APA Style and Scholarly Writing Jim Messina, Ph.D

APA Style and Scholarly Writing

Jim Messina, Ph.D.

Objectives of Presentation Rationale for utilization of APA style in

professional and research writing What are the components of the APA style as

presented in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition, 2001

Refresh what you already know about APA style

Identify what you need to work on to improve your use of the APA style

Tips on how to Improve your scholarly writing

OVERVIEW OF APA STYLE

Why is APA Style Writing Important Professionally and ethically we are charged with using

research to further the counseling profession CACREP encourages Counselor Education Programs to

use research to improve counseling effectiveness (Lambie, et al, 2008)

The clinical focus today in the real world is on Evidenced Based Practices which implies empirically validated researched ways of providing clinical services – we all are called upon to contribute to this building body of knowledge

An essential part of scholarship is to learn to do good research and to write about it in such a way that it is publishable

Knowing the APA Style of Writing Research Articles will be a life long competency you as a Counselor Educator and Counseling Professional will always want to grow in

So What Does APA Publication Manual (APA, 2001) Cover?

1. Content and Organization of a Manuscript2. Expressing Ideas and Reducing Bias in Language3. APA Editorial Style - Detailed4. Reference Lists - Detailed5. Manuscript Preparation for Papers to be

Submitted for Publication6. Material other than Journal Articles7. Manuscript Acceptance and Production

* APA. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association

1. Content and Organization1. Quality of Content, p. 4*

1. Designing and Reporting Research, p. 52. Evaluating Content, p. 5

2. Characteristics of Articles, p. 61. Authorship, p. 62. Types of Articles, p. 73. Length, Headings, and Tone, p. 9

3. Parts of a Manuscript, p. 104. Quality of Presentation, p. 29 * Page Numbers in the Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association, Fifth Edition, 2001

Parts of a Manuscript, p. 101. Title Page, p. 102. Abstract, p. 123. Introduction, p. 154. Method, p. 175. Results, p. 206. Discussion, p. 267. Multiple Experiments, p. 278. References, p. 289. Appendix, p. 2810. Author’s Notes, p. 29

2. Expressing Ideas and Reducing Bias in Language

1. Writing Style, p. 312. Grammar, p. 403. Guidelines to reduce bias in language, p. 61

Writing Style, p. 311. Orderly Presentation of Ideas, p. 322. Smoothness of Expression, p. 343. Economy of Expression, p. 344. Precision and Clarity, p. 365. Strategies for Improving Writing Styles, p. 40

Grammar, p. 401. Verbs, p. 412. Agreement of Subject and Verb, p. 443. Pronouns, p. 474. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers and Use of

Adverbs, p. 505. Relative Pronouns and Subordinate

Conjunctions, p. 546. Parallel Construction, p. 577. Linguistic Devices, p. 61

Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language, p. 61

Guideline 1: Describe at the appropriate level of specificity, p. 62

Guideline 2: Be sensitive to labels, p. 63Guideline 3: Acknowledge participation, p. 65In addition:1.Gender, p. 662.Sexual Orientation, p. 673.Racial and Ethnic Identity, p. 674.Disabilities, p. 695.Age, p. 69

3. APA Editorial Style1. Punctuation, p. 782. Spelling, p. 893. Capitalization, p. 944. Italics, p. 100 – Italicizing Words5. Abbreviations, p. 1036. Headings and Series, p. 1117. Quotations, p. 1178. Numbers, p. 1229. Metrication, p. 13010. Statistical and Mathematical Copy, p. 13611. Tables, p. 14712. Figures, p. 17613. Footnotes and Notes, p. 20214. Appendixes 20515. Reference Citations in Text, p. 207

Punctuation, p. 781. Period, p. 782. Comma, p. 783. Semicolons, p. 804. Colon, p. 805. Dash, p. 816. Quotation Marks, p. 817. Parentheses, p. 848. Brackets, p. 869. Slash, p. 87

Spelling, p. 891. Preferred Spelling, p. 892. Hyphenation, p. 89

Capitalization, p. 941. Words Beginning a Sentence, p. 942. Major Words in Titles and Heading, p. 953. Proper Nouns and Trade Names, p. 964. Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters, p.

975. Titles of Tests, p. 986. Names of Conditions or Groups in

Experiments, p. 997. Names of Factors, Variables and Effects, p.

