land resource due to

expansion of agricultural land coupled with increase in population and high

dependence on biomass energy (Reusing 1998) There is expansion of agriculture into

forestland or bushland affecting honey production through reducing the density of bee

forages which contributes for the loss honey yield and affecting the livelihood of the

local communities In understanding the ecological and economic benefitsrsquo of the forest

resources including beekeeping the government is committed to design different

strategies to conserve the remaining forest resources Participatory Forest Management

(PFM) is considered as one of the solutions to solve the problem of open access to

forest resources and promote sustainable forest management The local communities

under the PFM program benefits from non-timber products in which beekeeping is the

major component of PFM

Integration of beekeeping with natural resource conservation

In most cases the success in beekeeping depends on the availability of sufficient bee

forage in terms of both quality and quantity Hence beekeeping is more dependent on

the existing ecological conditions of an area than any other livestock activities In areas

where beekeeping is not suitable other improved management skills and advanced

technologies alone cannot make beekeeping successful For this reason availability of

130

adequate bee forage is considered to be one of the most important elements in the

beekeeping industry Thus a number of interventions have been made in country to

restore degraded areas to protect from massive soil erosion to increase the productivity

of ecosystem including apicultural production For instance bee forage developments

and rehabilitation in degraded areas through reclamation and enclosure approach in

northern Ethiopia can be mentioned as best practice for conservation of natural

resource which improves appropriate condition for apiculture Therefore transforming

enclosure or watershed areas in to apiary is just one example of a possible ldquowin win

situationrdquo for poverty alleviation and this intervention should be disseminated in other

parts of the country

Planting of bee forages

To address the problems of bee flora scarcity in different parts of the country including

the moisture stress areas planting of bee forage is to be anticipated for sustainable

honey productionThese problems call for urgent actions for planting and conserving

indigenous trees for honey production based on agro-ecologies In this regard planting

of multipurpose trees such as fruit trees (mango avocado and apple) and Agro forestry

trees (Acacia spp Cordia africana Shinus molle and Vernonia spp) and others around

the apiary site may increase honey production and improves the environment

Conclusion and Recommendation

From collection of and identification of bee forage indicated that Ethiopia has rich in

botanical diversity for apicultural development however most of collection and

identifications are limited to central highlands and a few species from western

Ethiopia furthers collection and documentation of bee flora is required in undressed

areas of the country From pollen analysis of honey indicated that a few plant species

are important for honey productionThe distribution of each of species needed to be

mapped and protected for sustainable honey production

Refernces

Admassu 1996 Fitchtl and Admasu 1994 Gezehagn 2007 Gidey and Mekonen 2010)

Amssalu Bezabeh Nuru Adigba Radloff SE Hepburn HR (2004) Multivariate morphometric analysis of honeybees (Apis mellifera) in the Ethiopian region Apidologie 35 71ndash81 Ayalew Kassaye (1990) The honeybees (Apis Mellifera) of Ethiopia A morphometric study MSc thesis Agricultural University of Norway

Bista S and Shivakoti P G 2001 Honeybee flora at Kabre Dolakha District Nepal Journal of Napal Agric Res (4 amp 5) 16-25

131

ChandlerMT (1976) The African Honeybees Apis mellifera adansonii In Proceedings of thefirst International Conference on Apiculture in Tropical climates LondonUK

Diver S (2002) Phenology web links (1) sequence of bloom floral calendars whatrsquos in bloom (2) birds bees insects and weeds National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service - ATTRA United States

Debissa L (2006) The role apiculture in vegetation characterization and household livelihood in Walamara district central Ethiopia MSc Thesis Debub university Wondo Genet College of Forestry Awassa Ethiopia

Friis Ib Sebsebe Demissew and van Bruegel P (2012) Atlas of the Potential Vegetation of Ethiopia The Royal Danish Academy of Science and letters Denmark

Gemechis Legesse (2004) Identification and characterization of monofloral honey In proceeding of third Apiexpo Africa Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Reusing M (1998) Monitoring forest resources in Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Reinhard F and Admassu Addi (1994) Honeybee Flora of Ethiopia Margraf Verlag Germany pp 510

Regassa Ensermu WMwangi Hugo Verkuijle and Mohammed Hussen (1998) Farmersrsquo Seed Sources and Seed Management in Chilalo Awuraja Ethiopia Mexico D F ARCIMMYT

Tessega B (2009) Honeybee production and marketing Systems constraints and opportunities in Burie District of Amhara Region Ethiopia MSc Thesis Bahir Dar University Ethiopia

Tura Bareke Admassu Addi (2018)Performance evaluation of herbaceous of bee forages for semi-arid parts of the rift valley of central EthiopiaAdvances inPlants amp Agriculture Research Volume 8 Issue 5

132

Proximate composition and antioxidant power of bee collected pollen

from moist Afromontaneforests in southwest Ethiopia

Admassu Addi1 Ensermu Kelbessa1 Teshome Soromessa 2 Peter Gallmann3

Lulsegde Belayhun and Campos M G5

1 College of Natural Sciences Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity

Management Addis Ababa University P O Box 3434 Addis Ababa Ethiopia 2Center for Environmental Science Addis Ababa University and P O Box No 1176

Addis Ababa Ethiopia 3 Swiss Bee Research Centre Agrosope Liebefeld Switzerland

5Coimbra Chemistry Center FCTUniversity of Coimbra and Laboratory of

Pharmacognosy Faculty of Pharmacy Portugal

Email admassuaddiyahoocom

Abstract Bee pollen is an aggregation of pollen grains from a wide range of botanical sources which are

collected by bees for brood rearing It is rich in nutritional compounds constituted by

carbohydrates proteins fats vitamins and minerals as well as phenol compounds that among

other constituents are involved in the antioxidant activity The aim of this study was to identify

the major pollen sources in the southwest of Ethiopia assess its composition and compare the

antioxidant potential especially in correlation to the total polyphenol content in samples from

moist Afromontane forest The samples were collected using pollen traps Its composition was

analyzed for nutritional composition phenol and antioxidant activity following the standard

methods Therefore the content was for moisture fat ash and protein was (1929- 2307) (27-

58) (127plusmn347) and (1587-2907) respectively while vitamin C level was113-2185 mgkg

The mean minerals composition for iron copper phosphorus calcium sodium and potassium

were 1476 071 3136 3358 5025 and 36957 mg100g respectively The contents of

phenolic compounds for different plant species ranged from 1952 plusmn 3984 mg100g of

Gallicacid equivalent g pollen The highest free radical DPPH recorded as 86 and 937 for

Datura inoacutexia and (Vernonia spp and Croton macrostchys) respectively Conclusively bee-

collected pollen contributes phenolics as apitherapy products with high scavenging activity This

crude material has the start conditions to become an excellent food supplement for humans with

important macro and micronutrients that could be taken to contribute for a better supplemented

diet when need be

Keywords Antioxidant Polyphenols Pollen Proximate composition

133

1 Introduction Pollen is produced in stamen of flowers of the male gametophyte and collected by the

honey bee (Apis mellifera) for feeding its larvae in the early growth stages of worker

honeybees It is collected from a wide range of flowering plants and stored in cells of

honeybee combs (Almeida-Muradian et al 2005) Pollen harvesting is done in a wide

range of flowering plants fulfills their dietary requirements for proteins lipids minerals

and vitamins (Winston 1987) The protein content of pollen is a direct measure of its

quality in the diet of the honeybee and it was found that the fresh samples contains high

values and it is 100 effective in the development of the hypophrangeal glands of

worker honeybees (Haydak1970 Pernal and Currie 2001) Moreover it is essential for

proper development and function of body tissues muscles membranes and glands

(Herbert 1999) The protein levels in bee pollen have been reported in the range of

25 to 61 (Odoux et al 2012 Schmidt et al 1992 Yang et al 2013)

Pollen is also a rich source of carbohydrates and lipids including unsaturated fatty

acids and vitamins Moreover bee pollen comprises various minerals such as sodium

potassium magnesium calcium phosphorus iron copper and zinc that support

physiological activities in honeybees and as well as in humans Apart from its nutrition

value is composed of considerable units of polyphenolic compounds primarily

flavonoids which may act as potent antioxidants (Kroyer et al 2001) The flavonoids

are secondary plant compounds which have different physiological and pharmacological

functions including antioxidant anti-aging anti-carcinogen anti-inflammatory cardio

protective and they improve the endothelial function (Bogdanov 2016) The powerful

anti-oxidative properties of polyphenols result from the presence of double bonds on the

aromatic ring of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups This allow them to scavenge reactive

oxygen species (ROS) and inactivate organic radicals which catalyze oxidation

reactions (Kroyer and Hegedus 2001) Budryn and Nebesny 2006) From a long time

ago that research findings demonstrated that polyphenols in general have an ideal

chemical structure for scavenging free radicals which makes them effective

antioxidants In practical application tests pollen has been added to diets for domestic

animals and laboratory insects with improvements of growth general health and food

conversion rates (Crane 1990 Schmidt and Buchmann 1992)

Due to the growing interest of pollen as nutritional and api-therapeutic substance

involves the identification of major pollen source plants used by bees and the evaluation

of their quality as paramount for promoting this product as food supplement are required

to improve health Ethiopia has the great potential for production of great quantity and

quality of pollen since the country is endowed with great diversity of flora and high

134

population density of Apis mellifera which creates suitable conditions for collecting of

pollen all year-round Bee pollen antioxidant activity as studied in Brazil (Morais etal

2011 and Feire et al 2012) Thailand (Chantarudee et al 2012) and Šramkovaacute et al

2013) have reported the value of bee pollen as power full antioxidant Bee pollen

antioxidant activity and pollen nutritional composition of bee pollen is not studied for

Ethiopia and regarding the study area In Ethiopia the presence of relatively good

vegetation coverage and a high honeybee colony population facilitates remarkable

amount of pollen collection and processing to food supplements for local and

international markets or even development of new drugs using special compounds

found in these crude material Therefore this study was carried out to o identify the

major pollen source plants in south west Ethiopia and to determine the proximate

nutritional composition and its scavenging free radical activity for further application in

the area of food or pharmaceutical industry

2 Materials and methods

211 Study area

The study was conducted in Kafa Zone at Gesha and Saylem districts which are located

540 km from Addis Ababa in Southern Nations Nationalities amp Peoplersquos Region

(SNNPR) Both districts are bordered on the south by Bita on the west by the Sheka

Zone on the north by Illuababora in the Oromia Region Figure1The altitude of districts

ranges from 1500m to 3000m The vegetation is parted into the western montane

broadleaf forest and into the Eastern part almost undisturbed with intensively cultivated

and bamboo forest In general the vegetation of the study area is belonging to tropical

moist rain forest ( Friis 1992) comprising diversity of tropical flora including wild Coffee

(Coffea arabica) forest trees cultivated crops and weeds The climate of the area is

generally warm during major parts of the year with tropical climate The area receives

very high annual rainfall reaching up to 1830 mm in some peak years The rainfall

pattern shows low rainfall in January and February gradually increasing to the peak

period in July and then decreasing in November and December Maximum and

minimum monthly mean temperatures of the area are 266 0C and 95 0C respectively

135

Figure 1 Location Map of the study area

Pollen collection

Pollen loads were collected for 12 months period from (September 2014 up to

September 2015) using the pollen traps having 16 pollen trapping efficiency which

was fitted at the entrance of beehives The pollen samples were removed from the hind

legs of honeybees and scraped off into tray The pollen pellets were collected from tray

and placed in clean paper bag and left for 24 hours to dry at room temperature After

drying they were sorted on basis of color and identified to the genus or species level A

total of 307 samples of bee pollen loads were collected and stored in the freezers at

25oC - 1374oC for further analysis

Identification of the main plant taxa available in the region

Pollen pellets were collected weighed and dried overnight at room temperature and

then sorted by color and size Representative pellets of each color were washed with

ether and mounted on glycerin jelly for microscopic examination To identify the pollen

pellets collected by the honeybees a sample of ripe pollen grains were collected from

mature flower buds directly from the field and flower samples were kept in individual

envelopes to avoid contamination with the pollen grains of other species The ripe

pollen grains were shaken directly onto microscopic slides The fat content was washed

out using ether to enhance the transparency of pollen grains The slides were covered

136

with a cover slip and examined under a light microscope having 400 x magnifications

Pollen morphological analysis was made using light microscope (Zeiss 2010)) linked

with computer software for taking pollen picture as shown in Figure 3

Physico-chemical analysis

Moisture content

Moisture content was determined as suggested by (Ranganna 1977) Briefly 2g of each

bee pollen sample was weighed and placed into dishes and dried in the oven for 3

hours at 105 0C The dishes were cooled to room temperature in the desiccators and

reweighted

Ash determination

About 2 g of each bee pollen sample were placed in a quartz crucible and be ashen in a

muffle furnace at 550degC for 5 hours After they were removed from the muffle and

cooled down in the desiccators and weighed Previously dishes were placed on hot

plate under a fume hood and the temperature was slowly increased until the smoking

ceases and the sample became thoroughly charred The amount of the total ash was

calculated by using the following formula (AOAC 2000)

Ash = (M3 - M1)100

M2 - M1

Where m1= mass of crucible

m2= sample mass with crucible

m3 = final mass with crucible

Determination of Crude protein

The total Nitrogen content was determined by the Kjeldahl method (AOAC 2000)

Briefly 1 g of bee pollen sample was heated the with 20 mL of sulfuric acid (95ndash 97 )

at the presence of a catalyst (potassium sulphate copper sulphate) for about 4 h until

the solution becomes clear and blue-green in color Then it was neutralized with 90 mL

NaOH (30 ) The ammonia produced was distilled and collected in boric acid solution

and later tittered with standard solution of hydrochloric acid (Zenebon and Pascuet

2005) For the conversion of nitrogen levels to protein the factor NX 625 was used

Determination of crude fat content

Crude fat was determined by exhaustively extracting a 2g of sample in diethyl ether

(boiling point 55oC) in a Soxhlet extractor The ether was evaporated from the

extraction flask The amount of fat was quantified gravimetrically and calculated from

the difference in weight of the extraction flask before and after extraction as percentage

The extraction flask were cleaned and dried in a drying-oven at 700C for 1 hour cooled

137

in a desiccator for 30 minutes and then weighed(AOAC 2003) About 2 mg of pollen

were added into extraction thimbles and then covered with about 2 cm layer of fat free

cotton The cooling water was switched on and a 50 mL diethyl ether was added to

extraction flask through condenser The cooling water was switched on and a 50mL

diethyl ether was added to extraction flask through condenser

Fat content = (W2-W1) X100W

Where

W = weight of fat

W2=weight of extraction flask after exaction

W1= weight of flask before extraction

W0 of fresh sample

Determination of mineral content

Ash content was obtained from dry incinerating of the samples (AOAC 2005)The

ashes were wetted completely with 5 mL of HCL 6 N and dried on a low temperature on

hot plate until the solution just boiled The ash solution was cooled to room temperature

in a hood and filtered using the filter paper A 5 mL of HCL 3N was added into each

crucible dishes and heated until the solution boiled and then cooled down and filtered

into the flask The crucible dishes were again washed three times with de-ionized water

filtered into the flask Then the solution was cooled and diluted to 50 mL with de-ionized

water A blank was prepared by taking the same procedure as the sample

Determination of Phosphorus

Phosphorus was determined using the molybdovanadate method (AOAC 1990) Briefly

5 mL were measured from the sample digested for protein determination and placed in

a 100 mL volumetric flask 10mL of the molybdate and vanadate solution were added to

the samples After 10-30 minutes the color developed was measured at 460 nm

wavelength in spectrophotometer Data from the absorbance of the blank sample and

standard were used to calculate phosphorus content using the following formula

P (ppm) = (c1v1v2 mcf)

SA

Where

c1 = P concentration in sample digest read from the Curve ppm

V1 = volume of the digest

V2 = volume of the dilution

S = weight of the pollen calcined in g

A = Aliquot

138

Determination of minerals

Determination of FeNaCa were determined by( AOAC 2000) using microwave

assisted acid digestion and quantization Atomic absorption spectrometry was used to

read the absorbance at selected wave length Mineral content of the sample was read

from relevant calibration curve

Mineral content mg100gm= [(a-b) V]

10w

Where W= weight (gm) of sample

V=50ml= volume of extract

a= concentration (microgml) of sample solution

b= Concentration (microgml) of blank solution

Determination of Vitamin C

Vitamin C determination was carried by following the standard procedure of Vitamin

Assay 1966 and Manual for Nutrition Surveys (1963) About 5gm of pollen samples

were grinded in mortar and extracted with 100ml of 6 of TCA and the solution was

centrifuged Then 1-2 drops of saturated Bromine reagent was added to the samples in

a conical flask About 10ml aliquot was taken and added with 2 thiourea and from this

solution 4ml was pipptted into test tubes and 1ml of 2 4-DNPH was added in remaining

test tubes All the test tubes put in water bath at 370Cfor 3 hour and cool in an ice bath

for approximately for 5 min About 5ml 85H2SO4 was added slowly while the tubes

are in an ice bath 1ml of 2DNPH was added to the blank and then all tubes are

shaked and the absorbance was read at 515 nm The Vitamin C content was calculated

following formula

mg AA100g = [(As-Ab)10][A10microg Std-Ab]

Where AsAbsorbance of samples

Ab Absorbance of blank

A10 microg Std Absorbance of 10 microg AA standard

Determination of Radical scavenging activity

Preparation of pollen extract

A two grams of dried pollen powder was extracted by stirring with 25 mL of methanol

and 25 mL of distilled water and placed at 250C for 60 min maceration using

temperature shaker incubator (ZHWY-103B) and then filtered through Whatman Nordm 4

paper The residue was then extracted with two additional 25 mL portions of methanol

as described above The combined methanolic extracts were evaporated at 40 degC to

139

dryness using a rota evaporator (Stuart R3300) and re-dissolved in methanol at the

concentration of 50 mgml and stored at 4 degC for further use

Determination of free radical scavenging activity

The antioxidant activity of methanol extracts was determined by 22-diphenyl-1-

picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging method as described by Woldegiorgis et al

(2014) A 0004 solution of DPPH radical solution in methanol was prepared and then

2mL of this solution was mixed with 1mL of various concentrations (01ndash50 mgmL) of

the pollen extracts in methanol Finally the samples were incubated for 30 min in the

dark at room temperature Scavenging capacity was read spectrophotometrically by

monitoring the decrease in absorbance at 517 nm Ascorbic acid was used as a

standard and mixture without extract as the control The capability of samples to

scavenge DPPH was obtained by comparison of sample color reduction effect with the

control using the following equation and expressed as percentage values

DPPH radical scavenging activity () = (A0-A1 )A0x 100

Where

A0 = absorbance of the control

A1 = absorbance of the sample

The extract concentration providing 50 of radicals scavenging activity IC50 (minimum

concentration required to inhibit to 50 of DPPH initial concentration) was calculated

from the graph of RSA percentage against extract concentration

Determination of total polyphenols content

The phenolic compounds concentration in pollen samples were estimated with Folin-

Ciocalteu reagent according to the methods as described by (Woldegiorgis et al 2014)

with some modification 1 ml of Folin-Ciocalteu phenol reagent was added to the

mixture and shaken After 3 minutes 1ml of saturated sodium carbonate (20) solution

was added to the mixture and adjusted to 10 ml with distilled water The reaction was

kept in dark for 90 minutes after which the absorbance was read at 725 nm The total

phenolic content of the samples were expressed in milligram per Gallic acid equivalents

(GAE) The total phenolic content was calculated as Gallic acid equivalent (GAE) using

the calibration equation y = 00031x + 08095 (Rsup2 = 09966)


All samples were analyzed in triplicate and the results were expressed as the average plusmn

the standard deviation Data on nutritional mineral and phenol content of the pollen

were analyzed using an analysis of variance Tukeyrsquos multiple comparison tests was

applied at the significance level of 005 using SPSS software version 20

140

Results

Among pollen loads and hand pollen 49 plant species were identified as main

harvesting sources for honeybees (Annex 1)The majority of the pollen samples include

pollen from Guizotia scabra Eucalyptus camalduensis Echinopes macrostachyus

Vernonia spp Ageratum conyzoides Ethulia gracilis Combretum paniculatumDatura

inoxia Coffea arabica and Trifolium spp Ilex mitis Allophylus abyssinicus Maesa

lanceolata Prunus africana Schefflera abyssinica and the rest of the plant species

were minor pollen sources in the area ( Figure 2) Pollen samples were sorted based

on the different seasons of the year and the intensity of pollen collection significantly

fluctuated (Plt005) between the different season Mean separation using Tukeyrsquos

multiple comparison test indicated that pollen collection during March to May and June

to August were highly significant between different seasons Pollen collection during

June ndashJuly and Marchndash April are strongly significant from the season mentioned

above Based on this analysis about 423 plant species provided pollen during

September-November 322 during December to January 189 during March to

May and 62 of pollen during June to August Table1)

Figure 2 The major pollen source plants identified from the collection with pollen

traps

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Po

llen

yie

ld in

(g)

Plant species

141

Table1 Seasonal availability of pollen yield for Apis mellifera of Ethiopia

Season mean SD Min Max

September-November 3893a 305

35900 420

Decmber ndash Feburary 282b 2778

2160500 300

March-May 1713c 1026 16000 1800

June-August 632d 583 5980 70 Values with different letters are significantly different (Plt005)

Proximate composition

Moisture

The moisture content of bee pollen ranges from 1929 in Combretum paniculatum to

2307 in Vernonia amygdalina These values are in line within the accepted ranges of

20-30 according to pollen composition and standardization of analytical methods set

for Brazil national pollen (Campos et al 2008) The analysis of proximate composition

of different pollen source plants is shown in Table 2 The analysis of variance showed

that there was no significance difference (Pgt005) for most plant species for

moisture content however Vernonia spp is significantly from the rest of the species

with mean moisture content of (2495) The analyized moisture content of bee pollen

ranges from 1929ndash2495 The highest moisture content was recorded for Vernonia

spp (2495 ) and the lowest for Combretumpaniculatum (1929 ) Table 2 These

values are in line within the accepted ranges of 20-30 moisture according to pollen

composition and standardization of analytical methods (Campos et al 2008)The

moisture content of pollen is affected by climatic condition of the area The

Vernoniaamygdalina pollen collectedfrom higher rainfall area (2307) has higher

moisture when compared to mid altitude area of Chora-Boter-Becho in Jimma zone of

southwest Ethiopia

Total Protein content

The protein content of the pollen for different plant species were significantly different

The protein content of the pollen of different species are significantly different (Plt005)

among the plant species The protein content of Echinopes macrostachyus Croton

macrostachus and Vernoinly spp were significantly different from most species with

mean protein content of 1616 1676 and 1920 The protein content of Glycine weighti

and combretum paniculatum strongly sigficant from the rest of pollen source plants with

mean protein content of 2718 and 2909 respecteively The total protein content of

pollen samples ranged from 1504 - 2709 with the lowest values for Ageratum

conyzoides (1504 ) and the highest for Combretumpaniculatum (2709 )

142

Fat content

The fat content of pollen was not significantly differing between different pollen source

plants for honeybees Pollen from Croton macrostachys is sigficantly different from all

pollen source plants in this study (Table 2)The fat content of the pollen samples in this

study ranges from 274 - 568 with the highest values for Croton macrostachys (568

) and lower value for Guizotia scabra (274 )

Ash

The ash content of the pollen is signficantly differnt (Plt005) for most pollen source

plants from the area The fat content of Trifolium spp and croton macrosatcys were

signficantly differ from cynotis barbata vernonia spp Plantago lanceoata Guizotia

scabra Apodytes dimidata Ageratom conyzoides Vernonia amgydalina Echinopes

macrostachus Hypotes triflora Moreover Glycine weighti and Combretum paniculatum

were also signficantly differe from the rest of the pollen source plants The ash content

of pollen ranges from127-349 mg and smallest for Vernonia spp and highest for

Combretum paniculatum

Vitamin c

The vitamin c content of pollen of Echiopes and cynotis barbata were significantly

different from the rest of the species mean value of 115 and 826 The highest vitamin

was obtained from Glycine wt Guizotaia and Agertum and the lowest vitamin c was

echinopes spp

Table 2 Proximate composition of bee pollen from different taxa

plant species Moisture Fat Ash Protein Vitc mg100g

Vernonia amygdalina 229plusmn099 a 425plusmn68b 168plusmn054ab

938plusmn747 abc 1509plusmn197d

Guizotia spp 2033 plusmn0 15a 276plusmn052a 137plusmn011a 1112plusmn96 abc 1665plusmn18d

Croton macrostachyus 2036plusmn091a 569plusmn02c 208plusmn001bc 192plusmn90 cde 167plusmn149d

Glycine weightii 2218plusmn098ab 46plusmn010b 269plusmn035c 2908 plusmn703 e 166plusmn26d

Combretum paniculatum 1981plusmn009a 435plusmn018b 349plusmn002d

2718plusmn052 de 1549plusmn56d

Vernonia spp 2495plusmn37b 417plusmn005b 127plusmn001a 1616plusmn091 cd 1599plusmn29d

Echinopes macrostchyus 2236plusmn060a 426plusmn16b 18plusmn02a

1676plusmn076 cd 116plusmn03a

Ageratum conyzoides 2095plusmn210a 489plusmn037ab 149plusmn005ab

1543plusmn015 cd 1674plusmn15d

143

Hypoestes triflora 2106plusmn038 492plusmn026ab 192plusmn06ab 213plusmn01a 1421plusmn08c

Trifolium spp 2098plusmn056a 487plusmn011ab 207plusmn001bc 332plusmn16 a 125plusmn047c

Cynotis barbata 2231plusmn10a 487plusmn026ab 125plusmn001a 434plusmn033 ab 826plusmn055b

Apodyted dimidata 2320plusmn032a 457plusmn011b 144plusmn008ab 26plusmn158 a 1675plusmn12d

Planatgo lanceolatum 2236plusmn095ab 486plusmn011ab 134plusmn026a 258plusmn020a 1437plusmn064c Values with different letters are significantly different (Plt005)

Mineral analysis

The analysis of data using one way anova indicated that there were strong signficant

diffrences (Plt0001) for mineral content among the diffrent pollen source plants The

mean comparison using Tukeyrsquos multiple comaprison indicated that the iron content of

Glycine weightii is signficantly differnt from the rest of bee collected pollen The iron

content of pollen ranges from 787-2838 mg 100g pollen The highest for Glycine

weightii (2838 mg and lower for vernonia spp (787) (Table 3) The copper content of

pollen is almost uniform between the differnt bee pollen plants and it ranges 049-

128mg100 The Calicium content of bee pollen was highest for combretum

paniculatum (435) and lower for Croton macrostachys (196 mg100g) The phosphous

and potassium content of the pollen vary signficantly amnog the pollen source plants

and ranging from 035-707mg100g and 049-592 mg100g of pollen respectievly The

phosphorus content of pollen showed the highest values for Combretum paniculatum

and Glycine weightii) Similarly the Potassium content is highest for Combretum

paniculatum Croton macrostachys and Guizotia scabara and lowest for Vernonia

amygdalina The sodium content of pollen is higher for Glycine weightii

(61086mg100g) and lower for Trifolium (48mg100g) The sodium level of the pollen

for some plant species is beyond the detectble level (BID) as indicated in Table 3

Table 3 Mineral content of pollen samples from different taxa

Plant species Iron mg100g

Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g

Vernonia amygdalina 831plusmn1037ab 054plusmn095ordf 285plusmn52830 def

058plusmn003a 16406plusmn32ab 33828plusmn22b

Guizotia scabra

1025plusmn1186ab

074plusmn0010ordf 379plusmn0577 ef 049plusmn02a 26088plusmn0029ab

40584plusmn033 bc

Croton macrostachyus

1329plusmn1020abc

053plusmn075ordf 196plusmn72005 bdc 095plusmn01a 247plusmn25ab 45442plusmn517a

Glycine weighti

1429plusmn0957a 071plusmn010 236plusmn1000 f

128plusmn06a 251plusmn067 bc 61086plusmn027a

144


Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g

Combretum Paniculatum

2838plusmn061e 049plusmn010 435plusmn0786 abc 088plusmn02c 406 plusmn033 bc BID

Vernonia spp 787plusmn208de 095plusmn010e 2299plusmn0949de 297plusmn069d 454plusmn016bc BlD

Echinopes spp 2645plusmn006de 128plusmn010c 32931plusmn036 ef

5923plusmn099 c

61086plusmn1000bc

BlD

Ageratum conyzoides

2052plusmn05 de

088plusmn007ab 31923plusmn367 cde

38443plusmn054c 621plusmn071 39506plusmn24bc

Hypoestes triflora

1678plusmn19 bcd


244plusmn021b 20756plusmn004ab

32404plusmn4184

9 b

Trifolium spp 1854plusmn119 bcd

078 plusmn 0067a 23206plusmn51 abcd 378plusmn023 a 040plusmn030 a 481plusmn183205

a

Cynotis barbata

1332plusmn0352 abc

077plusmn124a 22232plusmn4617 ab 468plusmn039 a

055plusmn061a BID

Plantago lanceolata

1562plusmn2466 a

088plusmn072a 2145plusmn5231 ab 551 plusmn032 a 035plusmn002a BID

Apodytes dimidata

195plusmn376abcd

066plusmn118a 2112plusmn1970 ab 49plusmn034 064plusmn088a BIDa

Zea mays 1022plusmn233 abc

087plusmn0124a 1602plusmn29075a 67plusmn022 054plusmn035a BID

Range 787-2838 049-128 160-435 088-5923 035-621 481-610

Values with different letters are significantly different (Plt005)

The analysis of proximate composition and mineral content of the present is coinciding

with international standards and the pollen can be promoted as export products

provided that the quality and food safety conditions are maintained

Table 4 Comparison of the test parameters of the study samples with International standard for proximate composition

Test parameter This study International standards

References

Moisture 1971-2307 20-30 Almeida-Muradian et al2005

Protein 1587-2907 Not less than 15 g100 g

Almeida-Muradian et al 2005

Ash 127plusmn347 2-6 Almeida-Muradian et al 2005

Vitamin C 113-2185 mgkg 70-560mgkg Talpay 1984 Oliviera 2006

Fat 27-58100 gt15 g100 g Szczesna and Rybak-Chmielewska 1998

145

Table 5 Comparative study of mineral content of pollen samples with International standards Test parameters This study International

standards References

Iron mg100g 0-2838 11-170 Almeida-Muradian et al 2005

Copper mg100g

044-128 2-16 Almeida-Muradian et al 2005

Calcium mg100g


Potassium mg100g

44-5920mgkg 4000-20000 Talpay 1984 Oliviera 2006

Phosphrous mg100g

34-4100 800-6000 Szczesna and Rybak-Chmielewska 1998

Sodium mg100g

481-610 ND ND (not dectable)

Total phenolic and Vitamin C content and free radical scavenging activity

Total phenolic content was expressed as milligrams of Gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per

gram (mggm) of the pollen samples and the Free radical scavenging activity expressed

in The data is shown together in Table 5 to simplify the approach in the discussion

The total phenolic content in the taxa analyzed ranges 1952 - 3984 mgGAE (Gallic

acid equivalents) There was no significant variation for total phenolic content among

the pollen source plants Relatively the higher polyphenol content was recorded for Zea

mays Guizotia spp Vernonia amaygdalina Croton macrostachyus and Datura inoxia

The lowest was determined in Echinopes spp Ageratum conyzoides Combretum

paniculatum and Trifloium spp The percentage of DPPH radical scavenging capacity of

the analysed pollen samples was significantly different (Plt005) between different

pollen source plants (Table 5) The antioxidant power of Plantago lanceolata

Eucalyptus spp Vernonia spp Trifoilumspp and Zea mays were significantly different

from remaining bee pollen and relatively higher radical scavenging power were 98 933

98 93 and 89 respectively) The lower values were recorded for Echinopes spp

Ageratum conyzoides Combretum paniclutum and Plantago lanceolatum

Table 6 Percent yield for Free radical Scavenging activity and total phenolic content of pollen samples

Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)

Vernonia amygdalina 3565 plusmn044i 937plusmn0121c

Croton macrostchys 2306 plusmn44c 937plusmn010c

Guizotia spp 3887 plusmn024 88plusmn10ab

Bidens spp 1952 plusmn095a 89plusmn10b

Ageratum conyzoides 2403 plusmn06c 88plusmn15ab

146

Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)

Plantago lanceolata 2081 plusmn06b 89plusmn57b

Trifolium spp 2435 plusmn005ef 88plusmn10b

Datura inoxia 2629 plusmn0080 86plusmn10a

Zea mays 3984 plusmn006i 89plusmn057b

Eucalyptus spp 2500 plusmn007f 93plusmn10c

Values in a row with different letters are significantly different (Plt005)

Discussion

Main floral sources collected

Pollen fulfills honey bees nutritional demands for protein and fat This agrees with fact

that the colony development and reproduction are mainly related to the taxa collected

and its composition (Avni et al 2009) The identification of pollen loads from pollen

traps is very important because it gives about the preferences and resource richness in

collecting plant species as the main sources pollen for honeybees From our data 49

taxa were identified among sample collected in pollen traps given the relevant

reference that the highest proportion of taxa become from only a few sources The

highest harvested pollen was from Guizotia spp Vernonia spp Datura inoxia Trifolium

spp Zea mays and Croton macrostachyus Relatively small amount of pollen was

collected during May and June to August The plant species contributing during May to

June for pollen were Schefflera abyssinica Croton macrostachyus Syzygium guinnese

and Coffea arabica The identified pollen taxa from pollen trap was belong to published

Honeybee flora of Ethiopia (Fichtl and Admassu 1994) There was seasonal variability

among the pollen source plants depending species richness duration of flowering and

length of the rainy period In this investigation the highest pollen load gathering occurs

between September to January whileApril to May with the lowest pollen collection The

dearth periods were February and July) The high pollen collection during Septmber and

November is due to the appearance of higher density of flowering plants after rainy

seasons (June-August and March to April) reaching their peak flowering in October and

April The lower pollen yield was recorded during June to August which is the main rainy

season throughout the country affecting the flight condition of honeybees which in turn

affects pollen collection This is in agreement with similar study in central parts of

Ethiopia (Admassu Addi and Debissa Lamessa 2009) stating that during the rainy

season low temperatures possibly inhibit growth and flowering whereas the higher

temperature during dry period causes water deficiency in plants resulting in low nectar

secretion and low pollen production

Moisture

The analysis of bee pollen samples for moisture content from taxa study demonstrated

that moisture content of pollen vary among taxa depending on environmental condition

147

where the plant grows and hygroscopic property of the pollen The moisture content

was relatively higher for all taxa since the study area is located in one of the higher

rainfall regions of the country and hence it receives substantial amount rainfall for nine

months This has great impacts on pollen quality and it is in line with other published

studies once higher values could favor microbiological contamination particularly by

fungi and yeasts (Solange 2009)

Protein content

The protein content from all samples under investigation fall in standard ranges 20-30

(Campos et al 2008) and they are accepted by the International Food Safety Control

The total protein content highest for Combretum paniclualtum (2709 ) and lowest for

Ageratum conyzoides (1587 ) agrees with other studies that reported values at range

of 16 to 29 (Tuumlyluuml and Sorkun 2006 Odoux et al2012) The variation in the protein

content of pollen reflects difference in plant taxa depending on plant origin (Szczęsna

2006) and environmental factors such as climatic and soil conditions (Cirnu et al 1969

Stanley and Linskens 1974 Bosi and RicciardelliDAlbore 1975 during maturation age

and vigor of the plants Similar study reported by Debissa etal2008) indicating the

content of crude protein varies from 1325 to 2868 for pollen producing plants for

central parts of Ethiopia while it was lower for spore producing plant species (Pinus

radiata )

Minerals

Minerals in pollen have different functions as for example Calcium and Phosphorus are

essential for humans and animals particularly in cell physiology since deficit in Calcium

and Phosphorous can affect the formation of bone and tooth Potassium is also an

important mineral involving in muscles contractions specially cardiac muscles resulting

in heart arrhythmia It affects lipids metabolism proteins synthesis maintaining the fluid

and electrolyte balance in the body and is responsible in the nerve impulses sending

Sodium is responsible for depolarization of cellular membrane and for the water

equilibrium in intra- and extra cellular medium Varaion in the mineral composition of

bee collected pollen and others refects the difference in the floral origin of pollen and

the plant growth conditions such as soil and geographic origin (Campos et al 2003

Almaraz-Abarca et al 2004) Similar study by Stanley and Linskens (1974) indicated

that there are difference in mineral content of pollen collected by bees and pollen

collected directly from flowersThe amounts determined in pollen give an add-value to

the product when used for human purposes

Fat and Vitamin C content

Pollen also vary with their relative proportion of fatty acid content The fat content of the

pollen samples ranges from 274 - 568 with the highest values for Croton

148

macrostachyus (568 ) and lower value for Vernonia amygdalina (274 ) Several

factors can affect the type and proportion of the different chemical constituents in pollen

including plant species and area in which plant growth with type of soil and climatic

condition season of the year and even time of day pollen is collected (Smchidt and

Buchmann 1992) Like other components there is a considerable variation depending

on the pollen type Pollen contains significant amount of carotenoids mainly β-carotene

are related to vitamin But these too depend on the botanical source of the pollen

Total phenolic content

It has been recognized that total phenolic content of pollen extract is associated with

their antioxidant activities due to their redox properties which allow them to act as

reducing agents hydrogen donors According to our finding the pollen collected by

honeybees from different taxa shows characteristic amounts of total polyphenols and

the result obtained from this study falls with bee pollen phenols range reported in most

scientific literature Bogdanov et al( 2004) Atip et al (2012) Serra Bonvehı (2001)The

amount of total polyphnol is low as compare to similar studies mentioned above due to

different factors involved during data collection such as storage condition geographic

origin and modification of pollen during packing of the pollen loads by honeybees that

may affect enzymatic reaction The polyphenol content is vary among pollen source

plants due to variation in chemical composition of pollen in different location and

different floral sources Apart from this total phenolic compounds content of pollen

extracts were solvent-dependent Similar data was provided by (Solange et al 2007)

were they give information about pollen extracted with ethanol at 60 70 and 80 of

concentration showed relatively higher levels of phenolic compounds (gt10 mgg)

Campos et al 1997 showed that phenolics in pollen are specie-specific and contribute

to the fingerprint of each taxon which could be used for identification of floral origin

Free radical scavenging activity

The ability of pollen extract to quench reactive species by hydrogen donation was

measured through DPPH radical scavenging activity test Compounds with antioxidant

activity can react with DPPH which solution has a violet color The solution discoloration

during the reaction can be quantified by measuring the absorbance at 517 nm which

indicates the scavenging ability of these compounds Pollen samples analyzed in the

present work shown to have considerable variation in compounds that could be

correlated to its antioxidant activity These constituints were correlated to the bioactivity

in the taxa under evaluation in this work that show values increased in the order of

Eucalyptus sppgtTrifolium rupplienaumgtVernoniaamygdalinagtDatura arboreagtBidens

sppgtGuizotia sppgt Croton macrostachysgt and Combretum paniculatum A significant

correlation between the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity in bee pollen were

149

reported (Bogdanov 2011) However the variation in free radical scavenging values in

the above cited plants species was not correlated with the variation in the levels of

phenolic compounds present in samples neither with vitamin C or other of the

constituents as proteins or fat content This is in line with previous results carried out

with different taxa (Campos et al 2003 Almaraz et al 2008 Lopes et al 2011and

Stanciu et al 2016) This will stimulates further investigation to pursuit the full

understanding of the mechanisms involved in this bioactivity

Conclusions and recommendation

It is concluded that the proximate composition determined for protein moisture fat ash

vitamin C and minerals indicated that bee pollen can be used as to supplement diets for

humans since the results of nutritional analysis found are in line with the International

ranges of food quality as it has high antioxidant factors The samples from the flora

collected during the year possess a considerable amount of polyphenolics which have

relevant antiradical activity to protect body from damage caused by radicals are more

significantly at September-November season with the good preservation schedule of

the product Therefore due to the biodiversity available in Ethiopia further investigations

should be performed to evaluate the total profile of polyphenolic and amino acids

composition among other nutrients to improve the consume once it is a very good

source of macro and micronutrients which is fundamental for human health

References

Admassu Addi amp Debissa lamessa (2009) The pollen potentiality and protein content

of bee collected pollen from Mengesha suba state forest Ethiop J Biol Sci 8(2) 85-

97

Almaraz-Abarca N Campos M G Aacutevila-Reyes J A Naranjo-Jimeacutenez N Herrera-

Corral J Gonzaacutelez-Valdez L S (2008) Antioxidant activity of polyphenolic extract of

monofloral honeybee-collected pollen from mesquite (Prosopisjuliflora Leguminosae)

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 20(2) 119-124

Almeida-Muradian L B Pamplona L C Coimbra S Barth O M (2005) Chemical

composition and botanical evaluation of dried bee pollen pellets Journal of Food

Composition and Analysis 18(1) 105ndash111

AOAC (1990) Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical

Chemists 15th Edition Washigton DC USA

AOAC (2000) Official Methods of Analysis Arlington VA USA Aouali N Laporte

AOAC( 2003)Official methods of analysis of AOAC International 17th edition

150

AOAC (2005) Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC INTERNATIONAL18th edition

Atip Chantarudee Preecha Phuwapraisirisan Kiyoshi Kimura Masayuki Okuyama

Haruhide Mori Atsuo Kimura and Chanpen Chanchao (2012) Chemical constituents

and free radical scavenging activity of corn pollen collected from Apis mellifera hives

compared to floral corn pollen at Nan Thailand

Avni D Dag A Shafir S (2009) Pollen sources for honeybees in Israel Source

periods

504 of shortage and influence on population growth Israel Journal of Plant Sciences

57 263-505

Budryn G Nebesny E (2006) Phenolic acids-their properties occurrence in plant

materials absorption and metabolismBromatolChem 39 PP103ndash110

Bogdanov S (2011) Pollen Nutrition Functional Properties Health A Review Bee

Product Science Available online httpwwwbee- hexagonnetfilesfile

BOGDANOV S BIERI K GREMAUD G IFF D KAumlNZIG A SEILER K STOumlCKLI H

ZUumlRCHERK (2004) Swiss Food Manual Pollen Bienenprodukte BAG (Swiss Federal

Office for Public Health) Berne

Bogdanov S (2016) Pollen Production Nutrition and Health A Review Bee-

Hexagonnet Available online httpwwwbee-hexagonnetfilesReview

Bosi G Ricciardelli DAlbore G(1975) Quantitative determination of amino acids in

some bee collected pollens XXXV Int Beekeep Congr Apimondia

Cirnu et al (1969) do processo de desidrataccedilatildeordquo Master Dissertation Pharmaceutical

Science

Campos M G Bogdanov S Almeida-Muradian L B Szczesna T Mancebo Y

Frigerio C Ferreira F (2008) Pollen composition and standardisation of analytical

methods Journal of Apicultural Research 47(2) 156-163httpdxdoiorg

103896IBRA147212

Campos M G Webby R F Markham K R Mitchell K A Da Cunha A P (2003) Age-

induced diminution of free radical scavenging capacity in bee pollens and the

contribution of constituent flavonoids Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51

742-745

151

Crane E (1990) Bees and beekeeping Science Practice and World Resources

Cornstock Publ Ithaca NY USApp 593

Debissa Lamessa amp Admassu Addi (2008) Importance of honey and bee pollen for

vegetation characterization in Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resource (ESNR)

Friis Ib (1992) Forest and forest trees of north-east Tropical Africa Kew Bull Additional

Ser 151 -396

Freire K Antonio C S Lins Marcos C Doacuterea Francisco A R Santos

Celso A Camara and Tania M S Silva (2012) Palynological Origin Phenolic Content

and Antioxidant Properties of Honeybee-Collected Pollen from Bahia BrazilMolecules

17 1652-1664

Herbert EW (1999) Honey Bee Nutrition in Graham JM (Ed)The Hive and the

HoneyDadantamp Sons Hamilton Illinois pp 197-233

Haydak MH (1970) Honey bee nutrition Annual Reviews of Entomology 42 611ndash643

Kroyer G Hegedus N (2001) Evaluation of bioactive properties of pollen extracts as

functional dietary food supplement Innov Food Sci Emerg 171-174

Lopes J Stanciu OG Campos MG Almaraz-Abarca N Muradian LB Marghitas

LA (2011) Bee pollen antioxidant activity ndash a review achievements and further

challenges J of Pharmacognosy 2 25-38

Methods of Vitamin Assay (third Edition) (1966) Inter science Publishers pp 320-327

Manual for Nutrition Surveys (Second Edition) (1963) pp 230-232

Morais M Moreira L Feaacutes X and Estevinho LM (2011) Honeybee-collected pollen

from five Portuguese natural parks Palynological origin phenolic content antioxidant

properties and antimicrobial activity Food Chem Toxicol49 1096ndash1101)

Odoux JF Feuillet D Aupinel P Loublier Y Tasei JN Mateescu C (2012)

Territorial biodiversity and consequences on physico-chemical characteristics of pollen

collected by honey bee coloniesApidologie 43 561-575

Pernal S F amp Currie R W (2001)The influence of pollen quality on foraging behavior

in honeybees (Apismellifera L)BehavEcol Socio biol Pp 53ndash68

Ranganna S (1977) Plant Pigments Manual of Analysis of fruit vegetable products

77- 79

152

Reinhard Fichtl and Admassu Addi (1994) Honey bee flora of Ethiopia Margraf Verlag

Germany Pp 510

Schmidt JO Buchmann SL (1992) Other products of the hive In Grahan JM (ed) The

hive and the honeybee Hamilton Dadant amp Sons pp 927-988

Solange TC Rosicler B Severino Matias A Maria Luacutecia M (2009) Study of

preparations of bee pollen extracts Antioxiant and Antibacterial activity Ciecircnc Agrotec

Lavras v 31 p 1818-1825

Šramkovaacute Nocircžkovaacute Kačaacuteniovaacute Maacuteriaacutessyovaacute Rovnaacute andStričiacutek (2013) Antioxidant

and antimicrobial properties of monofloral bee pollenJ Environ Sci Health B 48(2)133-

138

Stanley RG Linskens HF (1974) Pollen Biology Biochemistry Management

Springer New York

Szczęsna T (2006) Protein content and amino acid composition of bee collected

pollen from selected botanical origins Journal of Apicultural Science 50 81-90

Tuumlyluuml AOuml Sorkun K (2006) Protein analysis with kjeldahl of pollen grains collected

by Apismellifera L 6 7-11

Serra Bonvethi Soliva Torrento Oacute M Centelleslorente E (2001) Evaluation of

polyphenolic and flavonoid compounds in honeybee-collected pollen produced in Spain

Journal Agricultural Food Chemistry Easton v 49 n 4 p 1843-1853

Talpay B M (1984) Der PollenVersuch einer Standortbestimmung Institut Fuumlr

Honigforschung Bremen 1ndash84

Woldegiorgis Dawit Abate Gulelat Haki D Gregory R Ziegler (2014) Antioxidant

property of edible mushrooms collected from Ethiopia

Winston ML (1987) The Biology of the Honey Bee Harvard University Press ISBN 0-

674-639 07408-4

Yang K Wu D Ye XQ Liu DH Chen JC Sun PL (2013)Characterization of

Chemical Composition of Bee Pollen in China Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry 61 PP 708-718

Zenebon O Pascuet N S (2005) Methods of fisico-quimicos para analise dealimentos

153

Annex 1 List of pollen identified from samples collected around Gesha and

Saylem districts ( Ethiopia)

Plant species Family Habit Pollen weight

Proportion

Flowering period

Acacia spp Fabaceae Tree 289 02 Sept-Oct

Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae

Herb 065 01 Sep-Jan

Agave sisalana Agavaceae Shrub 23 02 Nov-Jan

Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae Herb 293 02 Sep-Nov

Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae herb 3664 29 Sept-Nov

Andropogon abyssinicus

Poaceae Herb 0773 01 Aug-Nov

Bidens spp Asteraceae Herb 155 122 Sept-Oct

Brassica spp Brassicaceae Herb 034 00 Sep-Oct

Cirsium schimperi Asteraceae Herb 234 02 Oct-Nov


Combretaceae

Climber 275 22 Jan-Mar

Cordia africana Boraginaceae Tree 74 06 Sept-Oct

Croton macrostachyus Euphorbiaceae

Tree 2453 19 Mar-Jun

Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Herb 1011 08 Feb

Cyperus fischerianus Cyperaceae Herb 289 02 Jan

Datura inoxia Solanaceae Shrub 135 106 Sep-Jan

Echinops macrochaetus

Asteraceae Herb 5671 45 Oct-Jan

Ethula gracilis Asteraceae Herb 253 20 Nov-Dec

Eucalyptus spp Myrtaceae Tree 1219 96 July-Aug

Glycine max Fabaceae Herb 2466 02 Aug-sept

Glycine wightii Fabaceae Climber 60652 05 Oct-Jan

154


Proportion

Flowering period

Grevillea robusta Proteaceae Tree 14 01 Sept-Oct

Guizotia scabara Asteraceae Herb 2875682

227 Nov-Jan

Helminthotheca echioides

Asteraceae Herb 3006 02 Nov-Jan

Hibiscus spp Malvaceae Shrub 0639 01 Sep-Dec

Hypericum revolutum Guttiferae Shrub 167 01 Sept-Oct

Hypoetses triflora Acanthaceae Herb 632 05 Sep-Nov

Illex mitis Aquifoliaceae Tree 35 28 Sept-Oct

Maesa lanceolata Myrsinaceae Shrub 45 35 Aug-Oct

Mangifera indica Ancardiaceae Tree 178 01 Sept-Nov

Maytenus arbutifolia Celestarceae Shrub 1074 08 Sept-Nov

Ocimum spp Lamiaceae Herb 0421 00 Oct-nov

Pinus spp Pinaceae Tree 1562 01 Feb

Plantago lanceolatum Plantaginaceae

Herb 2432 19 Sept-Jan

Poaceae Poaceae Herb 1045 01 Sept-Jan

Pterolobium stellatum Fabaceae Shrub 175 01 Sept-Nov

Ranunculus multifidus Ranuculaceae Herb 028877 00 Sept-Nov

Rhus spp Ancardiaceae Shrub 145 01 Sept-Dec

Rumex nervosus Polygonaceae Shrub 28 02 Sept-Nov

Saturja paradoxa Lamiaceae Herb 25 02 Sept-Nov

Schefflera abyssinica Araliaceae Tree 151 12 April

Sesamum indicum Pedaliaceae Herb 015 00 Oct-Nov

Syzygium guineense Myrteatceae Tree 88 69 Jan-Feb

155


Proportion

Flowering period

Trifoilum spp Fabaceae Herb 564231 04 Sept-oct

Unknown pollen1 Asteraceae - 63 05 Sept-oct

unknown pollen2 Fabaceae - 914 07 Jan

Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae Shrub 2686 21 Jan

Vernonia spp Asteraceae Shrub 5288 42 Dec

Vicia faba Fabaceae herb 3946 03 Aug-sept

Zea mays Poaceae Herb 6832 05 Aug

156

Figure3 Pollen grain morphology identified from pollen trap

157

Beekeeping benefits to communities with challenging environments

Example from a far northern community in Canada

Kerry Clark (presenting author) and Courtenay Clark Email kccsclarkgmailcom

Abstract

Beekeeping can bring benefits to communities in a wide range of environments in the world

This presentation describes the climatic and logistical challenges of introducing beekeeping to a

remote community in northern Canada (latitude 60 degrees N) Benefits may include increased

productivity of native berries and better reclamation of disturbed lands The author has long

experience in beekeeping in Canada and has undertaken beekeeping development projects in

other Canadian communities and also in the Philippines Tanzania and Ethiopia

ldquoTHE STATUS OF HONEY QUALITY PRODUCED IN GEDEBANO

GUTAZER WOLENE CENTRAL ETHHIOPIArdquo

Akalework Gizaw1 Asaminew Tassew2 and Desalegn Begna3

1Ministry of Livestock ampFishery Resource Development Addis Ababa

2Colleges of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Bahir Dar University

3Oromia Agricultural Institute Holleta Bee Research Center Ethiopia Email awgawgaprmgmailcom

Abstract

The study was conducted by aiming of evaluating the status of the physicochemical properties

of honey produced in Gedebano Gutazer Wolene District of SNNP central Ethiopia in

201617To evaluate the physicochemical properties of honey 20 sample of honey having1 kg

each were collected randomly from traditional amp frame hive at farm get level of three different

agro-ecological locations amp two rural markets The results were compared with National

European and International honey quality standard requirement Additionally the results were

compared between market and farm-gate level honey samples as well as between traditional

and frame hive honey samples The physicochemical parameters of honey quality conducted in

the analysis were Color moisture content HMF free acidity PH Ash Electro-conductivity

Sugar content Sucrose amp Maltose According to the analysis except HMF significant

differences between hive type was observed all other quality parameters in relation to hive

type and locations did not show significant differences between them Generally the result of

quality parameters were indicated that within the range of National European and International

quality standard requirement The mean value of the collected honey samples were moisture

content (1891) electro-conductivity (065Msm) free acid (163meqkg) HMF (263mgkg)

158

Ash content (02g100g) sugar content (744) Sucrose (106) maltose (095) and the

range of honey color was 33-396 mm p-fund scale (extra light amber to amber )The results

obtained therefore indicate that honey produced in the district show excellent quality and free of

any adulterants in relation to National European and International limits

159

Topic 4 Commercialization and Transformation

of Beekeeping

160

Pollen the perfect food for the bee but also for humans By Dr Peter Gallmann Food and Nutrition Scientist (ETHSFT) Emeritus Director of the Swiss

Bee Research Centre Agroscope Liebefeld Email petergallmannicloudcom

Abstract

The common term for the application of bee products is apitherapy It derives from the Latin

name for bee = Apis and Therapeja the Greek word for ldquoserverdquo or ldquobe of userdquo Falsely therapy

today is often translated as healing Apitherapy is a well tried holistic health supporting process

that uses bee products to maintain or restore good health and well-being including good

nutrition To take a closer look at bee products many-sided reactions lets take the example of

Bee-Pollen and its importance for the bee as well as in human nutrition

Pollen is the dust that the wind blows from the flowers The bee collects these microscopic

pollen grains or core bundles from the flowers With secretions from the mandibular gland and

nectar from the honey stomach it sticks and kneads these granules together hard-working to

form the Bee Pollen which it then carries to the hive There other bees take over this pollen

and again add secretions (especially enzymes) and honey to push this mix into the cells with

their heads At the end a thin layer of propolis comes over this package and the whole is

fermenting well packed for about 10 days to Perga or Beebread Thatrsquos the staple food of the

bee It provides all basic substances for the body Honey provides the energy The effect of this

food on the bee can best be seen in the wintering of the bee colony in Europe There the bees

that hatched in the fall eat much larger quantities of beebread This results in an extension of

their lives by a factor of four This is vital for a colony because it can raise no brood during

wintertime The October bee therefore raises new brood in February while a bees life otherwise

ends after 30 days But pollen is not just the staple food of the bee Pollen is also the raw

material for all bee secretions and ultimately for all bee products (Perga Wax Royal Gelly

Propolis and Honey) because all bee products are at last secretions of bees or secretions of

plants mixed with complex bees secretions

Pollen for human nutrition Based on its composition pollen is one of the 10 most valuable

foods for humans Unique in terms of diet is the amount the completeness and the proportions

of essential amino acids In addition pollen or bee bread is also known as the most effective

antioxidant food The underlying reactions are explained in the context of this article Pollen is

collected with pollen traps at the entrance to the hive The product is an intermediate for

processing to Perga and is not stable Perga is the stable end product but has a limited shelf life

as well (2 years) Both products are well-suited as a nutritional supplement when properly

treated People who do not want or cannot eat meat could pick up all the missing components

with 20-25-gram pollen a day Caution Like honey pollen in certain cases could be

contaminated with defensive substances from certain plants and could then be toxic when

ingested Rhododendron (Grayanotoxane) in Turkey as well as Echium vulgare (Pyrrolizidine

Alkaloids) in Europe and Australia are known as critical plants in this context

161

Building a honey value chain in Ethiopia strong enough to face international

competition

Gemechis Jaleta Email gjaletasnvorg

Abstract

The European list of African countries eligible to export to Europe is growing steadily However

many companies in these African countries are still struggling to gain access to international

markets These companies include companies in Ethiopia which became eligible to export to the

European Union in 2008 Like many other African countries Ethiopia learned many lessons

during its struggle to catch up with international competition The major lesson was to ensure

food safety before exporting

Food safety was one of the priority areas for the ASPIRE value chain development programme

This programme of SNV ProFound Enclude and the Ethiopian Apiculture Board started in 2013

and finished in 2017 We selected 7 high potential processors including both cooperatives and

private companies to take the lead in development of their respective value chains We closely

cooperated with these processors to build strong value chains that produce high quality honey

Together with them we provided training to 30000 beekeepers provided inputs to those

beekeepers and provided market access

During the ASPIRE programme several processors developed from new companies without

any actual sales to international exporters with different buyers At the Organic Africa Pavilion at

the Biofach trade fair in Germany these exporters learned particularly valuable lessons through

direct contact with international buyers

______________________________

Note that this article ldquoBuilding a honey value chain in Ethiopia-strong enough to face international

competitionrdquo was submitted by Kasper KerverProfound advisers in development and was presented by

Gemechis Jelata

Honey and Geographical indications Why is honey a good pilot

product for the implementation of Geographical

Indications labeling in Ethiopia

Denis SAUTIER (1) Getachew MENGISTIE ALEMU (2) Degefie TIBEBE DEGEFIE (3)

(1) Economist CIRAD Univ Montpellier F-34398 Montpellier France

sautierciradfr

(2) Intellectual Property specialist and consultant Washington DC USA

(3) Geographer Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research Addis-Ababa Ethiopia

Email sautierciradfr

162

Abstract

This paper scrutinizes the opportunities and challenges of honey as a potential pilot product for

the implementation of Geographical Indications labeling on a value chain in Ethiopia

Geographical Indications designate products that have a specific geographical origin and

possess qualities characteristics or a reputation that are essentially due to that place of origin

The registration of Geographical Indications protects the name of the product and serves as a

collective marketing tool for the producers and processors of the regional product Geographical

Indications gained recognition as an Intellectual Property Right by the World Intellectual

Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) Famous Geographical

Indications include for example Darjeeling tea from India Coffee from Colombia

Champagne wine from France African countries are also increasingly active in implementing

Geographical indications Ethiopia is willing to establish a legal framework for Geographical

Indications (GI) and to implement GI labeling on at least one pilot value chain

Honey can be a good pilot product to implement and test GI labeling in Ethiopia for several

reasons There are many different specialty regional honeys in Ethiopia with strong links and

distinct characteristics according to the locality of production such as Wukro (Tigray) Lalibella

(Amhara) Yayo forest (Oromia) Masha-Bonga (SNPP) among others External market

demand is recent but growing and with great potential The volumes of each regional honey

production area are not so big Therefore it seems possible to develop in one region a careful

quality monitoring experience that could be useful for other places The apiculture sector in

Ethiopia also counts with high-level technical support from national and international institutions

and with dynamic value-chain wide coordinating institutions such as the Ethiopian Apiculture

Board

Despite the existence of difficulties and challenges honey appears to be a credible candidate

for the establishment of this new form of land-based labelling in Ethiopia

Geographical Indications definition and opportunities

Geographical Indications designate products that have a specific geographical origin

and possess qualities characteristics or a reputation that are essentially due to that

place of origin Famous Geographical Indications include for example Darjeeling tea

from India Coffee from Colombia Champagnerdquo sparkling wine from France The

registration of Geographical Indications protects the name of the product and serves as

a collective marketing tool for the producers and processors of the regional product

Famous local origin products exist since many centuries in many parts of the world the

name of given places have long become synonymous of distinctive quality products

such as regional incense marble olive oils wines and others However the official

registration and commercial protection of such famous names began in Europe in the

20th Century Geographical Indications gained worldwide recognition as an Intellectual

Property Right by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World

Trade Organization (WTO) According to WTO Geographical indications (GI) are

ldquoindications which identify a good as originating in the territory of a [country] or a region

163

or locality in that territory where a given quality reputation or other characteristic of the

good is essentially attributable to its geographical originraquo (WTO TRIPS 1994 Article

22) A WIPO survey in 2017 revealed the existence of 42527 protected GIs worldwide

(WIPO 2017 204) African countries are increasingly active in implementing

Geographical indications Within this international context Ethiopia - a country rich in

diverse ecologies and production know-how for agriculture and handicraft- is currently

willing to establish a legal framework for GI and to implement GI labeling on at least

one pilot value chain

Geographical Indications (GI) establish and formalize the existence of a unique link

between ldquoPlace People and Productrdquo (FAO-SINERGI 2010) For this category of

products natural and human factors concur to obtain distinctive product characteristics

Honey is a good example of such local specialty products (see Figure 1) The place or

production area enhances the productrsquos quality characteristics or reputation due the

local vegetation altitude soils and climate and the people have developed a know-how

to master extraction maintenance and processing as well as trading and consuming

skills

Figure 1 Geographical Indications Specific links between Place People and Product

In many countries GIs have become a tool for rural development policy because of their

capacity to simultaneously protect promote and organize the value chains of specific

products First GIs protect both producers and consumers by conferring a non-

exclusive right of use of the name to all individual producers who are complying with the

product specification (namely producing within a delimitated area and following the

appropriate production and processing practices) Second GIs promote the uniqueness

164

of these local products thereby highlighting their reputation and stimulating premium

prices Third GIs enhance value chain organization through the establishment

monitoring and control of the product specifications

The potential of Geographical Indications for Ethiopia

Ethiopia is one of the worldrsquos origin zones for cultivated plants and is richly endowed

with ecological biological and cultural biodiversity It enjoys a wide diversity of high-

quality regional products coffees tef (Eragrostis tef) sesame butter honeyshellip

However no ldquoGeographical Indication Actrdquo is yet in place The recognition of regional

quality products such as the Ethiopian fine coffees initiative (2006) has so far been

managed through the trademark law Yet this legal framework is facing several

limitations It excludes most geographical names which are descriptive and cannot be

used for collective trademarks but which could serve as GIs under the WTO definition

A new effective domestic legal framework is therefore needed in the interest of

producers and in compliance with Ethiopiarsquos current process of accession to WTO

membership (Hirko 2014) Before obtaining adequate international protection national

GI recognition must be granted at home

The Ethiopian government and House of Peoplersquos representatives therefore support the

preparation of a new framework for legal registration and operational implementation of

Geographical Indications A feasibility study was conducted in 2018 with the

participation of the Ethiopian Intellectual Property Organization (EIPO) and of several

national Ministries and Agencies and with the support of the French Development

Agency (AFD) for a project on ldquoSupport to the definition of a Legal Framework for

Geographical Indications in Ethiopia and Implementation on a pilot Value Chainrdquo

(CIRAD-ECOCERT 2018)

Honey in Ethiopia Quality local specialty products

Honey was one of the five products under review by the Geographical Indications

project feasibility study The screening criteria included the technical feasibility ndashie the

distinctiveness of regional products and their links to the local natural and human

factors as well as their controllability- the commercial feasibility ndashie the market trends

and willingness to pay for specialty products- and the organizational feasibility ndashie the

value chain dynamism and structuration

21 TECHNICAL DIMENSION

Ethiopia has a very old skills and widespread tradition of beekeeping (ATA 2016) Until

today it is estimated that one out of ten rural households keep honeybees Honey is the

basis of the traditional and popular fermented drink tej According to the Ethiopian

Apiculture Board (EAB) Ethiopia counts with about 10 million bee colonies which

165

makes it the nation with the highest bee density in Africa Total honey production in the

country is estimated in 48 000 TM (vs 28 000 TM in 2001) and the large proportion of

wild bee colonies means that only a part of the honey is currently harvested Honey

plays an important role in rural householdsrsquo food security and also in income

generation mostly for domestic or commercial tej brewing Honey accounts 13 of

agricultural GDP

Honey also relates strongly to natural factors since it is a highly environmental-sensitive

product reflecting the placersquos vegetation flora biodiversity and climate Out of the

complete Ethiopian flora of Ethiopia of 6000-7000 species 500 species (400 herbs and

shrubs and 100 trees) have been shown to be important to bees (Flichtl and Adi 1994)

Regional states like Oromia Amhara Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoplersquos

Region (SNPPR) Tigray Benishangul Gumiz and Gambella have intense apicultural

activity and further potential for increasing collected volumes Some honey types are

well established such as Tigray white Honey (Wukro area) Lalibela honey Masha

Bonga honey Yayu forest honey and Wonchi Volcanic honey among others

A physico-chemical characterization of Ethiopian honeys has been conducted on samples collected from 16 famous producing areas nationwide (Abera et al 2017) This study has shown that different producing regions are linked with distinctive honey characteristics and with different dominant flora The monofloral honeys identified were Acacia Becium grandiflorum Croton macrostachyus Eucalyptus globulus Hypoestes Leucas abyssinica Schefflera abyssinica Syzygium guineense and Vernonia amygdalina with a level of floral dominance ranging from 598 to 903 Although further characterization work remains necessary these results show the potential for geographical indications in honey Honey production in Ethiopia is present almost nationwide with a good balance among federal

States (Figure 2)

166

Figure 2 Honey Regional production in Ethiopia (Central Statistical Agency)

The diversity of honey types and their balanced repartition across the national territory

fit well with a pilot scale approach to focus on one quality honey labeling experience in

one region This pilot experience can later be consolidated and scaled out to other

regional honey value chains

22 COMMERCIAL DIMENSION

Ethiopia is the 10th-largest honey producer in the world and accounts for respectively

3 and 28 of global and African output with 44 000 MT production in 2014 growing

2 annually on average However its linkages with export markets are

underdeveloped Nearly 80 of Ethiopian honey output is crude honey (primarily for

brewing of the popular honey wine tej) About 15 is mass table honey Only about 5

is premium table honey (organic monofloral etc) The vast majority of Ethiopian honey

is consumed domestically with only about 2 of output currently exported (ATA 2016)

The world demand for honey is steadily growing and natural food concerns command a

strong trend towards certified and origin honeys

Traceability and quality control

Ethiopia is listed as a Third Country permitted to export honey and beeswax by the

European Commission since 2008 on the approval of residue monitoring plans

submitted by third countries in accordance with Council Directive 9623EC notified

under document C(2010) 3548 (2010327EU)

167

Since 2009 Ethiopia keeps investing a large amount of money to collect samples of

honey yearly and send to laboratories recognized by EU and submit the report of

analysis High-level honey expertise is now available in Universities and training

centers although more analytical facilities are needed

Ethiopia has developed honey standards (ES 1202) which comply with ISO and CODEX

standards but enforcement remains uneven A well-monitored pilot level activity is

important to ensure the implementation of a fully-fledged traceability and control system

Honey fetches a premium price in cities Local price of honey is high in towns (range

from USD 6 to 10 per kg) and relatively low in remote rural areas (range from USD 14

to 5 per kg) External market demand is recent but growing and with great potential

Figure 3 Organization of the Ethiopian honey value chain (Source Dong Y et al 2016)

Moreover Ethiopia has the potential to produce up to 500000 tons of honey and 50000

tons of beeswax per year Ethiopia is leading in Africa in honey production The

beekeeping industry is flourishing in the country In the last 15 years (2001-2015)

Ethiopiarsquos honey production increased from 28000 tons to 54000 tons

23 ORGANIZATIONAL DIMENSION

Beekeepers in Ethiopia often organize into associations or cooperatives to channel the

product to markets The Ethiopian Apiculture Yearbook 2016 lists more than 130

beekeepersrsquo cooperatives and cooperative unions as well as 43 processorsexporters

The apiculture sector counts with public and private national and international support

The Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB) was established as an apex body to coordinate

professional Associations and other stockholders towards the implementation of policies

and development activities Other national sector-wide coordinating institutions include

the Ethiopian Honey and Beeswax Producers and Exporters Association (EHBPEA)

and the Ethiopian Society of Apiculture Science (ESAS) Dedicated research Centers

include Holeta bee Research center and specific university Departments

168

Ethiopia counts with some certification experienceQuality regulation institutions in

charge of Ethiopian food quality standards certification and accreditation are

established and can be trained to become operational on Geographical Indications

particularly for external control Concerned entities could include ECAE (Ethiopian

Conformity Assessment Enterprise) in relation with ENAO (Ethiopian National

Accreditation Office)

Finally the private sector is actively involved in supporting the apiculture activity as well

as many national and international governmental or non-governmental entities (GIZ

SNV ACDIVOCA Oxfam etc)

Conclusions and way forward

Besides honey the feasibility study for a project supporting a legal framework and

implementation of Geographical Indications in Ethiopia scrutinized several products

such as coffee sesame teff and butter

Honey was found to be the overall best choice to test and implement at pilot scale the

GI labeling in Ethiopia for several reasons (CIRAD-Ecocert 2018) First because of the

long-standing and nation-wide know-how of elaboration use and marketing of honey

products The coexistence of many different specialty regional honeys in Ethiopia with

strong links and distinct characteristics according to the locality of production such as

Wukro (Tigray) Lalibella (Amhara) Yayo forest (Oromia) Masha-Bonga (SNPP) is

favorable to the implementation of a pilot project approach Second external market

demand is recent but growing and with great potential The volumes produced in each

regional honey production area are not so large Therefore it seems possible to

develop in one region a careful quality monitoring experience that could be useful for

other places Finally the apiculture sector in Ethiopia also counts with high-level

technical support from national and international institutions and with dynamic value-

chain wide coordinating institutions such as the Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB)

In other words honey was able to reach good scores on the three main dimensions of

feasibility for Geographical indications technical feasibility commercial feasibility and

organizational feasibility)

This approach shall require a wide collaboration from the honey value chain itself from

the national and regional authorities (Ethiopian Institute of Intellectual Property the

Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock the Ministry of Trade Regional governments) and

from national honey experts

Despite the existence of difficulties and challenges (ATA 2016) Ethiopian honey

appears to be a credible candidate for the establishment of Geographical Indications

and can become a showcase to innovate with this new form of land-based labelling in

Ethiopia

169

References

ABERA B et al 2017 Rheology and botanical origin of Ethiopian monofloral honey

LWT Food Science and Technology 75 393-401

ATA 2016 Addis-Ababa Apiculture Value chain and Market development Value chain

diagnostic and program planning Agricultural Transformation Agency 156 p

CSA 2017 The 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia Federal Democratic

Republic of Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency (CSA)

CIRAD-ECOCERT 2018 Feasibility Study of the project ldquoSupport to the establishment

of a Legal Framework for Geographical Indications in Ethiopia and Implementation on

one Value Chainrdquo Addis-Ababa EIPO-AFD 59 p

FAO-SINERGI 2010 Linking people places and products Rome FAO 189 p

FICHTL R ADMASU A 1994 Honeybee flora of Ethiopia Germany Margraf Verlag

510 p

HIRKO Sileshi Bedasie 2014 The Legal Framework for the Protection of Geographical

Indications in Ethiopia A Critical Review Journal of African Law 58 2 (2014) 210ndash230

MENGISTIE Getashew 2011 Intellectual Property as a Policy Tool for Development

The Ethiopian Fine Coffee Designations Trade Marking amp Licensing Initiative

Experience Geneva World Intellectual Property Organization 55 p

WIPO 2017 Geographical Indications World Intellectual Property Indictors 2017

pp202-206

Dong Y Frimpong K et al 2016 Improving household livelihoods with modern

beekeeping and honey production in Ethiopia Final Report for WEEMA International

Columbia University school of International Affairs 73 p

170

Enzyme activity amino acid profiles and hydroxymethylfurfural content in

Ethiopian monofloral honey Abera Belay1 Gulelat Desse Haki2 Marc Birringer3 Hannelore Borck3 Young-Chul Lee4

Kyung- Tack Kim4 Kaleab Baye5 Samuel Melaku6

1Department of Food Science and Applied Nutrition Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Addis Ababa Ethiopia abberabelaygmailcom +251911840655

2Department of Food Science and Technology Botswana College of Agriculture University of Botswana

3Fulda University of Applied Sciences Fulda Germany 4Korea Food Research Institute Seongnam 463-746 Korea

5Center for Food Science and Nutrition Addis Ababa University Ethiopia Box 1176 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

6Department of Chemistry Columbus State University 4225 University Avenue Columbus GA 31907 USA

Abstract

The enzymes activity hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and amino acids in honeys are relatively

lowHowever they play very significant role for honey quality Vis-agrave-vis there is a repeated

complaint from the EU market that the Ethiopian honey is low in enzyme In this study

enzymes amino acids and HMF contents of Ethiopian monofloral honeys were investigated

Diastase invertase and HMF were analyzed based on the Harmonized International Honey

Commission method and amino acids using amino acids analyzer (HPLC) Diastase activity

ranged from 391 plusmn 0730 (Schefflera abyssinica) to 136 plusmn 230 [Becium grandiflorum (L

Lalibella)] invertase 365 plusmn 193 (Leucas abyssinica) to 485 plusmn 236 (Schefflera abyssinica) and

HMF 0 plusmn 0 (Hypoestes and Leucas abyssinica) to 337 plusmn 173 (Croton macrostachyus)

Significant variations were observed among Schefflera abyssinica honeys in diastase content

despite being from the same botanical origin

Significant variations were also observed among Becium grandiflorum honeys in invertase and

diastase contents Beesrsquo geographical race and location affected enzymes activities Even

though honey samples were fresh ripened amp from the comb lower enzyme could be an

intrinsic characteristics of Ethiopian monofloral honeys This showed that enzymes activity alone

cannot be a worthwhile indicator of quality for Ethiopian honey besides diastase and invertase

activity the quality control of Ethiopian honeys should be supported by HMF parameters The

results of this study could be used to address complaints of the market will provide feedback for

standard agencies and information for the scientific community Promotion of this characteristic

will help to create knowledge in the market which consequently improve the life of the forest

dwellers and the environment

Key words - Amino acid Enzyme Honey quality Hydroxymethylfurfural Monofloral Ethiopia

171

Production and Composition Analysis of Stingless bees honey from West Showa


Alemayehu Gela Zewudu Ararso and Deresa Kebede

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO) Holeta Bee Research Centre Holeta Ethiopia

POBox22 E-mail alemaygbyahoocom

Abstract

Stingless bees (Hymenoptera Meliponini) are eusocial insects living in permanent colonies and

they are among potential pollinators in various tropical ecosystemsAmong several species in

Africa Meliponula beccarii which is locally called as rsquorsquoKannisa Damuurdquo or ldquoTazima Nibrdquo is

uniquely identified in Ethiopia living by harboring underground nest Honey from stingless bees

is known as valuable medicinal product with high market demand achieving higher prices than

Apis honey in Ethiopia However honey-harvesting system from feral colonies in the country is

absolutely traditional and destructive poor honey quality Despite all these facts comprehensive

honey production system and composition of stingless bee honey is not yet characterized and

documented The study was therefore conducted to investigate the production system and

composition analysis of stingless bee honey from West Shoa zone of Oromia region Following

the honey flow season samples of honey were collected from multiple potential locations of four

districts including Wolmera Jeldu Tokke Kutaye and Chalia Accordingly about 20 honey

samples were directly harvested from sealed honey pots using disposable syringes (10ml) and

stored in refrigerator (-4 Co) until laboratory analysis Physicochemical properties for moisture

content electrical conductivity pH Ash Free acidity HMF insoluble materials and proline were

analyzed at HBRC Lab according to standard procedures From the study result it is possible

to harvest about 350 ml-15lit pure honey from each nest depending on colony strength

Composition analysis revealed that the mean values of parameters of honey samples were MC

(29+145) EC(022+003) PH(373+013) Ash(041+11) TA(573+036) HMF (18+345) IM

(070+03) and Proline (2145+15) There is no mean significance difference (P gt 005) between

values of all parameters for honey samples collected from different locations except for proline

value The values were compared against the standard Apis mellifera honey quality parameters

and vary for some parameters based on botanical origin This first study reveals the necessity of

proper honey harvesting and standardizing specific composition for stingless bee honey given

the specific bee species exist in the country for future utilization and species conservation

Key words Stingless bee Physico-chemical parameters standard honey

172

Introduction

Honey is a natural sweet substance produced by different bee species from plants

nectar plant secretions or excretions of plant-sucking insects on the living parts of

plants (Codex Alimentarius 2001) With its composition and constituents honey is

known globally to have a wide variety of uses and applications and in various countries

it is used as sweetener in food and for medicinal purposes (Alvarez-Suarez et al

2010) Honey is composed of sugars mainly monosaccharide with carbohydrates

constituting about 95 to 97 of the dry weight of honey (Bruno et al 2006) Fructose

(38) and glucose (31) are the most predominant sugars present and responsible for

nutritional characteristics of honey (Alvarez-Saurez et al 2010 Sato and Miyata 2000)

The volatile compound found in honey includes alcohols ketones aldehydes acids and

esters that determine its flavour and aroma (Cotte et al 2003) However the chemical

composition in honey is rather variable and is primarily dependent on floral source

geographical origin seasonal and environment factors and processing methods

(Alvarez-Suarez et al 2010 Silva et al 2013) Moreover honey-making processes are

highly related to enzymes added by the bees so that the types of bee species (Siok et

al 2016) also affect composition of honey

Apinae (Apis mellifera) honey and Apidae (Stingless bee) honey are the two commonly

known honey types found in the world (Temaru et al 2007) In Ethiopia both honey

types are produced all over the country and exclusively the stingless bee (Meliponula

beccarii) honey commonly known as ldquoDamma Damuurdquo or ldquoTazma Marrdquo honey is a

valuable bee product with long consumption tradition to which several medical uses are

attributed The unique stingless bees (M beccarii) in Ethiopia live harboring

underground and store their honey in honey pots constructed from ceriman of various

plant species Its honey harvesting process from feral colonies is absolutely traditional

and destructive that endangered the existing species and reduces the quality of honey

(Fig1)

Certainly with its specific delicate taste and medicinal property the value of stingless

bee ldquoTazma Marrdquo honey in Ethiopia is higher than the value of Apis mellifera honey

(Andualem 2013 Lemma et al 2013 Pimentel et al 2013) To this fact stingless bee

honey has high local market demand achieving higher prices than the Apis honey and

commercialized in different regions of the country Despite its high demand and

medicinal value stingless bee honey is not yet included in the international standards for

honey and the food control authorities due to the scant knowledge about the product

composition do not control it In contrast several studies have been conducted for the

characterization of Apishoney with botanical and geographical origins so that its quality

parameters are standardized both at national and internationally level (QSAE 2005

Codex 2001)

173

Although the use of ldquoTazmardquo honey has been of great importance traditionally in the

country the information on composition of stingless bee honey from Ethiopia is still

scarce to set its quality standard fit both for nutritional and medicinal value The

objective of this study was therefore to evaluate the chemical profiles of proximate

composition of stingless bee honey of Ethiopia to determine its quality standard in

comparison with Apis mellifera honey in the Ethiopian Quality Standard Authority This

is the first study investigated on composition of stingless bee honey in Ethiopia

Material and Methods

Study area Description

The study is conducted in West Shoa Zone of Oromia National Regional State which is

located in western part of Ethiopia The study focused on purposively selected districts

for having high potential for stingless bee honey ldquoTazma Marrdquo and diverse floral

composition like Wolmera (09o0351 N and 038o30rsquo37 E latitude and longitude with

altitude 2398 masl s) Jeldu (09 o0401 N and 039 o06rsquo45 E latitude and longitude with

altitude 2400 masl) Toke Kutaye (08 o5812N and 037 o46rsquo03 E of latitude and

longitude with altitude 2304 masl) and Chalia (09 o0211N and 037o25rsquo35 E) of latitude

and longitude with altitude 2329 masl)

Honey harvesting and sample collection

All the honey samples were collected from stingless bee species (M beccari) (Gribodo

1879) which is commonly called in the country as ldquoKanniisa Damuurdquo or ldquoTazima Nibrdquo

which lives by harboring underground in the soil Following the honey flow season the

stingless bee honey samples were collected from four districts (Wolmera Jeldu Tokke

Kutaye and Chalia) of West Shoa zone of Oromia National Regional State Honey

samples were collected by carefully excavating in to the underground nest until reach at the

nest chamber containing both honey and pollen stores When the honey pots are sealed

the honey is already ripe and ready to harvest Accordingly 20 honey samples (350 ml-

15 lit) (Table1) were harvested directly from sealed honey pots with disposable syringes

and collected in to air tighten glass jars for each respective areas (districts) The

collected samples were further strained for impurities and stored in refrigerator (-4 oC)

until laboratory analysis conducted (Fig1)

174

Fig1 Stingless bee honey harvesting and sample collection process

Physicochemical properties Analysis

Physicochemical properties for parameters of moisture content electrical conductivity

PH Free acidity HMF Insoluble materials and Proline were analyzed in HBRC Lab

following standard procedure the harmonized methods of the international honey

commission (Bogdanov 2002)in Holeta Bee Research Centar (HBRC) Lab

Moisture Content

The moisture content of stingless bee honey was determined using a portable digital

professional hand held refractometer (Bellingham RFM 330 SER No016468 made of

UK) with the range expressed in percentage () and with the refractive index for water

(nD) at 20degC after waiting for 6 minutes for equilibration The method was based on the

principle that refractive index of the honey increases with solids content Moisture

contents of sample were measured twice and the average value was recorded and it

was done following the procedure of Codex Alimentarius Commission Standards

(2001)

Nest excavation process Nest entrance with guard bees

Sealed honey pots with plant resinous

Harvesting and straining the honey samples

175

PH and Free Acidity

The pH and acidity in stingless bee honey samples were determined in accordance with

the methodology adopted by Moraes and Teixeira (1998) The pH value was

determined using a solution containing 10 g of honey dissolved in 75 mL of distilled

water homogenized and subjected to reading in a pH meter (3100 Janeway England)

calibrated at pH 40 and 70 The solution was further titrated with 01M sodium

hydroxide (NaOH) solution to pH 830 (a steady reading was obtained within 2 minutes

of starting the titration) For precision the reading to the nearest 02ml using a 10 ml

burette was recorded Free acidity expressed as milli equivalents or milli moles of

acidkg honey was equal to ml of 01M NaOH x 10 and the result expressed to one

place of decimals and done following the procedure of the harmonized methods of the

international honey commission (Bogdanov 2002)

Acidity =10V Where

V = the volume of 01N NaOH in 10 g of honey

Determination of Ash Content

The ash content of stingless bee honey samples was determined according to the

standard procedure of Marchini et al (2004) and AOAC) (1990) First the crucibles

were identified and heated in a furnace for approximately 25 min at 300 oC Then they

were transferred to the desiccators for 20 min to cool down and were weighed

separately to 0001g (M1) Then 10 gram of stingless bee honey sample was weighed

accurately into an ignited and pre-weighed crucible In each sample two droplets of olive

oil was added to prevent frothing and the samples gently heated on an electric hot plate

until the samples were completely carbonized The samples were then incinerated in an

electric muffle furnace (CFS 11B England) (600 oC) for about 5 hours until complete

incineration (white to light gray color) to reach the constant weight The crucibles were

then cooled in the desiccators and weighted for constant weight (M2) Percent ash in

g100g honey was calculated using the following formula following the procedure of

Codex Alimentarius Commission Standards (2001)

Ash by mass=M2-W1 X100

M

Where

M1 =weight of empty crucible

M2 = weight of the ash and crucible

M = mass of the sample taken for the test

Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)

176

The determination of HMF was based on the readings in different UV absorbance

scales (284 and 336 nm wavelengths) in a spectrophotometer according to the

procedure of the harmonized methods of the international honey commission (2009)

The HMF is expressed in mg kg-1 in the equation

HMF = (A284 ndash A336) x 1497 x 5 x DW where

A284 = absorbance at 284 nm


D = dilution factor if necessary

W = weight of honey sample (g)

Electrical Conductivity

Twenty grams of honey (on dry matter basis) were dissolved in distilled water and

transferred to a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up to volume with distilled water 40

ml of this solution was poured into a beaker and placed in thermo stated water bath at

20 degC Electrical conductivity measurements were obtained with a low range

conductivity meter (4310 Wagtech England) with a cell constant of 103 The

conductivity cell was there after immersed in the sample solution and the conductance

in MS read after temperature equilibrium had been reached Electrical conductivity was

calculated using the formula based on the harmonized methods of the international

honey commission (2009)

SH = K G Where SH = electrical conductivity of the honey solution in mScm-1

K = cell constant in cm-1

G = conductance in mS

Determination of Proline

For the determination of proline content 5g of homogenized stingless bee honey was

weighed and dissolved in water then quantitatively transferred to a 100 ml volumetric

flask and diluted with water The absorbance was determined using a Lambda 25

double-beam spectrophotometer UVVis Perkin Elmer Waltham Massachusetts USA

A spectrum of proline from 440 to 560 was performed to evaluate the wavelength at a

maximum absorbance which was 510 nm

Proline in mgkg honey at one decimal place is calculated following equation developed

by International Honey Commission (2009)

Proline (mgkg) = Es X E1 X 80

Ea E2

Where

Es = Absorbance of the sample solution

Ea = Absorbance of the proline standard solution (average of two readings)

177

E1 = mg proline taken for the standard solution

E2 = Weight of honey in grams

80 = Dilution factor

Insoluble matter

Approximately 20 grams of honey samples were accurately weighed and dissolved in

200ml of water at about 800 C by mixing well After drying a crucible in the oven it was

weighed for total dry mass Then the sample solution was filtered through the crucible

and washed extensively with warm water until free from sugars A few drops of

concentrated sulphuric acid was mixed and run down the sides of the tubes Finally the

crucible was dried at 135OC for an hour in the oven and cooled in the desiccator then

again returned to the oven for 30 minute intervals until constant weight is obtained The

of insoluble matter then calculated according to the following formula based on the

harmonized methods of the international honey commission (Bogdanov 2002)

Insoluble matter in g100g = M X 100

M1

Where M = mass of dried insoluble matter and

M1 = mass of honey taken


One-way ANOVA was computed to compare means for each physicochemical property

of honey samples data in triplicate and the data was expressed as mean and standard

errors (plusmn) For all the computations SPSS version-20 statistical software was employed

and tests were made at 95 level of significance

Result and discussion

The result of the study indicates that average honey amount collected from each nest

ranged from 350 ml -15 lit which was varied among every district (Table 1) The

highest honey amount (23 lit) was harvested from Chalia district (Sekondo site) while

the lowest honey amount (250 ml) was recorded from Toke Kutaye district (Gorosole

site) This variation among stingless bee honey yield from nest to nest was determined

based on several factors such as the nest size colony population size vegetation type

and longevity of established colony harbored in the specific nest (traditionally estimated

by counting the number of guard bees on their nest entrance equivalent to year of

colony established)

178

Table 1 Area description and stingless bee honey volumes collected from

underground nest

No Zone District Specific

areaPA

Bee

species Nest nature

Agro

ecology

Average

honey

volume

1 West

shoa Chalia

Gedo

Sokondo M beccari Underground High land 15 lit

2 West

Shoa Jaldu

Gafaree

Meja M beccari Underground High land 500 ml

3 West

shoa Wolmera

Holeta

around M beccari Underground

Mid high

land 680 ml

4 West

Shoa

Toke

Kutaye

Goro

Sole Mbeccari Underground

Mid high

land 350 ml

The results of physicochemical analysis of 20 (twenty) stingless bee honey samples

revealed that no significant differences (P gt 005) for values of all parameters (moisture

content electrical conductivity pH Ash free acidity HMF insoluble materials) for

honey samples collected among different locations except for proline value Proline is

higher in Jeldu district (293+14) and lower in Wolmera district (171+13) The value of

moisture content electrical conductivity and HMF were compared against Venezuela

and Australian stingless bee honeys and not significantly different (P gt 005)

Moisture is one of the most relevant characteristics of honey because it influences

viscosity specific weight maturation crystallization taste and enhance the shelf life of

the product (Nascimento et al 2015) In this study the moisture contents of all honey

samples ranged from 251-350 with mean value 296+14 (Table 2) There was no

significance difference (P gt 005) in moisture content of honey samples collected from

all districts However the mean moisture (296+14) content of honey produced by

stingless bees demonstrated significantly higher when compared to the Ethiopian

standard Apis mellifera honey moisture (205) content (QSAE2005) This might be

due to high hygroscopicity characteristic of Meliponinae honey which is mostly

harvested from high humidity (Alves et al 2005) This fact according to the author

shows that the moisture content in honey is an intrinsic characteristic of bee species

with no significant influence of vegetation type and the producing honey source

The higher moisture content characteristic of honey from stingless bees largely

influenced by the air relative humidity and possibly by the process of harvesting and

storage This may facilitates the proliferation of yeasts causing a fermentation process

which makes the product unfit for human consumption and hinders its marketing

(Ribeiro et al 2009) The high moisture in stingless bee honey is therefore reinforce

179

the need to store this product in refrigerated chambers to avoid its degradation or

fermentation thereby ensuring a product with quality to the consumer

The pH and free acidity parameters showed statistically no significant differences

among stingless bee honey produced from all districts The overall pH value ranged

between 34-39 with mean value of 37+015 This value is lower than commonly known

standard pH value of honey from Apis mellifera which ranges from value 43-485

(Bekele et al 2016) This indicates that stingless bee honey is more acidic than Apis

honey The pH is a physical-chemical parameter associated with the microbial

development in any food Therefore in the current result the low pH of stingless bee

honey confirms that it prevents the development of microorganisms that require neutral

or basic pH values significantly limiting the spectrum of potentially contaminating

microorganisms

The ash content expresses the richness of honey in mineral content which is mainly

influenced by the botanical origin of the nectar region bee species and type of

manipulation In this study the honey samples assessed for ash content showed no

statistical difference among the locations ranged between 021 to 057 which is

consistent with allowable range (Table 2) However the ash content of stingless bee is

relatively higher (041+11) than the Apis honey (021+007) This might be related to

the origin of stingless bee honey that is harvested uniquely from the ground in the soil

where the mineral content is expected richer than in the beehives This is result

indicates that the ash content in honey denotes the amount of minerals in the product

while the mineral content is related to the soil type Therefore the result of current study

revealed that honey produced from stingless bee honey in Ethiopia is richer in mineral

content and good if standardized for both medicinal and nutritional consumption

The free acidity of honey is the content of all free acids in particular amount expressed

in milliequivalentskg honey The recommended acidity of honey is usually less than 40

meq acidkg of honey Codex Alimentarius (2001) In this study it was observed that

there was no significant variation (Pgt005) in free acidity among the honey samples

from the four districts (Wolmera Jeldu Chalia and Toke Kutaye) but it was ranged from

167 - 21 meq kgminus1 and with mean value of 173 + 07meq kgminus1 value

The electrical conductivity of honey can be used to identify the botanical origin of honey

and the result is expressed in milliSiemens per centimeter (mScm-1) (Richter et al

2011) This is closely related to the concentration of minerals organic acids and

proteins and it is a parameter that shows great variability depending on the floral

source of honey The electrical conductivity values in the investigated honey samples

from the four locations varied in the range 016-034 mScm-1with overall average value

of 021+016mScm-1 while values for Apis honey ranges 022-152 mScm-1 (Table 2)

The non-significance differences in electric conductivity of honey samples between the

180

four locations indicated the similarity of flora composition in similar ecological condition

of West Shoa zone

181

Table 2 Mean comparison of physic-chemical properties of stingless bee honey samples

collected from four districts of West shoa zone oromia and compared to National

honeybee honey standards (N=20)

Parameters (Mean + SE)

Distric

ts

N=

20

MC

()

EC

(mScm

-1)

PH Ash

()

F A

(meq

kg-1)

HMF

(mgkg-

1)

IM ()

Prolin

e

(mgk

g-1)

Wolm

era

5 282+1

5a

021+0

1 a

38+0

3 a

041+3

2a

169+0

5 a

186+4

3 a

071+0

06 a

171+1

3 a

Jeldu 5 325+2

5 a

020+

01 a

37+0

1 a

038+

25a

171+0

1 a

159+2

6 a

068+0

0 a

293+1

4b

T

Kutay

e

5 290+1

0 a

022+0

1 a

38+0

1 a

056+

4 a

168+0

5 a

224+0

0 a

066+0

0 a

213+2

1 a

Chelia 5 287+0

8 a

024+0

6 a

36+0

1 a

023+

02a

184+1

3 a

151+0

0 a

073+0

7 a

181+1

4 a

Overall

mean

296+1

4

021+0

16

37+0

15

041+

11

173+7 18+17 069+0

6

214+1

5

Overall

range

25-35 016-

034

34-

39

021-

57

167-21 112-

224

056-

087

124-

307

Standards

Apis Honey

18-23 022-

152

32-

45

014-

30

lt 40 lt 40 hellip hellip

ab=means with different superscripts within column are significantly different (Plt005)

N=Number of sample SE= Standard Error Notice MC =moisture content EC = Electric conductivity PH =PH value FA = Free acidity

HMF = hydroxyl methyl furfural IM = insoluble matter P=Proline Source Quality and

Standards Authority of Ethiopia (2005)

182

The hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is a chemical compound formed by the

reaction of certain sugars with acids and used as an indicator of honey

freshness and good quality (Marchini et al 2004) regarding product

adulteration or improper storage conditions The greatest HMF was recorded

at Toke Kutaye district (224 mgkg-1)and the lowest was observed at Chelia

district (151 mgkg-1) with the overall mean of 18+17 mgkg -1(Table 1) This

parameter shows values within the range of established national honey

standard (Codex 2001) that allows a maximum of 40mg kg-1 and in

agreement with Ethiopian honey HMF value studied by different authors

(Bekele Tesfaye et al 2016 Belie 2009 Nuru Adgaba 1999)

Insoluble matter is estimation for the presence of impurities in the product (in

) and therefore for indicate its cleanliness as stated by international Honey

Commission (2009) The Current study showed that the insoluble matter in

stingless bee honey ranged 056 - 087 with mean value 069+06

Good manufacturing practices in production and processing plants are

generally effective to assure the observance of law limits

Proline is the predominant free amino acid of honey and it is a measure of the

level of total amino acids (Iglesias et al 2004) The proline content of honey is

measured as a criterion for estimating the quality (Bogdanov 2002) and the

antioxidant activity of the honey (Meda et al 2005 Saxena et al 2010) and it

may be used also for characterization on the basis of botanical origin The

value of proline in the present study significantly different between the

localities where the highest mean value is record in honey from Jeldu district

(293 +14 mgkg-1

) and the lowest mean proline recorded in honey from Wolmera

district (171+13 mgkg-1) This difference might be related to the degree of nectar

processing by the bees themselves and which makes the honey proline

content is a criterion of honey ripeness (Together with other factors related to

bees such as saccharide and glucose oxidase activities) (Cristina et al

2013)

Conclusions and recommendations

Honey is a naturally sweet and viscous fluid produced by different bee

species from the nectar of flowers Apinae (Apis mellifera) honey and Apidae

(stingless bee) honey are the two commonly known honey types found in the

Ethiopia Despite its high medicinal and market price value little is known

about the composition of stingless bee honey when compared to Apis

mellifera honey Due to this fact there is no quality standard established both

at national and international level The result of this study revealed that most

of the analyzed parameters like electrical conductivity PH

hydroxymethylfurfural Proline and insoluble matter in the honey samples of

stingless beesrsquo best comply with the requirements of the standard national

honey quality of Ethiopia The parameters of the moisture content and free

183

acidity however do not comply with the limits More study is recommended for

other parameters like sugar and mineral contents of stingless bee species

across different agro-ecological zones of the country Moreover this first

study points out to the necessity of analyzing a specific composition for

stingless bee honey given the specific bee species exist in the country and

the different characteristics of the honey that they produce based on botanical

origins

References

1 Association of Official Analytical Council (AOAC) (1990) Official

methods of Analysis 15 2ed suppl

2 Alves RMO Carvalho CAL Souza BA Sodreacute GS Marchini LC

(2005)Physical and chemical characteristics of honey samples of

Melipona mandacaia Smith (Hymenoptera Apidae) Science and

Technology Alimentos 25(4)644-650

3 Bekele Tesfaye Deaslegn Begna M Eshetu (2016) Evaluation of

Physicochemical Properties of Honey Produced in Bale Natural Forest

Southeastern Ethiopia Int J Agricultural Sci Food Technology 2(1) 021-

027 DOI 10173522455-815X000010

4 Codex Alimentarius (2001) Revised Codex Standard for Honey Codex

STAN 12ndash1981 Rev 1 (1987) Rev 2

5 GRIBODO G 1879 - Note Imenotterologische Annali del Museo Civico

di Storia Naturale di Genova 14 325-432

6 Moraes RM Teixeira EW (1998) Honey analysis Pindamonhangaba

7 Richter W Jansen C Venzke TSL Mendonccedila CRB Borges D (2011)

Evaluation of physicochemical quality of the honey produced in the city of

Pelotas RS Food and Nutrition 22(4)547-553

8 QSAE (2005) Ethiopian Standard Honey-Specification First edition

9 Ribeiro ROR Silva C Monteiro ML Baptista RF Guimaratildees CF Maacutersico

ET Mano SB Pardi HS (2009) Comparative evaluation of physical-

chemical quality inspected and illegal honey marketed in the state of Rio

de Janeiro Brazil Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Science 16(1)3-7

10 Nuru Adgaba (1999) Quality state of grading Ethiopian honey In

Proceedings of the first National conference of the Ethiopian Beekeepers

Association Addis Ababa Ethiopia

11 Belie T (2009) Honeybee Production and Marketing Systems Constraints

and Opportunities in Burie District of Amahara Region Ethiopia MSc

Thesis

12 Marchini LC Sodreacute GS Moreti ACCC (2004) Brazilian honey

composition and standards Ribeiratildeo Preto ASP

13 Iglesias M T de Lorenzo C Polo M C Martin-Agravelvarez P J amp Pueyo

E (2004) Usefulness of amino acids composition to discriminate between

184

honeydew and floral honey Application to honeys from a small geographic

area Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 84ndash89

14 Bogdanov S (2002) Harmonized methods of the International Honey

Commission CH-3003 Bern Switzerland Swiss Bee Research Centre

FAM Liebefeld

15 Meda A Lamien C E Romito M Millogo J amp Nacoulma O G

(2005) Determination of the total phenolic flavonoid and proline contents

in Burkina Fasan honey as well as their radical scavenging activity Food

Chemistry 91 571ndash577

16 Saxena S Gautam S and Sharma A (2010) Physical biochemical

and antioxidant properties of some Indian honeys Food Chemistry 118

391ndash397

17 Cristina Truzzi Anna Annibaldi Silvia Illuminati Carolina Finale Giuseppe

Scarponi (2013) Determination of proline in honey Comparison between

official methods optimization and validation of the analytical Food

Chemistry DOI 101016jfoodchem201311003

18 Temaru E Shimura S Amano K Karasama T Antimicrobial activity of

honey from stingless honeybees (Hymenopetra Apidae Meliponinae)

Polish J Micro 2007 56(4)281ndash285

19 Siok Peng Kek1 amp Nyuk Ling Chin1 amp Sheau Wei Tan2 amp Yus Aniza

Yusof1 and Lee Suan Chua (2016) Classification of Honey from Its Bee

Origin via Chemical Profiles and Mineral Content Food Anal Methods DOI

101007s12161-016-0544-0

20 Alvarez-Suarez JM Tulipani S Romandini S Bertoli E Battino M (2010)

Contribution of honey in nutrition and human health a review Med J

Nutrition Metab 315ndash23

21 Silva ADS Alves CN Fernandes KDG Muumlller RCS (2013) Classification of

honeys from Paraacute state (Amazon region Brazil) produced by three

different species of bees using chemometric methods J Braz Chem Soc

241135ndash1145

22 Bruno A Souza David W Roubik Ortrud M Barth Tim A Heard Eunice

Enriacutequez Carlos Carvalho Jerocircnimo Villas-Bocircas Luis Marchini Jean

Locatelli Livia Persano-Oddo Ligia Almeida-Muradian Stefan

BogdanovPatricia Vit (2006) Composition of stingless bee honey setting

quality standards Interciencia vol 31 nuacutem 12 diciembre 2006 pp 867-

875

23 Cotte JF Casabianca H Chardon S Lheritier J Grenier-Loustalot M-F

(2003) Application of carbohydrate analysis to verify honey authenticityJ

Chromatogr A 1021145ndash155

185

CHALLENGES OF BEEKEEPING AND HONEY TRADE AMONG

SMALLHOLDER BEEKEEPERS AND SMErsquoS IN AFRICA

sup1CHIBUGO OKAFOR

sup1Pharmacist Beekeeper and Director of Kendake Honey President-Founder Young

Women in Beekeeping and Secretary-General Nigerian Youth Apiculture Initiative

143 Adetokunbo Ademola Crescent FCT Nigeriaojiugongltdgmailcom

Abstract

Honey cost five times that of oil and demand for this natural product is increasing not

only in Africa itself but globally The African apiculture sector is already experiencing

a boost in production and export volumes as new technology is being introduced

However several challenges exist that affect beekeeping and honey trade among

African smallholder beekeepers and SMErsquos that hinder the progress of the apiculture

sector as a whole Conclusively the apiculture sector in Africa remains untapped as

there is minimal understanding for the potential of beekeeping to be used as a

method to combat the poverty situation synonymouswith the African continent This

paper aims to showcase African apiculture as a feasible business opportunity and

detail the main challenges affecting the sector with the intention of generating long-

term solutions

Introduction

The beekeeping industry and honey production is an old age practice

particularly in Africa with most African communities practicing long before

they cultivated coffee cotton or cocoa In 2013 the global trade in honey

exceeded 19 million tonnes however Africarsquos honey production was

responsible for only about 13 African honey is attributed to its unique taste

and has great potential to compete with premium honey in global markets

Unfortunately there are numerous challenges that affect smallholder

beekeepers and SMErsquos in Africa and in turn inhibit the development of the

industry as a whole These challenges are important to resolve as the present

gap between Africarsquos consumption of bee products and available supply

presents a lucrative opportunity for smallholder beekeepers and SMErsquos It

has been reported that global demand for honey continuously exceeds

supply with more investment and research to overcome these challenges

local small-scale production has the potential to not only satisfy but also

exceed these demands

The Challenges

For the beekeeping and honey trade industry to facilitate business growth and

expansion many of the challenges affecting the smallholder beekeepers and

SMErsquoS in Africa have to be overcome The challenges disrupting the honey

trade sector within Africa are as follows

1 Finite technical capacity

186

As is the case in many other agricultural markets in Africa inept skills and

technological development and knowledge sharing prevent advancement of

the honey market in African countries Smaller holder beekeepers tend to

have limited technical knowledge which means poor hive management

(including replacement of old combs swarm control and adding of honey

chambers) low capacity to identify and treat beehives for pests and disease

incorrect hive colonisation techniques and lack of ability to improve beehives

and beekeeping techniques This can result in unproductive colonies and or

low honey production

2 Limited access to financial services

With increased investment in the African apiculture sector small-sale

production has the ability to surpass local demands However the beekeeping

sector is overlooked and gravely neglected resulting in minimal investment

and support For example smallholder beekeeper and SMErsquos have low

capacity production meaning that governments are reluctant to provide

financial assistance because minimal evidence exists proving that the sector

can generate revenue This poor access to financial investment stifles the

development of industrial level production and packaging and processing

plants undermining the potential of the sector Additionally the cost and

bureaucracy of acquiring a beekeeping loan from commercial banks is

burdensome for smallholder beekeepers

3 Absence of enabling regulatory and policy framework

This is a major challenge for the honey industry as the absence of an enabling

regulatory framework strategy and policy regime to establish and define

necessary guidelines Thus the lack of these defined guidelines prevents

honey from African Exporting countries from being listed on EUrsquos list of lsquothird

countriesrsquo as they fail to meet the EU criteria or organic standards However it

is important to note that EU organic standards have been designed for

European beekeeping and can be difficult to apply in Africa

4 Lack of standardisation and quality management system

In addition to the point above limited availability andor access to appropriate

grade laboratories used for quality assessment results in a poor level of

standardisation and quality management

5 Limitation in business management

Currently the majority of smallholder beekeepers find the management and

expansion aspect of their business the most challenging There is also limited

knowledge of international regional and national level support structures in

place for business and entrepreneurship development

Poor apiary locations can make protecting hives from theft and vandalism

difficult and minimise chances of operating on organic-certified land Also an

absence of smallholder beekeepers unions and associations means bee

187

products are sold at prices lower than value due to limited access to market

knowledge and it is difficult to access resources from donor agencies to be

able to even compete in the market Lastly limited use of innovative

technologies in the apiculture sector in Africa is plagued by similar challenges

faced by the African agricultural sector including poor infrastructure hindering

access to markets climate change and a declining interest in farming

amongst youth

6 Profitability of the business

Commercial pollination has fast become a source of income for beekeepers

as pollination from bees can improve crop yields by 15-30 However it can

be difficult to use colonies for commercial pollination via traditional

beekeeping methods which is predominant in African apiculture settings

Also honey production tends to be relatively cheap however beekeepers

harvesting honey are usually poor remote less literate andor disconnected

from the market Thus transportation costs low volume production and poor

communication with traders makes getting honey to wider market difficult and

expensive

Conclusions

The comprehensive impact of the difficulties outlined above exhibits in low

levels of honey production poor yield restricted market access and

penetration low return on investments and under utilisation of beekeeping for

effectual wealth creation Harvested and handled appropriately the African

honey trade sector has an extremely strong growth potential and ability to

penetrate markets of international quality with its distinctive attributes

However the apiculture sector has not been the focus of much interest due to

the sparse production volumes high prices and lack of competitive advantage

over imported honey Thus it is crucial to revise current regional and national

policies and supportive structures so as to deliberately guide the development

of the African honey trade industry that has the potential to promote

employment opportunities and alleviate poverty in line with Sustainable

Development Goals 1 2 and 8

Acknowledgement

This paper is dedicated to Kendake Honey Young Women in Beekeeping

Nigerian Youth Apiculture Initiative Apimondia Symposium and the Federal

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Nigeria

188

References

1 Kevin J Hackett ARS National Program Leader Biological Control Bee

Benefits to Agriculture httpwwwarsusdagovisARarchivemar04

form0304pdf

2 John-Paul Iwuoha From Honey to Money-Why African entrepreneurs

should be interested in the beekeeping business

httpwwwsmallstartercombrowse-ideasbeekeeping-and-honey-business

3 Beacuteneacutedicte Chacirctel Bee products Honey exports take off in Africa

httpsporectaintentradehoney-exports-take-off-in-africahtml

4 Jonathan Kalan Honey Changes Everything

httpwwwbbccomfuturestory20121214-honey-changes-everything

5 Bees for Development The African Honey Trade Unlocking the Potential

chromextensionoemmndcbldboiebfnladdacbdfmadadmhttpunctadorgsec

tionswcmudocsc1EM32p34pdf

189

INTEGRATION OF AFRICAN YOUTHS IN APICULTURE FOR FOOD SECURITY AND WEALTH CREATION

By Youth for Apiculture Initiative

Email apiyouthinitiavegmailcom adeniyiorganicgmailcom Chi Okafor

Abstract

As we plan for the symposium to be held on African soil with themed ldquoThe Role of Bees in Food

productionrdquo we further affirm that integration of apiculture vegetation and agriculture can

provide answers to a combination of needs for people-ecological land balance bee-plant

relationship and protection against human pressure of vegetation and African bees However

there is the fact that the situations of youths are crucial for the overall development prospects of

the continent The growing population of unemployed people in Africa must be gainfully

engaged for the continent to develop In Africa apiculture is emerging as a successful non-farm

activity for people as it holds a great potential for economic activities across the country