99

Abbreviations, p. 1031. Use of Abbreviations, p. 1032. Explanation of Abbreviations, p. 1043. Abbreviations Accepted as Words, p. 1054. Abbreviations Used Often in APA Journals, p.

1055. Latin Abbreviations, p. 1066. Scientific Abbreviations, p. 1067. Other Abbreviations, p. 1098. Use of Periods with Abbreviations, p. 1109. Abbreviations Beginning a Sentence, p. 111

Headings and Series, p. 1111. Organizing a Manuscript with Headings, p. 1112. Levels of Headings, p. 113

1. Level 1: Centered Uppercase & Lowercase Heading2. Level 2: Centered, Italicized, Uppercase &

Lowercase Heading3. Level 3: Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase &

Lowercase Side Heading4. Level 4: Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph

heading ending with a period. 5. Level 5: CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING

3. Selecting the Levels of Headings, p. 1144. Seriation, p. 115

Quotations, p. 1171. Quotations of Sources, p. 1172. Accuracy, p. 1183. Double or Single Quotation Marks, p. 1194. Changes From the Source Requiring No

Explanation, p. 1195. Changes from the Source Requiring

Explanation, p. 1196. Citations of the Source, p. 1207. Permission to Quote, p. 121

Numbers, p. 1221. Numbers Expressed in Figures, p. 1222. Numbers Expressed in Words, p. 1253. Combining Figures and Words to Express

Numbers, p. 1274. Ordinal Numbers, p. 1285. Decimal Fractions, p. 1286. Roman Numerals, p. 1297. Commas in Numbers, p. 1298. Plurals in Numbers, p. 130

Metrication, p. 1301. Policy on Metrication, p. 1302. Style for Metric Units, p. 1413. Metric Tables, p. 136

Statistical and Mathematical Copy, p. 136

1. Selecting the Method of Analysis and Retaining Data, p. 137

2. Selecting Effective Presentation, p. 1373. References for Statistics, p. 1374. Formulas, p. 1385. Statistics in Text, p. 1386. Statistical Symbols, p. 1397. Spacing, Alignment, and Punctuation, p. 1458. Equations in Text, p. 1469. Displayed Equations, p. 146

Tables, p. 1471. Tabular Versus Textual Presentation, p. 1472. Relation of Tables and Text, p. 1543. Relation Between Tables, p. 1554. Table Numbers, p. 1555. Headings, p. 1566. Body of a Table, p. 1597. Presenting Data in Specific Types of Tables, p.

1608. Notes to a Table, p. 1709. Ruling of Tables, p. 17310. Size of Tables, p. 17411. Tables From Another Source, p. 17412. Table Checklist, p. 175

Figures, p. 1761. Deciding to Use Figures, p. 1762. Standards for Figures, p. 1773. Types of Figures, p. 1774. Line Art Versus Halftone, p. 1875. Overall Size and Proportion, p. 1886. Preparation of Figures, p. 1887. Creating Graphs, p. 1958. Using Photographs, p. 1979. Identifying and Citing Figures, p. 19810. Figure Legend and Captions, p. 19911. Submitting Figures, p. 20012. Figure Checklist, p. 201

Footnotes and Notes, p. 2021. Footnotes in Text, p. 2022. Notes to Tables, p. 2033. Author Note, p. 2-3

Appendixes, p. 205

1. Identifying and Citing Appendixes, p. 2052. Body and Heading, p. 2063. Tables as Appendixes, p. 2064. Tests and Questionnaires, p. 206

Reference Citations in Text, p. 2071. One Work by One Author, p. 2072. One Work by Multiple Authors, p. 2083. Groups as Authors, p. 2094. Works With No Author (Including Legal

Materials) or With an Anonymous Author, p. 2105. Authors with the Same Surname, p. 2116. Two or More Works Within the Same

Parentheses, p. 2127. Classical Works, p. 2138. Specific Parts of a Source, p. 2139. Personal Communications, p. 21410. Citations in Parenthetical Material, p. 214