Unfortunately the industry has not been explored in depth to support food production and wealth

creation It is on this background that Youth for Apiculture Initiative in Nigeria (YAI) the first

national youths platform involved in apiculture in Nigeria came up with a position paper on 7

points which are Api-Education Api-Advocacy-Awareness Api-Forestry-Land Api-Trade-

Investment Api-Innovation-Tech Api-Youth Africa and Api-Government-Policy as part of

deliberations emerging after ApiExpo Abuja September 2018 This is to further re-awaken

youths and African governments toward modern apiculture The agenda will not only promote

African youthrsquos sustainable future and open more room for innovative researches in the

development of beekeeping for food security but also create new business discussions and

employment in Africa

Key words Youth Apiculture Food Security and Wealth Creation

Beekeeping management practices and gap analysis of beekeepers at different

agro-ecological zones of Tigray region Northern Ethiopia


1Tigray AgriculturalResearch InstituteMekelle Agricultural Research Center Apiculture

and sericulture Research Case Team


2Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Holeta Bee research Center

3Bahrdar University Department of Animal Production and Technology 4ILRI_LIVES project

190

Abstract

The study was conducted to assess beekeeping practices seasonal colony management gaps

in eastern south-east and central zones of Tigray region in northern Ethiopia About 384

beekeepers were interviewed The trend of honeybee colonies indicated an increment in the last

five years but variable (72) in honey productionThe majority (773) of beekeepers inspected

their apiary and honeybee colonies externally and only 217 did such inspection inside the

hive The most common locally available supplement feed types included sugar syrup (946)

Shiro (peas and beans flour) (891) tihni (barley flour) (876) followed by maize flour

(255) honey (144) and fafa (supplementary food for infants) (79) Major colony

management gaps observed entailed adding super by guessing (479) reluctance to

decreasing super (355) continued use of foundation sheets (404) and queen excluder not

removed (379) The frequency of colonization was significantly different (plt005) in frame

beehives but not in traditional hives The seasonal colony activities included brood rearing in

July to September reproductive colony swarming in August to September absconding in March

to June dearth periods in January to May high availability of honeybee plants in July to

December and honey harvesting period in September to November Therefore seasonal colony

management practices followed by floral cycle should be practiced through empowering

beekeepers with skill in modern beekeeping management in order to improve their seasonal

bee management practices thereby increase honey production

Key words Agro-ecology Beekeeping Honeybee colony Management Seasonal Tigray

Introduction

In Ethiopia the contributions of beekeeping in poverty reduction sustainable

development and conservation of natural resources have been recognized and well

emphasized (GDS 2009 Gidey and Mokenen 2010 Gebremedhin et al 2012)

Beekeeping is also considered as one of the income-generating activities for resource-

poor farmers including women youth and the unemployed sectors of the community

Ethiopia has about 14ndash17 million households that are engaged in beekeeping and

produce different types of honey that vary regionally as well as in terms of color

consistency and purity (Haftu 2015) Nowadays the well known and popular Tigray

white honey is brought to the attention of beekeeping service provider partners in the

region Throughout the country Tigray white honey is mainly sold in bulk to

intermediaries and often distributes it in the large towns (Slow Food 2009)

Although Ethiopia is recognized as top ten producers of honey globally the nationrsquos

output is still below 10 of its production capacity (CSA 2017) Hence the country in

general and the region in particular are not benefiting from the Subsector as its potential

would allow Among the major challenges of beekeeping in Ethiopia more than 90 of

the beekeeping is practiced in traditional ways using traditional hives with low

production and productivities of the Subsector lack of technical skill or poor

191

management the critical shortage of inputs inadequate extension delivery system and

lack of bee forage could be mentioned (Gezahegn 2012)

Regardless of the beekeeping potential of smallholder farmers little is done to identify

the seasonal cycles of activities in honeybee colonies in Tigray region Beekeepers lack

a basis to undertake their beekeeping activities based on possible information on

seasonal floral calendar (Haftom et al 2013) This would have a negative effect on

practicing appropriate hive and apiary management honeybee feeding honey

harvesting and controlling natural swarming For this reason proper seasonal colony

management practices would greatly improve colony performance and honey yields

(Tolera and Dejene 2014) The beekeeping practice and the gaps in beekeeping

management are the basis for future intervention by professionals organizations and

beekeepers

Hence the present study was undertaken to assess beekeeping practices identify

seasonal colony management and determine gaps in colony management as currently

applied by smallholder beekeepers


Study area

The study was conducted in six districts of (Atsbi-Womberta Kilte-Awlaelo Degua-

Temben Saharti-Samre Ahferom and Kolla-Temben) of Tigray Regional State northern

Ethiopia (Figure 1) The districts were selected based on their potential for beekeeping

and representing three agro-ecologies (low altitude mid altitude lands and high altitude

areas) Atsbi-Womberta and Degua-Temben districts represented high altitude areas

Kilte-Awlaelo Ahferom and Saharti-Samre districts represented mid altitude areas and

Kolla-Temben district represented lowland agro ecologies The agro-ecology of Tigray

contains the three main traditional divisions of arable Ethiopia the kolla ndash lowlands

(1400-1800 meters above sea level) with relatively low rainfall and high temperatures

the woina dega ndash middle highlands (1800-2400 masl) with medium rainfall and

medium temperatures dega ndash highlands (2400-3400 masl) with somewhat higher

rainfall and cooler temperatures Most of the area is arid or semi-arid with annual

precipitation of 450ndash980 mm The annual mean temperature for the most part of the

region is between 15-210c (BoFED 2014)

192

Figure 4 Map showing the study area

Source Extracted from Tigray 2012 map


Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in this study Primary data were

collected from sample household beekeepers through semi-structured questionnaire

and field observation Secondary data were obtained from the reports of Office of

Agriculture and Rural Development of the respective districts Regional Bureau NGOs

and other published and unpublished materials


A multistage sampling procedure was employed to select beekeepers and honeybee

colonies At the first stage three administrative zones were selected using purposive

sampling based on their potential for beekeeping In the second stage two districts were

selected from each zone purposly based on their relative beekeeping potential and

representing the three agro ecologies In the third stage three rural peasant

associations from each district were sampled using purposive sampling based on their

beekeeping potential and transport accessibility In the fourth stage beekeepers were

193

sampled from all rural peasant associations using simple random sampling technique

Sample size for beekeepers was calculated based on Cochran (1963) as follows

n0= Z2pq

e2

Where n0 is the sample size Z2 is the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area

α at the tails which is 196 e is the desired level of precision (5) p is the estimated

proportion of an attribute that is present in the population which is 50 and q is also 50

Accordingly a total of 384 beekeepers was used for the study

24 Data management and statistical analysis The collected data were coded managed and tabulated for analysis Simple descriptive

statistics such as mean standard deviation frequency percentage and one way

ANOVA were used to analyze the data using SPSS (Version 20 2011)Independent

sample T-test methods were used to compare honeybee colonization Tukey HSD was

used to separate means and mean differences were considered significant at plt005

Results

Beekeeping Practices

Types and Number of beehives owned by the respondents

The number of traditional and improved frame beehives owned per household varied

among agro- ecologies and beekeepers (Table 1) The result revealed that the average

number colony ownership per household recorded in traditional and improved frame

hives were almost the same for all the respondents It was observed that the mean

number of honeybee colonies managed under traditional hive in lowland and midland

was significantly (plt005) higher than in highland agro-ecological zones Whereas

significantly (plt005) large number of bee colonies in improved frame hive were found

in highland agro-ecologies

Table 8Ownership of colonies managed under traditional and frame hives per

household across agro-ecologies

Agro ecological

zones

Number of colonies in

traditional hive


improved frame hive

N Min Max Mean SD N Min Max Mean SD

Highland 85 1 12 46b 28 110 0 49 76a 81

194

Midland 120 0 40 68a 61 154 0 47 54ab 66

Lowland 48 2 20 68a 32 58 0 30 52b 50

Overall 253 0 40 61 48 322 0 49 61 69

Note Superscript a amp b are significantly different at plt005

According to the survey result the numbers of honeybee colonies in traditional and

framed hives increased in the last five years (2010 to 2014) (Figure 1) However

slightly decrease in 2014 was observed in improved frame hives Even though the

presence of the high demand of honeybee colony skill of splitting queen rearing

technique and frame hive adoption by most beekeepers is assured lack of appropriate

beekeeping equipments affected the increment of improved frame hives

Figure 5Trend of honeybee colony in the last five years

Apiary types

Majority of the beekeepers in the study areas placed their honeybee colonies at back

yard whereas about 125 of the beekeepers placed their honeybee colonies at

closure areas (protected areas) The rest placed in inside house (109 ) and hanged

on trees found near to the home (03) (Table 2)

Table 9 Placement of honeybee colonies across agro ecologies

Placement

Agro-ecologies Overall

Highland Midland Lowland

195

Homestead 104

(813)

154 (803) 35 (547) 293 (763)

Inside house 7 (55) 24 (125) 11 (172) 42 (109)

Closure areas 17 (133) 14 (73) 17 (266) 48 (125)

Hang on trees 0 0 1 (16) 1 (03)

Note Values in parenthesis are in percentages

Source of bee colony and means of stock increment

The result indicated that majority of the beekeepers obtained their establishing colonies

by purchasing from market places and other beekeepers while the remaining by getting

bee colonies through gift from parents and catching swarms by hanging bait hives on

the apex of trees (Table 3) The proportion of swarm catching was the highest in

lowland agro ecological zones and lowest in midlands On the other hand the majority

of the respondents from midlands and highlands could get their bee colonies through

purchasing

Table 10 Source of colonies

Colony source Agro-ecologies Overall


Gift from parents 27(211) 40(208) 19(297) 86(224)

Swarm catching 21(164) 19(99) 21(328) 61(159)

Purchasing 80(625) 133(693) 24(375) 237(617)

Note Values in parenthesis are in percentages out of respondents in the same agro

ecology

Once established the bee colony beekeepers of the respective districts used different

means of increasing their colony stock number (Table 4) Majority of the beekeeper

respondentsrsquo indicated that their colony numbers were with no change over time

Moreover the respondents used splitting natural reproductive swarming purchasing

and the rest through swarm trapping Splitting and overcrowdings were the major colony

sources for majority of the study areas The main source of colony sizes for highland

midland and lowland was splitting (25) overcrowding (266 ) and splitting

(4695) respectively

Table 11 Methods of colony stock increment


196

Colony source Highland Midland Lowland

Swarm catching 2(16) 6(31) 6(94) 14(36)

Purchasing 29(227) 13(68) 5(78) 47(122)

Natural

swarming(Overcrowding)

27(211) 51(266) 18(281) 96(25)

Splitting 32(25) 35(182) 30(469) 97(253)

Constant 38(297) 87(455) 5(78) 130(339)

Note Values in parenthesis are percentages out of respondents in the same agro ecology

Honey production and harvesting frequency

According to the survey results most of the respondentsrsquo harvested honey once followed

by twice a yearHowever few respondents explained that they could harvest from three

to four times per a year (Table 5)The highest honey harvesting frequency was

observed in highlands as compared to midland and lowlands The major honey

harvesting months were September to November (Figure 3) in all agroecological zones

Where as the minor honey harvesting months were June to August In the major honey

harvesting months the beekeepers could harvest honey even twice in a month if the

season is with well rained

Table 12 Honey harvesting frequency

Frequency Agro-ecologies Overall


Once 46(359) 138(719) 47(734) 231(602)

Twice 64(50) 45(234) 17(266) 126(328)

Three times 15(177) 9(47) 0(0) 24(63)

Four times 3(23) 0(0) 0(0) 3(08)


197

Figure 6 Honey harvesting months by agro-ecological zones

As could be indicated in Table 6 the amount of honey harvested from traditional and

improved frame hives was 104 plusmn 44 and 265 plusmn 87 kg per year respectively The

result indicated there was a significant difference (plt005) in honey yield in traditional

bee hive among agro-ecologies However there was no significant difference in honey

yield (pgt015) in frame hive The highest honey yield obtained from traditional hive was

recorded in lowlands compared to highland and midland

Table 13 Average honey yield (kghiveyear) from traditional and improved frame

beehives

Agro ecologies Traditional beehive Improved frame beehive

N Mean plusmnSEM N Mean plusmn SEM

Highland 65 95plusmn45a 100 275plusmn85a

Midland 103 99plusmn34a 138 257plusmn91a

Lowland 45 127plusmn56b 48 268plusmn85a

Overall mean 213 104plusmn44 286 265plusmn87


However majority (72) of the beekeepers declared that honey production was

variable among the years The rest 14 10 and 4 of the beekeepers responded as

the production of honey remainsstable decreased and increased respectively (Figure

4)

Pe

rce

nta

ge o

f re

spo

nd

en

ts

Months of the year

Highland

Midland

Lowland

198

Figure 7Trends of honey production

Seasonal colony management

Colony inspection

Beekeepers inspect their honeybee colonies at different times (Table 8) Majority of the

respondents mentioned that they frequently (daily to weekly) inspect their apiary and

honeybee colonies externallyThe result indicated that an external inspection of apiaries

and honeybee colonies is done by most of the respondents In the external inspection

beekeepers visit their hives and apiary to safeguard honeybee colonies from different

natural disasters and various hazards and to look their flight movement However only

13 and 279 of the respondents do undertake internal inspection of their bee

colonies frequently for traditional and frame hives respectivelyThe majority of the

beekeepers internally inspected their honey bee colonies by chance at their convenient

time For the external honeybee colony inspection there was no signinificant difference

(χ2= 2625 pgt005) done on tradional and frame hives by the beekeepersHowever

there was significantly (χ2= 49180 plt001) internal inspection undertaken for frame

hives than tradional beehives

Percentage ()Decrease10610

Percentage ()Increase

414

Percentage ()No

change(stable)13614

Percentage ()Variable(Seasonal)7

1772

Percentage ()

Decrease Increase

No change(stable) Variable(Seasonal)

199

Table 14 Percent distribution of frequency of inspection of apiary by respondents

Types of

Inspection

Frequency of

inspection

Hive types χ2 Pvalue

Traditional Frame

External Daily to weekly 74 771 2625 0453

At convenient 195 20

Yearly 52 29

No inspection 13 0

Internal Daily to weekly 13 279 49180 0001


Yearly 91 114

No inspection 403 36

Feeding management

Honeybees store honey for their own consumption during dearth periods Beekeepers

are harvesting honey which the honeybees stored for themselves As a result

honeybees face starvation due to lack of feed To overcome the problem

supplementary feed is required for thehoneybees The most common locally available

feed types used for colony supplements were identified as sugar syrup (946) Shiro

(peas and bean flour)(891) tihni (barley flour) (876) followed by maize flour

(255)honey (144) and fafa (supplementary food for infants) (79)in their order of

utilization (Table 9)In all agro-ecological zones of the study areasbeekeepers offered

supplementary foods for their honeybee colonies

Table 15 Locally available feed types for honeybee colony supplementation used by the

beekeepers in the study districts()

Types of feeds Agro-ecological zones Overall


Sugar syrup 932 939 100 946

Shiro 932 889 793 891

Tihni 946 848 359 876

Maize flour 324 242 103 252

Honey 14 214 241 144

Fafa 0 81 276 79

Manipulation of hive supers foundation sheet and queen excluders

Movable frame beehives allow common bee management practices such as migratory

beekeeping supers adding or reducing regular inspection quality honey harvest

200

swarm control feeding during dearth periods stimulating early colony growth and pest

and disease control Table 9 indicated the common practice for seasonal colony

management The result revealed that 521 of respondents put additional hive supers

by inspecting the internal condition of the colonies and the rest of them put without

inspection (479) Even though majority of the respondents (645) reduce the super

during the dearth period still 355 of them keep their colonies without reducing during

the dearth periodThese finding also suggest that some beekeepers replace very old

brood combs from their colonies every year (41) every 2 to 3 years (186) and no

replace forever (404)Most of the respondents explained that 621 of them remove

the queen excluder immediately after honey was harvested However in some

beekeepers queen excluders were left on top of the base hive or without reducing the

supers (379) even during the dearth period (Table 10)

Table 16 Percent distribution of improved honeybee colony manipulation in the study

areas

Manipulation variables Category Frequency Percentage

Super adding Through inspection 162 521

Through guessing 149 479

Super reducing Yes 198 645

No 109 355

Foundation sheet change Every years 126 410

Every 2-3 years 57 186

No change 124 404

Queen excluder removal Yes 190 621

No 116 379

Absconding and swarming of honeybee colonies According to the survey result the trend ofhoneybee colony absconding in the study

districts increased from 6 to 242 and 25 to 441in traditional and

framebeehivesrespectively in the years of 2010 up to 2014 (Figure 4)Within the last

five years a total of 441 traditional and 854 frame beehives were absconded in the

study areas

An average number of modern beehive enumerated during survey in beekeepers apiary

were 303 of which 115 were colonized and the rest 188 without bees due to colony

absconding at different time for different reasons The average number of traditional

beehive colonized were 325 whereas 385 were without bees The frequency of

201

colonization was significantly different (plt005) in frame beehives but not in traditional

hives (Table 11)

There was a financial loss due to absconding of honeybees from frame and traditional

hives A total of 441 traditional and 854 frame beehives without honeybee colonies

represented a minimum loss of about 661500 ETB and 3996720 ETB respectively

From the existing total 1295 empty beehives it would be possible to earn 4658220

from a sale of honey

Figure 8 Trend of honeybee colony absconding

Table 17 Mean number of honeybee colonies with and without bees in traditional and

frame beehives

Hive types Colonization Significant

With bees Without bees

Traditional 325 358 NS

Frame 115 188

Note NS=Not significant difference significantly different at Plt001

Some beekeepers considered swarming was a good thing because beekeepers were

able to naturally increase the number of colonies by capturing swarms However in

202

more recent times swarming is considered a nuisance because it instantly reduces

honey production The mean reproductive swarming incidence per colony was 877

912 and 864 in highland midland and lowland agro ecologicalzones respectively and

insignificant difference (pgt005) was observed (Table 12)However the average number

of incidental swarms caught by the respondents was 144 171 and 190 in highland

midland and lowland agro ecological zones respectively and the swarmed return to their

original hive

Table 18 Average number of swarms produced and used for next generation (N=241)

Agro ecological zones Number of swarms produced

per colony(Mean plusmnSD)

Number of swarms used for

next generation

Highland 877plusmn238a 144

Midland 912plusmn306a 171

Lowland 864plusmn280a 190

Note Super script lsquoarsquo indicates significant difference at plt005

Seasonal colony activities

Brood rearing reproductive swarming and absconding are a common phenomenon in

honeybee colonies Honeybees perform their normal activities based on seasons

normally during honey flow and dearth period seasons

The respondents replied that there was an incidence of major brood rearing in the

months May (258) July (99) August (997) September (100) and October

(63) in their increasing orderRegarding season of reproductive colony swarming

beekeepers of the survey area indicated that September (997) August (924) July

(331) and October (206) were the main months in which colony swarming occurs

because of availability of pollen vegetation coverage and instinct behavior of bees

while November December January February March April and May were months in

which there was no record of incidence (Figure 5)

Honeybee colonies abandoned their hives at any season of the year for different

reasons The beekeepers indicate that March (503) April (544) May (633) and

June (59) as the first four main colony absconding months in their locality As

indicated by the beekeepers incidence of pests and predators poor management and

excessive weather conditions (sun wind and rain) are the causes of colony absconding

According to beekeepers the peak dearth periods of the year are dry season period

(March to May) as there is no flowering plant as a source of pollen and nectar and

during rainy season (June to July) as the pollen of the flowering plants is diluted and the

203

nectar is washed by the rain and referred as dearth period and agro-chemical

applications

Similarly high availability of honeybee plants from July to December was recorded

September to November were regarded as the main honey harvesting period of the

year as this period is the main flowering season of the year whereas June was

regarded as the second honey flow season harvesting period of the yearDearth period

of honeybees occurred from the months January to June (Figure 5)

Figure 9 Seasonal activities of honeybees

Discussion The number of colonies owned per household were significantly (plt005) different

across the agro ecologies Improved frame hives and traditional beekeeping practices

204

are found to co-exist in the all areas which is similar with the finding of Workneh (2011a

amp b)The sample households in highland had significantly larger number of bee colonies

in improved frame hives but lower in traditional hives compared to the sample

households in low land and midlands However the number of improved frame hives

owned by the sampled respondents in highland and midland were insignificant

difference The greater number of honeybee colonies in improved hives in highland and

midland is probably because of strong intervention on beekeeping by Government and

non-government organizations in the areas According to Workneh (2011) improved

box hive was introduced into the highland districts of Tigray region in 1998 for the first

time Contrary to this Alemayehu Abebe et al (2016) reported that in highlands with

availability of dense forest and lack of access to modern box hives would have greater

number of honeybee colonies in traditional hives

Majority of the respondents kept their honeybee colonies at backyard and traditional

hives inside the house This finding is in line with the reports of Tessega (2009) Gidey

et al (2012) Nebiyu and Messele (2013) Niguse (2015) Placing hive around

homestead and in house apiary sites is appropriate for daily follow up activities of

beekeeping (Berhanu 2016) However Kidane (2014) reported that majority of the

traditional hives are hung in the dense forest which are mostly far from residential

areas and have limited hive visit to only one or two times until harvesting in Gambella

people national regional state

The honey yield obtained in the current study was similar to the result of Gidey and

Mekonen (2010) who reported 8-15 kg and 20-30 kg of honey from traditional and

improved movable frame beehives in the region respectively The amount of honey

obtained from traditional and improved movable frame beehives was higher than the

national average honey yields of 92 and 191 kg reported by CSA (2017) Honey yield

fluctuates from year to year and varies between coloniesThe difference may be due to

climatic condition beekeeping management and extension support offered to

beekeepersThe frequency of harvesting honey per hive in the same area and year is

also different among beekeepers Kajobe et al (2009) stated that frequency and

amount of honey harvested varied depending on seasonal colony management

practices (skill of beekeepers) flowering condition of major bee forage (rainfall) and

type of beehive (Belets and Gebremedhin 2014)

Most of beekeepers visit and inspect their beehives externally However internal hive

inspection was limited Beekeepers inspect colonieswhen colonies become weak and

during honey harvesting seasons This is apparently because of the absence of

personal protective cloths and tools fear of being stung the risk of colony absconding

and lack of awareness of the value of doing so Moreover almost all beekeepers in the

study area perform external inspection and also clean their apiary to prevent ant and

other insect pests from getting access to hives This result agrees with previous findings

of (Kerealem et al (2009) Nuru (2007) Kebede and Lemma (2007) Teklu (2016)

205

reported that farmers in Ethiopia do not commonly practice internal hive

inspectionHowever Yetimwork et al (2015) reported that 535 of respondents

(beekeepers) visit their honeybee colonies frequently

In the present study beekeepers were adding supers by guessing and continued to

keep constant number of supers during the dearth period This is due to low awareness

of the beekeepers Similar result was reported by Gidey and Mekonen (2010) indicated

that lack of proper bee management is one of the problems facing the honey sub sector

in the region Similar result was reported by Tolera and Dejene (2014) Furthermore

there are beekeepers that did not change the old comb for many years

During the shortage of bee forage most of the beekeepers supplement their honeybee

colonies from locally available feed types to survive dearth periods in the region This

finding is in consistent with that of Yetimwork (2015) Tessega (2009) Solomon (2009)

stated that majority of the beekeepers in Ethiopia practice dry season supplementary

feeding Providing supplemental feed to honey bee colonies improved their performance

through improving colony maintenance buildup and production during a shortage of

natural pollen (Lumturi et al 2012)

Absconding due to inappropriate colony management is the major constraint in the

districts and beekeepers failed to produce sufficient amount of honey regardless of

apiculture potential in study the areas Proper bee management practices enhance

colony performance such as reduced absconding improved colony strength and higher

hive yields (Wilson 2006 Tolera and Dejene 2014) Such loss is partially compensated

by the high rate of swarming of colonies

5 Conclusions

Beekeepers of the study areas owned both traditional and frame hives Even though

absconding of honeybee colonies was the most phenomena in the study areas the

number of bee colonies showed an increment trend in the last five years Some

beekeepers have not considered absconding as the major problem because there is

high swarming tendency to substitute the absconded colonies

Despite feeding management was practiced during the dearth period management

gaps on super adding or reducing and old comb replacement were observed

The incidence of major brood rearing was in the months July to September Regarding

season of reproductive colony swarming was August to September Honeybee colonies

abandoned their hives at any season of the year for different reasons March to Jun was

recognized as colony absconding months in most localities According to beekeepers

the peak dearth periods of the year are dry season period (January to May) as there is

no flowering plant as a source of pollen and nectar Similarly high availability of

honeybee plants from July to December was recorded September to November were

regarded as the main honey harvesting period of the year as this period is the main

206

flowering season of the year whereas June was regarded as the second honey flow

season harvesting period of the year

Therefore seasonal colony management practices followed by floral cycle should be

practiced through empowering beekeepers with skill in modern beekeeping

management in order to improve their seasonal bee management practices thereby

increase honey production

6 References

Alemayehu Abebe Yilma Tadesse Yohannes Equar Mulisa Faji and Habtamu Alebachew 2016 Analysis of honey production systems in three agro-ecologies of Benishangul-Gumuz Western Ethiopia J Agric Ext Rural Dev Vol8 (3) pp 29-38 DOI 105897JAERD20140705

Belete Gebremichael and Berhanu Gebremedhin2014Adoption of improved box hive technology Analysis of smallholder farmers in Northern Ethiopia International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Extension 2 (2) 077-082

Birhanu Tesema Areda 2016 Constraints and Opportunities of Honeybee Production and Honey Marketing Systems A Case of Guji and Borena Zone of Oromia State EC Agriculture 33 635-645

BoFED (Bureau of Finance and Economic Development)2014Atlas of Tigray Regional State

Cochran WG 1963 Sampling Techniques 2nd Ed New York John Wiley and Sons Inc

CSA (Central Statistical Agency)2017 Agricultural Sample survey Volume II Report on Livestock and Livestock characteristics Addis Ababa Ethiopia

GDS (Global Development Solutions) 2009 Integrated value chain analyses for honey and beeswax production in Ethiopia and prospects for exports the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV)

Gebremedhin Woldewahid Berhanu Gebremedhin Dirk Hokestra and Azage Tegegne 2012 Watershed Conservation-based Market Oriented Commodity Development A move towards resilient farming IPMS Ethiopia


Gidey Yirga and Kibrom Fitwi2010 Beekeeping for rural development Its potentiality and Constraints in Eastern Tigray Northern Ethiopia Agricultural Journal 5(3) 201-204

207

Gidey Yirga and Mekonen Teferi2010Participatory Technology and Constraints Assessment to Improve the Livelihood of Beekeepers in Tigray Region northern Ethiopia Mekelle University Volume 2 (1) 76-92

Gidey Yirga Bethelhem Koru Dawit Kidane and Alem Mebrahatu 2012 Assessment of Beekeeping Practices in Asgede Tsimbla district Northern Ethiopia Absconding Bee Forage and Bee Pests African Journal of Agricultural Research 7(1) 1ndash5

Haftom Gebremedhin Zelalem Tesfay Girmay Murutse and Awet Estifanos2013 Seasonal honeybee forage availability swarming absconding and honey harvesting in Debrekidan and Begasheka Watersheds of Tigray Northern Ethiopia Livestock Research for Rural Development25(61)

Haftu Kebede Sebeho2015 Production and Quality Characteristics of Ethiopian Honey A Review Academic Journal of Entomology 8 (4)168-173 DOI105829idosiaje2015 8496210

Kajobe R Agea JG Kugonza DR Alioni V Otim AS Rureba T and Marris G 2009 National beekeeping calendar honeybee pest and disease control methods for improved production of honey and other hive products in Uganda A research report submitted to Natural Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) Entebbe Uganda

Kerealem Ejigu Tilahun Gebey and Preston TR 2009Constraints and prospects for apiculture research and development in Amhara region Ethiopia Livestock Res Rural Dev 21(10) 1-14

Kidane Mollaw2014 Assessment of Beekeeping Practices and Honey Production in Mejhengir Zone of Godere District Gambella People National Regional State Ethiopia MSc Thesis Haramaya University pp90

Lumturi Sena Sabah Sena Anila Hoda2012 Feeding efficiency of pollen Substitutes in a honey bee colony Third International Scientific Symposium Agrosym Jahorina

Nebiyu Yemane Messele Taye2013 Honeybee production in the three Agro-ecological districts of GamoGofa zone of southern Ethiopia with emphasis on constraints and opportunities Agric Biol J N Am 4(5) 560-567

Niguse Gebru2015 Assessment of Hive Placement Colony Unification and Colony Transfer of Modern Beehive Production System on Eastern Zone of Tigray Regional State North Ethiopia Journal of Biology Agriculture and Healthcare 5(1) 50-53

Nuru Adgaba2007 Atlas of pollen grains of major honeybee flora of Ethiopia Holeta Ethiopia PP121

Slow Food2009 Wukro White Honey EthiopiaSlow Food Presidium

208

Solomon B2009 Indigenous knowledge and its relevance for sustainable beekeeping development a case study in the Highlands of Southeast Ethiopia Livestock Research for Rural Development 21 (11)

Teklu Gebretsadik and Dinku Negash2016Honeybee production system challenges and opportunities in selected districts of Gedeo zone Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples regional state Ethiopia International Journal of Research ndash Granthaalayah Vol 4(4) 49-63

Tessega Belie2009 Honeybee Production and Marketing Systems Constraints and opportunities in Burie District of Amhara Region Ethiopia A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Animal Science and Technology School of Graduate Studies Bahir Dar University Ethiopia

Tolera Kumsa and Dejene Takele2014Assessment of the effect of seasonal honeybee management on honey production of Ethiopian honeybee (Apis mellifera) in modern beekeeping in Jimma Zone Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management3(5)246-254

Wilson RT 2006Current status and possibilities for improvement of traditional apiculture in sub-Saharan AfricaLivestock Research for Rural Development 18 (8)1-14

Workneh Abebe 2011a Identification and documentation of indigenous knowledge of beekeeping practices in selected districts of Ethiopia Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development 3(5) 82-87

Workneh Abebe2011b Financial benefits of box hive and the determinants of its adoption in selected district of Ethiopia American Journal of Economics 1(1) 21-29

Yetimwork Gebremeskel Berhan Tamir and Desalegn Begna2015 Honeybee production trend potential and constraints in Eastern Zone of Tigray Ethiopia Agric Biol J N Am 6(1) 22-29

209

Strengthening Extension Service Delivery- Lead beekeepers as service providers

Lessons from ASPIRErsquosi

Yetnayet Girmaw Email ygirmawsnvworldorg

Abstract

The government of Ethiopia is committed to increasing agricultural production to meet the

growing demand for food industrial raw materials and foreign exchange earnings In order to

respond to these demands there is a need for a dynamic and proactive agricultural extension

system that will bring about agricultural transformation The Ethiopian agricultural extension

system is heavily dependent on Farmersrsquo Training Centres (FTCs) and development agents

(DAs) who provide extension services to farmers Central to the ASPIRE extension approach is

the use of lsquolead beekeepersrsquo who provide technical assistance to lsquofollower beekeepersrsquo in their

localities

Initially 89 lead beekeepers from four regions (Oromia Amhara Tigray and SNNPR) were

selected based on their existing beekeeping practices and their interest in supporting others

These beekeepers were trained in modern beekeeping production techniques facilitation skills

and business development and provided with the necessary beekeeping materials to help them

assist others During their training an agreement was made with the lead beekeepers that on

top of expanding their own beekeeping business they would each work with between 15 and 20

follower beekeepers

The field survey results indicate that the ASPIRE project reached a large number of beekeepers

in a short period of time About 31376 beekeepers (6573 female) were trained using the

minimum ASPIRE training package These trained beekeepers provided technical support to

about 31235 (6185 females) copy beekeepers The average number of copy beekeepers per

30000 targeted beekeepers increased from 038 in 2013 (base year) to 408 in 2017 This

increase is an indicator of the multiplier effect of the ASPIRE approach Specifically the lead

beekeepers supported other beekeepers in making transitional beehives transferring colonies

and seasonal management So far these lead beekeepers reached and are providing support

to 5105 other beekeepers by the end of the project period There is regional disparity in

reaching other beekeepers For example the largest reached beekeepers were in Tigray

(2991) while the smallest reached beekeepers were in SNNPR (169) suggesting the significant

role of the lead beekeepers in Tigray Region which can be a key lesson for other regions to

make use of the roles of the lead beekeepers

This lead beekeeper model is one of the innovative approaches of the ASPIRE project It is an

effective and proven extension approach that reaches people who are located remotely and

does so in a short period of time It also provides sustainable extension services to beekeepers

in the absence of experts and development agents

____________________ Apiculture Scaling-up Programme for Income and Rural Employment (ASPIRE) was a five years project (2013 ndash 2017) implemented by SNV

Ethiopia in partnership with the Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB) Enclude and ProFound with funding from the Embassy of the Kingdom of the

Netherlands (EKN) The programme aims to contribute to poverty reduction in rural areas of Ethiopia by establishing a dynamic and sustainable

apiculture sector in the country

210

Glycemic index of Ethiopian monofloral honey Abera Belay1 Gulelat Desse Haki2 Marc Birringer3 Hannelore Borck3 Samuel

Melaku4 Kaleab Baye5 1Department of Food Science and Applied Nutrition Addis Ababa Science and

Technology University abberabelaygmailcom 2Department of Food Science and Technology Botswana College of Agriculture

University of Botswana 3Fulda University of Applied Sciences Fulda Germany



Abstract

Background The rapid promotion of honey production amp quality merit investigation are an urgent need for

science functionalities and market development The African honey in general and Ethiopian in

particular are consumed or used within household and are not further experimented and entered

in the proper utilization chain Honey is one of the richest carbohydrate foods and dietary

significance of carbohydrates often described using glycemic index (GI) GI mostly related to

diet related non-communicable disease diabetes

Objective

To investigate GI of Ethiopian monofloral honeys using human subjects

Method

Ethical Clearance was approved by Addis Ababa University Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The experiment was conducted in Asella Hospital Eight monofloral honeys and reference

glucose were used as treatment Each treatment was provided to ten human subjects with four

days of washout period After fasting for 11hrs overnight a blood sample was collected from

their finger and 25g available carbohydrate of treatment was fed Additional blood samples

were taken at 15 30 45 60 90 and 120 minutes Blood glucose concentration was used to plot

a two-hour blood glucose response curve Incremental Area under curve (iAUC) for test food

and reference glucose was used to calculate GI

Result

Acacia Becium grandiflorum Croton macrostachyus Eucalyptus globulus Hypoestes Leucas

abyssinica Syzygium guineense and Schefflera abyssinica had GI of 53 62 59 57 63 64 72

and62 respectively There was a significant difference (plt005) between Acacia and all

thetreatments except (pgt005) Eucalyptus globulus Croton macrostachyus and Becium

grandiflorum Linear regression model of collinearity indicated that highest predictor was

sucrose(4563) in the positive side and flavonoids (-628) in negative side

Conclusion

GI of honey influenced by botanical origin Accordingly Acacia Becium grandiflorum Croton

macrostachyus Eucalyptus globulus Hypoestes Leucas abyssinica and Syzygium guineense

werefound as low and intermediate GI food The knowledge of having the special merit of these

211

honeyspossibly used for the intensification and diversification of the product for better income

andlivelihood Accordingly further study is necessary to promote the specialty of Ethiopian

honey

Queen excluders enhance honey production in African honeybees Apis mellifera

by limiting brood rearing during peak nectar flow

Nuru Adgaba1 Ahmed A Al-ghamdi1 Mebrat Hailu2

1 Bee Research Unit Department of Plant Protection King Saudi University Saudi Arabia

2 Holetta Bee Research Center Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Ethiopia

Nuru Adgaba Email nuruadgabagmailcom

Abstract

Unlike honeybees in temperate regions those in tropical Africa exhibit a strong tendency

towards continuous brood rearing rather than storing honey which is a behaviour that lowers

both the productivity and commercial value of African bees In this study the possibility of

maintaining a balance in resource allocation between brood rearing andhoney storage was

assessed Twelve colonies were examined half of which were fitted with queen excluders three

weeks before an expected honey harvest while half were used as controls Data on the honey

yields and brood populations of the colonies were collected during four flowering seasons over a

two-year period The mean brood populations of all of the colonies did not differ significantly

when the queen excluders were inserted into the six treatment colonies However at honey

harvest three weeks later there was a highly significant difference in the mean number of

brood populations between the treatment and control groups Colonies without queen excluders

continued to rear broods even during peak honey flow periods The partial limiting of queen egg

laying using queen excluders significantly reduced the average colony brood population

compared to the control group at peak honey flow The seasonal average honey yields were

significantly different between the control and treatment groups Under African conditions in

which bees tend to rear broods continuously even at peak honey flow and when flowering

periods are short the use of queen excluders during such periods would probably enhance

honey yields of colonies

Keywords brood-rearing honey production queen excluder tropical African honeybees

1 Introdction

The African and temperate European races of honeybees Apis mellifera differ

significantly in the extent to which they invest their basic resources The former group of

bees exhibit adaptations geared toward brood rearing and subsequent reproductive

swarming while the latter towards massive storage of resources (Hepburn and Radloff

212

1998) It has been inferred that tropical bees are continuously selected to invest more in

brood rearing to compensate for losses as a result of predator and climatic pressures

(Seeley 1985) Indeed African races of A mellifera can raise 50 more broods than

European bees in hives of an identical volume over the same time period (Ruttner

1988) Conversely the same amount of honey that can be obtained in six weeks during

a favourable summer in temperate regions may require six months in tropical Africa

(Douhet 1979 1980) which also reflects fundamental differences in the utilisation of

incoming resources

In many tropical climates the seasonal flowering phenology of bee plants and the

brood-rearing cycles of bees are biphasic (Crane 1990 Hepburn and Radloff 1998)

Therefore the time intervals of forage scarcity periods are shortened which may also

affect the hoarding tendency of tropical bees Moreover in most of the Sahel rainfall is

meagre and subsequent flowering periods are relatively short In such environmental

conditions beekeepers cannot expect to benefit from high honey yields if the bees tend

to utilise the resources available for continuous brood rearing Under tropical conditions

during the honey harvest it is a common phenomenon to observe an excess of brood

compared to honey production which is completely undesirable from a beekeeping

perspective Moreover the bees are adapted to migrate and exploit the resources

available in ecologically different habitats at different times (Chandler 1976 Castagneacute

1983 Hepburn and Radloff 1995)

Although honey production has been reported to be proportional to honeybee

populations (Szabo and Lefkovitch 1989) continuous growth of the brood population

may not enhance honey production (Woyke 1984 Winston 1987) because colonies

invest much of their resources (nectar and pollen) labour and time in brood rearing

Schneider and Blyther (1988) reported that A m scutellata commonly stores little food

and devotes 78 of comb space to brood production In this regard Harbo (1993)

estimated that 163 mg of honey is required to rear one worker bee from the egg to the

pupa stage and approximately 65 kg of honey is therefore required to rear 40000

worker bees during one brood cycle

If a colony continues to rear broods during nectar flow a considerable amount of honey

will be consumed by the brood population The high brood-rearing tendency of tropical

African honeybees has likely greatly affected their productivity in commercial terms and

explains the slow expansion of commercial beekeeping using African bees which is still

dominated by small-scale household beekeeping

To solve this problem it is imperative that colonies have to be managed to maintain a

balance in the allocation of resources for brood rearing vs honey production This might

be achieved through partially limiting of the continuous egg-laying by queens using

queen excluders during peak nectar flows and diverting workers towards nectar

gathering and honey production However despite the introduction of queen excluders

213

in many African countries the general belief is that queen excluders are useful only for

separating the brood and honey chambers for the purpose of maintaining honey quality

Beekeepers also believe that honeybee colonies can produce an equal amount of

honey without queen excluders and there is a general reluctance to buy and use this

device In this regard currently there is no tangible information available on the

contribution of queen excluders towards improving the honey yields of colonies under

tropical African honeybee conditions With this background in mind the effect of using

queen excluders on honey yields through the partial restriction of egg laying of a queen

during peak honey flow periods was assessed

2 Materials and Methods

The experiments were conducted at the Holetta Bee Research Center in Ethiopia

(3832E 915N alt 2400 m) The experimental design was based on the flowering

phenology of bee plants in the area for which a flowering calendar has been maintained

for over 25 years Likewise the brood-rearing cycles honey flow and dearth periods in

the region are also known Apart from differences of a few days the seasonal flowering

and brood-rearing cycles recur more or less at the same time every year These periods

are governed by the onset and cessation of the rains One flowering flush occurs after

the minor rainy season (May-June) in the study area and a second one after the main

rainy period (September-October)One dearth period occurs during the dry season

(December-March) and the other during the rainy season (July-August) Thus the

experimental design was based on large historical flowering phenology and

metrological databases

The study was conducted from 2007-2009 using 12 honeybee colonies (Apis mellifera

L) in Zander movable-frame box hives with supers each The colonies for this

experiment were selected from the research centrersquos apiary and were more or less

equally populous At the beginning of the experiment each selected colony had an

average of two combs of stored pollen three combs of nectar and honey about five

brood combs and the adult bees covered all 20 frames in the base and super The

colonies were randomly assigned to the treatment (n = 6) and control (n = 6) groups

The brood-rearing status of the colonies was continually checked before determining

when the queen excluders should be inserted in the six treatment colonies In the study

area during the September to October flowering season honey flow usually begins

around the first week of October and extends to the end of October In the May to June

flowering season honey flow begins around the first week of June and ceases at the

end of June A queen excluder (5 mm mesh) was inserted into each of the treatment

colonies at the beginning of each honey flow three weeks before the expected honey

harvest while the control colonies were without queen excluders All of the colonies

were maintained in the same apiary with equal access to the surrounding natural bee

forage Routine dearth and active period management activities such as reducing and

214

adding honey supers maintenance feeding during dearth periods and controlling

reproductive swarming through queen cell removal were applied to all colonies

The brood populations were quantified twice during each honey flow season in both the

treatment and control groups using frames with a wire grid to form equal unit areas (25

cm2) The first measurements were made just prior to the insertion of the queen

excluders and the second measurements were performed three weeks later at honey

harvest The brood population measurements and honey yield records were taken

during the flowering seasons (two per year) for two years


Three-way ANOVA analyses were used to test for differences in brood population sizes

before and after the insertion of queen excluders between harvesting seasons and

between the treatment and control groups Differences in the mean honey yields

between the treatment and control groups and harvesting seasons were determined

using two-way ANOVA analyses Tukeyrsquos multiple pairwise comparison tests were

employed to test for significant group effects Levenersquos test and the Kolmogorov-

Smirnov test were used to check for homogeneity of the variances and normality

respectively Correlation analyses were performed to determine whether there was a

relationship between the brood populations and honey yields of the colonies The mean

values and standard deviations (SD) of the variables were recorded The data were

analysed using Statistica 90 (StatSoft 2009)

3 Results

In this experiment the honey flow started as expected following the trend of data

collected from previous years The onset of the dearth periods were sudden both at the

end of June with the beginning of heavy rains and at the end of November in the dry

season The mean sizes of the brood populations of the colonies for both seasons

before the queen excluders were inserted in the hives were 3343 plusmn 657 x 103 and

3240 plusmn 406 x 103 for the treatment and control groups respectively and the variations

in the brood size were not significantly different (Tukey n = 24 P = 08394 Table 1 amp

Fig 1) However the mean brood populations of the colonies at honey harvest (three

weeks after the queen excluders had been inserted in the hives) were 1006 plusmn 198 x

103 and 2651 plusmn 327 x 103 for the treatment and control groups respectively (Table 1 amp

Fig 1) which were highly significantly different (Tukey n = 24 Plt 00001) The average

honey yield per harvest for all of the colonies in the treatment group for both seasons

(1251 plusmn 382 kghive) was significantly higher than that of the control group (944 plusmn 346

kghive) (Table 1 amp Fig 2) The ANOVA results showed that the amount of honey

obtained from the colonies with a queen excluder was significantly greater than was

collected from those without queen excluder (n = 24 P = 00026 Table 1) The

response variables brood population size and honey yield both passed tests of

normality (brood size K-S d = 00726 Pgt 020 honey yield K-S d = 01083 Pgt 020)

215

Levenersquos test showed no evidence of heterogeneity of the variances in brood size (F788

= 163 P = 01393) nor in honey yield (F344 = 000004 P = 09999)

Table 1 The mean plusmn SD of the brood population sizes and honey yields of the colonies in the

treatment and control groups in different honey harvesting seasons

Harvesting

Season

Variable Treatment Control P value

Sept - Oct

Brood population x 103 (day 1) 2989 plusmn 595a 3059 plusmn 274a 09998

Brood population x 103 (day 21) 938 plusmn 183a 2590 plusmn 306b lt 00001

Honey yield in kg (day 21) 1095 plusmn 250a 781 plusmn 184b 00336

May - June




Both

Seasonsrsquo

Data




Tukey Different letters in same row indicate a significant difference

When we consider seasonal variations on insertion of the queen excluders in the

September-October season mean colony brood populations of 2989 plusmn 595 x 103 and

3059 plusmn 274 x 103 were recorded for the treatment and control groups respectively and

these values were not significantly different (Tukey n = 12 P = 09998 Table 1)

However at the honey harvest 21 days later the mean brood populations were 938 plusmn

183 x 103 and 2590 plusmn 306 x 103 for the treatment and control groups respectively

which were significantly different (Tukey n = 12 Plt 00001 Table 1) For the

September-October harvest average honey yields of 1095 plusmn 25 kgcolony and 781 plusmn

216

184 kgcolony were obtained for the treatment and control groups respectively and

these results were significantly different (n = 12 P = 00336 Table 1)

May-June

Before After5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Bro

od

Po

pu

lati

on

x 1

03

Sept-Oct

Before After

Treatment

Control

Fig 1 Brood populations (mean plusmn SE) of the colonies before and after the insertion of queen

excluders and by harvesting season

Similarly in the May-June harvest season the mean colony brood populations upon

insertion of the queen excluders were 3698 plusmn 524 x 103 and 3421 plusmn 445 x 103 for the

treatment and control groups respectively and the variations in brood sizes between

the groups were not significantly different (Tukey n = 12 P = 06484 Table 1)

However at honey harvest the values were 1073 plusmn 196 x 103 and 2712 plusmn 349 x 103

for the treatment and control groups respectively which were significantly different (n =

12 Plt 00001) The honey yields obtained in the May-June harvest were 1408 plusmn 436

kgcolony and 1107 plusmn 399 kgcolony for the treatment and control groups respectively

which were again significantly different (n = 12 P = 00414 Table 1) The mean honey

yields recorded in the May-June harvest season were significantly greater than yields in

217

the September-October season for both the treatment and control groups (n = 24 P =

00018 Fig 2)

May-June Sept-Oct

Season

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Me

an

Ho

ne

y Y

ield

(k

gc

olo

ny

)

Treatment

Control

Fig 2 Honey yields (mean plusmn SE) of the colonies by treatment and harvesting season

Generally the data on the brood populations and the honey yields of the colonies

showed a strong positive correlation (r = 0727 n = 48 Plt 00001) prior to the insertion

of queen excluders (before honey flow) however the correlation between the brood

population and the honey yield was negatively correlated at honey harvest (r = - 0187)

4 Discussion

The average amount of honey obtained from the control group colonies was significantly

lower than from colonies with queen excluders (Table 1) The results of this study

indicate that tropical African honeybees indeed exhibit a strong tendency to continue

brood rearing even towards the end of a honey flow period which is behaviour that has

significant adverse effects on the honey yield of the colonies Similarly Schneider and

Blyther (1988) reported that A m scutellata commonly stores little food and devotes

much of its comb space to the brood production

The existence of a positive correlation between the brood populations and honey yields

of the colonies prior to the insertion of queen excluders may indicate that early large

218

brood colony populations contribute to the subsequent productivity of the colony The

negative and weak correlation detected between the brood population and honey yield

at honey harvest indicates that the existence of a large brood population at peak honey

flow has no positive effect on the honey yields of the colonies This result is consistent

with the findings of Szabo and Lefkovitch (1989) who reported an absence of a

significant correlation between honey production and brood populations reared late

during a peak honey flow period Moreover Nolan (1925) stated that the quantity of

nectar gathered by a colony depends not only on the total number of bees in the colony

during a honey flow but also on the relative number of nectar foragers

Minimising the brood population during a peak honey flow period through partial limiting

of egg laying by queens using queen excluders significantly decreased the size of the

brood population This contributed to the higher production of honey in the treatment

group (Table 1) which was approximately 25 greater than in the control group on

average This effect may occur because brood rearing consumes much of the workersrsquo

labour as demonstrated by the observation of 1300 nurse bees visiting a single larva

per day (Lindauer 1953) and because larvae consume honey at a rate of 163 mg

honeylarval stage (Harbo 1993) Based on this estimation if 16000 broods are

minimised for just one brood cycle per colony during the peak honey flow period using a

queen excluder it is possible to save more than 26 kg of honey per colonyharvest from

larval consumption alone

The flowering patterns of honeybee plants in the study area are biphasic (showing two

peak flowering periods) Moreover there are other plants that bloom outside of these

peak flowering periods that provide an alternate food source during feed shortage gaps

As a result the critical dearth period in the area is either short or totally absent This

may have encouraged the continuous brood-rearing tendency of the bees as opposed

to storing large reserves which is the survival strategy observed in bees in temperate

regions The absence of an inclination to store large quantities of honey reflects the

unique survival strategy of tropical African honey bees which involves migration to

neighbouring areas where alternative forage resource is available (Crane 1990)

This study further showed that during an extended good honey flow period such as

those that occurred in the area during the May-June flowering periods the colonies

produced comparable amounts of honey even without queen excluders Therefore the

use of a queen excluder is more important during short flowering periods and poor flow

conditions (September-October) (Table 1) Most of the honeybee plants in the study

area that flower between September and October are annual herbs with a short

flowering period Flowering ceases abruptly usually before colonies reach their

optimum peak population levels and before they can store sufficient nectar In contrast

during the May-June period even though fewer species of honeybee plants are

219

flowering there is a dense population of trees with an extended flowering period which

enables the colonies to attain their peak population size and to produce more honey

Based on the findings of this study it is evident that the use of queen excluders may

improve the honey yields of colonies that show strong and continuous brood-rearing

tendencies and this indicate that the amount of honey that can be saved from larval

consumption due to reducing brood-rearing activities during peak honey flow periods is

significant Therefore the partial limiting of queenrsquos egg laying using queen excluders

for short periods (during peak honey flow) would improve the honey yields of honeybee

colonies by maintaining a balance in resource allocation between brood rearing and

honey storage However if the queen excluder is inserted before the colonies have

attained a sufficient work force it may affect the honey yield similarly if the insertion is

delayed to near the end of the honey flow it is unlikely to contribute the honey yield of

the colony Careful determination of the appropriate timing for inserting queen

excluders based on the brood populations and the flowering patterns in a given area is

of paramount importance

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the Holeta Bee Research Centre for its financial

and logistic support of the study Moreover we would like to thank the Bee Research

Unit and the National Plan for Science and Technology of King Saud University for

editorial support Finally we acknowledge Colleen Hepburn with great thanks for editing

the manuscript

References

CASTAGNEacute J B (1983) LrsquoApiculture au Gongo Brazzaville Bulletin Technique Apicole10(4)197-208

CHANDLER M T (1976) The African honeybee Apis mellifera adansonii the biological basis of its management Proceedings of the First International Conference on Apiculture inTropical Climates London UK pp 61-68

CRANE E (1990) Bees and Beekeeping Science Practice and World Resources Heinenman Newness London

DOUHET M (1979) LrsquoApiculture en Empire Centrafricain situation et perspectives Institut drsquoEacutelevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux Maisons Alfort France

DOUHET M (1980) LrsquoApiculture en Cocircte drsquoIvoire regions Nord et Centre Institut drsquoEacutelevage et de Medicine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux Maisons Alfort France

HARBO J R (1993) Effect of brood-rearing on honey consumption and the survival of worker honeybees Journal of Apicultural Research 32(1)11-17

220

HEPBURN H R RADLOFF S E (1995) First approximation to a phenology of the honeybees (Apis mellifera) and flora of Africa Oecologia 101265-273

HEPBURN H R RADLOFF SE (1998) Honeybees of Africa Springer Germany

LINDAUER M (1953) Division of labour in the honeybee colony Bee World 3463-73

NOLAN W J (1925) The brood-rearing cycle of the honeybee United State Department of Agriculture Department Bulletin No 1349 Washington DC USA

RUTTNER F (1988) Biogeography and Taxonomy of Honeybees Springer-Verlag Berlin Germany

SCHEINDER S S BLYTHER R (1988) The habitat and nesting biology of the African honeybee A m scutellata in the Okavango River Delta Botswana Africa Insects Sociaux 35(2)167-181

SEELEY T D (1985) Honeybee Ecology Princeton University Press Princeton New Jersey USA

STATSOFT INC (2009) STATISTICA version 90 wwwstatsoftcom

SZABO T I LEFKOVITCH L P (1989) Effect of brood production and population size on honeybee colonies in Alberta Canada Apidologie 20157-163

WINSTON M L (1987) The Biology of the Honeybees Harvard University Press London UK

WOYKE J (1984) Correlations and interactions between population length of worker life and honey production by honeybees in a temperate region Journal of Apicultural Research 23148-156

SAMS - International Partnership on Innovation in Smart Apiculture Management

Services

Kibebew Wakjira Taye Negera Gemechis Legesse Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Holeta Bee Research Center

Holeta Ethiopia Email wkibebewgmailcom Abstract

SAMS is a consortium project comprising two partners each from Ethiopia Germany and

Indonesia and one partner each from Austria and Latvia The project is funded by the European

Union within the H2020-ICT-39-2016-2017 call and it addresses UN Sustainable Development

Goal ldquoEnd hunger achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable

agriculturerdquo To this end SAMS proposed implementation of Precision Apiculture by allowing

active monitoring and remote sensing of bee colonies and beekeeping by developing

appropriate ICT solutions supporting management of bee health and bee productivity Bee

health and sustainable beekeeping are a key for sustainable agriculture worldwide Risks of

depleting honey production threatens livelihoods of beekeepers but degradation of pollination

221

power of suffering bee colonies threats overall agricultural production and affects entire

population Advanced ICT and remote sensing technologies in SAMS increase production of

bee products creates jobs (particularly youthsandwomen) triggers investments and

establishes knowledge exchange through networks Towards these SAMS tried to address

requirements of end-user communities on beekeeping in project countries Beekeeping contexts

of Ethiopia and Indonesea identified manual on hive construction and hive operation developed

and knowledge exchange networks established As a final outcome of the project a) A physical

low-cost beehive model that is locally produced and adapted to local conditions including

integrated open source sensor and information transition technology as well as energy-supply

solution b) A decision support system that combines the sensor-based data-outputs with other

information sources and predictive models to measure analyse and describe different states of

the bee colony such as health vitality production etc c) An automatic advisory support tool

which will alert the beekeeper in an easily understandable way if any aberrations from normal

states are metered and will provide advice on appropriate countermeasures and d) A bee

management business concept for the local production and up-scaled implementation of the

developed beehives with integrated beehive monitoring system were targeted

THE ROLE OF COOPERATIVE BEEKEEPING IN HILLSIDE REHABILITATION

AREAS FOR RURAL LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT IN NORTHERN ETHIOPIA

Teweldemedhn Gebretinsaesup12 Till Stellmacher3 Emai teweldeggmailcom

sup1Department of Animal Science College of Agriculture Aksum University PO Box 314 Shire Ethiopia

2Institute of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture University of Hohenheim Germany teweldeg2008gmailcom

3Center for Development Research (ZEF) University of Bonn Germany

Abstract

Development endeavors in Tigray have been trying to use beekeeping in hillside closure areas

for employing landless youth in rural areas With estimated 619 million managed honeybee

colonies and long tradition of beekeeping Ethiopia is one of the worldrsquos largest honey producers

and exporters A great deal of efforts is being exerted to improve existing traditional beekeeping

for improving the livelihoods of rural communities Mountain sharing program by which

rehabilitated closure areas are distributed to organized cooperatives of landless youths for

beekeeping and other sustainable agricultural practices have been implemented since 2005 in

Tigray for promoting beekeeping as a livelihood strategy Public owned degraded hillside areas

in Tigray region has been massively rehabilitated by excluding from direct contact of livestock

(referred as area closures) and introducing physical and biological conservation techniques for

the past 29 years This paper analyzes the beekeeping in the hillside closure areas in Tigray as

means of rural livelihood and employment Following review of literatures economic analyses

were conducted on a hypothetical beekeeping cooperative of ten members that have forty

222

colonies Official data from FAO and Ethiopian Central Statistical agency were used besides to

thoughtful estimates Costs revenues profitability breakeven production payback period net

present values and internal rate of return were calculated Average honey yield in Tigray region

is 25 kilogram per hive per year A total investment cost of ETB 139470 is estimated to start up

this beekeeping business With a life time of 10 years and scrap value of 10 for the major

equipment such as extractor casting mould and beehives depreciation rate was calculated to

be 9 Total cost of honey production per kilogram is ETB 6746 of which ETB 3308 is

attributed by variable costs while the rest ETB 3438 by fixed costs At a profit margin of 50

the sales price is ETB 10119 which gives annual profit of ETB 21924 The breakeven is 50

which means 328 kilogram of honey per year as contrasted to 650 kilogram per year average

capacity at 65 efficiency of colonies Although the payback period is unusually extended (6

years) due to high costs on shed and equipments both NPV (+248281) and IRR (109) suggest

that beekeeping in hillside closure areas is economically viable Besides to complementing with

environmental rehabilitation programs to boost agricultural productivity beekeeping in hillside

closure areas can be means of livelihood for unemployed landless youth in rural areas The

economic value of honeybee pollination on ten selected crops cultivated in Ethiopia is estimated

to be more than ETB 23 billion in the year 2014 Therefore beekeeping can play significant

roles in climate change adaptation and mitigation However members of beekeeping

cooperatives should be kept proportional with the economic return and the activities required to

be accomplished Beekeeping activities considered in this study can be managed by two

persons whereas the annual profit is too little to be the basis of livelihood for members of the

cooperative Therefore most of the members could be idle which can lead them to abandon

themselves in search of alternatives such as migration and traditional mining or tempt to abuse

the land Sideline activities such as horticulture and agro-forestry can augment incomes of the

beekeepers besides to enriching apiaries (beekeeping sites) boosting honey production and

environmental rehabilitation

Keywords beekeeping cooperative closure area environmental rehabilitation honey youth

1 Introduction

Ethiopia is known for its well-established traditional beekeeping which is practiced as a

livelihood activity by about two million households (OXFAM GB 2011) The beekeeping

value chain of Ethiopia comprises of producers-mainly smallholder farmers distributed

throughout the country-collectors processors retailers and consumers as the main

actors (Abrehet 2015) The country is a home for estimated 10 million colonies (Girma

1998) of which 619 are managed (Central Statistical Agency [CSA] 2017) The

productivity of this traditional beekeeping is low For example the country has produced

an estimated amount of 48-thousand-ton honey which is less than 10 of the potential

although it has demonstrated significant growth compared to 25 thousand annual

production of honey 12 years back ([CSA 2005) With estimated population of 287135

managed honeybee colonies (CSA 2017) Tigray region in the far North of Ethiopia is

known as one of the most important beekeeping areas in the country Traditional colony

multiplication and selling at local markets in Tigray is an important business for some

223

beekeepers who mainly use natural swarming and colony trapping as their sources of

colonies (Teweldemedhn and Yayneshet 2014)

Having realized its immense potentials Ethiopia is trying to promote its beekeeping

which has remained largely underutilized due to technological and skill limitations

Development programs and agricultural extension focus on the introduction of improved

beekeeping technologies and capacity building Beekeeping improvement programs are

more common in Tigray region than in other parts of Ethiopia High yielding movable

frame hives for example account for more than 23 of all beehives in Tigray as

contrasted to the national status which is less than 3 The average honey yield in

Tigray is 25kg per hive per year for movable frame hives and 112kg per hive per year

for traditional hives (CSA 2015) According to Abrehet (2015) the price of honey in the

Central zone of Tigray during the year 201415 ranged 12942ETB for white to

9361ETB for blended honey The price of honey is perceived to be high and

encouraging for beekeepers In Werieleke district of the same zone it was 6385 ETB

per kg for extracted white honey and 5863 ETB per kg for crude white honey

(Teweldemedhn 2010) Reasons for the rise in the price of honey could be overall

increase in values of commodities expansion of trade improvement in market linkage

and increased consumption of honey Prices of honey in the region differ based on its

geographic and botanical origins which can be because of poor market linkages among

producer-trader-processor-consumer in the value chain and consumer preferences

According to UNCTAD (2006) producers say that they canrsquot increase beyond the

existing production of honey because there is no market demand while traders on the

other hand say that they canrsquot export honey because there is no adequate production

that is enough for export market This could be because of the poor market linkage and

infrastructure Market integration is hampered by the semi-constant financial needs of

the farmers making them sell most of their honey during harvesting time when prices

are low (Driesen 2009) that create an incentive for middlemen for spatial and temporal

arbitrage These justify the need for committed beekeeping cooperative to help

themselves in marketing their products as markets mean competition and only the best

informed survives (Draper and Duggan 2001 as cited in Jacobs et al 2006)

Based on these governmental and non-governmental development organizations in

Tigray region have been focusing on the establishment of cooperative beekeeping with

special attention on integrating it with environmental rehabilitation programs The

promotion of beekeeping in rehabilitated hillside closure areas areas that are excluded

from livestock for rehabilitation can play important roles through direct production of

honey indirect products of crops due to pollination and environmental services The

promotion of beekeeping in such closure areas can be nested within the existing

massive and continuous public work on natural resource rehabilitation rich local

traditional knowledge on beekeeping committed extension service and well established

colony multiplication and marketing practices In addition the presence of fragmented

224

and degraded landholding aggravated by climate changes that is not used for

producing cereals could be regarded as an opportunity for promoting beekeeping to

improve rural livelihoods Beekeeping is not labor intensive requires little land can be

done by both sexes regardless of age requires low technological inputs and can

supplement other agricultural activities It is also a useful means of strengthening

livelihoods because it uses and creates a range of assets (Bradbear 2003)

As recognized by the World Future Council (2017) and many others Tigray region has

been exerting a combination of collective action voluntary labor and the involvement of

youth in restoring land on a massive scale These include construction of various

physical structures sowing and plantation programs and excluding degraded areas

Livestock exclusion from degraded hillside areas aims at natural regeneration of

vegetations and has been practiced throughout the region for the past 25 years Since

the mid 2000s the government has introduced a development program initiative known

as mountain sharing by which rehabilitated hillside closure areas that had been public

properties have been distributed to landless rural youth for the purpose of beekeeping

by organizing them as formal beekeeping cooperatives or informal user groups As a

result beekeeping cooperatives of mostly 10 members exist throughout Tigray Several

apiaries (beekeeping sites) have been established in the rehabilitated hillside closure

areas as means of employment and livelihood option for the ever increasing number of

landless rural youth in the region The formation of beekeeping cooperatives can have

synergetic effect to the efficiency of beekeepers by easing input distribution market

linkage sharing skill knowledge and labor when the cooperatives are established

properly

However the process of organizing beekeeping cooperatives selecting sites and

beneficiaries terms and condition on the new land-use can be detrimental for the

sustainable management of the natural resource base and the value chain

development Disputes negligence mistrust and several other negative consequences

may be faced otherwise leading to frustration financial losses institutional collapse

land abuses and degradation According to Biruk (2014) beekeeping cooperatives in

the region are facing constraints such as weak participation of members lack of

transparency and working capital This paper seeks to evaluate the feasibility of

establishing beekeeping cooperatives of with about ten members to run small scale

beekeeping of not more than 40 honeybee colonies in rehabilitated hillside closure

areas as a livelihood basis for unemployed rural landless youth It is believed that

economic feasibility can play decisive role for the socio-economic and environmental

sustainability of a beekeeping farm project This is particularly relevant for landless

youth beekeeping cooperatives who are supposed to get full time employment to

support their livelihoods The paper tries to analyze economic feasibility of such

beekeeping activities as a livelihood basis for unemployed rural landless youth A

beekeeping cooperative having an apiary established in one of the hillside closure areas

of Tigray with 40 honeybee colonies for honey production is assumed Following

literature review on production and productivity economic analyses were conducted

225

2 Methodology

This paper focuses on beekeeping activities operated in hillside closure areas in Tigray

which are mostly characterized by semi-arid climate medium to high altitudes rugged

and mountainous topography Following extensive rehabilitation programs through

physical and biological conservation and exclusion for natural regeneration distributing

those areas for landless youth to be used as means of rural livelihood has been

implemented by the government in collaboration with non-governmental organizations

Beekeeping and forage production through cut-and-carry system are being used as the

main non-wood products of these closure areas Such beekeeping activities in the

region are usually operated by beekeeping cooperatives with members of at least 10

landless and unemployed youths and honeybee colonies that rarely exceed 40 The

primary objective of these beekeeping cooperatives is to manage honeybee colonies in

movable frame hives and produce extracted honey for market

We have analyzed the economic viability of an assumed beekeeping cooperative with

ten landless youth as its members and established in a rehabilitated hillside closure

area Based on thoughtful estimates of technical and financial starting points costs of

production of honey sale price profitability breakeven payback period net present

values and IRR were calculated

In estimating economic value of the honeybeesrsquo pollination service on selected crops in

Ethiopia national production of the crops and their average prices in Addis Ababa were

extracted from the official data of Ethiopian national statistical agency (CSA 2014)

Models and indexes used by Jacobs et al (2006) and FAO (2006) were adapted to

estimate the contribution of honeybeesrsquo pollination service to annual production of ten

selected crops cultivated in Ethiopia based on data from the production year 201314

3 Results

31 Investment cost of beekeeping

To establish a moderate apiary with 40 honeybee colonies it requires constructing a

reasonable shed of thatched grass or soil roof that can accommodate the beehives

purchasing movable frame hives accessories protective closing honey extractor

casting mould and honeybee colonies In the local area an apiary shed is mostly made

from locally available materials such as stone wood soil and grass using local skill and

knowledge Based on field observation and experience such shelters are estimated to

cost about 350 ETB per square meter The exact amount of beekeeping equipments

during the data collection period were gathered from respective suppliers in the region

Besides the cost of honeybee colonies was considered based on personal observation

and literatures Accordingly the total investment costs required for establishing an

apiary of 40 colonies in movable frame hives along with a minimum package of

equipment shed and colonies is computed to be 139470ETB as detailed in table 1

226

Table 19 Investment costs

Quantity Unit cost Total cost (ETB)

Shed (m2)1 120 350 42000

Equipment2

Hive 40 900 36000

Bee suit with veil 4 500 2000

Hand gloves 4 50 200

Smoker 2 60 120

Water sprayer 2 30 60

Uncapping fork 1 50 50

Chisel 1 40 40

Honey extractor 1 7000 7000

Casting mould 1 7000 7000

Total Equipment 52470

Cash at hand (working capital)

5000

Bee colonies2 1000 40 40000

Total investment 139470 1 These costs are estimated based on personal experience and literatures 2primary data collected from inputs suppliers in the region

32 Technical starting points (assumptions)

Technical assumptions considered for this analyzing feasibility are displayed in Table 2

These assumptions are based on personal observations of existing situations on

cooperative beekeeping in hillside closure areas of Tigray region The beekeeping

package in the region varies ranges from one colony beehive in the early 1990s to four

beehives per household recently Therefore forty honeybee colonies are considered in

this cooperative beekeeping The cooperative is supposed to comprise at least 10

landless less youth as its members as per the ongoing practice in the region The

productivity of honeybee colonies differs depending on the type of hives used besides to

other environmental and genetic factors The beekeeping cooperative in this case

manages its bee colony in movable frame hives which defines the situation of

beekeeping in hillside closure areas of Tigray Among the forty honeybee colonies 65

are considered to be productive per year while the remaining 35 donrsquot produce due to

absconding and others factors Colonies that abscond every year are supposed to be

replaced through purchase trapping andor splitting to be productive in the consecutive

years According to CSA (2015) movable frame beehives in Tigray yield 25kg

extracted honey per hive per year (CSA 2015) Most beekeepers in the region sell their

honey at local market Based the activities required such an apiary can be managed

by two none professional beekeepers and their wage can be estimated at 600 ETB per

month based on the local labor market

Table 20 Technical starting points

227

Items Unit Quantity

Colonies managed Number 40

Type of hives used Movable frame hive

Honey production at 65 efficiency

kgyear 650

Average honey yield kgcolonyyear 25

Marketing honey Sold to nearest honey processing

factory as a whole

Manpower needed

Unskilled laborers (2 par timers) ETByear 14400

33 Financial starting points (assumptions)

Cost of interest on fixed investments as apiary shed and beekeeping equipment is

accounted The rate of interest for short term loans offered by microfinance institutions

in Tigray is currently 15 The service life of the shed and beekeeping equipment is ten

years (University of Florida 1992) Therefore the percentage and annual costs due to

depreciation of the shed and equipment is calculated and found to be ETB 5700 and

4722 respectively From experience this investment requires an estimated cost of

maintenance of the shed ( 2) and equipment (3) as percentage of the initial cost

The overall financial assumptions are summarized in table 3

Table 21 Financial starting points

Items Unit Quantity Amount (ETB)

Interest rate 15

Life span of shed and

equipments

years 10

Scrap value of shed of its initial cost

5 300000

Depreciation on shed of its initial cost

10 5700

Scrap value of equipment

of its initial cost

10 5247

Depreciation on equipment

of its initial cost

9 472230

Rate of maintenance

of shed

of its initial cost

2 1200

Rate of maintenance

of equipment

of its initial cost

3 157410

34 Computation of annual costs of honey production

Production costs in any investment are usually categorized as fixed and variable costs

depending on their variability with volume of production Costs incurred due to

maintenance interest and depreciation on shed and equipment are classified as fixed

228

costs Based on the rates displayed on section 33 the total annual fixed costs are

calculated to be ETB 22348 Variable costs of this farm investment include costs of bee

colonies man power beeswax as foundation shed feed supplementation during dearth

periods of the year and colony absconding These are calculated to cost ETB 14400

per year as shown in Table 4 Therefore the total cost of production per kilogram of

honey is found to be ETB 6746 Considering the local price of honey in the region 50

profit was assumed and this has resulted in a selling price of ETB 10119 per kilogram

Therefore the amount of annual profit of this type of apicultural investment is found to

be ETB 21924

229

Table 22 Summary of costs

Fixed costs

Description Amount (ETB)

Shed

Depreciation 3990

Interest 1953

Equipment

Depreciation 472230

Interest 251856

Maintenance and repair of shed (2) 840

Maintenance and repair of equipment

(3)

157410

Purchase of colonies (interest only) 340

Cash in handworking capital (interest

only)

85

Total fixed costs 22348

Fixed costs per kg 3438

Variable costs

Costs of colonies per year (40000ETB10years) 400000

Feed supplementation (1kg15ETB40colonies) 600

Beeswax

(075kg3boxes40hives200ETB4years)

450000

Absconding (5) 200000

Manpower costs (600ETB 2persons12months) 1440000

Total variable costs 21500

variable costs per kg of honey 3308

Calculation of production cost per kg of honey


Fixed cost per kg of honey 3438

Variable cost per kg of honey 3308

Total production cost per kg of honey 6746

Calculation of sales price

230

Profit per kg of honey (50 margin) 3373

Sales price per kg (production cost + profit) 10119

Total profit per year (profit per kgproduction

per year)

21924

35 Viability of honey production

The economic viability of this investment was assessed using net present value of

revenues and costs over a period of 10 years internal rate of economic return on

investment payback period and breakeven (Tauer 2000 Alfio et al 2015) The results

are presented as follows

351 Payback period

Payback period represents the length of time required for the cash flows generated by

the investment to repay the cost of the investment Payback period of an investment is

calculated by dividing the total investment cost to the net annual profit With an

estimated investment of ETB 139470 and net annual profit of ETB 21924 the payback

period of this apicultural farm project is found to be 6 years

PB (Year) = Total investment (ETB) = 139470 = 6

Net annual profit (ETBYear) 21924

352 Breakeven

Break-even is a production volume of threshold below which a project will be exposed to

financial losses and hence it canrsquot survive as profitable business In other words break-

even analysis computes the volume of production at a given price required to cover the

costs The breakeven production of honey for this apicultural farm is analyzed in

accordance with (Gutierrez and Dalsted 2012) It is found to be 328 kg honey per year

which is 50 of its capacity

Breakeven production = Total fixed Costs

(Sales price - Variable costs) per kg

Total fixed Costs 2234796

Selling price per kg of

honey

10119

Variable costs per kg of

honey

3308

Breakeven point 328

kg of honey per

year

=50 of the capacity

231

353 Net Present Value (NPV)

Net Present Value is the amount by which the present value of the cash inflows

exceeds the present value of the cash outflowsNet present value was calculated as the

difference between the net present value of revenues and net present value of costs as

displayed in table 5 Net present value of the project is calculated to be 248281

Table 23 Net present value

Year (n)

C=Total cost D=Discount factor=1I

I=(1+015)n

at 15 interest PVC1=Present

value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR1=Present

value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0869565217 115 1855652174 7234913

6291229043

2 23474 0756143667 13225 1774971645 7958405

6017697346

3 258214 0657516232 1520875 1697798964 8754245214 5756058

4 2840354 0571753246 174900625 1623981618 9629669735 5505795

5 31243894 0497176735 2011357188 1553373722 10592637

5266413

6 343682834 0432327596 2313060766 1485835734 11651900

5037438

7 3780511174 037593704 266001988 142123418 12817090

4818419

8 4158562291 0326901774 3059022863 135944139 1409879946 4608923

9 4574418521 0284262412 3517876292 1300335242 1550867941 4408535

total 2945962467 54287700

NPV1 = Total PVR1-Total PVC1 = 248281

354 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Internal Rate of Return which represents the rate of return from capital investment is

one method of analyzing investments To compute the internal rate of return of the

project a discount rate at which net present value becomes negative was identified

through trial and error method As a rule investments are accepted if the internal rate of

return is greater than the threshold rate of return and rejected if the internal rate of

return is less than the threshold rate of return Internal rate of return for the apicultural

investment considered here was calculated and found to be 109 (Table 6)

232

Table 24 Internal rate of return

Year (n)

C=Total cost

D=Discount factor=1I

I=(1+134)n at 134 interest

PVC2=Pres

ent

value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR2=Pres

ent value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0427350427

234 911965812 72349134 309184

2 23474 0182628388

54756 4287018774 795840474

145343

3 258214 007804632

12812904 2015265236 8754245214

68324

4 2840354 0033353128

2998219536

9473469057 9629669735

32118

5 31243894 0014253474

7015833714

4453340155 1059263671

15098

6 343682834

0006091228

1641705089

20934505 1165190038

7097

7 3780511174

0002603089

3841589909

9841006625 1281709042

3336

8 4158562291

0001112431

8989320386

4626114225 1409879946

1568

9 4574418521

0000475398

210350097

217466908 1550867941

737

Total

171060386 1240526

IRR

NPV2 =

1596915-249060386 = -47008

r2-r1 = 134-015 = 119

NPV1 = 084

NPV1-NPV2

(r2-r1)NPV1 = 100

NPV1-NPV2

IRR= (r1+(r2-r1) (NPV1)) = 109

NPV1-NPV2

36 Economics of honeybeesrsquo pollination

Honeybees are known as effective pollinators such as oil seeds fruits and coffee The

contribution of honeybeesrsquo pollination service to annual production of some cultivated

crops in Ethiopia is estimated by the model R = P x I x B which is adapted from Jacobs

et al (2006) and FAO (2006) The annual economic contribution (Eb)of honeybeesrsquo

pollination service on these selected crops is further calculated by multiplying the

market value of each crop (E) and the amount of crop produced due to honeybeesrsquo

pollination as Eb =RE A total of more than 23 billion ETB is estimated to be gained in

the year 2014 due to the pollination of honeybees on the selected crops Coffee is about

70 dependent on insect pollination of which 70 are estimated to be honeybees The

economic contribution of honeybees by pollinating coffee in Ethiopia is calculated to be

nearly ETB 18 billion in the specified year Similarly the honeybees pollination of

sesame is estimated ETB 265 billion for the same period (Table 7)

Table 25 Contribution of honeybee pollination to crop production Crops (Scientific name)

P= crop

production in

201314 1(quintal)

(I) =

Dependence

on insect

pollination

(B) =

Proportion

of

pollinators

that are

honeybees

(R) =

contribution

of

honeybees

to

production

(quintal)

E= Average

retail price in

Addis Ababa2

(ETBQuintal)

Economic

value of

honeybees

due to

pollination

(ETByear)

Coffee (Coffea spp) 392006222 07 07 1920831

9267 17800336244

Sesame-seed

(Sesamum indicum)

220216053 08 03 528519

5010 2647877835

Rapeseed (Brassica rapa)

62450266 10 09 562052

2007 1128039147

Mango (Mangifera indica)

72186977 09 09 584715

1200 701657412

Papaya (Carica papaya)

31588251 08 06 151624

2048 310525133

Avocado (Persea americana)

18206362 10 09 163857

1437 235462883

Orange (Citrus sinensis)

31182652 03 09 84193

2393 201474232

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

8347097 10 09 75124

2062 154905420

Soybean (Glycine max)

61024916 01 05 30512

2075 63313355

Lemon (Citrus spp) 4660950 02 01 932

2806 2615725

Total 4102358

3246207384

4 Discussion

1 CSA (2014) Agricultural sample survey (201314) Area and production of major crops

2 CSA (2014) Average Retail Price (December 2014) of Goods and Services by Region and Selected Market Places Averages of

Addis Ababarsquos prices

234

41 Investment costs

Beekeeping is known for comparatively small startup capital requirements The amount

of investment to establish the project in this case is estimated to be 139470 ETB This

is mainly due to investments on shed construction purchase of honeybee colonies

movable frame hives honey extractor casting mould and associated equipment This

capital may not be small to unemployed youth who have neither their own equity

(matching investment) nor collateral for a bank loan Thus the remaining option for

them is to be organized as beekeeping cooperatives and approach microfinance

institutions which are known for higher interest rate due to high financial risks

Assuming 10 members minimum the investment cost per member is 13947 ETB

which is still too much for both the borrower to afford and the lender to take risks As a

result most beekeeping cooperatives in Tigray do not purchase basic equipment such

as honey extractor and casting mould Instead they depend on the governmentrsquos

limited supply of equipment which are usually placed at farmers training centers to

provide free service to beekeepers residing in a tabia in queue This can pose great

obstacle to the beekeepers in applying management practices according to annual

colony management calendars that can ultimately result in poor performances

Construction of shed for their honeybee colonies and store for their equipment is not

common among the beekeepers which can lead them to low productivity higher rates

of depreciation on equipment and absconding of colonies Therefore honey yield in

Tigray is 25 kg per hive per year (CSA 2015) as contrasted to the regionrsquos potential of

35 to 45 kg per hive per season (Jacosbs et al 2006)

42 Price analyses of honey

Accounting all costs of honey production and a fair profit the selling price of extracted

honey was calculated to be ETB 10119 per kg This can be fair and competitive in the

local market Price being the amount of value that customers are willing to pay for

goods or services is subjective to their preference and certain quality parameters At the

local and regional markets open pricing of honey is used based on color production

system and level of impurities According to Abrehet (2015) who has conducted value

chain analyses of honey in Central zone of Tigray average price per kg was

12942ETB 9361ETB and 5043 ETB for white yellowish and red colored honey

respectively in the year 201415 Considering that most youth beekeeping cooperatives

are well trained and the hillside closure areas are ideal for organic beekeeping honey

produced from such rehabilitation areas is expected to have competitive quality Those

hillside closure areas are dry and away from agro-chemicals In the international

market honey quality is assessed based on physicochemical characteristics drug

residues and microbes European consumers are increasingly interested in organic and

specialty honey such as honey produced in rehabilitation forest and mountain areas in

eco-friendly system

43 Economic viability of honey production

235

At the sales price discussed in section 42 the net annual profit for the cooperative

beekeeping is estimated to be 21924 ETB This is too small when divided among the

ten members of the cooperative On the other hand the beekeeping activities are not

laborious and can be managed by two beekeepers Thus members of the beekeeping

cooperatives may be forced to abandon their beekeeping in search of income

alternatives The payback period at this level of profit is 6 years which is high and

unusual to beekeeping projects This might be caused by high investment cost incurred

on shed construction which is not very common in the local beekeeping The selling

price at 50 profit margin is fair and competitive allowing the youth cooperatives to be

more competitive and able to sale their honey in bulk to traders and processors instead

of relying on retail to consumers as in current practices The breakeven point is 50

(328 kg) while its net present value (NPV) is large positive (248281) and internal rate of

return (IRR) is larger (109) than the discount rate (015) Both NPV and IRR have

proved such beekeeping projects are viable


Beekeeping plays significant contributions to the global food production through

pollination service Honeybees are essential for pollinating different crops such as fruits

vegetables and oil seeds For instance rapeseed is 100 dependent on insect

pollination of which 90 are honeybees (FAO 2006 Jacobs et al 2006) The results

in this paper show that 49 of coffee produced in Ethiopia the countryrsquos popular cash

crop is contributed by the honeybeesrsquo pollination service which is valued to be about 18

Billion per year The overall economic contribution of the honeybeesrsquo pollination service

on ten selected crops produced in Ethiopia during the year 201314 is estimated to be

more than ETB 23 billion These justify how important the honeybees are for the

countryrsquos economy food production and export earnings The honeybees are

complementing all rounded efforts of crop cultivation income diversification climate

change adaptation and ecosystem conservation This demonstrates the

complementarities of beekeeping environmental rehabilitation local employment and

livelihood improvement

5 Conclusions and recommendations

Beekeeping in rehabilitated hillside closure areas in Tigray region of Ethiopia is

economically feasible It can play significant roles in creating rural entrepreneurships

and help in climate change adaptation However present practices of forming

beekeeping cooperatives that aim at sharing investment costs seem to be not viable

business enterprises This is largely due to the high number of members leading to

negligible share of margins or dividend Considering the economic social and

environmental roles of beekeeping and the livelihood status of unemployed youth who

are the key target group of development organizations there should be special means

of providing adequate entrepreneurship funds at reasonable interest rates Starting with

small stocks of honeybee colonies and gradually expanding using queen rearing and

colony multiplication can help to minimize the startup capital Research on the

236

physicochemical characteristics of honey produced in rehabilitated hillside closure areas

is vital to foresee the potential for certified organic beekeeping and brand development

to help fetching higher producer prices Diversification of products to honeybee colonies

and queens can enhance beekeepersrsquo income and help them to have sustainable

means of livelihood from the closure areas Honey productivity should be improved

through better husbandry and site enrichment that can also rehabilitate the ecosystem

contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation Those apiaries can be

enriched by integrating with horticultural crop production which can in turn be benefited

from the honeybeesrsquo pollination service to diversify and improve the beekeepersrsquo

income Pollination services of honeybees improves crop production and ecosystem

conservation

References

Abrehet G 2015 Honey and Beeswax Value Chains Analysis The case of Adwa and Ahferom Districts Central zone of Tigray Ethiopia Mekelle University MSC thesis httpscgspacecgiarorghandle1056877372

Alfio S Teodora S Anna Irene D L Giacomo F Giovanni G 2015 Profitability Analysis of Small-Scale Beekeeping Firms by Using Life Cycle Costing (LCC) Methodology American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Sciences 10 (3)

Biruk D 2014 The Constraints of Honey Production Performance in Beekeeping Cooperatives Case Study of KilliteAwlaloWoreda Mekelle University MA thesis httpsopendocsidsacukopendocsbitstreamhandle1234567894730The20Constraints20of20Honey20Production20Performance20in20Beekeeping20Cooperativespdfsequence=1

Bradbear N 2003 Beekeeping and sustainable livelihoods FAO Rome Central Statistical Agency National Statistics (CSA) 2014 Agricultural sample survey

Area and production of major crops CSA 2014 Average Retail Price (December 2014) of Goods and Services by Region

and Selected Market Places Averages of Addis Ababarsquos prices CSA 2015 Agricultural sample survey Report on livestock and livestock

characteristics Volume II CSA 2017 Agricultural sample survey Report on livestock and livestock

characteristics Volume II FAO 2006 Economic Valuation of Pollination Services Review of Methods FAO viale

delle Terme di Caracalla Roma 00100 Italia Girma D 1998 Non-Wood Forest Products in Ethiopia FAO Ethiopia AddisAbaba

httpwwwfaoorgdocrep003X6690EX6690E00htm Gutierrez PH Dalsted NL 2012 Break-Even Method of Investment Analysis

Colorado State University Farm and Ranch Series|Economic Fact Sheet No 3759 httpextensioncolostateedutopic-areasagriculturebreak-even-method-of-investment-analysis-3-759-2top

Jacobs F Simoens de Graaf D Deckers J 2006 Scope of non wood forest product income generation from rehabilitation areas Focus on beekeeping Journal of the Drylands1 (2)

237

OXFAM GB 2011 Engaging smallholders in value chains program insights httpwwwoxfamblogsorgeastafricawp-contentuploads201009pi-engaging-smallholders-in-value-chains-110411-enpdf

Tauer LW 2000 Investment analyses in agriculture Cornell University httpsageconsearchumnedubitstream147631sp0003pdf

Teweldemedhn Gebretinsae 2012 Honeybee Production Systems Constraints and Opportunities in Werieleke Woreda of Tigray in Ethiopia Mekelle University MSC thesis

Teweldemedhn G and Yayneshet T 2014 Honeybee colony marketing practices in Werieleke district of Tigray region Ethiopia IBRA Vol 91(2)

The World Future Council 2017 World Future Council awards international prize for best policies to combat desertification in China httpswwwworldfuturecouncilorgfpa-2017-ceremony-press-release

UNCTAD 2006 The African Honey Trade Unlocking the Potential Bees for Development httpunctadorgsectionswcmudocsc1EM32p34pdf

University of Florida 1992 A Study in Profitability for a Mid-Sized Beekeeping Operation httpufdcimagesuflibufleduUF0007712200001AA08900PDF

Yetimwork G Birhan T Desalegn B 2015 Characterization of bee-keeping systems and honey marketing in Eastern zone Tigray Ethiopia Livestock Research for Rural Development Volume 26 httpwwwlrrdorglrrd2610yeti26175htm

238

Annex Methods and approaches applied in the analyses

1 Costs due to depreciation of equipment and shed

Assuming 5 for shed and 10 for equipment scrap values and 10 years project life

spam the rate of depreciation on the beekeeping shed and equipment were calculated

as follows

Depreciation on shed () = (original cost - scrap value)100

(lifetimeoriginal cost)

Depreciation on Equipment () =

(original cost - scrap value)100

(lifetime original cost)

2 Cost of production of honey (CP)

The production cost of a unit of extracted honey is estimated as a summation of all fixed

and variable costs of beekeeping and honey production

CP = sumX

V

Where

X-stands for all variable and fixed costs incurred in a year for producing V amount

of honey

V-stands for total volume of honey produced in a year which is calculated as the

product of unit average yield per year multiplied by number of colonies managed

3 Sales price (SP)

SP = CP + CPPM PM =Profit margin which is set at 50

= CP + CP50100

4 Net annual profit (NP)

NP = (SP- CP)V

5 Breakeven

Breakeven production =

Total fixed Costs

Sales Price of honey - Variable Costs per unit of honey


Net Present Value (NPV) = Total Net Present Value of Revenues-Total Net Present

Value of Costs

239

n

n

t

n

t

r

CtRt

NPV

1

1 1

Where r - Stands for interest rate

n- Stands for time equivalent (year)

R- Revenues

C- Costs


IRR = r1+(r2-r1)(NPV1) (NPV1-NPV2)

Where IRR = Internal Rate of Return

r1 = Interest Rate at which Net Present Value is positive

r2 = Interest Rate at which Net Present Value is negative

NPV1 = Net Present Value at r1


8 Payback period (PB)

PB (Year) = Total investment (ETB)

Net annual profit (ETBYear)



estimate the contribution of honeybeesrsquo pollination service to annual production of some

cultivated crops in Ethiopia during the production year 201314 as

Where

R ndashstands for contribution of honeybees to production of the crops (quintal)

P ndash Stands for crop production in the year 201314 (quintal)

I ndash Stands for dependence of the crops on insect pollination

B- Stands for the proportion of insect pollinators of the crops that are honeybees

The annual economic contribution (Eb) of honeybeesrsquo pollination service on these

selected crops was further estimated by the model

R = P x I x B

Eb =RE

240

Where

Eb ndash Stands for annual economic contribution (ETB)

E- Stands for market value of each crop (ETBQuintal)

241

Assessment of colony carrying capacity and factors responsible for low production and productivity of beekeeping in Horro Guduru Wollega Zone of

Oromia Ethiopia

Kibebew Wakjira and Alemayehu Gela Oromia Agricultural Research Institute

Holeta Bee Research Center Holeta Ethiopia

Email wkibebewgmailcomampalemaygbyahoocom Abstract The study was conducted in Horro Guduru Wolega Zone of Oromia region Ethiopia to

investigate colony carrying capacity and prime factors responsible for the low production and

productivity of beekeeping in the area Individual questioner survey focus group discussions

and field assessment were used to collect the relevant data Moreover data on suitable land

size for beekeeping seasons and frequency of honey harvest months of dearth period for

colonies honey potential of the area number of colonies in one apiary and other issues were

collected Personal observations were also made to the apiary management of the beekeepers

The study revealed that out of 820956 ha land mass of the zone 588 is found to be suitable

for beekeeping Two major honey-harvesting seasons with average frequency of 166 times and

two months long dearth period in between the two seasons were identified Estimated honey

production potential of the zone is about 212 thousand tonsyear with sustaining capacity of

428 bee colonies However the average number of bee colonies managed per apiary was

found to be 259 indicating the overall ratio of actual existing colonies to the carrying capacity of

an apiary is 06 From this analysis production of honey per colony revealed constant over the

last three years with about 42 kilogramscolony in the study areas With the current bee colony

holding size and production level each beekeeper produces about 190 kgyear while it has a

possibility of achieving 516 kg honey per year From this the annual yield loss per individual

beekeeper can be estimated to 327 kg honey which can further explore to over $600 financial

loss Therefore bee colony miss-management over the holding size of individual apiary is

identified as fundamental cause of low production and productivity of beekeeping in the study

area It is recommended that beekeepers should follow the standard apiary setting to utilize the

production potential of their beekeeping endeavor

Beekeeping in Rural Development

Peter John Keating - Apicultural Consultant

Quebec Canada Email keatingxplornetca

Abstract

Beekeeping is often thought of as a very minor part of agriculture and of little value in rural

development However the role of bees in crop production by their pollination is often essential

for greater production and improved quality

242

Beekeeping requires very little investment in most African countries The bees are indigenous

and therefore free (unlike North America) be it honey bees or stingless bees The flowers that

supply food for the bees are abundant and also free The only investment is the cost of a

wooden box in which to keep the bees and this can take many forms

Beekeeping can be carried out very easily by women thus giving greater equality to them in the

community

The principal production for harvesting from the colonies of bees is honey which is a highly

nutritious food This in the first instances will be for the beekeeperrsquos family and later as the

number of colonies increase will provide an income Other products from the colonies will

provide other food sources or materials with which to process into items for household use

This will give rise to extra employment either in the family or in the community The knowledge

of keeping bees also creates an awareness of ecological concern for surrounding flora and

therefore reduces non-ecologic activity

Potential sources of new income in Ethiopia from payment for pollination

services biocontrol agent vectoring and agritourism A comparison with current

practices of Canadian beekeepers

James White M Sc Email jwhite007sympaticoca

J White amp Associates Consulting Erin Ontario Canada

Abstrac

Ethiopia recognizes the value and potential growth opportunity for its agricultural products

specifically honey and its products Beekeeping especially provides a path forward for

entrepreneurial women to improve the welfare and education of families and communities in

rural Ethiopia

The impact of pollination on the value of food production worldwide is estimated at 2500B USD

Payment for pollination services (PPS) is well documented in Canada and is a significant source

of income for apiarists With the exception of South Africa PPS in Ethiopia is neither a common

practice nor well documented

Coffee represents $784MUSD or 24 of the value of the Ethiopian exports in 2016 Coffee

requires insect pollination yet beekeepers are not paid for the benefit coffee producers gain in

production The literature review will summarize the relative value of pollination services for

crops in Canada reference a model for calculating the value of PPS and apply the model of

PPS for Ethiopian coffee In addition we introduce the concept of the benefits of agro-tourism

that Ethiopia could access in the beekeeping and coffee industry with examples of agro-tourism

in the Canadian market Agro-tourism and eco-tourism have the potential of improving the

awareness and understanding of sustainable production in the marketing of Ethiopian coffee to

its export customers

Keywords Pollination services coffee production biocontrol agent vectoring sustainable

agriculture agritourism Canada Ethiopia

INTRODUCTION

243

Production of honey and bee products is the usual first mention for beekeeping

commercial activities However the impact of pollination by bees and other insects on

food production for livestock and humans far outweighs the commercial value of honey

and bee products The impact of pollination on the value of worldwide food production

is estimated at $2500 billion USD1 Payment for pollination services is relatively

common in North America Western Europe Australia New Zealand Japan India

Philippines and South Africa The practice of payment for pollination services (PPS) is

growing in both recognition and practice in Brazil Argentina and southern Europe With

the exception of South Africa PPS is neither practiced nor well documented in the

continent of Africa3

PPS in Canada is well documented for a number of oil seed horticultural and tree fruit

crops In 2016 PPS represented $193 billion USD$ compared to the value of honey

products in Canada valued at $180 million USD2

Coffee production employs 25 of the Ethiopian population Coffee (Coffea arabica

and Coffea canephora is the principal cash crop in Ethiopia and represents 24 of the

value of the countries export value at $784 million USD4

It is well documented that coffeasp requires insect pollination7 151617 yet beekeepers

are not paid for the benefit derived by coffee producers nor do coffee producers benefit

from increased quality and increased yields resulting from bee pollination39

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This paper is a literature review with supplementary research from face to face

interviews with researchers and commercial operators in Canada

RESULTS

There is excellent availability of published papers on the importance of insect pollination

in Canadian agriculture as well as both species of coffee

Statistics Canada and the Canadian Association of Professional Apiarists regularly

update production statistics for honey and pollination services26

The 2016 statistics for Canada are

244

The Canadian Association of Professional Apiarists have adopted a research-based

methodology in estimating the economic value of pollination services by honey bees56

bull The value of honey bee to agriculture = V x D x P

bull V annual value of the crop attributable to honey bee activity

bull D dependency of the crop on insect pollinators

bull P proportion of (effective) insect pollinators of the crop that are honey

bees

bull The dependency factor D was calculated according to the following formula for

crops where data could be found in studies on crop pollination

bull D = (Yo -Yc)Yo where

bull Yo open pollinated yield or yield in cages with bees provided

bull Yc yield in cages without insects

bull In using the dependency factor only the value of the yield above what would be

obtained in the absence of honey bees is considered not the entire value of the

245

crop In the case of crops that benefit from insect pollination in more ways than

increases in yield such as improved quality and uniformity an arbitrary value of

01 was added to the calculated D-value

bull Except when a P-value for a particular crop could be found in the literature

Robinson et al (1989) assigned P the value of 08 which was based on the

widely accepted estimate that honey bees account for at least 80 of all

pollinators For crops that normally have a presence of bee hives for pollination

or honey production a coefficient of 01 was added to the P-value to reflect the

higher density of honey bees

Ethiopiarsquos commercial resources for export total in 2014 at $313 billion USD4

More than 65 of this amount is directly attributed to agricultural products of which

coffee is the single largest category valued at $784 million USD4

Recent research in Uganda regarding farmerrsquos perceptions of pollinatorsrsquo importance in

coffee production reveals a high degree of awareness and sensitivity regarding

ecosystems Coffee farmers in Uganda did not have a strong understanding of the role

and importance of bees in pollination for coffee production19 It was observed that more

246

than 90 of the small-scale coffee growers did not understand the value of pollination

services The ability of coffee farmers to identify and differentiate bees from other

insects was highly variable based on geography

Researchers have demonstrated repeatedly and in a variety of coffee growing regions

globally the importance of pollination in the quality and quantity of coffee berries

produced Honey bees while not the sole source of insect pollination are the primary

insects involved in coffee pollination Coffee growers can expect crop yield

improvements of 10-20 by insect pollination rather than simply relying on wind7 C

arabica fruitset increased 22 higher with bee pollination1516 C canephora increased

fruit set by 251517 compared with wind and autogamy pollination C canephora like C

arabica were primarily pollinated by Apis spp Honeybees capability in pollination for a

range of other horticultural crops and oil seeds is well documented

Precision agriculture and its role in sustainable agriculture by minimizing the use of

insecticides fungicides and plant growth regulators is increasingly important in food

production strategies Precision agriculture can take many forms and applications

Researchers at the University of Guelph and NSERC -Canpolin Canadian Pollination

Initiative have developed and demonstrated commercial applications of antifungal

agents using Apis mellifera20 The process is described as Pollinator Biocontrol Vector

Technology (PBVT) The initial research demonstrated that honeybees could also

deliver antagonistic fungus to strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) blossoms Plant

pathogens insect pests and stacking of these production limiting agents can be

successfully delivered to flowers by the honeybee21 The production improvements can

be measured and directly attributed to the impact of honeybees on their pollination visits

with PBVT

247

21

Ecotourism in Ethiopia represents 55 of the GDP in 2006 Consistent growth of

ecotourism continues in Ethiopia Primary sources of revenue in ecotourism currently

rely on wildlife historical sites and natural wonders10111213 Agritourism is relatively

new in the portfolio of ecotourism in Ethiopia Like Ethiopia Canada has wildlife

248

historical sites and natural wonders and a small but growing agritourism industry An

example of agritourism in Canada that has its foundation on bee pollination is the

production of cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon Vaccinium oxycoccos) Cranberries

require insect pollination and honeybees are the preferred pollinators Johnstonrsquos

Cranberries ndash Muskoka Lakes Winery in Ontario Canada have capitalized on

cranberries to create a multifaceted farming opportunity8 One of the strategic elements

of their cranberry business is the honeybee Farm tours with an educational

perspective for customers of cranberry products including cranberry wine are provided

to support the agritourism experience Interpretive maps posted educational signs

along walking trails are provided for customerstourists Solar powered electric fences

around the bee yard are to deter foraging blacks bears from the hives

Caption herehellip

DISCUSSION

249

Ethiopian policy makers and agricultural extension staff have an important role in the

education process for both beekeepers and coffee farmers Cooperatives in Ethiopia

may provide an important role in the delivery of the education process to create

awareness understanding and preference in beekeeping and pollination services in key

crop growing areas

In this paper three opportunities are identified that can be developed individually or in

combination between beekeepers and coffee producers Firstly PPS while a relatively

novel concept with education of both beekeepers and coffee farmers can positively

impact both parties The challenges are not limited to simply education of the

beekeepers and coffee farmers Indigenous bees can be difficult to handle with a

strong tendency to absconding or migration Infrastructure in the form of moving bees

from coffee farms to other sources of blossoms is not a simple task Pottery and tree

hives dominate the equipment used by Ethiopian bee keepers and do not lend

themselves easily for plantation or forest situation

Secondly the use of bees in Pollinator Biocontrol Vector Technology (PBVT) is new and

novel An understanding of coffee plant pests and suitable preventative or therapeutic

agents to mitigate losses in coffee production needs further research and development

using honeybees The concept has been proven in other plants with a variety of pests

and pathogens

Thirdly agritourism has a relatively low barrier of entry for bee keepers farmers and

cooperatives to source new revenues Agritourism links the associated commercial

activity while strengthening brands of honey and coffee if the agritourism experience is

well delivered to the tourist

CONCLUSIONS

Increased commercialization opportunities for Ethiopian bee keepers requires education

and financial investments Research documenting increases in both coffee production

and quality of the coffee berry resulting from pollination services using honeybees has

potential for improving income for both beekeepers and coffee farmers The critical

question is how much investment in strategy and delivery for an opportunity of $784-

1568 million USD is realistic

More immediate is the development of agritourism opportunities to support Ethiopiarsquos

international and domestic brand of honey honey products and coffee

Longer term is the development of biocontrol vector agent technology The rewards in

terms of sustainable agriculture with precision agriculture can positively impact the

financial position of both coffee producers and bee keepers

Individually and collectively the three identified opportunities will enable the Ethiopian

beekeeper to support sustainable agriculture positively effect poverty alleviation and

improve food security for Ethiopians

250

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to Melanie Crutchley White and Gillian Vanderburgh for providing comments

and edits in the development of the paper and presentation

This research was supported by Canadian Executives Serving Overseas (CESO)

REFERENCES

1) Huffington Post Canadian Press Montreal 07092011 Pollinators Worth $250 Billion Scientist Claims

2) Horticulture and Cross Sectoral Division Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada November 2017 Statistical Overview of the Canadian Honey and Bee Industry and the Economic Contribution of Honey Bee Pollination 2016 pg 20

3) Bosselmann AS Hanstead L November 2014 Payments for pollination services ndash an unexplored opportunity for African beekeepers pg 1-4

4) OEC 2016 Atlas mediamiteduenprofilecountryeth 2016

5) Robinson WS Nowogrodzak I Morse RA 1989 The Monetary Value of Honey Bee as Pollinators of US Crops part 2 American Bee J 129477-487

6) Morse RA Calsderone NV (2000) The value of honey bees as pollinators of US Crops in 2000 Bee Culture 128 1-16

7) Kevan P Pollination may yield better and more coffee Tea and Coffee Trade Journal 2014 pg 16