4. Reference List1. Agreement of Text and Reference List, p. 2152. Construction of an Accurate and Complete Reference List, p. 2163. APA Style, p. 2164. Order of References in the Referenced List, p. 2195. References Included in a Meta-Analysis, p. 2226. Introduction to APA Reference Style, p. 2227. General Forms, p. 2238. Authors, p. 2249. Publication Date, p. 22510. Title of Article or Chapter, p. 22611. Title of Work and Publication Information: Periodicals, p. 22712. Title of Work: Nonperiodicals, p. 22813. Title of Work: Part of a Nonperiodical (Book Chapter), p. 22914. Publication Information: Nonperiodical, p. 23015. Retrieval Information: Electronic Sources (APA Website)16. Elements and Examples of References in APA Style, p. 231

Elements and Examples of References in APA Style, p. 231

A. Periodicals, p. 239B. Books, Brochures, and Book Chapters, p. 248C. Technical and Research Reports, p. 255D. Proceedings of Meeting and Symposiums, p. 259E. Doctoral Dissertation and Master’s Theses, p.

260F. Unpublished Work and Publications of Limited

Circulation, p. 263G. Reviews, p. 264H. Audiovisual Media, p. 266I. Electronic Media, see APA website

What it Takes to Write a Scholarly Paper

What are the Basic Components of Scholarly Work

1. Research review: an analysis and synthesis of most relevant, up to date, and informative information about a topic

2. Use of APA Writing Guidelines: 1. Appropriate Citations2. Structural Organization

Tips* for Appropriate CitationsSupport your point of view taken with appropriate

citations:1. Use only most current references: less than 10 years

old and preferably 5 or less years old2. Reference only academic rigorous peer-reviewed

academic journals 3. Avoid popular press, textbooks, and secondary

sources4. All sources need to be appropriately referenced5. Use direct quotations sparingly6. Only last name of author and year for citations

within the text of the paper

*(Lambie, et al., 2008)

Organization*of Research Paper1. Title Page, p. 10**2. Abstract, p. 123. Introduction, p. 15

1. Rationale, p. 172. Review of the Literature-Background, p. 16

4. Method-Research, p. 171. Participants or Sample Studied, p. 182. Measures – Instrumentation or variables, p. 3. Procedure and Design – Research Design and Data Analysis,

p. 195. Results – Findings, p. 206. Discussion, p. 26

1. Conclusion2. Limitations3. Implications

7. References, p. 28 *(Lambie, et al., 2008)

**Page Numbers in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition, 2001

Tips * on Writing an Abstract, p.12 One single paragraph only in length No more than 120 words Clear and concise summary of the paper1.Clearly and concisely describes the purpose of

the paper, findings and implications2.Always written in the active voice3.Clear and understandable and able to stand

alone as the summary of the work contained in the paper

4.Must include as many descriptive words as possible which assist future readers to find the paper when doing a keyword search


Introduction*of Paper, p.15 Sets the stage – orients reader to central

objectives Provides a Statement of Purpose Emphasizes the writer’s views of topic Uses citations of literature to support claims in

paper Must contain:

Orientation to specific problem addressed in paper Statement of purpose of the paper Summative review of pertinent literature Theoretical implications Central variables and concepts clarified and defined Rationale for paper


Rationale,*p. 17 Clearly states the importance of the problem to be

addressed in the paper Provides justification for importance of the value of

the findings contained in the paper Built on the relationship between prior empirical

results and theory that lead to a critical unanswered research question to be address in the paper

Prevalence and severity of a problem along with potential consequences provide argument to support the rationale for the research or investigation discussed in the paper


Literature *Review, p. 16 Organizational focal point of paper giving reader a

focal point Contains pertinent literature and not necessarily an

exhaustive review Extensive review in Dissertation Each piece reviewed must be referenced and cited

both in the body of the paper as well as in the Reference section

If there is a item in Reference section it must be cited within the body of the paper

Review typically presents relevant information including the findings and conclusions but sometimes needs to include methodology and design features


Rules for Review of Literature*1. Must remain opinion free2. Should be written in past tense or present

perfect3. Support or challenge a theory or hypothesis,

never prove one4. Use language when reporting other studies as:

found, reported, demonstrated, concluded, suggested, indicated

5. Logically, rationally, and clearly support the purpose of the research or project described in paper through this review