8) Personnel communication Johnstonrsquos Cranberry Marsh 2018

9) Bosselmann A S Hansted L Payments for pollination services ndash an unexplored opportunity for African beekeepers

10) Bosselmann AS Hansted L Exploring opportunities and constraints for payments for pollination services in Africa Apimondia 2015 Daejon

11) Henze PB An Ethiopian Journal ndash Ecotourism in Ethiopia Feb 2007

12) UNWTO Ethiopia ndash tourism key to promoting development July 23 2014

13) UNWTO eLibrary Country specific arrivals of non resident tourists at national borders by country of residence 2012-2016

14) Ngo HT Mojica AC Packer L Coffee plant ndash pollinator interactions a review Can J Zool 898 647-660 2011

15) Amaral E 1960 Influence of insects on pollination of caturra coffee Rev Agr 35 139-147

16) Klein AM Steffan-Dewenter I Buchron D Tscharntke T 2002 Effects of land use intensity in tropical agroforestry systems on coffee flowering visiting and trap-nesting bees and wasps Conserv Biol 16(4) 1003-1014 doi 101046j1523-1739 2002

17) Klein AM Steffan-Dewenter I Tscharntke T Bee pollination and fruit set of Coffea arabica and C canephora (Rubiaceae) Am J B OT 909(10 153-1572003

251

18)httpswwwnestlecomasset-librarydocumentslibrarydocumentscorporate_governancecode_of_business_conduct_enpdf

19) Munyuli T Farmersrsquo perceptions of pollinators importance in coffee production in Uganda Agricultural Sciences Vol 2 No 3 318-333 2011

20) Kevan P Shipp L Thomas VG Whatrsquos the buzz Jan 22 2014

21) Kevan P Alliances between beneficial insects plants fungi to pollinate protect and promote crop production School of Environmental Sciences University of Guelph ON Canada October 1 2010

252

Presentations in final plenary session

253

OXFAM ndash Elise Nalbandian Email enalbandianoxfamorguk

ldquoGROW campaign and award to female food producersrdquo

This topic was presented by Elise Nalbandian of OXFAM in Ethiopia The presenter

explained the rationale behind the GROW campaign and the priorities of the country

programme in Ethiopia She also explained that each country has its own GROW

priorities and Ethiopiarsquos are three-fold namely resilience in agriculture sustainable

livelihoods in chronic drought affected areas and sustainable pastoral livelihoods She

then went on discussing the Female Food Hero (FFH) award program the concept

behind it and Ethiopiarsquos context in this regard She ended her presentations by

discussing what has worked well during the campaign implementation and the lessons

learned

EAB ndash Dr Nuru Adgaba Email nuruadgabagmailcom

ldquoPromoting the role of bee pollination in crop production and ecosystem

functioning under local conditionsrdquo

Dr Nuru pointed at the challenges in the role of bee pollination under the local

conditions and recommended major focal areas to change the current unfavorable

scenario Some of the suggested focal areas are giving due attention to pollination

research estimating the value of pollination services of bees in the national economy

integration of beekeeping with crop production and incorporating of pollination in the

education system He then discussed the migration of honey bee colonies for pollination

service and honey production The experience of Saudi Arabia which effectively utilizes

this method by migrating bee colonies up to eight times a year was highlighted by Dr

Nuru and he suggested that Ethiopia can also utilize the method on forests that do not

get enough pollination services

Finally Dr Nuru reminded the audience that a number of conditions have to be met

before actual migration with bees can take place mainly in the area of infrastructure

and crop flowering forecasts but also in the veterinary field in order to avoid spreading

diseases and parasites

APIMONDIA ndash David Mukomana Email dmukomanagmailcom

ldquoWhere to for Africardquo

The third presentation was by David Mukomana President of the APIMONDIA Africa

Regional Commission (ARC) The presentation title was Mr Mukomana started his

presentation by thanking Ato Mulufird Ashagrie the first president of ARC for what he

did during his presidency and after Mr Mukomana said Africa as a continent has to ask

the following questions-

What lessons have we learned

254

What are we taking back home

What difference are we going to make in our sector

What report are we going to take to Montreal next year

Where to from here for Africa

He then pointed out what must be done in key focus areas such as creating awareness

forming sub-regional hubs conducting a baseline survey youth initiatives and women

in apiculture He then concluded his presentation by appreciating the symposium and

congress platforms given by APIMONDIA to meet with and surround ourselves with

those who value the lsquodiamond in us as Africarsquo

255

Plenary closing session

NASOC ndash Negash Bekena

rsquorsquoSummary and outlookldquo Email nbtb1963yahoocom

The first speaker of the plenary official closing was Negash Bekana of NASOC who is

also the General Manager of the Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB) He informed the

audience that the closing ceremony consisted of three speeches and female

beekeepers food heroesrsquo award Negash said that 991 apiculturists from 25 countries

attended the symposium and 12 of the countries are African countries He expressed

his hope that every participant has learned something to take home that may help to

improve their actions in their future endeavors He hailed the quality of the papers

presented and the quality of participation from the attendees and urged participants to

organize and share the knowledge they gained from the symposium to colleagues and

beneficiaries He thanked the attendees who took long trips to make it to the symposium

and the development partners who contributed a lot to the realization of the symposium

He concluded his remarks by urging APIMONDIA to give the chance of hosting the

2023 Apimondia congress to Africa

Judges ndash Female Food Hero Award

ldquoBest performing females best performing regionsldquo

The female beekeepers food herorsquos award followed Ato Negashrsquos remarks The

representative of the judges explained the criteria of selection and awarding of the

winners in detail Melat Gebrehiwot from Tigray region won the award in the bdquoAdvanced

Beekeepersldquocategory Aberash Tessema Leila Haji and Yitayish Beyen of SNNP

Oromia and Amhara regions respectively won awards in the bdquoEmerging

Beekeepersldquocategory

The ldquoBest performing regionldquoaward went to the Southern Nations Nationalities and

Peoples region Development partners were also recognized for the contributions they

made

APITRADE AFRICA- Harun Baya Email harun_baiyasitenetorg

ldquoPromise to disseminate the learningsldquo

The speech that followed the award ceremony was that of Harun Baya President of

APITRADE Africa Mr Baya hailed the contribution of Ethiopia in the formation and

strengthening of APITRADE and appreciated the success of the current symposium

saying it has set the bar high

256

He further hailed the practical and easy-to-understand papers presented in the

symposium and promised to disseminate the learnings He also promised to mobilize

Africa to support the 2023 APIMONDIA congress hosting candidacy of Ethiopia and

expressed his organizationrsquos commitment to the visions set in the event He thanked

APIMONDIA for the platform and concluded his remarks by reminding participants that

there is a bright future ahead for apiculture in Africa

APIMONDIA- Dr Peter Kozmus Email peterkozmusczssi

ldquoKnowledge and new ideasldquo

Dr Peter Kozmus Vice President at APIMONDIA made the closing speech He

expressed his satisfaction in the symposium and expressed that beekeepers and

researchers have gained knowledge and new ideas for research from the symposium

He also appreciated the exhibition at Ghion Hotel He closed his remarks by expressing

his happiness that Ethiopia is well prepared to host the APIMONDIA congress in 2023

That concluded the event held in the Conference Hall of the United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa in Addis Ababa

257

Papers that were scheduled for presentation but

were not presented

In this section we are presenting abstracts and full papers that were accepted and

scheduled to be presented but cancelled due to logistical and administrative issues

258

Bee Pollination Service A Veritable Tool for Collaborative Practical Solution for

Agricultural and Industrial Partnerships in Food Production in Kwara State

Nigeria

Ajao A M1 and Oladimeji Y U2

1-College of Pure and Applied Science Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology

Kwara

State University Malete PMB 1530 Ilorin Kwara State Nigeria

adeyemiajaokwasuedung +2348035058904

2- Department of Agricultural Economics Institute for Agricultural Research Faculty of

Agriculture Ahmadu Bello University PMB 1044 Zaria Kaduna State Nigeria e-

mail yusufdimejiyahoocom +2348032220000

Correspondence authorrsquos-mail adeyemiajaokwasuedung

drajaoadeyemigmailcom

Abstract

The work was undertaken to assess Bee Pollination Service (BPS) as a veritable tool for

enhancing collaborative practical solution for agricultural and industrial partnerships in food

production at Kwara State North-Central Nigeria A field survey comprising of questionnaire

administration was conducted on the crop farmers beekeepers and agribusiness industry

managers to assess knowledge attitude perception and adoption of BPS its effects on crop

yield and promotion of industries in 10 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kwara State A total

of 120 crop farmers 50 beekeepers and 50 agro-based product industriesrsquo managers were

randomly sampled The results revealed that 260 of agribusiness industrial managers (54)

beekeepers and (573) crop farmers were between the age of 20 to 30 years while

beekeepers (54) and crop farmers (573) are between 31-40 years respectively

Respondents within the age of 41 to 50 years practiced more of crop farming (573) than bee

keeping (22) and agribusiness industriesrsquo managers (14)The beekeepers rated the level of

BPS information received to be very high (70) However most of the crop farmers (834)

and agro-based industriesrsquo managers (66) rated the level of information received on BPS was

low Similarly the usage and practice of BPS were very high among the beekeepers while it

was observed low among the crop farmers and agri-business industriesrsquo managers The study

recommends the need to enlighten and assist crop farmers through extension agents to imbibe

bee pollination service for insect dependent crop and food production empower apiarists by

training in modern beekeeping and providing adequate equipment and through appropriate loan

facility encourage local agribusiness industries for collaborative partnerships with farmers

beekeepers for improved community service and food security

Keywords Bee pollination servicefarmers crop yield agribusiness industries collaboration

INTRODUCTION

Pollination is a keystone process in both human-managed and natural terrestrial

ecosystems It is critical for food production and human livelihoods and directly links

wild ecosystems with agricultural production systems Pollination is the process of

259

sexual reproduction in plants in which a male sexual cell the pollen grain is transferred

to a female flower of the same species germinates on the receptive stigma and

subsequently fertilizes the female gametophyte These events must occur in order for

pollination to take place results in an increase in agricultural production Without the

process of pollination in agriculture production of the fruits and seeds that form the bulk

of the produce and its variety would not be possible (Roulston and Goodell 2011 Artz

and Nault 2011)

Honey bee (Apis mellifera) considered to be important for agricultural production is a

social insect known as the most economically valuable insect because of its honey

production and pollination activities (Bosch et al 2006 Aslan and Yavuksuz 2010

Brunet and Stewart 2010 Ajao and Oladimeji 2013) In most ecosystems bees

(Hymenoptera Apidae) are the primary pollinators of flowering plants and are essential

for orchard horticultural and forage production as well as the production of seed for

many root and fibre crops (Oladimeji et al 2017 Ajao et al 2018) About two-thirds of

the crop plants that feed the world with many plant-derived medicines rely on

pollination by insects or other animals to produce healthy fruits and seeds (Oladimeji et

al 2017) The benefit of pollination is not limited to availability of abundant fruits nuts

and seeds but also the quality of foodstuffs to human nutritional diversity vitamin

sufficiency and food security (Lawal and Banjo 2010 Charriere et al 2010 Munyuli

2010 2011)

Beale and Bolen (1955) were the first to synthesize research that suggested awareness

was the critical first stage of the agricultural technology diffusion process The

awareness stage was hypothesized to be followed over time by the interest evaluation

trial and finally the adoption stage Awareness can be defined as the stage where an

individual learns of the existence of technology or practice but has little knowledge

about it Rogers (1995) and Stan et al (2003) suggested that awareness and the

formation of attitude is influence by socio-economic characteristics of farming

households Since technological change is typically associated with enhanced

opportunities for greater productivity and income understanding the process by which

environment become aware of and adopt new technologies must be of interest to

farmers beekeepers and agribusiness based managers

Bee Pollination Service (BPS) is a way by which pollination is effected through mobile

beekeeping in which crop growers obtain at a rate healthy populous bee hives from the

beekeeper to help pollinate their crops This is the practice in many developed countries

but poorly understood and less exploited in Nigeria and many other African countries

(Oladimeji et al 2017) Bee pollination service market could provide economic fortune

to the beekeepers farmers and the agro-industries in African countries if fully grasped

260

and applied (Morse and Calderone 2000 Dag and Kammer 2001 DeGrandi-Hoffman

and Chambers 2006 Theis et al 2007 and Charlie 2012)

Appreciating the importance and impact of bee pollination and adopting it for many

crops in various agro-ecologic zones of Nigeria will go a long way in improving crop

production and food security For instance estimates place the annual global value of

pollination services including those of wild and managed bees at $216 billion or about

₦64 trillion per year or 95 of the worldwide annual crop value (Gallai et al 2009

Nkonya et al 2009 Munyuli 2010 Oladimeji et al 2017) According to (Klein et al

2007 Ajao and Oladimeji 2017) an estimated 35 of crop production is as a result of

insect pollination all over the world Bee Pollination Service engaged in for some African

crops help promote the commercial effect of bee pollination with a view to encouraging

both the beekeepers and crop growers embrace commercial bee pollination service in

Nigeria Furthermore BPS fee data indicated an estimated value of $6556 million was

realized in the US in the year 2012 (Brittain and Kremen 2012)

Therefore bee pollination of some African crops will help promote the commercial effect

of bee pollination service with a view to encourage both the beekeepers and crop

growers embrace commercial bee pollination service in Nigeria Appreciating the

importance and impact of Bee Pollination Service (BPS) and adopting it for many crops

in various agro-ecologic zones will go a long way in improving crop production and food

security (Immelmann and Eardley 2000 Klein et al 2007 Winfree et al 2008 Kasina

et al 2009a Carvalheiro et al 2012 Morandin and Kremen 2013 Oladimeji et al

2017 Ajao et al 2018))

Collaborative partnerships are agreements and actions made by

consenting organizations to share resources to accomplish a mutual goal Collaborative

partnerships rely on participation by at least two parties who agree to share resources

such as finances knowledge and people The essence of collaborative partnership is

for all parties involved to mutually benefit from working together There are instances

where collaborative partnerships develop between those in different fields to

supplement one anotherrsquos expertise The relationships between collaborative partners

can lead to long term partnerships that rely on one another (Barry and Horsch 2000

Henderson et al 2000b Binenbaum et al 2001Roubik 2002 Mandelik et al 2012)

Agribusiness industry has been defined by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO

(2008) as the subset of manufacturing that processes raw materials and intermediate

products derived from the agricultural sector It broadly translates as post-harvest

activities involved in the transformation preservation and preparation of products that

originate from agriculture forestry and fisheries for intermediary or final consumption It

encompasses all activities starting from harvests transformation storing and

261

preparation of agricultural raw materials for production or final consumption (Wratten et

al 2012)

The agribusiness industries focus is on production and food processing with the food

industry and entails processing agricultural raw materials into food and beverages

(Menz et al2011) The agribusiness industry is very diverse with hybrid characteristics

and heterogeneous features ranging from the informal contract relations of poor rural

communities to the complex transnational activities of global players (Hoehn et al

2008) Few studies abound in literature most especially for Kwara state Nigeria (Ajao

and Oladimeji 2013 Oladimeji and Ajao 2017 Oladimeji et al 2017 Ajao et al 2018)

on the assessment of beekeepersrsquo bee pollination service its effects on crop

production agribusiness based industries and the inter-play between apiarists crop

farmers and agribusiness based industries as a way for enhancing collaborative efforts

as practical solution for agricultural and industrial partnerships This study was therefore

designed to provide relevant information to fill the gaps in knowledge


The Study Area

Crop farmers beekeepers and agribusiness based managers were randomly selected

from ten Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kwara States Nigeria and constituted the

sample population Pre-test study was conducted before the actual opinion survey The

study was conducted at six apiaries namely (i) KWASU Centre for Bee Training and

Research CBTR Malete (Institutional) (ii) University of Ilorin Apiary Tanke

(Institutional) (iii) College of Education Ilorin Apitherapy Clinic Apiary-Ilorin

(Organizational) (iv) Beekeeping Training and Research Centre BTRC Apiary Buari

(Private) (v) BTRC Apiary AberiAjasse(Private) (vi) YOA Integrated farm Apiary Afon

(Organizational) Small scale private apiaries at ten Local Government Areas (LGAs) of

Kwara State namely Asa (Afon) Baruteen (Okuta) Edu (Lafiagi) Ifelodun (Share)

Ilorin East (Iponrin) Irepodun (Ajasse) Kaiama (Kaiama) Moro (Bode-Saadu) Offa

(Offa) and Patigi (Patigi) were also used The State lies on Latitude 8deg5 1 and 10deg4 1 N

and Longitude 4deg55 1 and 6deg5 1E in North Central Nigeria

Sampling Techniques and Data Collection Opinion survey through structured questionnaire administration and group discussion

with the crop farmers beekeepers and managers of agribusiness based industries was

conducted These were used to assess demographic status knowledge attitude

perception and adoption of BPS its effects on crop yield constraints to its adoption and

availability of agribusiness-based industries and crop farmeragribusiness-based

262

industrial inter-phase promotion A total of 120 farmers 50 beekeepers and 50

managers of agribusiness-based productrsquos industries were randomly sampled To

familiarize with the participants at the study areas a pre-test study was conducted

before the actual opinion survey

Methods of data analysis

Data obtained were subjected to descriptive statistics using the Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS) version 200 (IBM Corp 2011) Values were presented as

frequency percentage tables and chart

The double-difference analytical tool was employed to measure the difference in the

value of output (₦) as a result of adopting bee pollination services The double

difference estimator compares changes in outcome measures (changes from before to

after the adoption of the item) between farmersrsquo participants and nonndashparticipants rather

than simply comparing outcomes levels at one point in time (Oladimeji et al 2017) The

impact of the strategy on an outcome can be estimated by computing a double

difference before and after a project or across subjects between users and non ndash users

of Bee Pollination Services (BPS) Therefore to evaluate the users and non-users

Verners in their double difference estimator model version gave the model as

DD = (1198841198751minus 1198841198750

) minus (1198841198991198751minus 1198841198991198750

) (1)

Where 1198841198751

= Gross margin of users after Bee Pollination Service (BPS)

1198841198750 = Gross margin of users before BPS

1198841198991198751 = Gross margin of non ndash users after BPS

1198841198991198750 = Gross margin of non - users before BPS

Hypotheses for the Independent- Samples t-test of Watermelon and Soybean Farmers

The independent-samples t-test is referred to as a robust test evaluates the difference

between the means of two independent or unrelated groups That is evaluating whether

the means for two independent groups are significantly different from each other The

independent-samples t-test also commonly referred to as a between-groups design can

also be used to analyze control and experimental group The hypotheses for

independent sample t-test for watermelon and soybean farmers were stated below

Watermelon farmers Ho μ1w= μ2w (2) Hα μ1wne μ2w (3) Where μ1w = Mean for the watermelon farmers near the apiary

263

μ2w= Mean for the watermelon away from the apiary Soybean farmers Ho μ1s= μ2s (4) Hα μ1s ne μ2s (5) μ1s = Mean for the soybean farmers near apiary μ2s= Mean for the soybean farmers away from apiary (Oladimeji et al 2017)

RESULTS

Demographic characteristics of the respondents

The age of the respondents (beekeepers crop farmers and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers) ranged from 20 years to above 50 years (Figure 1) Respondents within the age of 20 to 30 years (260) were more of agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers than beekeepers and crop farmers respectively Similarly beekeeping and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers (54 respectively) were more among the respondents within the age range of 31 to 40 years On the other hand respondents within the age of 41 to 50 years practiced more of crop farming (573) than bee keeping (22) and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers (14) respectively However only 6 of the respondents above 50 years are agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers Beekeeping (20) and crop farming (187) were mostly practiced by the respondents above 50 years

The result of this study shows that the males participated in agricultural practices (beekeeping crop farming and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers) in the study area than the females (Table 1) However the females participated more in crop farming (20) and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo management (10) than beekeeping Also the respondents agreed to be experienced in the type of agricultural practice they adopt Most of the respondents in the three agricultural sectors (40 to 70) had about 6 to 10 years of experience in their practice

Figure 1 Age of the respondents

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

20-30 31-40 41-50 gt50

Pe

rce

nta

ge (

)

Age of respondents (Years)

Beekeepers

Crop famers

Agric-based industriesrsquo managers

264

Only the crop farmers had some respondents with no formal education (8) A higher

percentage of the crop farmers had secondary education (467) while 333 had

tertiary education On the other hand respondents with tertiary education were higher

(60 each) among the beekeepers and the agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers

Similarly the respondents agreed to have other subsidiary occupation such as trading

artisanal and civil service in addition to their agricultural practices

Respondentsrsquo Awareness Attitude and Knowledge of Bee Pollination Service

(BPS)

Table 2 represents the respondentsrsquo awareness attitude and knowledge of bee

pollination service (BPS) Most of the respondents agree to the fact that they are aware

of honey bees and some other insects as pollinators Similarly they are aware of the

importance of bee pollination in the improvement of crop yield and hence increasing

farm income Although the bulk of framers are not aware of the BPS but had a positive

attitude and the knowledge and willingness to imbibe BPS (43) because of belief that

BPS enhance crop yield (430) and increase productivity (39) Results in Table 2 also

showed that farmersrsquo knowledge about BPS could have multiplier effects by enhancing

access to land for farming (39) improve and increase investment in agriculture (43)

increases diversification of likelihood (40) and could bring about residual increase in

your farm (40) However access to BPS through extension service was rated poor by

sampled farmers (25) and the majority of the respondents assumed that BPS is not

simple to adopt (Oadimeji et al (2017) These results are similar and comparable to the

studies of Munyui (2011) and Gallai et al (2009)

Table 1 Demographic of the respondents

Variable Range Beekeepers

()

Crop Farmers () Agribusiness

()

Gender Male 92 80 90

Female 8 20 10

Experience

(years)

1-5 20 147 30

6-10 70 473 40

11-15 10 38 30

Education (years) No Formal 0 8 0

Primary 10 12 0

Secondary 30 467 40

265


()


()

Tertiary 60 333 60

Subsidiary Trading 30 567 30

occupation Artisan 36 233 0

Govt job 30 10 46

Others 4 10 24

Total () 100 100 100

Agribusiness-BIM = Agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers Source Field survey 2018 Knowledge and Attitude towards Acceptance and Adoption of BPS The source of information on bee BPS according to the respondents emanated from

some informal sources agricultural extension services and non-governmental

organizations among others (Table 3) The beekeepers agreed that the level of BPS

information received was very high (70) and high (30) However most of the crop

farmers (834) and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers (66) responded that

the level of information they received on BPS was low

Table 2 Farmersrsquo Awareness and Knowledge of Bee Pollination Service (BPS)

Statements on BPS related (pooled data) n=160 Weighted scores Mean

scor

e

SA A UD D SD

Honey bee is an insect pollinator 315 328 12 12 5 42

Aware of other insect pollinators 280 268 63 18 7 40

crops attract bees to the crops for interaction 280 160 96 38 13 37

Bees visiting crop flowers are from wild or

managed bees living around crop fields

380 188 12 42 5 39

Crops flower visitorsinsects are mutually beneficial 315 152 87 36 12 38

Bees and other insect pollinators play important

role in fruit seed and pod set

237 150 92 48 14 34

Crop yield cannot be obtained without participation

of pollinating insects

205 148 183 28 5 36

Harvest is reduced if bees and other insects do

not pollinate flowers of crops

260 156 87 54 13 36

Awareness of BPS 180 156 93 76 16 33

Willingness in BPS by farmers after explaining the

explicit meaning of BPS

445 188 45 12 3 43

266


scor

e

SA A UD D SD

BPS enhance crop yield 415 208 51 12 2 43

Uses of BPS improve adoption 250 304 36 38 3 39

Uses of BPS enhances access to land for farming 235 252 108 24 2 39

Access to BPS through extension serv 75 40 66 202 14 25

BPS improves investment in agric 460 188 21 18 5 43

Beekeeping amp BPS increases diversification of

livelihood

320 228 54 30 6 40

BPS are simple to adopt 150 176 30 100 26 30

BPS could bring about a residual increase in your

farm income

335 208 51 34 7 40

Source Oladimeji et al (2017) Likert-type scale Strongly Agree (SA) =5 Agree (A) =4 Undecided (UND) =3 Disagree (D) =2 Strongly Disagree (SD) =1 Similarly the usage and practice of BPS was very high among the beekeepers On the

other hand the usage and practice of BPS was low among the crop farmers and

agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers None of the agribusiness-based industriesrsquo

managers has practiced BPS while only 13 of the crop farmers responded to have

been practicing BPS for 1 to 5 years However the beekeepers agreed to have been

practicing BPS for a period of 1 to 10 years The crop farmers and the agribusiness-

based industriesrsquo managers however responded that there was the inadequacy of

intervention programmed on the BPS

Table 3 Responses on Knowledge and Attitude towards Acceptance and Adoption of

BPS

Variables Ranked Beekeepers ()

Crop Farmers ()

Agribusiness ()

Information of BPS Informal 10 30 30 Extension 50 167 10 NGOs 30 0 40 Others 10 533 20 Level of information Very high 70 33 4 High 30 133 30 Low 0 834 66 Usage and Practice Very high 60 0 0 High 30 10 20 Low 10 90 80 Period of BPS practice

None 0 987 100

(years) 10-5 90 13 0 51-10 10 0 0

267

gt10 0 0 0 Inadequacy of Very high 20 100 100 Intervention program High 80 0 0 on BPS Total 100 100 100

Agribusiness-BIM = Agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers Source Survey 2018 Gross Margin Analysis

The mean gross margin of users and non-users of BPS in both crop sectors indicated in Table 4 shows that farmers who used BPS had a higher gross margin There was 1 statistically significant difference in the profitability of BPS users than nonndashusers in both farming units The t-values for watermelon and soybean farmers were 71 and 292 respectively Table 4 Difference in Gross Margins of users and Non ndash users of BPS

Items Watermelon Soybean Users non-users Users non-users

Mean (Nigerian Naira) 12055050 987505 1356004 1095000 Mean (US Dollar equivalent) 72186 59132 81199 65569 Variance 63203 39070 10046 6984 Observations 17 63 31 49 Pooled Variance 1109502 2064100 Hypothesized Mean Difference

10792 3428

Df 78 78 t Stat 70946 292092

Source Oladimeji Ajao and Abdulsalam 2017 Effect of Bee Pollination Services on Gross Margin of Users versus Non-users The mean difference between Gross Margin of users and non-users of watermelon and

soybean farmers as a result of BPS in Table 5 had a positive mean difference of

₦218000 (1305 USD) and ₦261004 (1563 USD) respectively The p-value of double

difference estimators of watermelon and soybean were statistically significant at 1

with t-values of 406 and 1392 respectively

Table 5 Double difference result of BPS practice on users and non-users (Naira)

Crops Variable Mean Std Dev t-value SE p-value

Watermelon DD 2387004 11013 406 104 00002

Soybean DD 290752 4687 1392 66 00006

Source Oladimeji Ajao and Abdulsalam 2017 Note N167 = 1 USDollar Crop farmersrsquo constraints on adoption and application of BPS

268

The responses of crop farmers on the constraints encountered on the adoption and

application of BPS are shown in Table 6 Low level of farmersrsquo awareness of the

importance of BPS in crop yield improvement had the highest ranking among the

constraints This was followed by the lack of relevant knowledge and skill to

successfully take up BPS The farmers also identified the provision of needed education

and awareness-raising for targeted key pollinated crops as well as outreach program

training needs on beepollinator conservation and promotion of pollination service as

constraints to the adoption and application of the BPS Also the respondents advocated

that organizations and institutions should encourage farmers to grow flower-rich crops

and fodder trees to attract bee to crops and boost honey production and high crop yield

Crop farmeragribusiness-based industrial inter-phase at the study area

Table 7 shows the inventory of crop farmeragribusiness-based industrial inter-phase

and their products at the ten local government areas of Kwara state studied Such

agribusiness-based industries include cassava resource and processing cashew

processing root and tuber production and extension services rice production maize

groundnut and soybean production and sale Also yam flour mill as well as youth

integrated development farm including the training extension service production and

sale of food crops were present within the study area

Table 6 Responses on crop farmersrsquo Constraints on adoption and application of BPS

Constraints items Weighted

score

Mean

score

Ranking

Low level of farmers awareness of the

importance of BPS in crop yield improvement

650 43 1st

Lack of relevant knowledge and skill to

successfully take up BPS

605 4 2nd

Enhance farmers adopting a system that will

protect and conserve Pollinators from physical

chemical and biological agents

450 3 3rd

Providing needed education and awareness-

raising for targeted key pollinated crops

415 28 4th

Provide through outreach program training

needs on beepollinator conservation and

promotion of pollination service

355 24 5th

Organizations and institutions should

encourage farmers to grow flower-rich crops

and fodder trees to attract bee to crops and

350 23 6th

269


score

Mean

score

Ranking

boost honey production and high crop yield

Source Survey 2018

Table 7 Inventory of crop farmeragribusiness-based industrial inter-phase at the study

area

SN Location Agribusiness-based

Industry

Nature amp Products

1 Sango (Ilorin East

LGA)

Cassava Resource amp

Technology Transfer

Centre(CRTTC)

Cassava collection point

processing extension service

and sale

2 Offa (Offa LGA) Cassava Processing

Factory


processing and sale

3 Osi (Isin LGA) Cassava Processing

Industry


processing and sale

4 Ogbondoroko

(Asa LGA)

Cashew Processing

Industry

Cashew nut collection point

processing into nuts edible oils

local sale and exporting

5 Ajasse-ipo

(Irepodun LGA)

Root and Tubers

Expansion

Program(RTEP)

Production extension service

and sale of cassava potatoes

and yam tubers

6 Duku-Lade(Patigi

LGA)

Shonga Farm Holding

Limited

Irrigated rice production

extension service and sale

7 Shonga (Edu

LGA)

Shonga Farms Production of maize soybeans


8 Okuta (Baruteen

LGA)

Yam Flour Mills Collection point processing and

sale of yam flour

9 Share (Ifelodun

LGA)

Groundnut Processing

Mills

Collection point processing and

sale of groundnut

10 Malete (Moro

LGA)

Integrated Youth

Development Farm

Settlement

Training extension service

production and sale of food crops

such as maize soybeans guinea

270


Industry

Nature amp Products

corn amp groundnuts

LGA = Local Government Area Source Survey 2018

DISCUSSION The result of this study shows that the males participated more in agricultural practices

like beekeeping crop farming and agribusiness industries and had the advantage of

promoting BPS for increased crop yield for effective food processing industries for food

security based on their wide range of experience in the type of agricultural practice they

adopt These findings are in agreement with the studies of (Akanbi et al 2011 Ajao

and Oladimeji 2017 Oladimeji et al 2017) that most Nigerian farmers in their

productive age are male dominated and had gained wide experience in farming A

higher percentage of the crop farmers had secondary and tertiary education which aids

their type of primary and subsidiary occupation Respondents with tertiary education

were higher among the beekeepers (with the ability to acquire adopt and practice BPS

effectively) and the agribusiness industriesrsquo managers who subsequently depend for

raw materials from crop farmers aided by BPS for increased crop yield

Most of the respondents are aware that honey bees and some other insects are

pollinators of major crops most especially insect-dependent crops and recognize the


farm income and increase raw materials for agribusiness industries This result

corroborates the studies of Menz et al (2011)Mandelik et al (2012) and Wratten et al

(2012) The result of the study revealed the interaction between the beekeepers

providing BPS the crop farmers needing it for increased crop production and the

agrbusiness-based industries needing the products from the farms as raw materials for

the respective industries at the study area This finding is corroborated by the studies by

Barry and Horsch (2000) Buurma and Boselie (2000) Binenbaum et al (2001)Hazell

and Haddad (2001) Michelsen (2003) which imply that the relationships between

collaborative partners can lead to long term partnerships that rely on one another

On the source of information on bee pollination service (BPS) the study showed that the

beekeepers receipt of information use and practice BPS is very high but low for the

crop farmers and agribusiness-based industriesrsquo managers as none of the agribusiness-

based industriesrsquo managers have practiced BPS The inadequacy of intervention

program on the BPS practices necessitates improved enlighten ways of increasing

awareness to these groups This result is in line with the works of Baijnath et al1983

271

Crane and Walker 1984) who similarly observed that bee pollination service market

could provide economic fortune to the beekeepers farmers and the agribusiness-

industries in African countries if fully grasped and applied (Browning 2013)

The result of this study revealed three major groups of agribusiness namely cassava

cashew and yam processing and agribusiness industries needing farm crops as raw

materials and by extension effective BPS by beekeeper for crop farmers as enumerated

in Table 5 The result also revealed the fourth group Mills- Duku-Lade Shonga Farm

Holding Limited for Irrigated rice production extension service processing and sale

Shonga farm holding limited for Production of maize soybeans extension service

processing and sale Okuta Yam Flour Mills for Collection point processing and sale of

yam flour and Share Groundnut Processing Mills for Collection point processing and

sale of groundnut The result of this study on agribusiness industries is corroborated by

the observations made by Henson and Cranfield (2009) and Marsden and Maurizio

(1998) that the agribusiness industries focus on production and food processing with

the food industry and entails processing agricultural raw materials into food and

beverages (FAO 1997 2009) It encompasses all activities starting from harvests

transformation storing and preparation of agricultural raw materials for production or

final consumption (Wohlmuth and Kormawa 2012)

It is evidence that the difference in gross margin could be attributed to BPS as observed

in the double difference evaluation method used The difference in Gross Margin was

statistically significant at 1 level for both farmers It is therefore obvious that there was

an impact of BPS on usersrsquo farmers in the study area This corroborates the studies of

Munyuli 2010 and 2011 who observed a positive significant difference between BPS of

users and non-usersrsquo income in Uganda The study therefore revealed that BPS

technology had a significant impact on the users in the study area based on the

improvement in their net farm income

On the constraints encountered on the adoption and application of BPS the study

revealed the low level of farmersrsquo awareness of the importance of BPS in crop yield

improvement was most critical constraint followed by lack of relevant knowledge and

skill to successfully take up BPS The result on constraints is similar to findings of

Oladimeji et al (2017) among identified constraints on adoption and application of BPS

among watermelon and soybean farmers in Kwara state Nigeria In addition

Immelmann and Eardley (2000) established lack of relevant knowledge and skill to

successfully take up BPS in South Africa

272

CONCLUSION

Appreciating the importance and impact of Bee Pollination Service (BPS) and adopting

it for many crops in various agro-ecologic zones of Nigeria will go a long way in

improving crop production adequate raw materials for agribusiness-based industries

thereby transforming rural areas into what could be called zones of economic prosperity

and abundant food security

Recommendations 1 The study recommends the need to enlighten and assist crop farmers through

extension agents to imbibe bee pollination service for insect dependent crop production

Empower apiarists by training in modern beekeeping and providing adequate equipment

and through appropriate credit facility and encourage local agribusiness-based

industries for collaborative partnerships with farmers beekeepers

2 Provision of needed education and awareness-raising for targeted key pollinated

crops as well as outreach program training needs on beepollinator conservation and

promotion of pollination service as constraints to the adoption and application of the

BPS

3 Organizations and institutions should be more engaged in encouraging farmers to

grow flower-rich crops and fodder trees to attract bee to crops and boost honey

production and high crop yield

4 Provision of relevant knowledge and skill to the stakeholders to successfully take up

adoption and practice of BPS

REFERENCES Ajao A M amp Oladimeji Y U (2013) Assessment of contribution of apicultural practices tohousehold income and poverty alleviation in kwara state Nigeria International Journal of Science and Nature 4(4) 687-698 Ajao A M and Oladimeji Y U (2013) Farmersrsquo Knowledge Attitude and Perception of BeePollination of Watermelon and Soybean in North-Central Nigeria Journal of Advances inBiology amp Biotechnology 12(1) 1-9 Ajao A M Oladimeji Y U and Aderolu I (2018) Survey of Crop- Plants and Honey BeePollination A Stimulus to Food Security in Kwara State Nigeria Journal of Agriculture andEnvironment (14)1 123-134 Akanbi U O Omotesho O A and Ayinde O E (2011) Analysis of technical efficiency of rice farms in duku irrigation scheme kwara state Nigeria Nigerian Journal ofAgriculture Food amp Environment 7(3) 65-72

273

Aslan M M and Yavuksuz C (2010) Effect of honey bee (Apis mellifera L) and bumble bee(Bombus terrestris L) pollinators on yield and yield factors in sunflower (Helianthus nnuus L) production areas Journal of Animal amp Veterinary Advances 9332-335

Artz D R and Nault B A (2011) Performance of Apis mellifera Bombus impatiens and Peponapis pruinosa (Hymenoptera Apidae) as pollinators of pumpkin Journal of Economic Entomology 104 1153-1161 Balvanera P et al (2001) Conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services Science 291 2047ndash2047 Barry G and R Horsch (2000) Evolving role of the public and private sector in agricultural biotechnology for developing countries In Agricultural biotechnology and the poor ed Binenbaum E Pardey PG and Wright B D (2001) Public-private research relationships the consultative group on international agricultural research American Journal of Agricultural Economics 83(3) 748-753 Bosch J Kemp W P and Trostle G E (2006) Bee population returns and cherry yields in an orchard pollinated with Osmia lignaria (Hymenoptera Megachilidae) Journal ofEconomic Entomology 99408-413

Breeze T D Bailey A P Balcombe KG and Potts S G (2011) Pollination services in the UK how important are honeybees Agriculture Ecosystems amp Environment 142 137-143 Brittain C Kremen C and Klein A M (2012) Biodiversity buffers pollination from changes in environmental conditions Global Change Biology 2012 p na-na Brunet J and Stewart C M (2010) Impact of bee species and plant density on alfalfapollination and potential for gene flow Psyche 2010 doi1011552010201858

Carvalheiro L G Seymour C L Nicolson S W and Veldtman R (2012) Creating patches of native flowers facilitates crop pollination in large agricultural fields mango as a case study Journal AppliedEcology49 1373ndash83 Charriere J D Imdorf A Koenig C Gallmann S and Kuhn R (2010) Do sunflowersinfluence the development of honey bee Apis mellifera colonies in areas with diversified crop farming Journal of Apicultural Research 49227-235

Charles C L McNulty S and Pennell JA (1998) Partnering for results A users guide toInter-sectoral partnering Study prepared and presented at the US Agency for International Development Mission Directors Conference November 1998

274

Charlie N (2012) An analysis of local honey Foraging effects and colony fitness of Philadelphia honeybees (Apis mellifera L) The Eli Kirk Price Endowed Flora of Pennsylvania Intern 95-116 Dag A and Kammer Y (2001) Comparison between the effectiveness of honey bee (Apis mellifera) and bumble bee (Bombus terrestris) as pollinators of greenhouse sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) American Bee Journal 141447-448

DeGrandi-Hoffman G and Chambers M (2006) Effects of honey bee (Hymenoptera Apidae) foraging on seed set in self-fertile sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L) EnvironmentalEntomology 351103-1108 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2008) Tools for conservation and use of pollinationservices initial survey of good pollination practices Rome Italy FAO Gallai N Salles J M Settele J and Vaissiegravere B E (2009) Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline Ecological Economics 68 810-821 Henderson A Pardini R Rebello J F D Vanin S and Almeida D (2000) Pollination of Bactris (Palmae) in an Amazon forest Brittonia 52 160ndash171 Hoehn P Tscharntke T Tylianakis J M and Steffan-Dewenter I (2008) Functional group diversity of bee pollinators increases crop yield P Roy Soc BndashBiol Science 275 2283ndash 2291 Immelmann K and Eardley C (2000) Gathering of grass pollen by solitary bees (Halictidae Lipotriches) in South Africa Mitt Mus Nat kd Berl Zool Reihe 76(2) 263-268 Kasina J M Mburu J Kraemer M and Holm- Mueller J (2009) Economic benefit of crop pollination by bees A case of kakamega small-holder farming in Western Kenya Journal of Economic Entomology 102467-473 Klein A M Vaissiere B E Cane J H Steffan- De- wenter I Cunningham S A Kremen C and Tscha- rntke T (2007) Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for World crops Proceedings of Royal society of London 274 303-313 Lawal O A and Banjo A D (2010) Appraising the beekeepers knowledge and perception of pestsrsquo problem in beekeeping business at different ecological zones in South Western Nigeria World Journal of Zoology 5(2)137-142 Menz M H M Phillips R D and Winfree R et al (2011) Reconnecting plants and pollinators challenges in the restoration of pollination mutualisms Trends Plant Science16 4ndash12

275

Michener A (2000) Keys to subfamilies of Apidae New York Cambridge University Press Morse R A and Calderone N W (2000) The value of honeybees as pollinator of US crops in Bee Culture 20 1-15 Mandelik Y Winfree R Neeson T and Kremen C (2012) Complementary habitat use by wild bees in agro-natural landscapes Ecology Applied 22 1535ndash1546 Morandin L and Kremen C (2013) Hedgerow restoration promotes pollinator populations and exports native bees to adjacent fields Ecology Applied 23 829ndash839 Munyuli T M B (2010) Pollinator biodiversity and economics of pollination services in Uganda PhD dissertation Makerere University Kampala Uganda 451Pp Munyuli T M B (2011) Farmersrsquo perception of pollinators in coffee production in Uganda Agricultural Sciences2(3)318-333 Oladimeji1 Y U Ajao A M and Abdulsalam Z (2017) Arable crop farming and adoption of bee pollination services among farming households in Kwara State Nigeria Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension Economics amp Sociology 15(2) 1-10 Roulston T H and Goodell K (2011) The role of resources and risks in regulating wild bee populations Annu Rev Entomol 56 293ndash312 Roubik D W (2002) Feral African bees augment neotropical coffee yield IN Kevan P and Imperatriz Fonseca VL (Eds) ndash Pollinating Bees - The Conservation Link Between Agriculture and Nature - Ministry of Environment BrasIgravelia Pp 255-266 Theis N Lerdau M and Raguso R A (2007) The challenge of attracting pollinators while evading floral herbivores patterns of fragrance emission in Cirsium arvense and Cirsium repandum (Asteraceae) International Journal of Plant Sciences 168 587-601 Winfree R Williams N M Gaines H and et al (2008) Wild bee pollinators provide the majority of crop visitation across land-use gradients in New Jersey and Pennsylvania USA Journal of Applied Ecology 45 Wratten S D Gillespie M Decourtye A and et al (2012) Pollinator habitat enhancement benefits to other ecosystem services AgrEcosyst Environ 159 112-22

276

Managed honeybees (Apis mellifera L) increase onion (Alliun cepa) seed

yield and quality

Gebreamlak Bezabih and Kiros Gebretsadikan

Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Mekelle Agricultural Research Center

PO Box 1132 Mekelle Tigray Ethiopia Email gbtesfaygmailcom

Abstract

Nearly 75 of the worldrsquos flowering plants are dependent on insects for pollination with

honeybees being well known for their importance for several crops The effect of managed

honeybee pollination on onion seed yield and quality was investigated through pollinator

exclusion and pollinator surveys on onion field plots at Mekelle Agricultural Research Center

experimental farm The treatments were plots accessible to all flower visitors (CTL) plots not

accessible to any insects ndash the plots were covered with an insect proof mesh cage before the

ray florets started opening (NI) plots accessible only to honeybees ndash the plots were covered

with an insect proof mesh cage and a honeybee colony with four frames was placed inside the

cage during the flowering peak (HB) Insect proof mesh cages (5m x 3m and 25m high) were

made of wood covered with 20 shade cloth All insects were removed from all the cages

before blooming to exclude unwanted pollinators Honeybee colonies used in this experiment

received supplementary feeding (dissolved sugar) and water before and after they were placed

in the cages Open pollination treatments especially with honeybees increased onion seed

quantity and quality

Key words germination pollination seed quality seed yield

Introduction

Nowadays the natural habitat is disturbed for many reasons and the vegetation cover is

declining worldwide (Kearns et al 1998) Agriculture plays a role in declining native

pollinators through the modification and elimination of pollinator habitats and the use of

agricultural chemicals (pesticides herbicides and fertilizers) (Donaldson 2002) Free

(1993) stated that clean and intensive cultivation of land may affect wild insect

pollinators He mentioned practices such as destruction of hedgerows and rough verges

which destroyed many natural food sources and nesting sites of wild pollinating insects

Generally it has been concluded that habitat degradation pesticide misuse diseases

and intensive cultivation of lands may be the causes of decline in managed honeybees

and wild pollinators (Collette 2008 Davila and Wardle 2008 Dewenter et al2005 Gallai

et al 2009 Gross 2001 Morandin and Winston 2005) When many hectares are

occupied by a single crop and certain localities are selected for growing particular

cultivars there may be too few insect pollinators due to the factors mentioned above and

it may be necessary to enhance pollinators in that area (Du Toit 1988)

Honeybee pollinators are estimated tobe involved in producing up to 30 of the human

food supply directly or indirectly farmers rely on managed honeybees throughout the

world to provide these services (Greenleaf and Kremen 2006 McGregor 1976) In the

United States the annual value of increased agricultural production in yield and quality

277

that is attributed to honeybee pollination varied from US$93 billion in 1989 to US$146

billion in 2000 (Morse and Calderone 2000) In Western Cape (South Africa) the

deciduous fruit industry which is entirely dependent on honeybees as pollinators

generates R1 billion per year and creates job opportunities for 80000 people (Picker et

al 2004) Honeybees are responsible for 70-80 of insect pollination (Johannsmeier

and Mostert 2001) The contribution of managed honeybee pollination to crop

production and quality has been estimated to be more than the value of honey and wax

production

(Shrestha 2004)

At present the need for onion seed production is highly demanding and nationally it

becomes an important development component since the release of Adama Red

Cultivar (Lema and Shimeles 2003) Onion is an important condiment and vegetable

crop in Ethiopia It is a cash crop and serves as a spice for flavoring local dishes and

hence it is a highly valuable crop throughout the country It fetches a very high price

during rituals and holidays

Inadequate pollination of the onion plant may result in deformed smaller seeds which

have low germination capacity (McGregor 1976) Insufficient pollination caused

difficulties in onion hybrid seed production because of low quality seed (Free 1993)

This is because the onion pollen usually sheds before the female part is respective

(protandry) (Lema 1998)

Several pollination factors could be taken into consideration for agricultural production

such as wind hand pollination some pollen dispenser methods and insects but wind

has little effect on onion pollination because of its sticky pollen (McGregor 1976)

McGregor (1976) reported that honeybees were effective pollinators on onion because

both pollen and nectar are available from the plant

Onion seed is imported from abroad with hard foreign currency Buyers of the seed are

facing the problem of germination and imported seeds are susceptible to disease

(Lemma 1988) The productivity of the crop is very low and the low seed yield of self-

pollinated onion has been reported from small scale producers and state farms

everywhere in the world (Yucel and Duman 2005)

This study was designed to examine the role of managed honeybee pollinators in

increasing seed yield and germination percentage of the onion plant and to identify

insect visitors other than honeybees In addition the research described in this project

aimed to improve the understanding of the use of managed honeybee colonies in

cultivated crop pollination The findings of this project will therefore contribute to the

definition of general guidelines to maintain or improve onion crop pollination

Objectives of the study

The immediate objective of the study was to compare onion seed production and seed

viability in fields with and without managed honeybees Moreover it was also important

278

to assess the contribution of other pollinators in the natural habitats to the cultivated

onion crops

Methodology

Description of the study area

This study was conducted at the experimental site of Mekelle Agricultural Research

Centre Illala during the 2010-2011 cropping season Mekelle Agricultural Research

Center Experimental Site Illala (Figure 1) resides at longitude 13o 5rsquoN 39o 6rsquoE and

altitude 1970 m above sea level The annual average rainfall is 548 mm and mean

maximum and minimum temperatures are 265 oC and 118 oC respectively

Figure 1 Map of Mekelle Agricultural Research Center Experimental Site Illala Tigray


Experimental set up

Three treatments were replicated three times in a Randomized Complete Block Design

(RCBD) The Adama Red variety of onion (Alliun cepa) was used for the purpose The

bulb was raised during the growing season and transplanted into 53m (15m2) seedling

beds and recommended agronomic practices applicable to the crop were used The

279

treatments were (CTL) plots accessible to all flower visitors - the plots were left open

for natural pollination as control (NI) plots not accessible to any insects ndash the plots were

covered with an insect proof mesh cage before the ray florets started opening (HB)

Plots accessible only to honeybees ndash the plots were covered with an insect proof mesh

cage and a honeybee colony with four frames was placed inside the cage during the

flowering peak (50 florets open) time Insect proof mesh cages (5m x 3m and 25m

high) were made of wood covered with 20 shade cloth All insects were removed from

all the cages before blooming to exclude unwanted pollinators Honeybee colonies

used in this experiment received supplementary feeding (dissolved sugar) and water

before and after they were placed in the cages

Flower visitation surveys

For ten consecutive days flower visitor surveys were done in each of the CTL plots to

assess which and how many insect species were visiting the onion crop and in the HB

plots accessible only to honeybees to count the number of honeybee pollinators Fifteen

minute surveys were done every hour from 6h00 to 18h00 Whenever identification of

flower visitor species was not possible in situ specimens were captured for later

identification Visiting insects were collected and identified by the entomologist at

Mekelle Agricultural Research Center

Seed collection and laboratory work

After the onion crop reached physiological maturity (upon senescence of flowering) all

honeybee colonies and pollinator exclusion materials were removed to ensure

uniformity of post pollination treatment The effect of insect pollination on onion seed

yield and quality was measured by comparing the yield of the three treatments based on

total seed yieldplot mass of 1000 seeds and seed germination percentage as follows

Mass of 1000 seeds total seed yield (g) per 15 m2 and germination percentage

An increase in yield and quality of onion seeds due to managed honeybee pollination

was calculated using the formula as follows

A germination success study was conducted by considering the principle of maximum

percentage germination following the necessary steps used by the International Rules

for Seed Testing (ISTA 2009)

Statistics

280

Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were done using the statistical package SAS (2003)

Significant differences between the means of treatments were further analyzed using

Duncans Multiple Range Test (SAS 2003)

Results

Flower visitors

Totals of 1748 insect visitors in the open pollination (CTL) and 1548 honeybee visitors

in the caged treatment (HB) were recorded (Table 1) The onion visitor community was

diverse including insects from four orders Hymenopteran visitors belonged to the

families Apidae Sphecidea and Halictidae while Dipteran visitors were identified as

Tabanidae Lepidoptera as Nymphalidae and Coleoptera as Scarabaeidae and

Meloidae Hymenoptera constituted the highest percentage of insects while Coleoptera

and Lepidoptera were the least abundant orders in the open pollination

Table 1 Total number of insect visitors in the open pollination treatment (CTL)


The seed yield was increased by 412 the mass of 1000 seeds by 25 and

germination percentage by 68 by open pollination especially with honeybees (Table

2)

Table 2 Mean values for mass of 1000 seeds total seed yield and germination

percentage

Discussion

The reason why we found large numbers of wild honeybees and other insect visitors

during this study might be that the field was 200-400 m from apiary sites and the

experiment was surrounded by natural habitat Steffan-Dewenter and Tscharntke (1999)

281

found that isolation from natural habitats diminishes abundance and species richness of

bees which are the most important flower-visiting insects Honeybees were by far the

most frequently recorded insects on onion flowers

The high proportion of honeybees compared to other insects visiting the flowers

indicated that honeybees were the major pollinators of the onion crop at our field site

with both honeybee abundance and seed yield and quality increasing proportionally

In agreement with Yuumlcel and Duman (2005) this study shows that pollination improves

production and size of seeds of the onion plant The increase in germination rate in the

openplots is a result of a superior pollinating efficiency of honeybees Simiraly Yuumlcel

and Duman (2005) reported that the germination rate was greater on average by 12 in

onion with honeybee activity

As modern agricultural production has come to rely on large mono-cropping farms (for

example in our region the case of Raya-Azebo onion farms) the dependence on wild

insects living in the surrounding area for pollination has become less feasible This is

because of the decline in the availability of wild pollinators likely due to disturbance of

nesting habitats and food sources with the introduction of modern agricultural practices

Our results demonstrate the great importance of insect pollinators essentially

honeybees on seed yield and quality since caged onion crop produced lower quality

seeds than the open ones It is recommended that moving honeybee colonies to onion

seed production areas during the flowering period is essential for maximum seed

production and improved quality

If it is assumed that wild honeybee populations and other natural pollinators are

invariably not adequate for onion pollination bringing in honeybee colonies to onion

farms may be an easy and simple way of producing high yield and good quality seeds

Conclusions

Insect pollinators essentially honeybees increased onion seed yield and quality

Acknowledgments

We thank Mr Desta Hadera Mr Haftom Gebremedihin Mr Tetemke Beyene and Mr

Haftom Miglas from the Apiculture and Sericulture Case Team Mekelle Agricultural

Research Center for their continuous follow up during the research implementation We

thank Mr Esayas Meresa a GIS expert for help during map preparation We are very

grateful to all who helped us during the research implementation and laboratory work

Finally we owe our sincere gratitude to the staff of the Tigray Agricultural Research

Institute for continual support during our survey work

References

Collette L 2008 A contribution to the international initiative for the conservation and

sustainable use of pollinators FAO Rome Italy

282

Davila Y C and Wardle G M 2008 Variation in native pollinators in the absence of

honeybees implications for reproductive success of an Australian generalist pollinated

herb Trachymene incia (Apiaceae) BotanicalJournal of the Linnean Society 156 (2009)

479-490

Dewenter I S Potts S G and Packer L 2005 Pollinator diversity and crop pollination

services are at risk Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20 (12) 651- 652

Donaldson J S 2002 Pollination in Agricultural landscapes a South African

perspective In Kevan P and Imperatriz Fonseca VL (eds) Pollinating Bees The

Conservation Link between Agriculture and Nature Ministry of EnvironmentBrasilia Pp

97-104

du Toit A P 1988 Pollination ecology of commercial onion (Helianthus annuus L) in

South Africa with special reference to the honeybee (Apis mellifera L) MSc Thesis

University of Pretoria South Africa

Free J B 1993 Insect Pollination of Crops (2nd ed) San Diego CA Academic Press

Gallai N Salles J M Settele J and Vaissiere B E 2009 Economic valuation of t he

vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline Ecological

Economics 68 (2009) 810-821

Greenleaf S S and Kremen C 2006 Wild bees enhance honeybeesrsquo pollination of

hybrid onion Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA103 13890-

13895

Gross G 2001 The effects of introduced honeybees on native visitation and fruit set in

Dillwynia juniperina (Fabaceae) in a fragmented ecosystem Conservation Biology 102

(2001) 89-95

Johannsmeier M F and Mostert J N 2001 Crop pollination In Johannsmeier M F

(Ed) Beekeeping in South Africa 3rd edition revised Plant

Protection Research Institute handbook 14 Agricultural Research Council of South

Africa Pretoria South Africa pp 235-245

Kearns C A Inouye D W and Waser N M 1998 Endangered mutualisms the

conservation of plant-pollinator interactions Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics

28 (1998) 83-112

Lemma D 1998 Seed production guideline for tomatoes onion and hot pepper IAR

Addis Ababa

Lemma D and Simeles A 2003 Research experiences in onion production Research

report No 55

McGregor S E 1976 Insect pollination of cultivated crop plants Agricultural handbook

496 Agricultural Research Service US Department of

AgricultureWashington pp 411

Morandin L and Winston M 2005 Wild bee abundance and seed production in

conventional organic and genetically modified canola Ecological

Applications 15 (3) 871-881

283

Morse R A and Calderone N W 2000 The value of honeybees as pollinators of US

crops in 2000 Bee Culture 128 1-15

Picker MGriffiths C and Weaving A 2004 Field guide to insects of South Africa Struik

Publishers South Africa

Shrestha J B 2004 Honeybees and Environment Agriculture and Environment Gender

Equity and Environment Division Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives HMGNepal

pp 1-8

Steffan-Dewenter I and Tscharntke T 1999 Effects of habitat isolation on pollinator

communities and seed set Oecologia 121 (1999) 432- 440

Yuumlcel B and Duman I 2005 Effects of foraging activity of honeybees (Apis mellifera L)

on onion (Allium cepa) seed production and quality Pakistan Journal of Biological

Sciences 8 (1) 123-126

284

ON THE TRAIL OF A KILLER A MULTI LOCUS SEQUENCE TYPING APPROACH TO CHARACTERIZING DEFORMED WING VIRUS STRAINS

OBANGE FA1 2 VILLINGER J1 ADHIAMBO C2 LATTORFF M1

Email faithobangegmailcom 1International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) PO Box 30772- 00100 Nairobi

Kenya 2University of Nairobi PO Box 30197 GPO Nairobi Kenya

Abstract

Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) is the deadliest and most widespread of honeybee viruses With a

mortality rate of up to 100 the lethal strain of DWV threatens global honeybee populations

with consequent negative effects on crop pollination global food security ecological biodiversity

and the apiculture industry The accurate detection of the lethal DWV strains is complicated by

its recombination with commonly occurring non-lethal DWV strains thereby impairing the

detection of the true pathogen in circulation The reliance on conventional detection methods for

DWV involving the amplification of a single genomic locus via qPCR could prove inadequate if

the locus falls within a recombination site This necessitates the development of a multilocus

sequence typing (MLST) approach to the detection and identification of potentially lethal DWV

strains This study aimed to develop high-resolution melting (HRM)-based MLST approaches for

identifying and characterizing different DWV strains and their recombinants within the honeybee

population in Karura Forest Kenya We sampled five honeybees each from ten hives in each of

two apiaries We extracted viral RNA and reverse transcribed it to cDNA which we then

amplified by real time PCR We performed HRM analysis by melting the amplicons to generate

viral sequence-specific HRM profiles We cleaned up the PCR products sequenced them and

then performed multi locus sequence typing comparisons Results indicated the presence of

both lethal and non-lethal DWV strains with marked levels of sequence diversity Therefore this

method increases detection accuracy of DWV and can detect bottlenecks in DWV viral diversity

a phenomenon found to result in emergence of a dominant DWV strain which has been

associated with colony collapse This methodology could serve as an early warning tool to

predict colonies at risk of collapse and give beekeepers the opportunity to put in place

appropriate preventative measures

Keywords recombination multilocus sequence typing diversity

Volatile compositions of pear flower (pyrus bretschneideri rosaceae) and its

impact in pollination response of honey bees

Tolera Kumsa1 Ma Weihua2 Jiaxing Huang1 Jie Wu1

1Key Laboratory for Insect-Pollinator Biology Institute of Apicultural Research Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing 100093 PR China

2Institute of Horticulture Shanxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Taiyuan 032031 PR China

Email tolekumeyahoocom

285

Abstract

Bees are less capable to detect and discriminate pollen and nectar nutritional quality instead

they have learned via olfactory cues that drive stronger discrimination between flowers Volatile

scents are varied not only between plant species but also with in species among populations

and organs of flowers that bees use them to learn and discriminate during flower visitation

Despite the high dependency of Pyrus species on bees for pollination there is a big information

gap whether variability in volatile scents can affect pearndashhoney bee interactions Four pear

cultivars (Pyrus bretschneideri) were examined for volatile compound production We

investigated volatile scents in anthers and nectars of pear using SPME coupled with gas

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) Our results demonstrate that the number and

composition of volatiles emitted in pear anthers and nectar were different in their identities and

relative abundances We also showed that emissions of volatile scents vary among pear

cultivars The three pear cultivars (Suli Yali and Hongxiangsu) have emitted similar type and

numbers of volatiles with different relative abundances Whereas cultivar Bali has produces

many specific volatile scents compared to other cultivars representing a unique mixture of

compounds Similarly there were strong differences in honeybee foraging preferences among

pear cultivars that cultivar Bali most abundantly visited by honey bees This high variability in

volatile emissions as well as the high attraction of honey bees to a cultivar Bali supports the

evidence that volatile scents have an adaptive role in mediating honey bees flower foraging

selection It was suggesting that aspects of floral volatile scents that affect honey bees

preference patterns should be considered in crop breeding and in agricultural pollination

initiatives

Keywords- Pear Cultivars Anthers Nectar Volatile Honey Bee

286

Phosphoproteome Analysis Reveals Phosphorylation Underpinnings in the Brains of Nurse and Forager

Honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Gebreamlak Bezabih1 Han Cheng2 Bin Han1 Mao Feng1 Yu Xue 3 Han Hu1 amp Jianke

Li1

Email gbtesfaygmailcom

Abstract

The honeybee brain is a central organ in regulating wide ranges of honeybee biology

including life transition from nurse to forager bees Knowledge is still lacking on how

protein phosphorylation governs the neural activity to drive the age-specific labor

division The cerebral phosphoproteome of nurse and forager honeybees was

characterized using Ti4+-IMAC phosphopeptide enrichment mass-spectrometry-based

proteomics and protein kinases (PKs) were predicted There were 3077 phosphosites

residing on 3234 phosphopeptides from 1004 phosphoproteins in the nurse bees For

foragers the numbers were 3056 3110 and 958 respectively Notably among the

total 231 PKs in honeybee proteome 179 novel PKs were predicted in the honeybee

brain of which 88 were experimentally identified Proteins involved in wide scenarios of

pathways were phosphorylated depending on age glycolysisgluconeogenesis

AGERAGE and phosphorylation in nurse bees and metal ion transport ATP metabolic

process and phototransduction in forager bees These observations suggest that

phosphorylation is vital to the tuning of protein activity to regulate cerebral function

according to the biological duties as nursing and foraging bees The data provides

valuable information on phosphorylation signaling in the honeybee brain and potentially

useful resource to understand the signaling mechanism in honeybee neurobiology and

in other social insects as well

Introduction A typical honeybee (Apis mellifera) colony consists of three castes the males

reproductive females and sterile workers1 2This division of labor further occurs in

worker bees that perform different tasks according to age The younger workers are

mainly involved in in-hive activities as nurse bees before ultimately making the transition

to forager bees that engage in nectar and pollen collection This temporal behavioral

development known as age polytheism3 4 is important for social organization

Normally the nurse bees spend the first two to three weeks of adult life5within the hive

performing a wide range of tasks such as feeding young larvae feeding the queen and

performing hive maintenance1 The nurse bees also feed the younger and older bees5

They form a retinue around the queen to regulate queen behavior via the amount of

royal jelly they feed to her and act in spreading the queenrsquos pheromones across the

287

nest6 7 In contrast once nurse bees become foragers their duties move to a life stage

dominated by foraging nectar pollen and colony defense8 This life transition is

characterized by the distinctly different task performance of nurse and forager bees and

by pronounced internal and physiological changes9 These changes are reflected in

associative learning10 memorizing11 recognition12 and communication language with

the hive mates13 To achieve the biological transition from nurses to foragers the

honeybees have an efficient central nervous system that can coordinate the complex

social and behavioral interactions within the colony9 Therefore the honeybee brain is a

critical role player in the regulation of honeybee society by performing the cognitive

decision making and communicative tasks during the transition from the nurse to

forager stages of life14 15 Despite being smaller than one cubic millimeter the

honeybee brain has about one million nerve cells representing about one hundred-

thousandth of the human brain16 The nerve cells in honeybee brains have the power to

sufficiently perform various signals of indexical iconic and symbolic communication

codes17 Honeybees efficiently regulate highly advanced social behaviors and intelligent

decisions16 18 by the functionality of brain cell chemistry structure endocrine activity

and changes in temporal patterns of gene and protein expression19 20 For instance

juvenile hormone4 biogenic amines dopamine serotonin and octopamine play key

roles in the brain with regard to the regulation of honeybee behavioral development21

Furthermore neuro-molecules such as neuropeptides in the nerve cells function as

neuromodulators neurohormones and neurotransmitters21 and have a major impact on

peptidergic modulation of neural functions in bee brains17

The nurse and forager phases are fundamentally important for colony organization and

the physiological specialization during these two life stages is driven by variable protein

expression in the brain of nurse and forager bees22 Protein phosphorylation the most

common post-translational modification (PTM) is a key switch for the rapid on-off

control of signaling cascades that regulate cell differentiation and development enzyme

activity and metabolic maintenance in living cells23 24 A fundamental mechanism for

regulating signaling network and protein activity is the covalent PTM of serine (Ser)

threonine (Thr) and tyrosine (Tyr) residues with phosphate22 24 Given the advances in

phosphopeptide enrichment and improvements in mass spectrometry (MS)

instrumentation and methods phosphoproteomics has enabled large-scale identification

of protein phosphorylation sites and phosphorylation networks in biological samples

Although the proteome has been established in the brain of nurse and forager bees22

knowledge on how protein phosphorylation regulates age-specific neural activity in the

honeybee brain is still lacking Phosphoproteome analysis during the development of

brood and salivary glands has been reported25 26 but only very limited proteins were

phosphorylated and phosphosites of those phosphoproteins were not discovered

Recently an in-depth phosphoproteomic analysis of the hypopharyngeal glands of the

honeybees revealed that dynamic protein phosphorylation networks tune the protein

288

function to prime the gland development and functionality11 Therefore the objective of

this work is to provide a comprehensive characterization of phosphoproteome in the

brains of nurse and forager bees that can potentially be useful to understand the

phosphorylation events underlining age-specific cerebral functions on the basis of

physiology

Experimental procedures Reagents All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis MO USA)

otherwise the source was specified Ti4+-IMAC material was bought from Dalian

Institute of Chemical Physics Chinese Academy of Sciences

Brain dissection and protein sample preparation Honeybee (Apis mellifera ligustica)

colonies used for sampling were raised at the apiary of the Institute of Apicultural

Research Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science Beijing The nurse and forager

bees were sampled in accordance with the methods described ( Reference No 27) In

short newly emerged (lt12 h after emergence) worker bees were marked on their

thoraxes and placed back into the colonies to develop The marked bees were collected

as nurse bees after about days 10 with head extension to brood cells and as forager

bees on day 20 at the entrance of the hive with a pollen load in the rear leg basket

There were 150 bees sampled from each of the five colonies headed by sister queens

of the same age

Then the brains were dissected as a pool sample and immediately stored at minus80 degC for

further analysis and three independent biological replicates were produced per each

treatment All the colonies were managed with almost identical population food and

brood during the nectar flow of chaste berry (Vitexnegundo L)

Prior to protein extraction the brain tissue was homogenized on ice by pestle The

sample was then mixed with a lysis buffer containing 8 M urea 2 M thiourea 4 3-[(3-

cholamidopropyl) dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) 20 mM Trisbase 30

mM dithiothreitol (DTT) 2 Bio-lyte (pH 3ndash10 and protease and phosphatase inhibitors

(Roche Basel Switzerland)) The sample was centrifuged at 15000 g at 4 degC for 15

min to remove the insoluble fractions Ice-cold acetone was added to the recovered

supernatant at minus20 degC for 30 min to precipitate the proteins then centrifuged twice at

15000 g at 4 degC for 10 min The protein pellets were dissolved in 40 mM (NH4) HCO3

then reduced with DTT (final concentration 10 mM) for 1 h to prevent reformation of

disulfide bonds and lastly alkylated with iodoacetamide (final concentration 50 mM) for

1 h in the dark Afterwards sequencing grade modified trypsin (Promega Medison WI)

was used to digest the protein (enzymeprotein ratio is 1100 (WW) sample at 37 degC for

14 hours

289

Phosphopeptide enrichment using Ti4+-IMAC and LC-MSMS analysis To enrich

the phosphopeptides in the brains of nurse and forager worker bees a high efficiency

Ti4+-IMAC material was applied as previously described28 Specifically the

immobilized Ti4+ polymer beads (Ti4+-IMAC) were prepared by overnight incubation of

10 mg of polymer beads in 100 mM Ti(SO4)2 solution at room temperature (RT) under

gentle stirring The obtained Ti4+-IMAC beads were centrifuged at 20000 g for 2 min

After removal of the residual titanium ions in the supernatant distilled water was used to

wash the Ti4+-IMAC beads Before using those for the next step the obtained Ti4+-

IMAC beads were dispersed in 30 acetonitrile (CAN) containing 01 trifluoroacetic

(TFA) Then digested proteins were reconstituted in 500 μL of binding solution

containing 60 TFA80ACN and incubated with 5 mg of Ti4+-IMAC material at RT for

60 min The mixture was centrifuged at 13500 g at 4 degC for 5 min The supernatant was

discarded and the precipitate was then washed with 200 μL of binding solution with

the washing buffer containing 06 TFA50 ACN200 mM NaCl and 01 TFA30

ACN Thereafter the bound phosphopeptides were eluted twice with 100 μL of 10

ammonia solution with vibration for 10 min Finally the enriched phosphopeptides were

manually loaded onto Reversed-Phase Zip-Tip C18 columns (desalting column) for

concentrating and desalting The desalted peptides were extracted in a Speed-vac

system (RVC 2ndash18 Marin Christ Germany) and dissolved in 01 formic acid (FA) the

extracted samples were stored at minus80 degC for further LCminusMSMS analysis

A sample of 8 μl of phosphopeptide per 05 μg specific amount of peptides with three

technical replicate for each sample was loaded onto a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer

(Thermo Fisher Scientific) and coupled to the EASY-nLC 1000 system using a

nanoelectrospray ion source (Thermo Fisher Scientific) The samples were loaded onto

a 2 cm long trap column (100 μm inner diameter fused silica containing 50 μm Aqua

C18 beads Thermo Fisher Scientific) for 2 min in buffer A (01 acetic acid) at a flow

rate of 5 μLmin prior to separation Then the peptides were eluted from the trap

column and subsequently separated in the analytical column (15 cm long 75μm inner

diameter fused silica column filing with 30 μm Aqua C18 beads Thermo Fisher

Scientific) Peptides were gradient eluted in 180 min at a flow rate of 350 nLmin under

the following conditions from 5 to 8 buffer B in 5 min from 8 to 20 buffer B in 115

min then from 20 to 30 buffer B in 40 min followed by an increase to 90 buffer B in

10 min and staying at 90 buffer B for an additional 10 min The eluting peptides were

directly infused into a Q-Exactive mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) via

electrospray ionization (ESI) MS and MSMS data were collected in a data-dependent

mode using the following settings one full scan (resolution 70000 at mz 400 mz 300ndash

1800) followed by top 20 MSMS scans using higher-energy collisional dissociation in

the linear ion trap mass spectrometer (resolution 17500 isolation window 2 mz

normalized collision energy 27) using dynamic exclusion (charge exclusion unassigned

290

1 gt8 peptide match preferred exclude isotopes on dynamic exclusion 10 s) The

MSMS spectra of phosphopeptides were retrieved using Xcalibur (version 22 Thermo

Fisher Scientific) The MS data have been deposited to the ProteomeXchange

Consortium via the PRIDE (httpwwwebiacuk) partner repository with the dataset

identifier PXD003757

Database search site localization and validation of phosphosites The MSMS

data were processed and analyzed using in-house PEAKS software (version 8

Bioinformatics Solutions Inc) A database containing protein sequences of A mellifera

(downloaded April 2015 from NCBI) and common contaminants was integrated with a

total of 21778 entries The search parameters were trypsin specificity fixed

modification of carbamidomethyl (C)+5702 Da variable modifications of oxidation

(M)+1599 Da and phosphorylation (SerThr Tyr)+7996 Da and two allowed missed

cleavages per peptide one non-specific cleavage at either end of the peptide three

maximum allowed variable PTM per peptide Precursor mass tolerance was set at 150

ppm and fragment ion tolerance at 005 Da The false discovery rate (FDR) was

controlled at both the protein and peptide levels using a fusion-decoy database search

strategy at a threshold le10 an enhanced target-decoy approach that makes more

conservative FDR estimations29 Scaffold PTM (Version 213 Proteome Software

Oregon USA) was used to assign the phosphosites by localization probability via

Ascores algorithm30 All MSMS of phosphopeptides queries with an Ascore for each

site having a 95 or higher probability were considered Abundance levels of

phosphosites were quantified via spectral counting by summarizing the numbers of all

peptide spectra of the phosphosite31

To confirm the localized phosphosites on proteins in the nurse and forager brain

proteins with different abundance levels and peptides with different abundance levels in

each protein were selected for validation Eight selected phosphopeptides were

commercially synthesized using a solid-phase peptide synthesis process (China

Peptides Ltd Co Shanghai China) The MSMS spectra were compared between the

digested phosphopeptides from the honeybee (A m ligustica) brain samples and the

synthetic phosphopeptides The phosphosites were considered to be validated only

when the major ions in the spectra between the brain sample and the synthetic

phosphopeptides were aligned (retention time shift tolerance lt02 min and gt90 b or y

ions consistent)

Motif analysis Phosphorylation is catalyzed by protein kinases and these enzymes

can be recognized by specific sequence motifs in theirsubstances32 The

phosphorylation motif sets were extracted from all phosphopeptides with confident

localized phosphosites (probability ge95) using a motif-X algorithm (httpmotif-

xmedharvardedumotif-xhtml)33 The background was the uploaded A mellifera

291

proteome (lt10 M of database sizethat randomly generated from A mellifera proteome)

the motif width was 13 occurrences were 20 significance was 110minus6 and motifs were

extracted separately for Ser Thr and Tyr sites at position 7 The extracted motifs were

used to determine the kinase classes (acidic basic proline-directed tyrosine and

others) based on substrate

sequence specificity because the kinase specificity is often defined by amino acid motif surrounding Ser Thr and Tyr residues on the substrate proteins23 34 Computational identification of site-specific kinasendashsubstrate relations (ssKSRs)

in nurse and forager bee brains To identify ssKSRs in the honeybee brain protein-

protein interactions (PPIs) of Amellifera were prepared by retrieving the database of

STRING v10 (httpwwwstring-dborg)35 Then wemapped these proteins to the

benchmark sequences of A mellifera proteome (version 32) downloaded fromBee

Base (wwwbeebaseorg)36by BLAST search Finally we obtained 906294 non-

redundant PPIs in 8336 proteinsof A mellifera Thereafter group-based prediction

system (GPS) software package was used to predictthe kinase-specific phosphosites37

As the developed GPS tool was mainly used for prediction of kinase-

specificphosphosites in mammals and the protein kinases (PKs) of A mellifera were not

included in the GPS 21 programwe first identified 231 potential PKs in A mellifera

based on the Hidden Markov Model (HMM) profiles and Ortholog searches and this

model classified the PKs in a hierarchical structure composed by group family and

single PKs38 Because GPS algorithm can only predict kinase-specific phosphosite at

the PK cluster level the links between the PKs of A mellifera with their corresponding

GPS 21 predictors if available were manually formed39 In total there were 179 PKs

with 55 GPS predictors that were identified in A mellifera (Supplemental Table 5)

Then the exact PKs of the identified phosphosites were characterized Furthermore the

integrated PPIs were adopted as filter to reduce potential false positive hits of the

predicted ssKSRs If the kinasendashsubstrate relations (KSRs) were supported by PPIs the

predictions of GPS were reserved During the prediction all items of the

phosphorylation site peptide (PSP) (15 15) were extracted from the brain

phosphoproteomes of nurse and forager bees and the middle threshold was employed

for GPS 21

Construction of kinase and substrate interaction network A protein kinase can

phosphorylate a protein at multiple phosphosites this may cause more than one

ssKSRs between the PK and substrate For the construction of kinase-substrate

phosphorylation network (KSPN) we only considered the KSR while multiple ssKSRs

of a PK and its substrate were regarded as a single KSR For the predicted ssKSRs in

the brain of nurse and forager bees the KSPNs were constructed and visualized with

the software Cytoscape 33 In the phosphorylation networks the nodes represented

PKs or substrates whereas the edges were KSRs Given that the KSPN is directional39

292

the orientations were defined as Kinase gtSubstrate (a PK phosphorylates a protein

which is not a PK) and Kinase - gtKinase (a PK phosphorylates a protein which is also a

PK)

Quantification of phosphoprotein abundance levels and GO term enrichment To

evaluate the expression level of phosphoproteins in the brains of nurse and forager

bees raw MS data was processed in PEAKS Q module (version 8 Bioinformatics

Solutions Inc) Then the changes in protein abundances levels of the brain across two

ages in each of the nurse and forager bees were quantified Peptide ion abundance in

the three replicates was used to calculate the expression level of each protein Based

on an expectation-maximization algorithm feature detection was employed separately

on each sample40 Then using a high-performance retention time algorithm the

features of the same peptide from different samples were reliably aligned40 Calculations

of the protein p-value (one-way ANOVA) were then performed on the sum of the

normalized abundances across all runs ANOVA values of p le 005 and regulation of ge2

fold change were regarded as significant regulated proteins between the nurse and

forager bees ClueGO integrated with Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGGBioCarta

pathways is useful to create functionally organized GOpathway network and also

important to compareanalyze two lists of genes and comprehensively visualizes

functional grouped terms41 To provide in-depth knowledge with regard to the biological

implications of the identified phosphoproteome in the brain of the honeybee the

identified phosphoproteins were used as an input for functional enrichment of GO term

using ClueGOv216 a Cytoscape plug-in (httpwwwiciupmcfrcluego)41 A right-

sided hyper-geometric test was used to report the significantly enriched functional GO

categories in functional classes and pathways by comparing the input data with the

background set of GO annotations in the honeybee genome Based on their kappa

score level (04) in ClueGO the nodes in functionally grouped networks were linked

Functional categories and pathways were only considered significantly enriched when

the p-value was lt005 An FDR was controlled with a Bonferroni step-down test to

correct the p-value of GO terms

Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) To survey the differentially expressed proteins

associated with brain functions in nurse and forager bees at the gene level brain tissue

was mixed by pestle homogenization Total RNA was extracted from the brain samples

of nurse and forager bees using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen USA) according to the

manufacturerrsquos instructions and quantified with a NanoDrop ND-1000

spectrophotometer (NanoDrop Technologies) To test the quality and integrity of total

RNA the bands of 28S RNA 18S RNA and 5S RNA were visualized with 10

agarose gel electrophoresis Then cDNAs were generated using reverse-transcriptase

kit reagents (Transgen China) From the differentially expressed proteins nine highly

abundant proteins (Mob3 Mps one binder kinase activator-like 3 ACCB14939 leucine-

293

rich repeat serinethreonine-protein kinase Adk adenylate kinase Phl raf homolog

serinethreonine-protein kinase phl LOC552007 pyruvate kinase-like isoform X3

CamkII calcium-independent protein kinase C PDPK1 3-phosphoinositide-dependent

protein kinase 1 CDK10 cyclin-dependent kinase 10 and LOC409276

phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphate 4-kinase type-2 beta) were selected for qRT-PCR

analysis The specific primers used for qRT-PCR are provided in Supplemental Table 1

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as a reference gene

to normalize the data PCR amplification and data collection were conducted by an

iQ5Multicolor Real-Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad Hercules CA) according to

our previous method11 The statistical analysis of gene expression was performed using

an independent samples t-test (SPSS version 160 SPSS Inc Chicago IL USA) An

error probability of p lt005 was considered statistically significant

Results Phosphoproteome Profiling of Nurse and Forager Honeybee Brains In an effort to

map the phosphoproteome in the brains of nurse and forager bees high efficiency

IMAC+4 phosphopeptide enrichment and state-of-the-art MS were employed In all

4138 phosphosites resided on 4192 non-redundant phosphopeptides derived from

1244 phosphoproteins were identified with FDR lt10 at both peptide and protein

levels (Supplemental Tables 2 and Table 3) There were 3234 phosphopeptides from

1004 phosphoproteins in the nurse bee and 3110 phosphopeptides from 958

phosphoproteins in the forager bees (Supplemental Table 2 and 3) Of the 3234 and

3110 identified phosphopeptides belonged to 4192 non-redundant phosphopeptides

1082 were unique to nurse bees 958 were unique to forager bees and 2152 were

shared between them (Supplemental Fig 1) Most of the phosphopeptides were

phosphorylated on single sites (787) followed by double (206) and triple (07)

sites in nurse bees (Supplemental Fig 2A) A similar ratio was also found in the forager

bees for phosphorylation on single (819) double (175) and triple sites (06)

(Supplemental Fig 2B) Of the total of 1244 phosphoproteins 286 were unique to

nurse bees 240 were unique to forager bees and 718 were shared between them

(Supplemental Fig 3) Eight phosphopeptides from eight phosphoproteins with different

dynamic ranges of abundance level were selected to validate the phosphorylation of the

site on the peptides The spectra of eight artificially synthesized phosphopeptides were

compared with the spectra in the brain sample the eight phosphosites were validated

(Supplemental Fig 4) The reported data is the first comprehensive phosphoproteome

in the honeybee brains

Age-specific phosphorylation pattern in honeybee brain Phosphorylation is usually

reflected at three levels the number of phosphosites phosphopeptides and

phosphoproteins A higher number of phosphosites phosphopeptides and

phosphoproteins were identified in nurse bees than in forager bees (Fig 1A) Also a

294

high portion of phosphorylation of Ser (884) was observed followed by Thr (112)

and Tyr (04) Phosphorylation of Ser was preferred to Thr and Tyr in the residues that

were subjected to the phosphorylation within the phosphoproteins in the bee brain (Fig

1B Supplemental Fig 5A and B) We then analyzed the numbers of sites within each

phosphoprotein 433 of phosphoproteins contained single site whereas 568 were

phosphorylated on multiple residues of which 20 carried 14 or more sites (Fig 1C)

Specifically 472 of the proteins were phosphorylated at a single site 528 at

multiple sites and 26 at 11 or more sites in nurse bees In forager bees these

numbers were 443 557 and 31 respectively (Supplemental Fig 6A and B)

Overall 27 of the Ser Thr and Tyr residues were modified with some variability for

each residue Ser 49 Thr 09 Tyr 01 (Fig 1D) Moreover about 482 of the

phosphosites were shared by nurse and forager bees whereas 262 and 256 were

unique for each of them (Fig 1E) Specifically of all the Ser residues 943 unique to

nurse bees 906 unique to forager bees and 1816 were shared of all the Thr residues

134 unique to nurse bees 151 unique to forager bees and 171 shared and of all the Tyr

residues 5 unique to nurse bees 4 unique to forager bees and 8 shared were observed

(Supplemental Fig 7) Among the unique sites in the two different age groups similar

age-specific distributions were found in nurse bees (5049) and forager bees (495)

To better assess age-dependent distribution the age specific phosphosites are shown

in Table 1 These sites were derived from proteins with variable levels of abundance

such as serinethreonine-protein kinase BRSK2-like isoform X1 and major royal jelly

protein 7 precursor exclusively found in forager bees Protein 41 homolog isoform X8

and the splicing factor 1-like isoform X1 were found only in nurse bees For comparison

the proteins commonly phosphorylated in nurse and forager bees are shown in Table 2

Examples of these proteins are elongation factor 1-betarsquo hsp90 co-chaperone Cdc37

and neurofilament heavy polypeptide Though some sites were phosphorylated in both

nurses and foragers extensive age-specific phosphorylation patterns were observed

Firstly even if commonly expressed proteins displayed considerably different

phosphorylation profiles across the two ages the heavily phosphorylated microtubule-

associated protein futsch (35 sites) harbored an abundant nurse-specific site (S2231

and T1453) Secondly many proteins were phosphorylated at one specific age of the

honeybee brain For instance the proteins only found in single ages are reticulon-4-like

isoform X3 and protein 41 homolog isoform X8 (nurse) mediator of DNA damage

checkpoint protein 1 isoform X1 and peripheral plasma membrane protein CASK-like

isoform X1 (forager) To compare phosphorylation events for each site at two ages the

site abundance was hierarchically clustered using the total spectral counts of each site

An apparent difference in phosphorylation profiles for each site was found between

nurse and forager bees (Fig 1F) Generally high abundance levels of phosphosites

were observed in the forager bees than the nurse honeybees based on the spectral

counts Furthermore a single protein carried several phosphosites and those

295

phosphosites showing differential phosphorylation patterns were observed in both

honeybee ages (Fig 2)

Four kinase classes modify most phosphoproteins Most protein kinases show

phosphorylation motif specificity or at least phosphorylation motif preference42 Kinase

motifs in different biological pathways often utilize the same general motif31 34 and it

can be divided into five classes acidic basic proline-directed tyrosine and ldquootherrdquo on

the basis of a decision tree To examine the kinase classes implicated in the neural

activity during the phosphorylation in the honeybee brain the amino acid motifs

surrounding each site from the phosphoproteome data were extracted On the basis of

the extracted motifs 4 kinase classes proline-directed acid tyrosine and ldquootherrdquo were

predicted (Supplemental Table 4) Acidic kinase motifs such as [S]-X-D and [S]-X-E and

proline-directed kinase motifs [S]-P [T]-P and [T]-PP as well as ldquootherrdquo kinase motifs

such as [S]-X-P [Y]-X-P and D-[S] were identified in both ages of bees Based on the

abundances of site classes of the motif proline-directed sites were the dominant class

(416 sites) followed by acidic (3264 sites) tyrosine (130 site) and others

(128 sites) (Fig 3A) The nurse and forager bees showed distinct distributions

between the kinase classes (Fig 3D) In particular the forager bees showed no tyrosine

phosphorylation whereas it was nearly 15 in nurse bees We then analyzed the

abundance of site classes within each phosphoprotein using hierarchical clustering a

quite distinct pattern was found by heat map representation (Fig 3B) About 74 of the

phosphoproteins contained a single site class either proline-direct acidic ldquootherrdquo or

tyrosine and 26 of phosphoproteins contained multiple sites classes while 2 had

sites from 4 site classes (Fig 3C) Examples of the two variably phosphorylated

proteins were spectrin beta chain isoform X6 and oxidation resistance protein 1-like

isoform X1 Each was phosphorylated across the protein length and contained three

kinase targeted site classes proline-direct acidic and tyrosine (neither contained

ldquootherrdquo in foragers at oxidation resistance protein 1-like isoformX1) Thus individual site

class showed distinct age-related profiles In some cases pairs of sites within the same

class showed similar phosphorylation patterns However even within the same pattern

different sites within the same class often showed variable pattern of phosphorylation

Prediction and identification of PKs in brains of nurse and forager bees Kinases

are enzymes that modify proteins changing the target proteinrsquos activity in some way

They are the pivotal regulators of phosphorylation dynamics in cellular signaling43

Since PKs or kinome is not reported in the honeybee proteome we predicted 231 PKs

divided into 10 groups and 103 families in the honeybee proteome (Supplemental Table

5) Based on the hypothesis that PKs in the same group or family would recognize

similar motifs in the substrates for modification the corresponding GPS 21 predictor

was assigned for each honeybee PK if available Finally 179 PKs were selected with

GPS predictors (Supplemental Table 6) For the phosphoproteomes of nurse and

296

forager bees we predicted 12304 ssKSRs among the 140 PKs and 573 substrates for

the 1510 phosphosites with an average of 82 upstream PKs per phosphosites

(Supplemental Table 7) For example the nurse beesrsquo KSPN included 9201 ssKSRs

among the 140 PKs and 452 targets for 1151 phosphosites with an average of 8

upstream PKs per phosphosites From the networks the top 10 PKs with the most

phosphosites were selected and presented in Fig 4A and B Of all the 1004 (nurse)

and 958 (forager) phosphoproteins detected 452 (45) of those in nurse bees and 470

(491) of those in forager bees were identified as potential substrateskinase

substrates for a particular

PK or groupfamily of a PKs (Supplemental Table 8 and 9) Furthermore we

constructed the KSPNs of nurse and forager bees from the prediction results

(Supplemental Figure 8A and B) In the constructed KSPN 50 kinases were predicted

as substrate and 99 as kinases in the nurse bees and 51 kinases as substrate and 100

as kinase in the forager bees (Supplemental Table 9) In nurse bees all PKs were

significantly enriched in pathways associated with the foxo signaling pathway (p = 80eminus

10) mTOR signaling pathway (p = 20eminus10) and wnt signaling pathway (p = 31eminus6)

(Supplemental Table 11) In forager bees only phototransduction (p = 37eminus4) was

uniquely enriched and all pathways enriched in nurse bees were also found in foragers

(Supplemental Table 11) In addition we experimentally identified 88 phosphoproteins

as kinases of which 602 (53 kinases) were commonly detected in both nurse and

forager bees whereas 205 (18 kinases) in nurse and 193 (17 kinases) in foragers

were uniquely expressed (Supplemental Table 10) The pathways associated with

GlycolysisGluconeogenesis

(p = 44 eminus2) AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications (p = 31eminus2) and

Apoptosis (p = 33eminus2) were uniquely observed in nurse bees (Fig 5A and B) whereas

endocytosis (p = 34eminus2) phototransduction (p = 30eminus2) and mTOR signaling pathway

(p = 37eminus3) were unique to forager bees (Fig 5C and D)

297

298

299

300

Sequence and structure feature of phosphosites in nurse and forager brains With

regard to the position distribution of protein sequences the phosphosites with predicted

upstream PKs predominantly occurred in the C-terminal (Supplemental Figure 9A and

E) In the secondary structures the phosphosites with predicted upstream PKs were

predominantly predicted to reside in amino acids with the coil than the α-Helix and β-

Strand (Supplemental Figure 9B and F) As for the region preferences the

phosphosites with predicted upstream PKs preferred occurrence in the disorder region

(Supplemental Figure 9C and G) and in the surface accessibility they predominantly

occurred in amino acids with the exposed domain (Supplemental Figure 9D and 9H)

Prediction of protein subcellular localization site is useful for screening candidate genes

for their specific functions and for interpreting gene information44 Therefore

subcellular localization preferences of substrates for 9 different PKs groups were

predicted in the nurse and forager bees The phosphorylation events mainly occurred in

the nucleus (Supplemental Figure 9I and J)

301

Biological significance of phosphoproteins in nurse and forager brains To

explore the biological function of the identified phosphoproteins in the brains of nurse

and forager bees we analyzed and compared functional categories and biological

pathways that were significantly enriched in both ages In nurse bees glycerolipid

metabolic process (p = 32eminus4) transport (p = 15eminus5) vesicle-mediated transport (p =

41eminus3) phosphorylation (p = 16eminus5) and intracellular signal transduction (p = 13eminus6)

were significantly enriched (Supplemental Figure 10A and Supplemental Table 11) In

the forager bees glycerolipid metabolic process (p = 24eminus4) phosphate-containing

compound metabolic process (p = 30eminus5) transport (p = 50eminus5) vesicle-mediated

transport (p = 11eminus3) metal ion transport (p = 89eminus4) and intracellular signal

transduction (p = 76eminus4) were significantly enriched (Supplemental Figure 10B and

Supplemental Table 11) Moreover phosphorylation process was only enriched in the

nurse bees whereas phosphate-containing compounds metabolic processes and

metal ion transport were specifically enriched in forager bees Mapping the identified

phosphoproteins into biological pathways could better the understanding of the

phosphorylation dynamic in the pathways For the pathways of inositol phosphate

metabolism (Supplemental Figure 11) although much of the network was commonly

utilized in the central signaling pathway age-specific patterns were also apparent45 46

For example 1-phosphatidyl-1 D-myo-inositol5P 1D-myo-inositol-134P3 and myo-

Inositol were commonly utilized in both ages whereas D-Glucose-6P and

dihydroxyacetone phosphate was phosphorylated only in the nurse brain and absent in

forager bees

To evaluate the phosphoproteome profile change between the brains of nurse and

forager bees 327 phosphoproteins (266 of all identified 1244 phosphoproteins) were

found differentially expressed Of those differential proteins 101 (301) and 226

(691) were up-regulated in nurse and forager bees respectively (Fig 6A and

Supplemental Table 12) The up-regulated phosphoproteins in nurses were significantly

enriched in the functional categories related to transport (p = 16eminus2) and regulation of

transport (p = 23eminus3) (Fig 6B and Supplemental Table 11) Whereas ATP metabolic

process (p = 22eminus2) and phototransduction (p = 25eminus2) were significantly enriched in

forager bees (Fig 6C and Supplemental Table 11)

Verification of differentially expressed proteins at the level of mRNA and protein

To test the differentially expressed proteins between the brain of nurse and forager

bees at gene level 9 differential proteins related to ATP metabolic process

phototransduction ribonucleoside triphosphate metabolic process glycerophospholipid

metabolic process Wnt signaling pathway phosphorylation Inositol phosphate

metabolism phosphate-containing compound metabolic process were selected for

qRT-PCR analysis Of the 9 proteins in both ages Mob3 ACCB14939 Adk Phl

302

LOC552007 CamkII PDPK1 CDK10 and LOC409276 were significantly different

between the two ages and in line with their protein expression tendencies (Fig 7)

Discussion

Temporal age-related division of labor in nurse and forager honeybees is an essential

social behavior that supports the well-organized social order47 To achieve the age-

dependent division of labor the nurse and forager bees require an efficient nervous

system to coordinate the complex social and behavioral interactions within the colony9

To better understand how phosphorylation networks regulate this behavior transition

the phosphoproteome in the brains of nurse and forager honeybees were characterized

A hitherto unknown depth of phosphoproteome and kinome were defined in the

honeybee brain at two different physiological states The higher number of

phosphopeptides phosphosites phosphoproteins and PKs identified in the brains of

nurse bees indicate that the nurse bees may need deeply committed phosphoproteome

in building molecular and neural structures This is because reversible phosphorylation

of Ser Thr and Tyr residues is a prominent signaling mechanism to enable spatial and

temporal regulation of the activation states conformations or binding interactions of

proteins and thereby regulates diverse downstream effects42 48 The high occupancy of

sites preferentially phosphorylated on disorder regions is likely to activate upstream

kinase activity favoring disorder regions49 The phosphopeptides predominantly

modified sites in the vicinity of their C-terminal and occurred in amino acids with the

303

exposed portion34 suggesting that phosphorylation tends to occur independent of

structure in unstimulated cells and that proteins fold into unique structures based upon

primary amino acid sequences like in other organisms50 Thus protein phosphorylation

events regulate a wide scenario of key cellular signaling pathways and functional

classes in the honeybee brain to fit with the age-dependent physiological roles

Many cellular activities are controlled by multiple phosphosites on proteins that show

different regulatory trends34 42 51 It is reflected in our data that some proteins with a

high number of phosphosites differ in the extent of residue phosphorylation in both

nurse and forager bees Examples of such proteins were neurofilament heavy

polypeptide which is implicated in letting nerve cells to establish and maintain a

remarkably complex set of highly asymmetrical cellular extensions52 and neurofilament

phosphorylation may regulate the interaction of neurofilament with other neuronal

structures53 In microtubule-associated protein futsch and neurofilament heavy

polypeptide proteins the Ser and Thr residues are phosphorylated and

dephosphorylated interchangeably in different sites in the nurse and forager honeybees

(Fig 2) These phosphorylation sites might represent phosphoproteins that reflect their

phosphorylationdephosphorylation cycles of the brain development and likely to prime

the protein functions in tuning neural activity in the different ages of honeybees

Figure 3 Overview of phosphate classes across the different ages (A) The relative frequencies with which each class is observed overall and for each worker age is plotted as

pie charts (B) The heat map presents the numbers of sites of each class observed for 566 phosphoproteins Proteins and site classes have been clustered to highlight

similarities (C) Histogram indicating relative proportions of phosphoproteins containing phosphosites from variable numbers of classes (D) Bar graph indicating relative

proportions of age-specific and shared phosphosites in each

304

PKs are key regulators in protein phosphorylation which modify their target proteins by chemically added phosphate groups to specific amino acids on the Ser Thr and Tyr residues and the function of PKs is decided by the sequence motif on the substrate or site class31 The age-specific presence of site classes (Acidic Proline-direct Tyrosine and ldquoOtherrdquo) and the distinctive age-specific kinome profiles between the nurse and forager bees indicate that signaling in the neural activity depends upon a wide repertoire of up and downstream cellular signaling regulatory processes

The distinct kinase classes between the nurse and forager bees especially the tyrosine

class only found in nurse bees suggest that different kinase cascades occur in the

honeybee brain according to age It is in line with the finding hat tyrosine

phosphorylation plays a significant role in honeybee brain development as in

mammals54 and is vital for the transition from nursing to foraging which demands

brain cell differentiation and development19 22 Notably the activity of some proteins is

likely regulated by multiple kinases representing discrete signaling networks in the two

ages of bees For instance 3 site classes at 6 phosphosites in spectrin beta chain

isoform were observed in the two ages of honeybee 3 site classes in nurse bee and 2

site classes in forager bee were covered 8 phosphosites in oxidation resistance protein

1-like isoform Comparing with only two kinase classes previously reported in the

hypopharyngeal glands of honeybees22 the four kinase classes found here in the

central nervous system are indicative of the fact that more complicated and advanced

305

signaling mechanisms are likely developed in the highly advanced center of the brain22

This is further manifested in the fact that tissue-unique phosphorylation events have

evolved to underline their distinct physiology and the knowledge that kinase expression

is not conserved across the honeybee organ or tissues which is in line with known

mechanism in the Drosophila55 In forager bees the high abundance levels of proteins

related to cAMP signaling such as

cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) suggest that phosphorylation is essential in

regulating olfactory associative learning and memory as in Drosophila55 56 Moreover

the uniquely expressed PKs in nurse bees related to phosphofructokinase suggest its

role in the regulation of glycolysis in different components of the brain similar to its

functionrole in rats57 Although the honeybees are claimed as a model insect its

kinome is still unknown thus hindering the downstream activity analysis of

phosphorylation Here the 179 PKs with GPS predictors used to predict their site-

specific kinasendashsubstrate relations by GPS algorithm (231 PKs in the whole honeybee

proteome) are the first reports of the honeybee kinome and are vitally important in

neurological signaling The different phosphosites detected in nurse and forager bees

as target substrates or kinases suggests that distinct cerebral activity has evolved

depending on the physiological state of the bees Specifically of the top 10 PKs with the

most phosphosites in the predicted PKs CMGC (CMGCDYRK CMGCGSK and

CMGCCDK) with highest number of phosphosites in both ages of bees suggest their

vital roles implicated in cell cyclecell division (eg CMGCCDK) and signal transduction

(eg CMGCGSK)39 All these observations are helpful to gain novel insights into the

signaling network that functions in bee brain development and functionality

306

307

Investigating phosphorylation signaling implicated in biological pathways and functional

classes is necessary in understanding the biological activities of signaling transduction

in an organism31 Here a wide spectrum of pathways and functional classes was

enriched by the phosphoproteins manifesting the fact that the age-related signaling

architectures have been evolved in the worker beesrsquo brain to drive their cerebral

functionality For instance the wnt signaling pathway involved in both honeybee ages is

a group of signal transduction pathways which drives the flow of signals from outside to

inside the cell via cell surface receptors which thus reinforces the neural functionality in

brain cells58 This pathway is highly involved in transcription factor AP-1 calcium

calmodulin-dependent PK II and axin-1 proteins suggesting their critical roles in signal

transduction to support brain interaction with environment signals such as queen

substance chemicals colors and temperature alterations59 The uniquely enriched

pathways and functional classes such as phosphorylation AGERAGE and

glycolysisgluconeogenesis in nurse bees suggest their importance for the brainrsquos

cellular maturation and the development of cerebral structure to support the age-specific

tasks of nurse bees60 It is reported that the high rate of protein synthesis in the brain of

nurse bees is a key defining characteristic of this age to differentiate and develop the

brain as the transition from nursing to foraging involves changes in brain structure23 To

this effect the highly expressed proteins involved in pathways and functional classes

such as phosphorylation transport and regulation of transport are indicative of the fact

that phosphorylation plays key roles for transporting those proteins necessary for the

changes in brain structure22 The uniquely expressed AGERAGE signaling pathway in

nurse bees suggests the activation of multiple intracellular pathways involving in

NADPH oxidase PKC and MAPKs and then resulting in NF-kappaB6162 Moreover the

uniquely expressed glycolysisgluconeogenesis pathway in nurse bees implies its

central role in producing important precursor metabolites and synthesizing glucose (this

glucose is required by the brain for its proper functioning) from non-carbohydrate

precursors necessary63 In foragers the brain is well-developed18 and the strongly and

uniquely expressed functional classes and pathways related to metal ion transport ATP

metabolic process and phototransduction suggest that they are vital in responding to

sequential environmental signals and information as neurotransmitters to sufficiently

support guarding and foraging activities6465 Furthermore the uniquely enriched

functional class associated with metal ion transport in forager bees indicates its

importance in transporting ion metals to the brain as some metals are particularly

important for brain function66 As is well-known all metabolic processes are life-

sustaining vital chemical processes that sustain energy production and cell growth6467

In foragers the highly expressed phosphoproteins related to ATP-metabolic processes

are assumed to produce highly energetic molecular ATP64 that powers most cellular

reactions for neural activity which is important for the bees in order to travel long

distances for foraging activity The unique phototransduction pathway by the

phosphoproteins in the forager brain suggests that phosphorylation is vital for visual

perception and information acquisition of flower colors and patterns and the route to

food sources during field foraging activities65 This is consistent with the fact that

308

calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II and protein kinase C is involved in the

phototransduction pathway via the intracellular Ca+2 signal transduction in the

mushroom body of the worker bee brain 68 and important to shut off the light response

as found inknown for Drosophila69 The multiplicity of the enriched functional groups

and pathways by the phosphoproteins in the two ages suggest that phosphorylation

signaling regulates a wide cascade of the biological roles in the central nervous system

of the honeybee brain to sustain age-dependent roles as nurse or forager bees

Note Figure 6 with the following caption is missing because it is unreadable if

the need arises readers are adviced to contact the author

Quantitative proteome comparison during the development of bee brain (foldchange ge

and p ˂05) (A) Hierarchical clustering of the differentially expressed proteins

(foldchange gt2 and p˂006) the columns represent the replicates in each of the and

forget bees and the rows represent the individual proteins The up-and down-regulated

proteins are distinguished by red and green color respectively The color intensity

changes with the protein expressional level as indicated on the bar (B and C) enriched

functional groups and pathways of up-regulated proteins in the nurse and foraging bee

brain respectively

309

Mapping the identified proteins into a canonical pathway can gain deep insight into the

biological significance that a specific protein played at the pathway-centric level11 For

instance the phosphorylated glycerophospholipid metabolism process in the nurse and

forager brains indicates its role in promoting glycerophospholipid synthesis to ensure its

function as a reservoir for second messengers in the neural membrane and its

involvement in modulating transport activity70 This pathway is highly controlled by

phosphorylation reflected as age-specific expressions of different glycerophospholipids

subunits A higher number of subunits of inositol phosphate such as D-Glucose-6P and

dihydroxycetone phosphate were phosphorylated in the brain of nurse bees as

compared to the number in forager bees This observation indicates that different

protein species are phosphorylated to relay and amplify the signal in the inositol

phosphate metabolism pathways in the nurse and forager bees to drive the different

cerebral functions22 71 The validated expression tendency between the

phosphoproteins and their encoding genes Mob3 ACCB14939 Adk Phl LOC552007

CamkII ARGK PDPK1 and LOC409276 suggests that protein phosphorylation and

gene expression may have parallel directions in regulating functionality in the brain thus

providing sound clues to investigating the functions of modified specific proteins in

regulating the physiological changes of the brain

Conclusion

This work represents the first and most in-depth coverage of the in vivo

phosphoproteome in the honeybee brain and documented 4138 phosphosites from

1244 phosphoproteins The dynamic alteration of phosphosites and site abundance

levels of the phosphoproteins in the brains of nurse and forager bees indicates that the

age-dependent labor division of the honeybee requires specialized phosphorylation

networks to consolidate their unique neural biology This age-dependent

phosphoproteomic further reflects that the unique biological pathways and kinase

activities are employed for the neurobiological activities in the brain to validate with the

biological duties as nursing and foraging bees Furthermore the identification of PKs

and kinase-specific substrates is vital for understanding the regulatory mechanisms of

protein phosphorylation especially in regulating the neural activity to prime the age-

related labor division in honeybee workers Hence our results gain novel insights into

the range of functions regulated by phosphorylation at different time points in the

honeybee brain This data provides a trustworthy basis for future studies of the

functions of these signal transduction pathways in honeybee neurobiology as well as in

neurobiology of other social insects

References 1 Winston M L The Biology of the Honey Bee (Cambridge London Harvard University press 1987)

310

2 Robert E P Jr amp Christine Y-S P Aging and development in social insects with emphasis on the honey bee Apis mellifera L Exp Gerontol 36 695ndash711 doi101016S0531-5565(00)00236-9 (2001) 3 Johnson B R Division of labor in honeybees form function and proximate mechanisms Behav Ecol Sociobiol 64 305ndash316 doi101007s00265-009-0874-7 (2010) 4 Schulz D J Barron A B amp Robinson G E A Role for Octopamine in Honey Bee Division of Labor Brain Behav Evol 60 350ndash359 67788 (2002) 5 Crailsheim K Interadult Feeding of Jelly in Honeybee (Apis-Mellifera L) Colonies J Comp Physiol B-Biochemical Syst Environ Physiol 161 55ndash60 doi101007BF00258746 (1991) 6 Seeley T D Queen substance dispersal by messenger workers in honeybee colonies Behav Ecol Sociobiol 5 391ndash415 doi101007BF00292527 (1979) 7 Velthuis H H W Observations on the transmission of the queen substances in the honey bee colony by the attendants of the queen Bahaviour 41 105ndash129 doi101163156853972X00239 (1972) 8 Robinson G E Regulation of division of labor in insect societies Annu Rev Entomol 37 637ndash665 doi101146annureven37010192003225 (1992) 9 Robinson E Physiology as a caste-defining feature Insectes Soc 56 1ndash6 doi101007s00040-008-1035-0 (2009) 10 Qin Q-H H He X-J J Tian L-Q Q Zhang S-W W amp Zeng Z-J J Comparison of learning and memory of Apis cerana and Apis mellifera J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sensory Neural Behav Physiol 198 777ndash786 doi101007s00359-012-0747-9 (2012) 11 Qi Y et al Phosphoproteomic Analysis of Protein Phosphorylation Networks in the Hypopharyngeal Gland of Honeybee Workers (Apis mellifera ligustica) J Proteome Res 14 4647ndash4661 doi101021acsjproteome5b00530 (2015) 12 Feldman A amp Balch T Representing Honey Bee Behavior for Recognition Using Human Trainable Models Adapt Behav 12 241ndash250 doi101177105971230401200309 (2004) 13 Dyer F C The Biology Of The Dance Language Annu Rev Entomol 47 917ndash49 doi101146annurevento47091201145306 (2002) 14 Menzel R Leboulle G amp Eisenhardt D Small Brains Bright Minds Cell 124 237ndash239 doi101016jcell200601011 (2006) 15 Su S et al East learns from West Asiatic honeybees can understand dance language of European honeybees PLoS One 3 e2365 doi101371journalpone0002365 (2008) 16 Menzel R amp Giurfa M Cognitive architecture of a mini-brain the honeybee Trends Cogn Sci 5 62ndash71 doi101016S1364- 6613(00)01601-6 (2001) 17 Menzel R Honeybee Neurobiology and Behavior Book (NLondon New York Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg 2011) 18 Tereshko V amp Loengarov A Collective Decision-Making in Honey Bee Foraging Dynamics Comput Inf Syst J 9 1ndash7 (2005) 19 Robinson G E Genomics and Integrative Analyses of Division of Labor in Honeybee Colonies on JSTOR Am Soc Nat 160 S160ndashS172 doi101086342901 (2002)

311

20 Robinson G E amp Ben-Shahar Y Social behavior and comparative genomics new genes or new gene regulation Genes Brain Behav 1 197ndash203 doi101034j1601-183X200210401x (2002) 21 Pratavieira M et al MALDI Imaging Analysis of Neuropeptides in the Africanized Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Brain Effect of Ontogeny J Proteome Res 13 3054ndash3064 doi101021pr500224b (2014) 22 Hernaacutendez L G et al Worker Honeybee Brain Proteome J Proteome Res 3 1485ndash1493 doi101021pr2007818 (2012) 23 Hunter T Protein kinases and phosphatases the yin and yang of protein phosphorylation and signaling Cell 80 225ndash236 doi1010160092-8674(95)90405-0 (1995) 24 Raggiaschi R Gotta S amp Terstappen G C Phosphoproteome analysis Biosci Rep 25 33ndash44 doi101007s10540-005-2846-0 (2005) 25 Gala A et al Changes of proteome and phosphoproteome trigger embryo-larva transition of honeybee worker (Apis mellifera ligustica) J Proteomics 78 428ndash446 doi101016jjprot201210012 (2013) 26 Feng M et al Novel aspects of understanding molecular working mechanisms of salivary glands of worker honeybees (Apis mellifera) investigated by proteomics and phosphoproteomics J Proteomics 87 1ndash15 doi101016jjprot201305021 (2013) 27 Jianke L Mao F Begna D Yu F amp Aijuan Z Proteome comparison of hypopharyngeal gland development between Italian and royal jelly producing worker honeybees (Apis mellifera L) J Proteome Res 9 6578ndash6594 doi101021pr100768t (2010) 28 Han B et al In-depth phosphoproteomic analysis of royal jelly derived from western and eastern honeybee species J Proteome Res 13 5928ndash5943 doi101021pr500843j (2014) 29 Ohashi K Sawata M Takeuchi H Natori S amp Kubo T Molecular Cloning of cDNA and Analysis of Expression of the Gene for α-Glucosidase from the Hypopharyngeal Gland of the HoneybeeApis melliferaL Biochem Biophys Res Commun 221 380ndash385 doi101006bbrc19960604 (1996) 30 Beausoleil S A Villйn J Gerber S A Rush J amp Gygi S P A probability-based approach for high-throughput protein phosphorylation analysis and site localization Nat Biotechnol 24 1285ndash1292 doi101038nbt1240 (2006) 31 Huttlin E L et al Resource A Tissue-Specific Atlas of Mouse Protein Phosphorylation and Expression Cell 143 1174ndash1189 doi101016jcell201012001 (2010) 32 Manning G Whyte D B Martinez R Hunter T amp Sudarsanam S The protein kinase complement of the human genome Science 298 1912ndash1934 doi101126science1075762 (2002) 33 Schwartz D amp Gygi S P An iterative statistical approach to the identification of protein phosphorylation motifs from large-scale data sets Nat Biotechnol 23 1391ndash1398 doi101038nbt1146 (2005) 34 Villйn J Beausoleil S A Gerber S A amp Gygi S P Large-scale phosphorylation analysis of mouse liver Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104 1488ndash93 doi101073pnas0609836104 (2007)

312

35 Szklarczyk D et al STRING v10 Protein-protein interaction networks integrated over the tree of life Nucleic Acids Res 43D447ndashD452 doi101093nargku1003 (2015) 36 Elsik C G et al Hymenoptera Genome Database integrating genome annotations in HymenopteraMine Nucleic Acids Res 44 D793ndash800 doi101093nargkv1208 (2015) 37 Xue Y et al GPS 20 a tool to predict kinase-specific phosphorylation sites in hierarchy Mol Cell Proteomics 7 1598ndash608 doi101074mcpM700574-MCP200 (2008) 38 Wang Y et al EKPD A hierarchical database of eukaryotic protein kinases and protein phosphatases Nucleic Acids Res 42 1ndash7 doi101093nargkt1121 (2014) 39 Song C et al Systematic analysis of protein phosphorylation networks from phosphoproteomic data Mol Cell Proteomics 11 1070ndash83 doi101074mcpM111012625 (2012) 40 Lin H He L amp Ma B A combinatorial approach to the peptide feature matching problem for label-free quantification Bioinformatics 29 1768ndash1775 doi101093bioinformaticsbtt274 (2013) 41 Bindea G et al ClueGO A Cytoscape plug-in to decipher functionally grouped gene ontology and pathway annotation networks Bioinformatics 25 1091ndash1093 doi101093bioinformaticsbtp101 (2009) 42 Fнla J et al Phosphoproteomics Profiling of Tobacco Mature Pollen and Pollen Activated in vitro Mol Cell Proteomics 15 1338ndash50 doi101074mcpM115051672 (2016) 43 Rubin C S amp Rosen O M Protein phosphorylation Annu Rev Biochem 44 831ndash87 doi101146annurevbi44070175004151 (1975) 44 Nakai K Protein sorting signals and prediction of subcellular localization Adv Protein Chem 54 277ndash344 doi101016S0065- 3233(00)54009-1 (2000) 45 Kanehisa M et al New perspectives on genomes pathways diseases and drugs Nucleic Acids Res 45 1ndash15 (2016) 46 Kanehisa M Sato Y Kawashima M Furumichi M amp Tanabe M KEGG as a reference resource for gene and protein annotation Nucleic Acids Res 44 D457ndashD462 doi101093nargkv1070 (2016) 47 Menzel R amp Muller U Learning and memory in honeybees from behavior to neural substrates Annu Rev Neurosci 19 379ndash404 doi101146annurevne19030196002115 (1996) 48 Robertson J et al Defining the phospho-adhesome through the phosphoproteomic analysis of integrin signalling Nat Commun 6 6265 doi101038ncomms7265 (2015) 49 Tyanova S Cox J Olsen J Mann M amp Frishman D Phosphorylation Variation during the Cell Cycle Scales with Structural Propensities of Proteins PLoS Comput Biol 9 e1002842 doi101371journalpcbi1002842 (2013) 50 Zolnierowicz S amp Bollen M Protein phosphorylation and protein phosphatases De Panne Belgium September 19-24 1999 EMBO J 19 483ndash8 doi101093emboj194483 (2000) 51 Ji T et al Proteomics analysis reveals protein expression differences for hypopharyngeal gland activity in the honeybee Apis mellifera carnica Pollmann BMC Genomics 15 665 doi1011861471-2164-15-665 (2014)

313

52 Carden M J Trojanowski J Q Schlaepfer W W amp Lee V M Two-stage expression of neurofilament polypeptides during rat neurogenesis with early establishment of adult phosphorylation patterns J Neurosci 7 3489ndash504 (1987) Acknowledgements This work is supported by the Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program (CAAS-ASTIP-2015- IAR) and the earmarked fund for Modern Agro-Industry Technology Research System (CARS-45) in China Author Contributions JL conceived and designed the experiment HH conducted the quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) experiment MF and BH completed the proteomics and bioinformatics analysis YX contributed new reagents and analytic tools BG HC and JL wrote the manuscript completed the proteomics and bioinformatics analysis and all the authors aided in preparing of the manuscript

314

Perspectives for pollination in tropical beekeeping

Johan W van Veen

Centro de Investigaciones Apiacutecolas Tropicales Universidad Nacional Heredia Costa Rica

E-mail jvanveenunacr tel (+506) 25626332

Introduction

Bees are important pollinators of many crops In the tropics where a very diverse offer

of fruits and vegetables is grown pollination by honeybees and many species of native

bees is vital for their production (Biesmeijer 1992 Roubik 1995) Often the importance

of native bees for the pollination of tropical crops is not understood until a crop is grown

outside the natural habitat of its pollinator A good example of that is Vanilla which is

originally from Mexico and Central America and pollinated by Orchid bees (Euglossini)

Eulema sp In regions where these bees do not occur for instance Madagascar and

Tahiti the Vanilla orchids have to be pollinated by hand in order to produce the vanilla

beans which is less effective and more costly Of many crops in the tropics it is still not

known which bees or other insects are their pollinators or in case it is known what their

contribution is in the production

In Africa it is considered (Elisante et al 2017) that although some good studies

concerning crop pollination are available the majority of communities have not

benefited yet because beekeepers do not have the basic knowledge about pollination

services and its importance for crop production Many of the studies are limited to the

pollination of export crops such as coffee mangoes cashew nut and sunflower

(Roubik 1995) Although it is estimated that the economic value of bee pollination of

crops be euro 153 billion the value of pollination services in the tropics is poorly

understood and not known by the vas majority of neither beekeepers nor farmers

(Elisante et al 2017) For Asia the situation is not much different and the specific

pollination requirements of many crops for instance Citrus remain only partly

understood (Roubik 1995) It is important to note that beekeeping and agricultural

productivity are as clearly interwoven in the tropics as they are in the temperate regions

of the world

Honeybees are generally used in the tropics for pollination of crops grown at a large

scale such as melon watermelon kiwifruit cashew papaya oranges cucumber

cotton apples and mangoes among others Honeybee colonies are readily available

populous and hive management is relatively well known For beekeepers it is often

economically attractive to rent their hives for pollination of a crop It provides them with

extra income next to honey production Especially now that climate variability makes

honey production less predictable many beekeepers look for ways of how to diversify

their apicultural production For instance in Costa Rica many beekeepers suffered from

low honey productions during the severe ldquoNintildeordquo droughts of 2015 and 2016

315

In the Tropics hundreds of species of social stingless bees occur that live in colonies

Nineteen species divided in six genera are known for Africa (Eardley 2004) However

little is known about their contribution to the pollination of fruits and crops Typically

tropical crops such as Chayote (Sechium edule) a Cucurbitaceae native to Costa Rica

which is grown for export to the USA and Macadamia (Macadamia integrifolia) native

to Australia are known to be pollinated by stingless bees Trigona sp (Heard 1999

Slaa et al 2006) Other tropical crops known to be pollinated by stingless bees are

Annato or Achiote (Bixa orellana) Carambola (Averrhoa carambola) Mango (Mangifera

indica) Coffee (Coffeaarabica) Avocado (Persea americana) and Rambutan

(Nephelium lappaceum)

In Ethiopia and most other African countries beekeeping plays an important role in

agriculture Especially the production of wax for export and the production of honey in

traditional hives are common The production in traditional hives is generally low less

than 10 kg per year whereas honey production in modern moveable frame hives

although less common is much higher The quality of the honey produced is usually

better as well in modern hives and suffers less from unhygienic manipulation This is an

important issue for export

Economical importance of beekeeping for crop pollination

In Costa Rica and neighboring Central American countries honeybees are used for the

pollination of crops that are grown at a large scale The most important crops are melon

(Cucumis melo) watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and avocado (Persea americana)

Beekeepers receive a rental fee for the hives which is calculated either based on the

whole production season of the crop or based on each time a hive is introduced into a

crop field The fee can be as much as $120 per hive for the whole season For this the

beekeeper has to bring his hives during the night in the crop field at previously selected

locations protect his hives during the pollination service in case the crop grower has to

apply some pesticide and remove the hives once the agreed upon period of pollination

has finished Beekeepers are rarely compensated for the loss of hives during

pollination In Costa Rica between five thousand and eight thousand hives are used

annually for the pollination of melon and watermelon and several hundreds for avocado

The total export value of these three crops is about $50 million Other crops where

honeybees contribute in the production are coffee citrus (oranges and lemons) mango

and papaya The values of these crops are in table 1 The values differ greatly form

year to year because of differences in price on the international markets and because

of the weather conditions (excessive rainfall and droughts) which influence significantly

in the production

Crops Export value in million $

316

Coffee gt 3000 Oranges and lemons 676 Melon and watermelon 345 Mango 300 Papaya 175 Avocado 161

Table 1 Export value of crops pollinated by honeybees in Costa Rica

Many Costa Rica beekeepers bring their hives to the Central Valley for the blooming of

the coffee at the end of the dry season for an additional honey harvest The honey

produced on this crop is of excellent quality good taste low in humidity and has a

beautiful yellow golden color Because of this coffee growers do not pay the beekeepers

a rental fee for their hives even though research has demonstrated that pollination by

honeybees can increase the production of this coffee crop with 15 to 20

Research by the Research Institute for Tropical Beekeeping (CINAT)

Because of the lack of knowledge concerning on how beehives can be used for the

pollination of different crops in the tropics and because of the varying circumstances

between countries and sometimes even within a country CINAT conducted research

into the pollination needs of several crops coffee melon avocado tomato and Vanilla

Melon (Cucumis melo)

On one hand because of the economical importance of the export of Cantaloupe and

Honeydew melons and on the other hand because thousands of beehives are being

used every year for its pollination CINAT started its research with this crop Beekeepers

used to bring four to six hives per hectare for proper pollination because thatrsquos what the

literature cites for melon in the USA (photo 1) Flowers are receptive only for a few

hours during the morning and during that period pollination must occur Specific crop

and hive management factors such as irrigation the spreading of the hives on the crop

and the presence of a feral (Africanized) honeybee population were not taken into

account

The research was carried out in Guanacaste province in a Cantaloupe producing farm

where we had access to a 25-hectare plot surrounded by not blooming crop and natural

forest During a week every hour bee presence on the flowers was observed for ten

minutes at 10m 75m and 100m from the hives (2 per hectare) by three observers The

bee counts were performed with the hives opened and closed to estimate the visitation

by honeybees from the feral population No significant difference was found in the

number of visits of the flowers between the two distances nearest to the hives Only at

100m from the hives significantly less bees were observed The conclusion of this field

317

study was that with a proper distribution of beehives on Cantaloupe in Costa Rica two

hives per hectare is enough for pollination purposes because Africanized honeybees

contribute with about thirty percent in its pollination In another study we compared the

number of honeybee visits observed on hermaphroditic flowers with the resulting fruit

size and quality We found that ten to twelve visits to the flowers produced well-formed

round melons with more than 600 seeds and an average weight of 12 kg which is very

similar to the results of Mussen and Thorp (2017) for Cantaloupe and honeydew melons

in California

Avocado (Persea Americana)

Our student Rosa Maria Jimeacutenez supervised by Luis Alejandro Saacutenchez pollination

expert at CINAT studied the importance of bee pollination for the production of

avocados variety Hass The impact of pollination was compared in three experimental

conditions of branches with flowers every time on the same tree (a) branches with

flowers subject to open pollination (b) branches with flowers that were confined with

fine mesh to prevent insect pollination and (c) branches with flowers that were subject

to open pollination after the introduction of honeybee hives (photo 2 3) The branches

where no insect pollination was possible did not produce fruits at all Where open

pollination occurred (but before honey bees were introduced at the field) the flowers

were visited by flies beetles and several species of native bees which resulted after

one month in very small avocados with an average weight of only 15 gram When four

beehives were introduced at a short distance (on average less than 50 m from the

trees) to promote an intensive pollination twelve times more avocados were produced

with an average weight after one month of 181 grams This clearly indicates the

importance of honeybees for the pollination of avocados Even though avocados are

native to Mexico and native Meliponinae and Vespidae pollinators should be present

generally spoken only intensive pollination by honeybees gives a good production In

Australia organic avocado producer Michael Hogan uses 80 hives of native stingless

bees successfully for pollination of his four-hectare avocado orchard

Coffee (Coffea arabica)

It is well known that this species of coffee has hermaphrodite flowers which are largely

self-pollinated a process improved by wind and (rain) water However several authors

mention that honeybees and other bees can contribute to its pollination (Roubik 1995

Slaa et al 2006) CINAT staff was involved in two studies performed by students and

researchers of CATIE the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Centre

The results demonstrated that in coffee farms close to forested areas a much bigger

diversity and quantity of bees could be found than in coffee fields in agricultural areas

without nearby forests (Florez Fernaacutendez 2001 Soliacutes Rodriacuteguez 2014) The effect on

the productivity of the coffee crop was on one hand a larger percentage of seed set in

presence of bees visiting the fields from the nearby forests in comparison with a lower

318

percentage of seed set when bee presence was lower due to the far distance of the

crop fields to forested areas On the other hand the size and weight of the fruits was on

average 15 more when pollinated by honeybees The larger the distance between the

coffee fields and the forest the smaller the number of bees and bee species that were

observed on the coffee flowers during blooming and a diminished effect on the

productivity of the crop was measured Next to Apis mellifera twenty species of stingless

bees (Meliponini) and other bees such as Halictidae and Antophoridae were identified

(Soliacutes Rodriacuteguez 2014)

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)

In a study performed by CINAT student Laura Meacutendez and researcher Luis Saacutenchez

(2013) the efficiency of the stingless bee Nannotrigona perilampoides for the pollination

of tomatoes in greenhouses was studied in Guanacaste Costa Rica The researchers

installed three cages inside the greenhouse measuring 4(L) x4 (W) x3 (H) m in each of

which 45 tomato plants were grown During two months daily observations were

performed on flower visitation by this stingless bee (photo 4) in one of the cages and

compared with the results of hand pollination with the use of a hand air blower in one of

the other cages and without any pollination activity in the third cage They found that in

the cage where N perilampoides had been present fruits were of significantly better

quality bigger diameter heavier well formed and contained more seeds No difference

was found in the number of fruits between treatments or the fruit set

Pollination of Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

A CINAT masterrsquos student Mario Gallardo studied pollination of Vanilla pompona in a

small farm near Guaacutepiles during blooming season from February to April 2013 Some

500 plants of the Vanilla orchid were grown in an area of about 7000m2 He introduced

2 hives of the stingless bee Melipona costarricensis in order to study the behavior of this

species on the flowers and observe if pollen packets or pollinia would be transported by

it Historically it was suggested in Mexico (Dressler 1981) that Melipona bees are

pollinators of Vanilla which is more recently considered doubtful by others (Gigant et

al 2011 Lubinsky et al 2006 Roubik 1995) Gallardo found that Euglossa flammea

Euglossa ignita and Eulaema cingulata bees were the most frequent visitors on the

flowers of Vanilla He never observed any Melipona costarricensis on the flowers

despite having two colonies within the crop field The only bees that after visiting the

flowers of the Vanilla flowers were observed carrying pollinia in their thorax were a few

of the male Eulaema cingulata bees Even though Melipona is reported to be an

occasional visitor of Vanilla planifolia and Vanilla pompona (Lubinsky et al 2006) no

pollen movement was observed by them neither in Peru nor Mexico Several Eulema

species are mentioned as pollinators for Vanilla planifolia and Vanilla pompona

(Lubinsky et al 2006) Gallardorsquos results are in accordance with these observations by

Lubinsky (et al 2006)

319

Since flowers of Vanilla do not seem to produce nectar the rewards that may be

collected by males of Euglossine bees are oil floral fragrances and occasionally pollen

The collection of fragrances by male Euglossa known as ldquomale euglossine syndromerdquo

or ldquoperfume flower syndromerdquo is not known for males of Melipona

Concluding remarks

Many tropical crops depend on bees for pollination or are known to benefit greatly from

pollination by bees In many tropical countries beekeeping is an important income

generating activity often limited to honey pollen and wax production but in growing

numbers also through the rental of hives for pollination services of crops grown at a

large scale for export The pollination requirements for few crops such as melon

watermelon tomato and papaya are fairly well understood but for many others crops

especially for those that are not pollinated by honeybees much research is needed

There is a great potential for beekeepers offering pollination services and also for the

use of native (stingless) bees as pollinators for some crops

Acknowledgement

I wish to thank Dr Marinus Sommeijer and M Sc Luis Alejandro Saacutenchez Chaves for

their recommendations that improved the text of this paper greatly I am indebted to the

National University of Costa Rica are thanked for the financial support

References

Biesmeijer JC 1992 Beekeeping and biodiversity Social bees as pollinators in the

tropics In Bees and Forest in the Tropics (ed J Beetsma) NECTAR publication

pp 43-60

Dressler RL 1981 The Orchids Natural History and Classification Harvard University

Press Cambridge MA

Eardly CD 2004 Taxonomic revision of the African stingless bees (Apoidea Apidae

Apinae Meliponini) African Plant Protection Vol 10 no 2 63-96

Elisante F ER Mbega PA Ndakidemi 2017 Significance of pollination services in

crop and plant diversity in tropical Africa J Bio amp Env Sci Vol 11 206-223

Florez Fernaacutendez JA 2001 Biodiversidad Funcional en Cafetales El Rol de la

Diversidad Vegetal en la Conservacioacuten de Abejas y el Papel de eacutestas en la

Produccioacuten de Cafeacute Masterrsquos Thesis CATIE Turrialba Costa Rica 97p

Gigant R B Seacuteverine M Grisoni P Besse 2011 Biodiversity and Evolution in the

Vanilla Genus The Dynamical Processes of Biodiversity In Case Studies of

Evolution and Spatial Distribution O Grillo (ed) InTech pp 1-25

Heard TA 1999 The role of stingless bees in crop pollination Annu Rev Entomol 44

183-206

320

Lubinsky P M Van Dam A Van Dam 2006 Pollination of Vanilla and evolution in the

Orchidaceae Lindleyana 75 926-929

Meacutendez Vargas LA LA Saacutenchez Chaves in press Pollination Efficiency of the

Stingless Bee Nannotrigona perilampoides on Greenhouse tomatoes in Costa Rica

Mussen EC RW Thorp 2017 Honey bee pollination of cantaloupe cucumber and

watermelon University of CaliforniaDivision of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Publication 7224 pp1-3

Roubik DW (ed) 1995 Pollination of cultivated plants in the tropics FAO Agricultural

Services Bulleting 118 Rome 193p

Slaa EJ LA Saacutenchez Chaves KS Malagodi-Braga FE Hofstede 2006 Stingless

bees in applied pollination practice and perspectives Apidologie 37 293-315

Soliacutes Rodriacuteguez E 2014 Contribucioacuten de una red de conectividad ecoloacutegica para el

servicio ecosisteacutemico de polinizacioacuten en cultivos agriacutecolas caso de studio el cafeacute

en el Corredor Bioloacutegico Volcaacutenica Central Talamanca Costa Rica Masterrsquos Thesis

CATIE Turrialba Costa Rica 114p

321

Contacts addresses websites etc

322

List of abstracts submitted thier authors and assignment to the topics of the

Symposium presetathions

No Authors Senior authorrsquos Name Title of the paper Topic

11 Dr Kern Manfred J agriExcellence eK Germany

Dr Kern Manfred J agriExcellence eK Germany

E-mail ManfredKernagriexcellencede

Impact of Pollinator Services on Global Food amp Nutrition Security 20252050

1

Pollination and

food

production

12 Tolera Kumsa Tolera Kumsa

Phd studentChinese Academy of Agricultural Science

Institute of Apiculture research (IAR)

Department of insect pollination ampecology

Tel +86-15727399022Beijing


Overview of Insect

Pollinators in

Sustainable

Agriculture Planning

Unexploited

Opportunity in Ethiopia

1

Pollination and food production

13 Qamer Samina1

Farkhanda Asad2

Muhammad Samee Mubarik

3

Tayyaba Ali4

Tahira Yasmin5

Department of Zoology Government College University Faisalabad Pakistan

1234

National IPM programme department of plant and environmental protection national agricultural research center park road Islamabad Email saminabeegmailcom

Effect of honey bee pollination on the fruit setting and yield of Brassicaspp crop Pakistan

1


14 Gallmann Peter

Dr Peter Gallmann Food and Nutrition Scientist (ETHSFT) emeritus director of the Swiss Bee Research Centre Agroscope Liebefeld

pgallmannbluewinch

Old Secrets about secretions of the honeybee

1


15 Emana Getu Emana Getu (Prof) Professor of Entomology Zoological Sciences Department Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa Ethiopia

PO Box 30526 Addis Ababa

Email egetudegagayahoocom

Tel +251 911019166

Facts about insects negative and positive roles of insects in human livelihood

1


16 Tigist Zegeye

Tigist Zegeye

Business and Investment Consultancy Service metigistgebregmailcom

lsquorsquoHow to Prepare a

Business Plan for Bee

Productsrsquorsquo

1


323


17 Tura Bareke Admassu Addi and Kibebew Wakjira(Dr Admassu Addi)

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (OARI) Holeta Bee Research Center (HBRC) Email trbarekegmailcom

Tel +251920287173


1


21 Ibrahim Mohammed Mustafa

1 R K

Thakur2 K M

Kumaranag2

ampYendrembam KDevi

3

1Division of Entomology ICAR-Indian

Agricultural Research Institute 2ICAR-AICRP on Honey Bees and

Pollinators New Delhi-110012 3Department of Entomologyschool of

AgricultureLovely Professional UniversityJalandhar-Delhi GT Road Phagwara Punjab-144411 Emailmrmustafa1982gmailcom

Selection of apis mellifera for hygienic behavior vis-a-vis mite and disease incidenceafter five decades of introduction in India

2

Threat to pollinators or their performance

22 Haftom Gebremedhn

13

Amsalu Bezabih 2 Lina de Smet

1

Dirk Cde Graaf1

1 Laboratory of Molecular Entomology and

Bee Pathology Ghent University Krijgslaan 281 S2 9000Ghent Belgium 2 Holeta Bee Research Center Ethiopia

3Tigray Agricultural Research Institute

Ethiopia Email haftushyahoocom

Defence mechanisms of Ethiopian honeybee (Apis mellifera jementica) against varroa mite (Varroa destructor)

2


23 Addisu Bihonegn1

1Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research

Center (SDARC) POBox 62 Sekota Ethiopia

Email addbeshgmailcom

Monoculture intensification as a threat for apiculture current state review

2


24 Yusuf Abdullahi A

1 Nikita

Venter1 Christian

Pirk1

1Department of Zoology and Entomology

University of Pretoria Private Bag X20 Hatfield 0028 Pretoria South Africa Emailaayusufzoologyupacza

Hot and sort after Body temperature correlates with pheromone production in honey bee workers

2


25 Guesh Godifey1

Amssalu Bezabeh

2

Hailu Mazengia3

Yayneshet Tesfay

4

Guesh Godifey Gebremicheal (MSc) Tigray Agricultural Research InstituteMekelle Agricultural Research Center Apiculture and Sericulture Researcher Mob+251-914-040236 PO Box 492 Mekelle Tigray Ethiopia

Email gueshgodyahoocom

2Holeta bee research center

3Bahirdar university department of animal

production and technology

4ILRI_LIVES project

Assessment on the effects of agrochemical applications on honeybee production in selected zones of Tigray Region Northern Ethiopia

2


324


26 Hassan Lubna Lubna Hassan

Wildlife Research Center Shambat Sudan

Emaillobnamoh2010yahoocom

Density and

distribution of nesting

sites of honeybees in

the Dinder Biosphere

Reserve Sudan

2


27 Abebe Jenberie1

Asaminew Tassew

1

Tilahun Gebey2

Kerealem Ejigu3

Amssalu Bezabih

4amp

Workneh Ayalew5

1Department of Animal Production and

Technology College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Bahir Dar University Bahir Dar Ethiopia

2Director Bees for Development Ethiopia

Bahir Dar Ethiopia 3Agricultural

Transformation Agency (ATA) Addis Ababa Ethiopia

4Oromiya Agricultural Research Institute

Holleta bee research center Holleta Ethiopia

5Coordinator Youth

Entrepreneurs in Silk and Honey (YESH) Project International Canter of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Email amssalubgmailcom

Underpinning the impacts of on-going agro-chemical use on honeybees in North-Western Ethiopia The overview of ldquozero-sum strategyrdquo

2


31 Admassu Addi

Kibebew Wakjira amp Tura Bareke

Holeta Bee Research Centre Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO)

Email admassuaddigmailcom

Bee forage diversity in

Ethiopia flora amp its

implication for

apiculture

development

3

Environmental service and climate change

32 Admassu Addi

Ensermu Kelbessa amp

Teshome Soromessa



Proximate composition and antioxidant power of bee collected pollen from moist Afromontane forest in southwest Ethiopia

3


33 1 Clark Kerry

2Ms courtenay

clark

Dawson Creek British Columbia Canada

Email kccsclarkgmailcom

Beekeeping benefits to

communities with

challenging

environments

3


34

Akalework Gizaw1 Akalework Gizaw

1 Asaminew Tassew

2 and

Desalegn Begna3

1Ministry of Livestock ampFishery Resource

Development Addis Ababa

2Colleges of Agriculture and Environmental

The status of honey quality produced in gedebano gutazer wolene central Ethiopia

3


325


Sciences Bahir Dar University

3Holleta Bee Research Center Ethiopia

awgawgaprmgmailcom

41 Gallmann Peter

DrScnat master in food and nutrition science (SFIT) former director of the Swiss Bee Research Centre Liebefeld Switzerland

Email pgallmannbluewinch

Pollen the perfect food for the bee but also for humans

4

Commercialization amp transformation of beekeeping

42 Gemechis Jaleta Kasper KerverProfound advisers in development

Tel +31 (0)30 276 2824

E-mail kkerverthisisprofoundcom wwwThisIsProFoundcom

Building a honey value

chain in Ethiopia

strong enough to face

international

competition

4


43 1Degefie Tibebe

2Denis Sautier

3Getachew

Mengistie Alemu

1Economist CIRAD Univ Montpellier F-

34398 Montpellier France sautierciradfr

2Intellectual Property specialist and

consultant Washington DC USA 3Geographer Ethiopian Institute for

Agricultural Research Addis-Ababa

Ethiopia

E-mail sautierciradfr

Tel +33467615914

Honey and

Geographical

indications Why is

honey a good pilot

product for the

implementation of

Geographical

Indications labeling in

Ethiopia

4


44 Abera Belay1

Gulelat Desse Haki

2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Young-Chul Lee4

Kyung-

Tack Kim4

Kaleab Baye5

Samuel Melaku6

1Department of food science ampapplied

nutrition Addis Ababa science amptechnology university

E-mailabberabelaygmailcom

Tel +251911840655

2Department of Food Science and

Technology Botswana College of Agriculture University of Botswana

3Fulda University of Applied Sciences Fulda

Germany

4Korea Food Research Institute Seongnam

463-746 Korea

5Center for Food Science and Nutrition

Enzyme activity amino

acid profiles and

hydroxymethylfurfural

content in Ethiopian

monofloral honey

4


326


Addis Ababa University Box 1176 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

6Department of Chemistry

Columbus State University 4225 University Avenue Columbus GA 31907 USA

45 Alemayehu Gela

Zewudu Ararso amp

Deresa Kebede

Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO)

Holeta Bee Research Centre

POBox 22 Holeta Ethiopia

E-mail alemaygbyahoocom

Production and composition analysis of stingless bees honey from West Showa zone of Oromia region Ethiopia

4


46 sup1Chibugo okafor

sup1Pharmacist Beekeeper and Director of

Kendake Organic Honey 143 Adetokunbo

Ademola Crescent FCT Nigeria

Email-ojiugongltdgmailcom

adeniyiorganicgmailcom

Challenges of

beekeeping and honey

trade among

smallholder

beekeepers and smersquos

in africa

4


47 1Adeyemo Yusuf

Adeniyi

2Chi

Okafor

Youth for Apiculture Initiative E -apiyouthinitiavegmailcom E -adeniyiorganicgmailcom

Integration of african youths in apiculture for food security and wealth creation

4


48 Guesh Godifey1

Amssalu Bezabeh

2 Hailu

Mazengia3

Yayneshet Tesfay

4


2Holeta Bee research Center

3Bahrdar

University Department of Animal Production and Technology

4ILRI -LIVES project

Beekeeping management practices and gap analysis of beekeepers in different agro-ecological zones of Tigray region Northern Ethiopia

4


49 Yetnayet Girmaw

Yetnayet Girmaw

Sector Leader Agriculture

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation

Email ygirmawsnvorg

Tel +251 (0) 9 11 86 80 59

Strengthening extension service delivery the lead beekeeper model of ASPIRE

4


327


410 Abera Belay1 Gulelat Desse Haki

2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Samuel Melaku4

Kaleab

Baye5

1Department of Food Science and Applied

Nutrition Addis Ababa Science and Technology University Email abberabelaygmailcom



3 Fulda University of Applied Sciences

Fulda Germany 4Department of Chemistry



Addis Ababa University Ethiopia Box 1176 Addis Ababa Ethiopia

Glycemic index of Ethiopian monofloral honey

4


411 Nuru Adgaba12

Ahmed A Al-ghamdi

1 Mebrat

Hailu2

1Chair of Bugshan for Bee Research

Department of Plant Protection College of

Food and Agricultural Sciences King Saud

University Riyadh Saudi Arabia

2Holetta Bee Research Center Oromia

Agricultural Research Institute Ethiopia

Email nuruadgabagmailcom

Queen excluders enhance honey production in African honey bees Apis mellifera by limitingbrood rearing during peak nectar flow

4


412 Kibebew Wakjira Taye Negera Gemechis Legesse

Holeta Bee Research Center Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO) POBox 22 Holeta Ethiopia Email wkibebewgmailcom

SAMS - international partnership on innovation in smart apiculture management services

4


413 Teweldemedhn Gebretinsaesup1

2

Till Stellmacher3

sup1PhD Student Institute of Animal Science Faculty of Agriculture University of Hohenheim Germany

2Assist Professor College of Agriculture

Aksum University Shire campus Shire Ethiopia

3Senior researcherCenter for Development

Research (ZEF) University of Bonn Germany

Garbenstraszlige177 70599 Stuttgart Germany

E-teweldemedhnghailuuni- hohenheimdeteweldeg2008gmailcom

Tel+49-(0)-15219407639

The role of cooperative beekeeping in hillside rehabilitation areas for rural livelihood improvement in northern Ethiopia

4


328


414 Kibebew Wakjira amp Alemayehu Gela

Holeta Bee Research Center Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO) POBox 22 Holeta Ethiopia Email wkibebewgmailcom ampalemaygbyahoocom

Assessment of colony carrying capacity and factors responsible for low production and productivity of beekeeping in Horro Guduru Wollega Zone of Oromia Ethiopia

4


415 Keating Peter Peter Keating

Email keatingxplornetca Quebec Canada

Beekeeping in rural development

4


416 White James J White amp Associates Consulting

Email-jwhite007sympaticoca

Potential new income from payment for pollination services biocontrol agent vectoring and agro-tourism in Ethiopia compared with current practices for Canadian beekeepers

4


Van Veen Johan

(unable to attend ndash covered by Dr Amsalu Bezabihsee below)

Centro de Investigaciones Apiacutecolas

Tropicales

Universidad Nacional

Campus Benj

amiacuten Nuntildeez

Apdo Postal 475-3000 Heredia

Tel 2562-6332

E-mail johanvanveenmarinissenunacr

Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Perspectives for

pollination in tropical

beekeeping

4


CunninghamSaul Professor Saul Cunningham Director of the Fenner School of Environment and Society The Australian National University

Understanding the causes of low pollination in crops

1

Pollination amp food production

329


RitterWolfgang

Cancelled ndashreplaced by panel discussion

Wolfgang Ritter Ute Schneider-Ritter Martin

Ritter Gozde Okcu

Bees-for-the-world

FreiburgGermany wwwbeesfortheworldcom

wolfgangritterbeesfortheworldde

The African way

Healthy bee colonies

for a better

pollination

performance

2

Threats service amp climate change

Van Veen


Tropicales


Campus Benj



Tel 2562-6332


Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Beekeeping for

poverty Alleviation

4

Commercializa

tion amp

transformation

of beekeeping

Steffan - Dewenter Ingolf

Prof Dr Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology Biocenter University of Wuumlrzburg Am Hubland 97074 Wuumlrzburg Germany Phone ++49 (0)931 31-86947 Mobile ++49 (0)173 8618521 Fax ++49 (0)931 31-84352 Email ingolfsteffanuni-wuerzburgde httpwwwzoo3biozentrumuni-wuerzburgde

Insect pollinators and

pollination services in

changing

environments

3

Environmental service amp climate change

Amsalu Bezabih Dr Amsalu Bezabih

Holetta bee research center HBRCOromia

agriculture institutePOBox 22

holetaEthiopia

Beekeeping for

poverty alleviation and

livelihood security

4 commercialization and transformation of beekeeping

330

The list of participants who are accepted but not presented their paper because of different

reasons

Authors Senior authorrsquos Name Title of the paper Topic Full paper + or -

Turner Queen ampDominic Byarugaba

Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food Security PBag 003 Gaborone Botswana African Institute for Capacity Development (AICAD) P O Box 46179-00100- GPO Nairobi KENYA EmailTurnerq09gmailcom

Food security amp beekeeping in Botswana southern Africa

1 Pollination and food production

+

Ajao A M1

and Oladimeji Y U

2

1-College of Pure and Applied Science

Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology Kwara State University Malete PMB 1530 Ilorin Kwara State Nigeria

2-Department of Agricuultural

Economic and Rural Sociology Faculty of Agriculture Ahmadu Bello University PMB1530ZariaKwara State Nigeria Eadeyemiajaokwasuedung drajaoadeyemigmailcom

Bee Pollination Service veritable tool for collaborative practical solution for agricultural and industrial partnerships in food production in Kwara State Nigeria


+


Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Mekelle Agricultural Research Center PO Box 1132 Mekelle Tigray Ethiopia Emailgbtesfaygmailcom

Managed honeybees (Apis mellifera L) increase onion (Allium cepa) seed yield and quality


+

Tolera Kumsa

1

Gemeda1

Ma Weihua

2

Muhammad Naeem

1

Jiaxing Huang

1 Jie

Wu1

1Key Laboratory for Insect-Pollinator

Biology Institute of Apicultural Research Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Beijing 100093 PR China 2Institute of horticulture Shanxi

academy of agricultural sciences Taiyuan 032031PR China Email tolekumeyahoocom

Volatile Compositions of pear flower (Pyrus bretschneideri Rosaceae) affects the pollination response of honey bees

2 Threat to pollinators or their performance

-

Obange FA

1 2

Villinger J1

Adhiambo C

2 Lattorff

M1

International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) PO Box 30772- 00100 Nairobi Kenya 2University of Nairobi PO Box 30197

GPO Nairobi Kenya Email faithobangegmailcom

On the trail of a killer A multi locus sequence typing approach to characterizing deformed wing virus strains


-

Tesfay Gidey

1

1Department of Plant science College

of Agriculture and Environmental Using Yield-SAFE model to

3 Ecosystem

+

331


Tania Oliveira

2

Josep Crous-Duran

2

Joatildeo HN Palma

2

Sciences University of Adigrat PO Box 50 Adigrat Ethiopia 2FORCHANGEndashForest Ecosystems

Management Under Global Change Centro de Estudos Forest Research Centre School of Agriculture University of Lisbon Tapada da Ajuda sn 1349-017 Lisbon Portugal Email tglovegideygmailcomortesfaygidey26yahoocom Tel +251 914192588

assess impacts of climate change on yield of coffee (Coffee Arabica L) under agroforestry and monoculture systems

service and climate change

Zewdu Ararso Hora

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Institute of Apicultural ResearchKey laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology Beijing 100081 China Oromia Agricultural Research Institute

Holeta Bee Research Center PO Box

22 Holeta Ethiopia

Email zewdu402yahoocom

Alien honeybee species in Ethiopia An opportunity or a threat

3 Ecosystem service and climate change

-

Eshaya

Samuel E

Department of agricultural education ebonyi state college of education ikwo Esamuelesheyagmailcom Prof Cu Okoye Department of agricultural economicsuniversity of nigeria nsukka Prof Nj Nweze Department of agricultural economicsuniversity of nigeria nsukka

Socio-economic effects of chemical pollution on agricultural production in mineral mining communities of southeast nigeria


+

SSettaba Jude Institution Native product Ltd Ugandan Email 2honeycentergmailcom

Challenge of beekeeping and honey trade among smaller beekeepers SMES in Africa

4 Commercialization amp transformation of beekeeping

+

Adedotum Oke

Michael

International Department Plot 232 Kaida Road Old Kutunku Gwagawalada PO Box 11611 Garki Abuja Nigeria E maof2020gmailcom +23408027142077

An appraisal of the honey marketing practices in gwagwalada area council of the federal capital

territory abuja Nigeria


-

Binyuy Wirsiy

Cameroon Gender and Environment Watch (CAMGEW)

Developing the value chain of

4 Commercializati

+

332


Emmanuel

CAMGEW Team Leader APICULTURE and nature conservation campaigner Po box 17 oku north west region CAMEROON Tel(+237) 675 18 43 10 (+237) 697 037 417 Email camgewgmailcom

Oku White Honey in Kilum-Ijim forest for income generation and job creation

on amptransformation of beekeeping

Kibebew Wakjira Taye Negera Tadele Alemu and Shimu Dabela

Holeta Bee Research Center Oromia Agricultural Research Institute (IQQO) POBox 22 Holeta Ethiopia Emailwkibebewgmailcom

Assessing the response of honeybees (Apis mellifera bandasii) to Jenter queen rearing method


-

Gebreamlak Bezabih Han Cheng Bin Han Mao Feng1 Yu Xue Han Hu amp Jianke Li

Tigray Agricultural Research Insititute Mekelle Agricultureal Research Center POBox 1132 Mekelle Tigray Ethiopia Email gbtesfayyahoocom

Phosphoproteome analysis reveals phosphorylation underpinnings in the brains of nurse and forager honeybees (Apis mellifera)


+

333

Ethiopian Apiculture Board (EAB)

Churchil Road Infront of National Theater on Teklu Desta Building 2nd Floor Addis

Ababa Ethiopia

Phone +251-911-201-686

Website wwwethioapiboardorg

Email ethioapic2012gmailcom

Website wwwapisymposium2018org

Email infoapisymposium2018org

Host Organization

Apimondia

Symposium2018

334

Ethiopian Apiculture Board Board ChairmanHailegiorgis

Demissie

Emailbezamarhgmailcom

Negash BekenaEthiopian Apiculture BoardGeneral Manager

Email nbtb1963yahoocom

DrJuergen Greiling Senior Adisor Ethiopian Apiculture Board

Email juergengreilingcimonlinede

Talila KenoProgram and Planning HeadEthiopian Apiculture

Board

Email talilakenogmailcom

335

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency SNV OXFAM and GIZ have a lion share of

gratitude for they financially supported the APIMONDIA SYMPSOISUM 2018 organization in

Ethiopia in general and the publication of this proceeding in particular There are also other

numerous contributors who deserve great appreciations In general we wholeheartedly

appreciate the support and collaborations we have received from all and call upon for continued

collaborations and networking in promoting the huge potential of the Ethiopian apiculture sector

Negash
Highlight
Negash
Inserted Text
such as Austrian Development Cooperation International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology Norwegian Embassy NORAD Nib International Bank Embassy of Kingdom of Netherlands etc

1

Contents

Executive Summary 2

Message from the President of Ethiopian Apiculture Board 3

Committee Members 5

Welcome Messages 8

Program of the Symposium 10

Presentations by Sector Actors 25

Keynote Speeches 29

Presentations in Working Groups 33

Topic 1 Papers Pollination and Food Production 34

Topic 2 Papers Threat to Pollinators and to their perfomances 85

Topic 3 Papers Environmental Serveces and Climate Chnage 123

Topic 4 Papers Commercialization and Transformation of Beekeeping 160

Presentations in Final Plenary Session 253

Plenary Closing Session 256

Papers scheduled for presentation but were not presented 258

Contacts Addresses Websites 322

2

Executive Summary




















identified problems














3








well understood






through pollination






















4













5











Committee











NASOC Chair




COMMITTEES

6





























7























________________________




8

Welcome Messages



















symposium















9


















10



Time amp

Day


Manager


GREEN

PARK

800-

1300


participants



Con-

ference

Hall

800-

1000


1000-


Room

No1



No 1

MC

___________

Ato Mulufird

Ashagrie

EAB

1030-

1045




15rsquo

1045-

1100



15rsquo

1100-

1115




15rsquo

11

1115-

1130





15rsquo

1130-

1230




1230-



2 4

Room

No 1


Production

Room

No 1

Prof Samina

Qamer

(Feisalabad

Pakistan)

1430-

1500





30rsquo

1500-

1515

Discussion 15rsquo

1515-

1545




By - Manfred J Kern

30rsquo

1545-

1615






30rsquo

1615-


12

Room

No 5



Room

No 5

Dr Tolera Kumsa

HBRC w

Dr Juergen

Greiling

1430-

1515






45rsquo

1515-

1545







30rsquo

1545-

1615






30rsquo

1615-


1645-

1715





30rsquo

Room

No 3


Climate Change

Room

No 3

Ato Taye Negera

HBRC

1430-

1500




30rsquo

13


1500-

1615

Q amp A 45rsquo

1615-


Room

No 2



Room

No 2

Ato Tatek

Tesfaye SNV

1430-

1500



Beekeeping




30rsquo

1500-

1515

Discussion 15rsquo

1515-

1615



also for humans

By - Peter Gallmann

60

1615-



Conferenc

e Hall

Room

No1


No1

Ato Dendana

Chemada NASOC

830-

845



15rsquo

14



845-

900



Programmerdquo

15rsquo

900-

915




15rsquo

915-

1030

Discussion 75rsquo

1030-



Room

No2


Production

Room

No 2

Ato Gemechis

Legesse ESAS

11 00-

11 30




crop Pakistan


30rsquo

1130-

1200



honeybee

By - Peter Gallmann

30rsquo

1200-

1230




livelihood

By ndash Emana Getu

30rsquo

1230-


15

1400-



Productsrsquorsquo


30rsquo

1430-

1500




By- Tura Bareke

30rsquo

1500-

1530



30rsquo

1530-


Room

No3



Room

No3

Dr Admassu Addi

HBRC

930-

1000




honey bee workers


30rsquo

1000-

1030


1030-


1100-

1130







30rsquo

1130-

1230

Discussion Q amp A

16

1230-


1400-

1430

Presentation 2 6



Reserve Sudan

By - Lubna Hassan

30rsquo

1430-

1500







30rsquo

1500-

1530


threat QampA

30rsquo

1530-


45rsquo

Room

No 5


and Climate Change

Room

No 5

Dr Workneh

Ayalew ICIPE

930-

1000






30rsquo

1000-

1030

Discussion 30rsquo

1030-


17

1100-

1130





Ethiopia


30rsquo

1200-

1230




By - Kerry Clark

30rsquo

1230-


1400-

1430


30rsquo

1430-

1530


1530-


Room

No 1



Room

No1

Wr Yetnayet

Girmaw SNV

930-

1000




competition


30rsquo

18

1000-

1030







30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130





By - Abera Belay

30rsquo

1130-

1200





By - Alemayehu Gela

30rsquo

12 00 ndash

1230


1230-


1400-

1430




SMErsquos in Africa


30rsquo

1430-

1500




creation

30rsquo

19


1500-

1530


1530-



Room

No1


Room

No1

Ato Demisew

Wakjira MoA

with

Dr Abebe

Jemberie

BD University

830-

845




15rsquo

845-

900



15rsquo

900-

915




15rsquo

915-

930



15rsquo


parallel groups



20

Room

No2

Subgroup -14 Room

No 2

Ato Yeshitila

Eshete EMDIDI

930-

1000





Ethiopia


30rsquo

1000-

1030




ASPIRE


30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130



honey

By - Abera Belay

30rsquo

11 30-

1200





peak nectar flow


30rsquo

12 00 ndash

12 30

Discussion QampA

30

1230-



21


Room

No 3

Subgroup - 24 Room

No3

Dr Ueli Mueller

GIZ-BFP

930-

1000




management services


30rsquo

1000-

1030





Ethiopia


30rsquo

1030-


1100-

1130








30rsquo

1130-

1200



By - Peter Keating

30rsquo

1200-

1230






30rsquo

22

Canadian beekeepers

By - James White

1230-


Room

No1


No1

Prof Lucas

Alejandro

Garibaldi

APIMONDIA

1400-

1430



Food Producersrdquo

30rsquo

1430-

1450




conditionsrdquo

20rsquo

1450-

1515



Africardquo

25rsquo

1530-


Room

No1


No1

Mr Riccardo

Jannoni-

Sebastianini

APIMONDIA

with

Hailegiorgis

Demissie

EAB

1600-

1610


forward ldquo

10rsquo

23

1610-

1630




20rsquo

1630-

1645



15rsquo

1645-

1700



930-

1700

Technical Tours


HBRC apiary site



Event Organizer


Extended tours







operator

PAGUMEN Travel

EXHIBITION

Days 1

ndash 3



0800-

1700


24



25






































26







































27






































28

Keynote Speeches


29





































30





their hives
































31


poverty in effect








that

32





33


34
















35























36










37







38


39



196020102050


40















humankind



(2016)

41





Government 2015)




Data Centre 2015)













and vegetables





42


















References



251485900157html



















43


22




























4c48-a55e-e530239cea18




380 2224-2260






44












Need PLOS 98 1-7
















Nairobi Kenya 2010



60 1-10



2068-2076


the 7th




45


Neglected Component

Tolera Kumsa


tolekumeyahoocom

Abstract



















food security


46

1 Introduction























2014)

47














Ollerton 2017)








48




































49





















productivity

50







































51







































52








































53



services

6 Future direction












are imperative










63 Mainstreaming












54


2017)

55

7 Conclusion















8 References




















Dev


56


One








e37235



213






Appl 8 464ndash475












Weikersheim Germany







57









1072








118
















22 44ndash60





58










673ndash689




























59







































60






crop Pakistan




Pakistan1234



Abstract













honey production




Introduction







61









































62















7


















2017

63











bees 6 21 16 9

others 5 18 16 6

6

21

16

9

y = 04x + 12 Rsup2 = 00058

0

5

10

15

20

25B

ees

and

oth

er p

olli

nat

ors

Time of a day (hrs)


bees

others

Linear (bees)

T1 T2 T3

Series1 289 281 190

289 281

190 y = -495x + 35233 Rsup2 = 08102

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

See

ds

po

d

Treatments


Series1

Linear (Series1)

64









trends

Conclusion




T1 T2 T3

Series1 16 15 8

16 15

8 y = -4x + 21 Rsup2 = 08421

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18A

vera

ge n

oo

f se

eds

po

d


27 25

18 y = -045x + 32333 Rsup2 = 09067

0

05

1

15

2

25

3

T1 T2 T3

wei

ght

of

10

00

see

ds

pd

(g)

Treatments


Series1

Linear (Series1)

65





References













169128ndash135



68 810 ndash 821






799









168

66



237


























Uttarakhand India










67








































68








used







presentation







specific effects





69





Disinfection

Wounds

Laxative

Diuretic

Cough

Eye balm

Mouth ulcers

Sore throat

Snakebite

Stomach pain



























70












Skin treatment







Wound healing




wound from inside)







scarring


in wounds




in such cases (3)



here

71



hypotensive

bull Lips herpes


bull Muscle cramps










cannot be patented









(5)

Conclusion















72


support if I can

Literature







73


human livelihood



911019166

Abstract























74













goals














Executive summary



Marketing Plan

Operational Plan


Financial Plan





Mobile +251920287173

75

Abstract






















Introduction
















76





































bean

77






















78













this valuable crop















79




















80























Conclusion





81






Future direction





strategic plan


pollination


References







Ethiopia pp 67-73






Ethiopia pp 50






82




Wallingford



London UK



Verlag Germany












97-366











83









807ndash822













84


performance

85
































86







Abstract




























Grooming behaviour

87


State Review

Addisu Bihonegn1



Abstract




























1 Introduction







88


























2009)




habitat destruction





pollinators



89


2 Literature Review













21 Biodiversity





















Raju 1999)

90








































2012)

91





24 Intensification






























(Luesman 2011)

241 Monoculture





92
















2009)






















93









2011)











Research 2013)













2008)






2011)

94























al 2013)


















95
































amp Aluri 2013)










96










2002)























3 Summary







97


































4 Recommendations






98




balance















application

5 References






99













100














101











102






Abstract













workers


PRESENTATION Oral

103








Abstract






















Introduction









104

















parasites etc
















105





















106

n0= Z2pq

e2




and q is also 50









Results







Crops


Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Teff 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Maize 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Pulses 55(100) 45(849) 51(100) 31(564) 58(100) 59(100) 299(903

)

107

Crops


Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Barley 55(100) 53(100) 35(686) 31(564) 58(100) 41(695

)

268(810

)

Wheat 55(100) 45(849) 50(98) 2(36) 58(100) 42(712

)

252(761

)

Vegetable

s

15(273) 15(273) 52(981) 34(667) 34(618) 37(638

)

219(662

)

Sorghum 14(255) 34(642) 23(451) 55(100) 29(379) 20(339

)

168(508

)

Fruits 14(255) 34(642) 29(569) 37(673) 17(293) 19(322

)

150(453

)







Districts N Yes No


Awomberta 64 19 297 45 703

Kawlaelo 64 49 766 15 234

Ahferom 64 46 719 18 281

KTemben 64 35 547 29 453

DTemben 64 31 484 33 516

Ssamre 64 21 328 43 672

Overall 384 201 523 183 477

1199092 48325

P-value 0000

108








Crop pests

control


Yes 197(98) 170(846) 6(3) 25(124)

No 4(2) 31(154) 195(97) 177(876)












in (Table 5)


districts

Types of agro-

chemicals


Total Yes No


Agro-2-4-D 167 856 28 144 195

Malathine 143 737 51 263 194

Karate 76 39 119 61 195

Dimethoate 62 33 126 67 188

109

Types of agro-

chemicals


Total Yes No

Ridomil 56 289 138 711 194

Mancozeb 54 278 140 722 194

Dursban 46 245 142 755 188

Fenithrotine 46 245 142 755 188

Diazinon 44 228 149 772 193


Trade name Common

name

Nature Uses




and potato






crop pests




Karate

5 Ec

Karate Pesticides




Dursban

48 EC

Dursban Pesticides


insects

Agro- 24-D amine

720gl AE

24-D



maize and sorghum





110


Time of application








PM)

43 215



0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

0 0 0 0 0

Tre

nd

Years

Malathin

Fenitrotine

Dimethoate

Dursban

Agro 2-4-D

Karate

Ridomil

Mancozeb

Diazinon

111












Yes 128 637

No 73 363


Discussions







13 4 8 9

15 23

58

123

23

41

83 72

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

201112 201213 201314 201415

Val

ues

Production Years


112











































113























and their products


foraging








are natural






114

References














115








Abstract















Ӏ INTRODUCTION









116










































117




















2010








118























119

ӀV CONCLUSION



V REFERENCES









Secretariat










Khartoum Sudan








of Juba South Sudan

120









Abstract































121














122


Change

123




Abstract






















124

Introduction



































125







































126





amygdalina


















0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350


Nu

mb

er o

f th

e sp

ecie

s

Habit

127













0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140S

pec

ies

com

po

stio

n

Family

0

50

100

150

200

250

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ecie

s

Region

128









SNNP 89 37 082

Oromia 993 39 085

Amhara 79 38 087

Tigray 292 29 08


Gambella

Harari 0 0 0

Somalia 0 0 0

Afar 0 0 0



















129






and Admassu 2018)































130



























Refernces




131











132





























diet when need be


133




































134















211 Study area















135


Pollen collection


















136





Moisture content




reweighted

Ash determination







Ash = (M3 - M1)100

M2 - M1


















137







Where

W = weight of fat



W0 of fresh sample


















SA

Where





A = Aliquot

138







10w
















following formula












139















Where





















140

Results

















traps

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Po

llen

yie

ld in

(g)

Plant species

141




35900 420


2160500 300

March-May 1713c 1026 16000 1800



Moisture
















southwest Ethiopia











142

Fat content






Ash









Vitamin c




echinopes spp















143






Mineral analysis




















Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g



Guizotia scabra

1025plusmn1186ab


40584plusmn033 bc


1329plusmn1020abc


Glycine weighti



144


Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g





5923plusmn099 c

61086plusmn1000bc

BlD

Ageratum conyzoides

2052plusmn05 de



Hypoestes triflora

1678plusmn19 bcd



32404plusmn4184

9 b



a

Cynotis barbata

1332plusmn0352 abc


055plusmn061a BID

Plantago lanceolata

1562plusmn2466 a


Apodytes dimidata

195plusmn376abcd




Range 787-2838 049-128 160-435 088-5923 035-621 481-610







References







145




Copper mg100g


Calcium mg100g


Potassium mg100g


Phosphrous mg100g


Sodium mg100g



















Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)






146

Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)







Discussion




























Moisture



147







Protein content












radiata )

Minerals


















148






































149




















References



97












150







periods


57 263-505













Science




103896IBRA147212




742-745

151






Ser 151 -396




17 1652-1664




















77- 79

152


Germany Pp 510





Lavras v 31 p 1818-1825



138


Springer New York













674-639 07408-4





153




Proportion

Flowering period



Herb 065 01 Sep-Jan










Combretaceae














154


Proportion

Flowering period



227 Nov-Jan























155


Proportion

Flowering period








156


157




Abstract













Abstract
















158





159


of Beekeeping

160



Abstract



































161


competition


Abstract


















______________________________



Gemechis Jelata






sautierciradfr




162

Abstract






















Board


















163
















skills








164





































165






agricultural GDP











States (Figure 2)

166





















167



























168





































Ethiopia

169

References












510 p







pp202-206




170









Abstract























171






Abstract



















(29+145) EC(022+003) PH(373+013) Ash(041+11) TA(573+036) HMF (18+345) IM








172

Introduction


























(Fig1)











Codex 2001)

173































174







Moisture Content








(2001)




175

PH and Free Acidity












Acidity =10V Where

















M

Where





176

































Ea E2

Where



177




Insoluble matter











M1

















colony established)

178


underground nest


areaPA

Bee

species Nest nature

Agro

ecology

Average

honey

volume

1 West

shoa Chalia

Gedo


2 West

Shoa Jaldu

Gafaree


3 West

shoa Wolmera

Holeta


Mid high

land 680 ml

4 West

Shoa

Toke

Kutaye

Goro


Mid high

land 350 ml

























179












microorganisms



























180


of West Shoa zone

181





Distric

ts

N=

20

MC

()

EC

(mScm

-1)

PH Ash

()

F A

(meq

kg-1)

HMF

(mgkg-

1)

IM ()

Prolin

e

(mgk

g-1)

Wolm

era

5 282+1

5a

021+0

1 a

38+0

3 a

041+3

2a

169+0

5 a

186+4

3 a

071+0

06 a

171+1

3 a

Jeldu 5 325+2

5 a

020+

01 a

37+0

1 a

038+

25a

171+0

1 a

159+2

6 a

068+0

0 a

293+1

4b

T

Kutay

e

5 290+1

0 a

022+0

1 a

38+0

1 a

056+

4 a

168+0

5 a

224+0

0 a

066+0

0 a

213+2

1 a

Chelia 5 287+0

8 a

024+0

6 a

36+0

1 a

023+

02a

184+1

3 a

151+0

0 a

073+0

7 a

181+1

4 a

Overall

mean

296+1

4

021+0

16

37+0

15

041+

11

173+7 18+17 069+0

6

214+1

5

Overall

range

25-35 016-

034

34-

39

021-

57

167-21 112-

224

056-

087

124-

307

Standards

Apis Honey

18-23 022-

152

32-

45

014-

30






182
























(293 +14 mgkg-1






2013)













183







origins

References










027 DOI 10173522455-815X000010



















Thesis





184





FAM Liebefeld







391ndash397











101007s12161-016-0544-0







241135ndash1145






875




185



sup1CHIBUGO OKAFOR




Abstract











term solutions

Introduction
















The Challenges






186










































187







amongst youth










expensive

Conclusions














Acknowledgement




188

References



form0304pdf











189




Abstract




























190

Abstract




















Introduction


















191












beekeepers





Study area















192

















193



n0= Z2pq

e2










Results













Agro ecological

zones


traditional hive


improved frame hive


Highland 85 1 12 46b 28 110 0 49 76a 81

194

Midland 120 0 40 68a 61 154 0 47 54ab 66

Lowland 48 2 20 68a 32 58 0 30 52b 50

Overall 253 0 40 61 48 322 0 49 61 69









Apiary types






Placement



195

Homestead 104

(813)

154 (803) 35 (547) 293 (763)

Inside house 7 (55) 24 (125) 11 (172) 42 (109)

Closure areas 17 (133) 14 (73) 17 (266) 48 (125)

Hang on trees 0 0 1 (16) 1 (03)









purchasing





Swarm catching 21(164) 19(99) 21(328) 61(159)

Purchasing 80(625) 133(693) 24(375) 237(617)


ecology








(4695) respectively



196


Swarm catching 2(16) 6(31) 6(94) 14(36)

Purchasing 29(227) 13(68) 5(78) 47(122)

Natural


27(211) 51(266) 18(281) 96(25)

Splitting 32(25) 35(182) 30(469) 97(253)

Constant 38(297) 87(455) 5(78) 130(339)














Once 46(359) 138(719) 47(734) 231(602)

Twice 64(50) 45(234) 17(266) 126(328)

Three times 15(177) 9(47) 0(0) 24(63)

Four times 3(23) 0(0) 0(0) 3(08)


197









beehives











4)

Pe

rce

nta

ge o

f re

spo

nd

en

ts

Months of the year

Highland

Midland

Lowland

198



Colony inspection
















414

Percentage ()No

change(stable)13614


1772

Percentage ()

Decrease Increase


199


Types of

Inspection

Frequency of

inspection


Traditional Frame



Yearly 52 29

No inspection 13 0



Yearly 91 114


Feeding management














Sugar syrup 932 939 100 946

Shiro 932 889 793 891

Tihni 946 848 359 876

Maize flour 324 242 103 252

Honey 14 214 241 144

Fafa 0 81 276 79




200














areas





No 109 355



No change 124 404


No 116 379





study areas





201


hives (Table 11)








frame beehives




Frame 115 188




202







original hive





next generation

























203


applications









204









































205























5 Conclusions
















206







6 References











207













208









209




Abstract








localities







follower beekeepers






















210







Abstract







Objective


Method









Result







Conclusion




211



honey







Abstract




















1 Introdction





212








incoming resources
































213








































214





















3 Results



















215





Harvesting

Season


Sept - Oct




May - June




Both

Seasonsrsquo

Data













216



May-June

Before After5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Bro

od

Po

pu

lati

on

x 1

03

Sept-Oct

Before After

Treatment

Control













217


00018 Fig 2)

May-June Sept-Oct

Season

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Me

an

Ho

ne

y Y

ield

(k

gc

olo

ny

)

Treatment

Control






4 Discussion










218







































219
















Acknowledgements





the manuscript

References







220













Services












221























Abstract














222




























1 Introduction














223









































224























properly




















225

2 Methodology
























3 Results














226



Shed (m2)1 120 350 42000

Equipment2

Hive 40 900 36000



Smoker 2 60 120



Chisel 1 40 40





5000
























227

Items Unit Quantity




kgyear 650



factory as a whole

Manpower needed













Interest rate 15


equipments

years 10


5 300000


10 5700


of its initial cost

10 5247


of its initial cost

9 472230

Rate of maintenance

of shed

of its initial cost

2 1200

Rate of maintenance

of equipment

of its initial cost

3 157410





228









be ETB 21924

229


Fixed costs


Shed

Depreciation 3990

Interest 1953

Equipment

Depreciation 472230

Interest 251856



(3)

157410



only)

85



Variable costs



Beeswax


450000











230




per year)

21924






351 Payback period








352 Breakeven











honey

10119


honey

3308

Breakeven point 328

kg of honey per

year

=50 of the capacity

231







Year (n)


I=(1+015)n


value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR1=Present

value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0869565217 115 1855652174 7234913

6291229043

2 23474 0756143667 13225 1774971645 7958405

6017697346

3 258214 0657516232 1520875 1697798964 8754245214 5756058

4 2840354 0571753246 174900625 1623981618 9629669735 5505795

5 31243894 0497176735 2011357188 1553373722 10592637

5266413

6 343682834 0432327596 2313060766 1485835734 11651900

5037438

7 3780511174 037593704 266001988 142123418 12817090

4818419

8 4158562291 0326901774 3059022863 135944139 1409879946 4608923

9 4574418521 0284262412 3517876292 1300335242 1550867941 4408535

total 2945962467 54287700










232


Year (n)

C=Total cost



PVC2=Pres

ent

value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR2=Pres

ent value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0427350427

234 911965812 72349134 309184

2 23474 0182628388

54756 4287018774 795840474

145343

3 258214 007804632

12812904 2015265236 8754245214

68324

4 2840354 0033353128

2998219536

9473469057 9629669735

32118

5 31243894 0014253474

7015833714

4453340155 1059263671

15098

6 343682834

0006091228

1641705089

20934505 1165190038

7097

7 3780511174

0002603089

3841589909

9841006625 1281709042

3336

8 4158562291

0001112431

8989320386

4626114225 1409879946

1568

9 4574418521

0000475398

210350097

217466908 1550867941

737

Total

171060386 1240526

IRR

NPV2 =

1596915-249060386 = -47008

r2-r1 = 134-015 = 119

NPV1 = 084

NPV1-NPV2

(r2-r1)NPV1 = 100

NPV1-NPV2

IRR= (r1+(r2-r1) (NPV1)) = 109

NPV1-NPV2















P= crop

production in

201314 1(quintal)

(I) =

Dependence

on insect

pollination

(B) =

Proportion

of

pollinators

that are

honeybees

(R) =

contribution

of

honeybees

to

production

(quintal)

E= Average

retail price in

Addis Ababa2

(ETBQuintal)

Economic

value of

honeybees

due to

pollination

(ETByear)


9267 17800336244

Sesame-seed

(Sesamum indicum)

220216053 08 03 528519

5010 2647877835


62450266 10 09 562052

2007 1128039147


72186977 09 09 584715

1200 701657412


31588251 08 06 151624

2048 310525133


18206362 10 09 163857

1437 235462883


31182652 03 09 84193

2393 201474232


8347097 10 09 75124

2062 154905420


61024916 01 05 30512

2075 63313355

Lemon (Citrus spp) 4660950 02 01 932

2806 2615725

Total 4102358

3246207384

4 Discussion




234

41 Investment costs






































eco-friendly system


235










































236











conservation

References













237









238





as follows









CP = sumX

V

Where


of honey



3 Sales price (SP)


= CP + CP50100


NP = (SP- CP)V

5 Breakeven


Total fixed Costs




Value of Costs

239

n

n

t

n

t

r

CtRt

NPV

1

1 1



R- Revenues

C- Costs















Where







R = P x I x B

Eb =RE

240

Where



241


Oromia Ethiopia




























Abstract




242






community













Abstrac




rural Ethiopia
















INTRODUCTION

243























RESULTS






244







bees








245

















246
























with PBVT

247

21





248












Caption herehellip

DISCUSSION

249





crop growing areas














and pathogens





CONCLUSIONS















250

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS




REFERENCES


















251





252


253











learned


























254










255



























made







256
















257


were not presented



258



Nigeria



Kwara








Abstract























INTRODUCTION




259







and Nault 2011)













2010 2011)


















260






















2017 Ajao et al 2018))
















261


al 2012)














The Study Area



















262


















DD = (1198841198751minus 1198841198750

) minus (1198841198991198751minus 1198841198991198750

) (1)

Where 1198841198751













263


RESULTS





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

20-30 31-40 41-50 gt50

Pe

rce

nta

ge (

)


Beekeepers

Crop famers


264








(BPS)

















()


()


Female 8 20 10

Experience

(years)

1-5 20 147 30

6-10 70 473 40

11-15 10 38 30


Primary 10 12 0

Secondary 30 467 40

265


()


()

Tertiary 60 333 60



Govt job 30 10 46

Others 4 10 24

Total () 100 100 100









scor

e

SA A UD D SD






380 188 12 42 5 39




237 150 92 48 14 34



205 148 183 28 5 36



260 156 87 54 13 36

Awareness of BPS 180 156 93 76 16 33



445 188 45 12 3 43

266


scor

e

SA A UD D SD







livelihood

320 228 54 30 6 40



farm income

335 208 51 34 7 40










BPS


Crop Farmers ()

Agribusiness ()


None 0 987 100

(years) 10-5 90 13 0 51-10 10 0 0

267






10792 3428

Df 78 78 t Stat 70946 292092








Watermelon DD 2387004 11013 406 104 00002

Soybean DD 290752 4687 1392 66 00006


268





















score

Mean

score

Ranking



650 43 1st



605 4 2nd




450 3 3rd



415 28 4th




355 24 5th




350 23 6th

269


score

Mean

score

Ranking


Source Survey 2018


area


Industry

Nature amp Products


LGA)


Technology Transfer

Centre(CRTTC)



and sale


Factory


processing and sale


Industry


processing and sale

4 Ogbondoroko

(Asa LGA)

Cashew Processing

Industry




5 Ajasse-ipo

(Irepodun LGA)

Root and Tubers

Expansion

Program(RTEP)



and yam tubers

6 Duku-Lade(Patigi

LGA)

Shonga Farm Holding

Limited



7 Shonga (Edu

LGA)



8 Okuta (Baruteen

LGA)


sale of yam flour

9 Share (Ifelodun

LGA)


Mills


sale of groundnut

10 Malete (Moro

LGA)

Integrated Youth

Development Farm

Settlement




270


Industry

Nature amp Products

corn amp groundnuts
































271



































272

CONCLUSION














BPS







273






274



275


276


yield and quality




Abstract
















Introduction



















277








production

(Shrestha 2004)































278


onion crops

Methodology









Experimental set up





279































Statistics

280




Results

Flower visitors












2)


percentage

Discussion




281

























Conclusions


Acknowledgments








References



282




479-490






97-104







Economics 68 (2009) 810-821



13895



(2001) 89-95







28 (1998) 83-112


Addis Ababa


report No 55







283







pp 1-8





Sciences 8 (1) 123-126

284





Abstract






























285

Abstract





















initiatives


286




Li1


Abstract






























287









































288





physiology













of the same age

















14 hours

289








































290

































ions consistent)






291





























for GPS 21









292



PK)





































293







































294









































295








































296




























297

298

299

300















301






















forager bees

















302



Discussion


















303























304















305
























306

307












































308

















brain respectively

309



















Conclusion


















310


311


312


313


314


Johan W van Veen



Introduction
























of the world










315




































in the production


316























account









317








in California
































318








































319





Concluding remarks










Acknowledgement




References



pp 43-60


Press Cambridge MA












183-206

320
















321


322








1

Pollination and

food

production





Tel +86-15727399022Beijing


Overview of Insect

Pollinators in

Sustainable


Unexploited


1


13 Qamer Samina1

Farkhanda Asad2


3

Tayyaba Ali4

Tahira Yasmin5


1234



1


14 Gallmann Peter


pgallmannbluewinch


1





Tel +251 911019166


1


16 Tigist Zegeye

Tigist Zegeye




Productsrsquorsquo

1


323




Tel +251920287173


1



1 R K

Thakur2 K M

Kumaranag2

ampYendrembam KDevi

3






2



13


1

Dirk Cde Graaf1






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2



1 Nikita

Venter1 Christian

Pirk1




2


25 Guesh Godifey1

Amssalu Bezabeh

2

Hailu Mazengia3

Yayneshet Tesfay

4






4ILRI_LIVES project


2


324





Density and




Reserve Sudan

2


27 Abebe Jenberie1

Asaminew Tassew

1

Tilahun Gebey2

Kerealem Ejigu3

Amssalu Bezabih

4amp

Workneh Ayalew5








5Coordinator Youth




2


31 Admassu Addi






implication for

apiculture

development

3


32 Admassu Addi


Teshome Soromessa




3


33 1 Clark Kerry

2Ms courtenay

clark




communities with

challenging

environments

3


34


1 Asaminew Tassew

2 and

Desalegn Begna3





3


325




awgawgaprmgmailcom

41 Gallmann Peter




4



Tel +31 (0)30 276 2824



chain in Ethiopia


international

competition

4


43 1Degefie Tibebe

2Denis Sautier

3Getachew

Mengistie Alemu






Ethiopia


Tel +33467615914

Honey and

Geographical

indications Why is

honey a good pilot

product for the

implementation of

Geographical


Ethiopia

4


44 Abera Belay1

Gulelat Desse Haki

2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Young-Chul Lee4

Kyung-

Tack Kim4

Kaleab Baye5

Samuel Melaku6




Tel +251911840655




Germany


463-746 Korea



acid profiles and



monofloral honey

4


326





45 Alemayehu Gela

Zewudu Ararso amp

Deresa Kebede






4








Challenges of


trade among

smallholder


in africa

4


47 1Adeyemo Yusuf

Adeniyi

2Chi

Okafor



4


48 Guesh Godifey1

Amssalu Bezabeh

2 Hailu

Mazengia3

Yayneshet Tesfay

4



3Bahrdar




4


49 Yetnayet Girmaw

Yetnayet Girmaw



Email ygirmawsnvorg

Tel +251 (0) 9 11 86 80 59


4


327



2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Samuel Melaku4

Kaleab

Baye5











4


411 Nuru Adgaba12

Ahmed A Al-ghamdi

1 Mebrat

Hailu2









4





4



2

Till Stellmacher3








Tel+49-(0)-15219407639


4


328





4





4





4


Van Veen Johan



Tropicales


Campus Benj



Tel 2562-6332


Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Perspectives for


beekeeping

4




1


329


RitterWolfgang



Ritter Gozde Okcu

Bees-for-the-world



The African way


for a better

pollination

performance

2


Van Veen


Tropicales


Campus Benj



Tel 2562-6332


Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Beekeeping for

poverty Alleviation

4

Commercializa

tion amp

transformation

of beekeeping





changing

environments

3





holetaEthiopia

Beekeeping for


livelihood security


330


reasons






+

Ajao A M1

and Oladimeji Y U

2







+





+

Tolera Kumsa

1

Gemeda1

Ma Weihua

2

Muhammad Naeem

1

Jiaxing Huang

1 Jie

Wu1






-

Obange FA

1 2

Villinger J1

Adhiambo C

2 Lattorff

M1





-

Tesfay Gidey

1



3 Ecosystem

+

331


Tania Oliveira

2

Josep Crous-Duran

2

Joatildeo HN Palma

2





Zewdu Ararso Hora



22 Holeta Ethiopia




-

Eshaya

Samuel E




+




+

Adedotum Oke

Michael





-

Binyuy Wirsiy



4 Commercializati

+

332


Emmanuel








-





+

333



Ababa Ethiopia

Phone +251-911-201-686





Host Organization

Apimondia

Symposium2018

334


Demissie







Board


335







Negash
Highlight
Negash
Inserted Text

2

Executive Summary




















identified problems














3








well understood






through pollination






















4













5











Committee











NASOC Chair




COMMITTEES

6





























7























________________________




8

Welcome Messages



















symposium















9


















10



Time amp

Day


Manager


GREEN

PARK

800-

1300


participants



Con-

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800-

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No 1

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Ato Mulufird

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1030-

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Room

No 1

Prof Samina

Qamer

(Feisalabad

Pakistan)

1430-

1500





30rsquo

1500-

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1515-

1545




By - Manfred J Kern

30rsquo

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1615






30rsquo

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Dr Tolera Kumsa

HBRC w

Dr Juergen

Greiling

1430-

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45rsquo

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1500-

1615

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1615-


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No 2



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Beekeeping




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also for humans

By - Peter Gallmann

60

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Chemada NASOC

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Ato Gemechis

Legesse ESAS

11 00-

11 30




crop Pakistan


30rsquo

1130-

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honeybee

By - Peter Gallmann

30rsquo

1200-

1230




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By ndash Emana Getu

30rsquo

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Productsrsquorsquo


30rsquo

1430-

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By- Tura Bareke

30rsquo

1500-

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No3



Room

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Dr Admassu Addi

HBRC

930-

1000




honey bee workers


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1000-

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1030-


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1130-

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16

1230-


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Reserve Sudan

By - Lubna Hassan

30rsquo

1430-

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30rsquo

1500-

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Dr Workneh

Ayalew ICIPE

930-

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30rsquo

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Ethiopia


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30rsquo

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30rsquo

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Ato Demisew

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with

Dr Abebe

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BD University

830-

845




15rsquo

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Eshete EMDIDI

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Ethiopia


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Prof Lucas

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25






































26







































27






































28

Keynote Speeches


29





































30





their hives
































31


poverty in effect








that

32





33


34
















35























36










37







38


39



196020102050


40















humankind



(2016)

41





Government 2015)




Data Centre 2015)













and vegetables





42


















References



251485900157html



















43


22




























4c48-a55e-e530239cea18




380 2224-2260






44












Need PLOS 98 1-7
















Nairobi Kenya 2010



60 1-10



2068-2076


the 7th




45


Neglected Component

Tolera Kumsa


tolekumeyahoocom

Abstract



















food security


46

1 Introduction























2014)

47














Ollerton 2017)








48




































49





















productivity

50







































51







































52








































53



services

6 Future direction












are imperative










63 Mainstreaming












54


2017)

55

7 Conclusion















8 References




















Dev


56


One








e37235



213






Appl 8 464ndash475












Weikersheim Germany







57









1072








118
















22 44ndash60





58










673ndash689




























59







































60






crop Pakistan




Pakistan1234



Abstract













honey production




Introduction







61









































62















7


















2017

63











bees 6 21 16 9

others 5 18 16 6

6

21

16

9

y = 04x + 12 Rsup2 = 00058

0

5

10

15

20

25B

ees

and

oth

er p

olli

nat

ors

Time of a day (hrs)


bees

others

Linear (bees)

T1 T2 T3

Series1 289 281 190

289 281

190 y = -495x + 35233 Rsup2 = 08102

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

See

ds

po

d

Treatments


Series1

Linear (Series1)

64









trends

Conclusion




T1 T2 T3

Series1 16 15 8

16 15

8 y = -4x + 21 Rsup2 = 08421

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18A

vera

ge n

oo

f se

eds

po

d


27 25

18 y = -045x + 32333 Rsup2 = 09067

0

05

1

15

2

25

3

T1 T2 T3

wei

ght

of

10

00

see

ds

pd

(g)

Treatments


Series1

Linear (Series1)

65





References













169128ndash135



68 810 ndash 821






799









168

66



237


























Uttarakhand India










67








































68








used







presentation







specific effects





69





Disinfection

Wounds

Laxative

Diuretic

Cough

Eye balm

Mouth ulcers

Sore throat

Snakebite

Stomach pain



























70












Skin treatment







Wound healing




wound from inside)







scarring


in wounds




in such cases (3)



here

71



hypotensive

bull Lips herpes


bull Muscle cramps










cannot be patented









(5)

Conclusion















72


support if I can

Literature







73


human livelihood



911019166

Abstract























74













goals














Executive summary



Marketing Plan

Operational Plan


Financial Plan





Mobile +251920287173

75

Abstract






















Introduction
















76





































bean

77






















78













this valuable crop















79




















80























Conclusion





81






Future direction





strategic plan


pollination


References







Ethiopia pp 67-73






Ethiopia pp 50






82




Wallingford



London UK



Verlag Germany












97-366











83









807ndash822













84


performance

85
































86







Abstract




























Grooming behaviour

87


State Review

Addisu Bihonegn1



Abstract




























1 Introduction







88


























2009)




habitat destruction





pollinators



89


2 Literature Review













21 Biodiversity





















Raju 1999)

90








































2012)

91





24 Intensification






























(Luesman 2011)

241 Monoculture





92
















2009)






















93









2011)











Research 2013)













2008)






2011)

94























al 2013)


















95
































amp Aluri 2013)










96










2002)























3 Summary







97


































4 Recommendations






98




balance















application

5 References






99













100














101











102






Abstract













workers


PRESENTATION Oral

103








Abstract






















Introduction









104

















parasites etc
















105





















106

n0= Z2pq

e2




and q is also 50









Results







Crops


Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Teff 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Maize 55(100) 53(100) 51(100) 55(100) 58(100) 59(100) 331(100

)

Pulses 55(100) 45(849) 51(100) 31(564) 58(100) 59(100) 299(903

)

107

Crops


Awombert

a

KAwlael

o

Ahfero

m

Ktembe

n

DTembe

n

Ssamr

e

Total

Barley 55(100) 53(100) 35(686) 31(564) 58(100) 41(695

)

268(810

)

Wheat 55(100) 45(849) 50(98) 2(36) 58(100) 42(712

)

252(761

)

Vegetable

s

15(273) 15(273) 52(981) 34(667) 34(618) 37(638

)

219(662

)

Sorghum 14(255) 34(642) 23(451) 55(100) 29(379) 20(339

)

168(508

)

Fruits 14(255) 34(642) 29(569) 37(673) 17(293) 19(322

)

150(453

)







Districts N Yes No


Awomberta 64 19 297 45 703

Kawlaelo 64 49 766 15 234

Ahferom 64 46 719 18 281

KTemben 64 35 547 29 453

DTemben 64 31 484 33 516

Ssamre 64 21 328 43 672

Overall 384 201 523 183 477

1199092 48325

P-value 0000

108








Crop pests

control


Yes 197(98) 170(846) 6(3) 25(124)

No 4(2) 31(154) 195(97) 177(876)












in (Table 5)


districts

Types of agro-

chemicals


Total Yes No


Agro-2-4-D 167 856 28 144 195

Malathine 143 737 51 263 194

Karate 76 39 119 61 195

Dimethoate 62 33 126 67 188

109

Types of agro-

chemicals


Total Yes No

Ridomil 56 289 138 711 194

Mancozeb 54 278 140 722 194

Dursban 46 245 142 755 188

Fenithrotine 46 245 142 755 188

Diazinon 44 228 149 772 193


Trade name Common

name

Nature Uses




and potato






crop pests




Karate

5 Ec

Karate Pesticides




Dursban

48 EC

Dursban Pesticides


insects

Agro- 24-D amine

720gl AE

24-D



maize and sorghum





110


Time of application








PM)

43 215



0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

0 0 0 0 0

Tre

nd

Years

Malathin

Fenitrotine

Dimethoate

Dursban

Agro 2-4-D

Karate

Ridomil

Mancozeb

Diazinon

111












Yes 128 637

No 73 363


Discussions







13 4 8 9

15 23

58

123

23

41

83 72

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

201112 201213 201314 201415

Val

ues

Production Years


112











































113























and their products


foraging








are natural






114

References














115








Abstract















Ӏ INTRODUCTION









116










































117




















2010








118























119

ӀV CONCLUSION



V REFERENCES









Secretariat










Khartoum Sudan








of Juba South Sudan

120









Abstract































121














122


Change

123




Abstract






















124

Introduction



































125







































126





amygdalina


















0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350


Nu

mb

er o

f th

e sp

ecie

s

Habit

127













0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140S

pec

ies

com

po

stio

n

Family

0

50

100

150

200

250

Nu

mb

er o

f sp

ecie

s

Region

128









SNNP 89 37 082

Oromia 993 39 085

Amhara 79 38 087

Tigray 292 29 08


Gambella

Harari 0 0 0

Somalia 0 0 0

Afar 0 0 0



















129






and Admassu 2018)































130



























Refernces




131











132





























diet when need be


133




































134















211 Study area















135


Pollen collection


















136





Moisture content




reweighted

Ash determination







Ash = (M3 - M1)100

M2 - M1


















137







Where

W = weight of fat



W0 of fresh sample


















SA

Where





A = Aliquot

138







10w
















following formula












139















Where





















140

Results

















traps

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Po

llen

yie

ld in

(g)

Plant species

141




35900 420


2160500 300

March-May 1713c 1026 16000 1800



Moisture
















southwest Ethiopia











142

Fat content






Ash









Vitamin c




echinopes spp















143






Mineral analysis




















Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g



Guizotia scabra

1025plusmn1186ab


40584plusmn033 bc


1329plusmn1020abc


Glycine weighti



144


Copper mg100g

Calcium mg100g

Potassium mg100g

Phosphrous mg100g

Sodium mg100g





5923plusmn099 c

61086plusmn1000bc

BlD

Ageratum conyzoides

2052plusmn05 de



Hypoestes triflora

1678plusmn19 bcd



32404plusmn4184

9 b



a

Cynotis barbata

1332plusmn0352 abc


055plusmn061a BID

Plantago lanceolata

1562plusmn2466 a


Apodytes dimidata

195plusmn376abcd




Range 787-2838 049-128 160-435 088-5923 035-621 481-610







References







145




Copper mg100g


Calcium mg100g


Potassium mg100g


Phosphrous mg100g


Sodium mg100g



















Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)






146

Plant species

Phenolic content

(mg GAEg)

DPPH

(EC50)







Discussion




























Moisture



147







Protein content












radiata )

Minerals


















148






































149




















References



97












150







periods


57 263-505













Science




103896IBRA147212




742-745

151






Ser 151 -396




17 1652-1664




















77- 79

152


Germany Pp 510





Lavras v 31 p 1818-1825



138


Springer New York













674-639 07408-4





153




Proportion

Flowering period



Herb 065 01 Sep-Jan










Combretaceae














154


Proportion

Flowering period



227 Nov-Jan























155


Proportion

Flowering period








156


157




Abstract













Abstract
















158





159


of Beekeeping

160



Abstract



































161


competition


Abstract


















______________________________



Gemechis Jelata






sautierciradfr




162

Abstract






















Board


















163
















skills








164





































165






agricultural GDP











States (Figure 2)

166





















167



























168





































Ethiopia

169

References












510 p







pp202-206




170









Abstract























171






Abstract



















(29+145) EC(022+003) PH(373+013) Ash(041+11) TA(573+036) HMF (18+345) IM








172

Introduction


























(Fig1)











Codex 2001)

173































174







Moisture Content








(2001)




175

PH and Free Acidity












Acidity =10V Where

















M

Where





176

































Ea E2

Where



177




Insoluble matter











M1

















colony established)

178


underground nest


areaPA

Bee

species Nest nature

Agro

ecology

Average

honey

volume

1 West

shoa Chalia

Gedo


2 West

Shoa Jaldu

Gafaree


3 West

shoa Wolmera

Holeta


Mid high

land 680 ml

4 West

Shoa

Toke

Kutaye

Goro


Mid high

land 350 ml

























179












microorganisms



























180


of West Shoa zone

181





Distric

ts

N=

20

MC

()

EC

(mScm

-1)

PH Ash

()

F A

(meq

kg-1)

HMF

(mgkg-

1)

IM ()

Prolin

e

(mgk

g-1)

Wolm

era

5 282+1

5a

021+0

1 a

38+0

3 a

041+3

2a

169+0

5 a

186+4

3 a

071+0

06 a

171+1

3 a

Jeldu 5 325+2

5 a

020+

01 a

37+0

1 a

038+

25a

171+0

1 a

159+2

6 a

068+0

0 a

293+1

4b

T

Kutay

e

5 290+1

0 a

022+0

1 a

38+0

1 a

056+

4 a

168+0

5 a

224+0

0 a

066+0

0 a

213+2

1 a

Chelia 5 287+0

8 a

024+0

6 a

36+0

1 a

023+

02a

184+1

3 a

151+0

0 a

073+0

7 a

181+1

4 a

Overall

mean

296+1

4

021+0

16

37+0

15

041+

11

173+7 18+17 069+0

6

214+1

5

Overall

range

25-35 016-

034

34-

39

021-

57

167-21 112-

224

056-

087

124-

307

Standards

Apis Honey

18-23 022-

152

32-

45

014-

30






182
























(293 +14 mgkg-1






2013)













183







origins

References










027 DOI 10173522455-815X000010



















Thesis





184





FAM Liebefeld







391ndash397











101007s12161-016-0544-0







241135ndash1145






875




185



sup1CHIBUGO OKAFOR




Abstract











term solutions

Introduction
















The Challenges






186










































187







amongst youth










expensive

Conclusions














Acknowledgement




188

References



form0304pdf











189




Abstract




























190

Abstract




















Introduction


















191












beekeepers





Study area















192

















193



n0= Z2pq

e2










Results













Agro ecological

zones


traditional hive


improved frame hive


Highland 85 1 12 46b 28 110 0 49 76a 81

194

Midland 120 0 40 68a 61 154 0 47 54ab 66

Lowland 48 2 20 68a 32 58 0 30 52b 50

Overall 253 0 40 61 48 322 0 49 61 69









Apiary types






Placement



195

Homestead 104

(813)

154 (803) 35 (547) 293 (763)

Inside house 7 (55) 24 (125) 11 (172) 42 (109)

Closure areas 17 (133) 14 (73) 17 (266) 48 (125)

Hang on trees 0 0 1 (16) 1 (03)









purchasing





Swarm catching 21(164) 19(99) 21(328) 61(159)

Purchasing 80(625) 133(693) 24(375) 237(617)


ecology








(4695) respectively



196


Swarm catching 2(16) 6(31) 6(94) 14(36)

Purchasing 29(227) 13(68) 5(78) 47(122)

Natural


27(211) 51(266) 18(281) 96(25)

Splitting 32(25) 35(182) 30(469) 97(253)

Constant 38(297) 87(455) 5(78) 130(339)














Once 46(359) 138(719) 47(734) 231(602)

Twice 64(50) 45(234) 17(266) 126(328)

Three times 15(177) 9(47) 0(0) 24(63)

Four times 3(23) 0(0) 0(0) 3(08)


197









beehives











4)

Pe

rce

nta

ge o

f re

spo

nd

en

ts

Months of the year

Highland

Midland

Lowland

198



Colony inspection
















414

Percentage ()No

change(stable)13614


1772

Percentage ()

Decrease Increase


199


Types of

Inspection

Frequency of

inspection


Traditional Frame



Yearly 52 29

No inspection 13 0



Yearly 91 114


Feeding management














Sugar syrup 932 939 100 946

Shiro 932 889 793 891

Tihni 946 848 359 876

Maize flour 324 242 103 252

Honey 14 214 241 144

Fafa 0 81 276 79




200














areas





No 109 355



No change 124 404


No 116 379





study areas





201


hives (Table 11)








frame beehives




Frame 115 188




202







original hive





next generation

























203


applications









204









































205























5 Conclusions
















206







6 References











207













208









209




Abstract








localities







follower beekeepers






















210







Abstract







Objective


Method









Result







Conclusion




211



honey







Abstract




















1 Introdction





212








incoming resources
































213








































214





















3 Results



















215





Harvesting

Season


Sept - Oct




May - June




Both

Seasonsrsquo

Data













216



May-June

Before After5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Bro

od

Po

pu

lati

on

x 1

03

Sept-Oct

Before After

Treatment

Control













217


00018 Fig 2)

May-June Sept-Oct

Season

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Me

an

Ho

ne

y Y

ield

(k

gc

olo

ny

)

Treatment

Control






4 Discussion










218







































219
















Acknowledgements





the manuscript

References







220













Services












221























Abstract














222




























1 Introduction














223









































224























properly




















225

2 Methodology
























3 Results














226



Shed (m2)1 120 350 42000

Equipment2

Hive 40 900 36000



Smoker 2 60 120



Chisel 1 40 40





5000
























227

Items Unit Quantity




kgyear 650



factory as a whole

Manpower needed













Interest rate 15


equipments

years 10


5 300000


10 5700


of its initial cost

10 5247


of its initial cost

9 472230

Rate of maintenance

of shed

of its initial cost

2 1200

Rate of maintenance

of equipment

of its initial cost

3 157410





228









be ETB 21924

229


Fixed costs


Shed

Depreciation 3990

Interest 1953

Equipment

Depreciation 472230

Interest 251856



(3)

157410



only)

85



Variable costs



Beeswax


450000











230




per year)

21924






351 Payback period








352 Breakeven











honey

10119


honey

3308

Breakeven point 328

kg of honey per

year

=50 of the capacity

231







Year (n)


I=(1+015)n


value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR1=Present

value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0869565217 115 1855652174 7234913

6291229043

2 23474 0756143667 13225 1774971645 7958405

6017697346

3 258214 0657516232 1520875 1697798964 8754245214 5756058

4 2840354 0571753246 174900625 1623981618 9629669735 5505795

5 31243894 0497176735 2011357188 1553373722 10592637

5266413

6 343682834 0432327596 2313060766 1485835734 11651900

5037438

7 3780511174 037593704 266001988 142123418 12817090

4818419

8 4158562291 0326901774 3059022863 135944139 1409879946 4608923

9 4574418521 0284262412 3517876292 1300335242 1550867941 4408535

total 2945962467 54287700










232


Year (n)

C=Total cost



PVC2=Pres

ent

value of

costs=CD

R=Total revenue

PVR2=Pres

ent value of

revenues

=RD

0 153870 1 1 153870 6577194 6577194

1 21340 0427350427

234 911965812 72349134 309184

2 23474 0182628388

54756 4287018774 795840474

145343

3 258214 007804632

12812904 2015265236 8754245214

68324

4 2840354 0033353128

2998219536

9473469057 9629669735

32118

5 31243894 0014253474

7015833714

4453340155 1059263671

15098

6 343682834

0006091228

1641705089

20934505 1165190038

7097

7 3780511174

0002603089

3841589909

9841006625 1281709042

3336

8 4158562291

0001112431

8989320386

4626114225 1409879946

1568

9 4574418521

0000475398

210350097

217466908 1550867941

737

Total

171060386 1240526

IRR

NPV2 =

1596915-249060386 = -47008

r2-r1 = 134-015 = 119

NPV1 = 084

NPV1-NPV2

(r2-r1)NPV1 = 100

NPV1-NPV2

IRR= (r1+(r2-r1) (NPV1)) = 109

NPV1-NPV2















P= crop

production in

201314 1(quintal)

(I) =

Dependence

on insect

pollination

(B) =

Proportion

of

pollinators

that are

honeybees

(R) =

contribution

of

honeybees

to

production

(quintal)

E= Average

retail price in

Addis Ababa2

(ETBQuintal)

Economic

value of

honeybees

due to

pollination

(ETByear)


9267 17800336244

Sesame-seed

(Sesamum indicum)

220216053 08 03 528519

5010 2647877835


62450266 10 09 562052

2007 1128039147


72186977 09 09 584715

1200 701657412


31588251 08 06 151624

2048 310525133


18206362 10 09 163857

1437 235462883


31182652 03 09 84193

2393 201474232


8347097 10 09 75124

2062 154905420


61024916 01 05 30512

2075 63313355

Lemon (Citrus spp) 4660950 02 01 932

2806 2615725

Total 4102358

3246207384

4 Discussion




234

41 Investment costs






































eco-friendly system


235










































236











conservation

References













237









238





as follows









CP = sumX

V

Where


of honey



3 Sales price (SP)


= CP + CP50100


NP = (SP- CP)V

5 Breakeven


Total fixed Costs




Value of Costs

239

n

n

t

n

t

r

CtRt

NPV

1

1 1



R- Revenues

C- Costs















Where







R = P x I x B

Eb =RE

240

Where



241


Oromia Ethiopia




























Abstract




242






community













Abstrac




rural Ethiopia
















INTRODUCTION

243























RESULTS






244







bees








245

















246
























with PBVT

247

21





248












Caption herehellip

DISCUSSION

249





crop growing areas














and pathogens





CONCLUSIONS















250

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS




REFERENCES


















251





252


253











learned


























254










255



























made







256
















257


were not presented



258



Nigeria



Kwara








Abstract























INTRODUCTION




259







and Nault 2011)













2010 2011)


















260






















2017 Ajao et al 2018))
















261


al 2012)














The Study Area



















262


















DD = (1198841198751minus 1198841198750

) minus (1198841198991198751minus 1198841198991198750

) (1)

Where 1198841198751













263


RESULTS





0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

20-30 31-40 41-50 gt50

Pe

rce

nta

ge (

)


Beekeepers

Crop famers


264








(BPS)

















()


()


Female 8 20 10

Experience

(years)

1-5 20 147 30

6-10 70 473 40

11-15 10 38 30


Primary 10 12 0

Secondary 30 467 40

265


()


()

Tertiary 60 333 60



Govt job 30 10 46

Others 4 10 24

Total () 100 100 100









scor

e

SA A UD D SD






380 188 12 42 5 39




237 150 92 48 14 34



205 148 183 28 5 36



260 156 87 54 13 36

Awareness of BPS 180 156 93 76 16 33



445 188 45 12 3 43

266


scor

e

SA A UD D SD







livelihood

320 228 54 30 6 40



farm income

335 208 51 34 7 40










BPS


Crop Farmers ()

Agribusiness ()


None 0 987 100

(years) 10-5 90 13 0 51-10 10 0 0

267






10792 3428

Df 78 78 t Stat 70946 292092








Watermelon DD 2387004 11013 406 104 00002

Soybean DD 290752 4687 1392 66 00006


268





















score

Mean

score

Ranking



650 43 1st



605 4 2nd




450 3 3rd



415 28 4th




355 24 5th




350 23 6th

269


score

Mean

score

Ranking


Source Survey 2018


area


Industry

Nature amp Products


LGA)


Technology Transfer

Centre(CRTTC)



and sale


Factory


processing and sale


Industry


processing and sale

4 Ogbondoroko

(Asa LGA)

Cashew Processing

Industry




5 Ajasse-ipo

(Irepodun LGA)

Root and Tubers

Expansion

Program(RTEP)



and yam tubers

6 Duku-Lade(Patigi

LGA)

Shonga Farm Holding

Limited



7 Shonga (Edu

LGA)



8 Okuta (Baruteen

LGA)


sale of yam flour

9 Share (Ifelodun

LGA)


Mills


sale of groundnut

10 Malete (Moro

LGA)

Integrated Youth

Development Farm

Settlement




270


Industry

Nature amp Products

corn amp groundnuts
































271



































272

CONCLUSION














BPS







273






274



275


276


yield and quality




Abstract
















Introduction



















277








production

(Shrestha 2004)































278


onion crops

Methodology









Experimental set up





279































Statistics

280




Results

Flower visitors












2)


percentage

Discussion




281

























Conclusions


Acknowledgments








References



282




479-490






97-104







Economics 68 (2009) 810-821



13895



(2001) 89-95







28 (1998) 83-112


Addis Ababa


report No 55







283







pp 1-8





Sciences 8 (1) 123-126

284





Abstract






























285

Abstract





















initiatives


286




Li1


Abstract






























287









































288





physiology













of the same age

















14 hours

289








































290

































ions consistent)






291





























for GPS 21









292



PK)





































293







































294









































295








































296




























297

298

299

300















301






















forager bees

















302



Discussion


















303























304















305
























306

307












































308

















brain respectively

309



















Conclusion


















310


311


312


313


314


Johan W van Veen



Introduction
























of the world










315




































in the production


316























account









317








in California
































318








































319





Concluding remarks










Acknowledgement




References



pp 43-60


Press Cambridge MA












183-206

320
















321


322








1

Pollination and

food

production





Tel +86-15727399022Beijing


Overview of Insect

Pollinators in

Sustainable


Unexploited


1


13 Qamer Samina1

Farkhanda Asad2


3

Tayyaba Ali4

Tahira Yasmin5


1234



1


14 Gallmann Peter


pgallmannbluewinch


1





Tel +251 911019166


1


16 Tigist Zegeye

Tigist Zegeye




Productsrsquorsquo

1


323




Tel +251920287173


1



1 R K

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ampYendrembam KDevi

3






2



13


1

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2


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2



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Pirk1




2


25 Guesh Godifey1

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2

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4






4ILRI_LIVES project


2


324





Density and




Reserve Sudan

2


27 Abebe Jenberie1

Asaminew Tassew

1

Tilahun Gebey2

Kerealem Ejigu3

Amssalu Bezabih

4amp

Workneh Ayalew5








5Coordinator Youth




2


31 Admassu Addi






implication for

apiculture

development

3


32 Admassu Addi


Teshome Soromessa




3


33 1 Clark Kerry

2Ms courtenay

clark




communities with

challenging

environments

3


34


1 Asaminew Tassew

2 and

Desalegn Begna3





3


325




awgawgaprmgmailcom

41 Gallmann Peter




4



Tel +31 (0)30 276 2824



chain in Ethiopia


international

competition

4


43 1Degefie Tibebe

2Denis Sautier

3Getachew

Mengistie Alemu






Ethiopia


Tel +33467615914

Honey and

Geographical

indications Why is

honey a good pilot

product for the

implementation of

Geographical


Ethiopia

4


44 Abera Belay1

Gulelat Desse Haki

2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Young-Chul Lee4

Kyung-

Tack Kim4

Kaleab Baye5

Samuel Melaku6




Tel +251911840655




Germany


463-746 Korea



acid profiles and



monofloral honey

4


326





45 Alemayehu Gela

Zewudu Ararso amp

Deresa Kebede






4








Challenges of


trade among

smallholder


in africa

4


47 1Adeyemo Yusuf

Adeniyi

2Chi

Okafor



4


48 Guesh Godifey1

Amssalu Bezabeh

2 Hailu

Mazengia3

Yayneshet Tesfay

4



3Bahrdar




4


49 Yetnayet Girmaw

Yetnayet Girmaw



Email ygirmawsnvorg

Tel +251 (0) 9 11 86 80 59


4


327



2 Marc

Birringer3

Hannelore Borck3

Samuel Melaku4

Kaleab

Baye5











4


411 Nuru Adgaba12

Ahmed A Al-ghamdi

1 Mebrat

Hailu2









4





4



2

Till Stellmacher3








Tel+49-(0)-15219407639


4


328





4





4





4


Van Veen Johan



Tropicales


Campus Benj



Tel 2562-6332


Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Perspectives for


beekeeping

4




1


329


RitterWolfgang



Ritter Gozde Okcu

Bees-for-the-world



The African way


for a better

pollination

performance

2


Van Veen


Tropicales


Campus Benj



Tel 2562-6332


Web wwwcinatunaaccr

Tel +5062562-6332

Beekeeping for

poverty Alleviation

4

Commercializa

tion amp

transformation

of beekeeping





changing

environments

3





holetaEthiopia

Beekeeping for


livelihood security


330


reasons






+

Ajao A M1

and Oladimeji Y U

2







+





+

Tolera Kumsa

1

Gemeda1

Ma Weihua

2

Muhammad Naeem

1

Jiaxing Huang

1 Jie

Wu1






-

Obange FA

1 2

Villinger J1

Adhiambo C

2 Lattorff

M1





-

Tesfay Gidey

1



3 Ecosystem

+

331


Tania Oliveira

2

Josep Crous-Duran

2

Joatildeo HN Palma

2





Zewdu Ararso Hora



22 Holeta Ethiopia




-

Eshaya

Samuel E




+




+

Adedotum Oke

Michael





-

Binyuy Wirsiy



4 Commercializati

+

332


Emmanuel








-





+

333



Ababa Ethiopia

Phone +251-911-201-686





Host Organization

Apimondia

Symposium2018

334


Demissie







Board


335







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APIMONDIA SYMPOSIUM 2018, ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIAethioapiboard.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/APIMONDIA... · 2019. 6. 21. · APIMONDIA – Dr Peter Kozmus Dr. Peter Kozmus, Vice President