Discussion*Section, p. 26 Summarizes the findings Brings closure to the purpose of stated in introduction Evaluates, qualifies, offers interpretations and draws

inferences from research findings and/or literature reviewed

Should include:1. Discussion if the results or literature reviewed

answered the research question2. Provide logical explanation of the study’s findings

and/or findings in literature reviewed3. Statement of potential limitations of the study4. Possible implications for the field


Conclusion* Answers questions: What conclusions can be

reached from the results? Writer functions more independently and creatively Writer reflects on possible explanation for the

findings Writer ties interpretation or plausible relationship

of findings to literature reviewed If findings are unexpected

Introduce new literature to support interpretation of findings

Speculate on reasonable explanations for findings based on research design, sampling, psychometric limitations or other aspects of the study


Limitations*Writer recognizes and states that: There are no perfect studies All studies have limitations There are possible limitations and alternative

ways of interpreting the findings of the study despite limitations


Implications* Explains and clarifies the significance of the

findings Provides explanation and clarification of

significance of the findings Provides the practical and pragmatic meaning of

the findings of the study or work of the paper Provides a tie into implications for one’s

professional field from the results of the study Written in the present tense Can include recommendation for future research


References,*p. 28 All sources cited in paper must be included in

the References Reference provides the background

information on sources cited in body of paper Ensure congruence between works cited in

paper and those placed in References


Prevalent Writing Errors* Poor organization and continuity Lack of sufficient support for statements and

claims made in paper with appropriate and accurate citations and references

Syntax, grammar, and punctuation problems Lack of connection between the implications

for the field and the research and theory reviewed and/or research results

(Lambie, et al., 2008, p. 21.)

Appropriate use of Citations and Quotes It is quoted in Lambie, et al. (2008):

It is best to use direct quotations in moderation

Writings that analyze and effectively incorporate information from multiple sources are more interesting than papers that simply paraphrase o quote information and place citations at the end of each paragraph.

The writer’s task is to include both personal observations and viewpoint

The writer is responsible for accurately quoting or paraphrasing the work of others

Seven Reasons for Using Quotations*1. Detail out specifically on well phrased key

concepts contained in a reference source2. Demonstrate what others say about your topic

area:1. Experts2. People involved in issue3. General public

3. Point out importance of key concepts and facts4. Support arguments and your point of view with

impact of outside powerful, colorful, and expert inputs

5. Clear up difficult or debated point of view with documented statements from experts

6. Show how complex the issues being address are7. Emphasizing the points you are trying to make


How to Paraphrase* Paraphrasing is preferred when you are reporting

on past research Paraphrasing is restating in your own words the

research findings of others1.Rewrite the original in about the same number of

words2.Provide citation to the source in body of the text3.Use quotation marks to retain exceptional words

or phrases from the cited source4.Use the same mood in the paraphrase as

contained in the original like: satire, doubt, humor, etc.*(Lambie, et al., 2008)

How to Avoid Plagiarism* Plagiarism is taking the words of another writer

and presenting them as your own Best way to avoid plagiarism is to use

appropriate citation and to practice paraphrasing the writings of others

Utilize the APA Guidelines for citing sources in text, p. 207


Other Tips For Scholarly Writing

Tips for Getting Started in Your Writing* Start with something new! Come up with fresh ideas about old concepts Write about something you care about Start with something you know Write about programs or situations you would be

interested in learning about Not only review literature but try to find new

meaning for what is out there Write down ideas whenever they come to mind-

keep index cards with you at all times Devil’s Advocate your ideas-looking at them from

all sides*(Simmons, 2004)

Write a Research Paper Like a Lawyer Would* Define and frame your topic as if you were

defending a case in court Search for sources to back up your case as if

you were searching for evidence to win the case

Write the paper as if you were presenting the evidence

In your conclusion draw up your discussion as if you were making a closing argument

*(Broskoske, 2007)

Tips for Writing a Good Research Paper* It’s important to keep in mind the main purposes of

writing, and choose the proper one: 1.To inform to arouse interest: You state the

facts objectively, adding that much to the reader’s knowledge (e.g., instructional techniques, research methods).

2.To persuade or influence attitudes: You support and present facts with attractive arguments and reasons to stir the reader (e.g., calls to legislative advocacy).

3.To interpret, solve problems, or evaluate results: You analyze facts and give opinions, leaving it to the reader to make up his or her own mind (e.g., results of an empirical study).*(Kosciulek, 2005)

Use a Writing Formula in Writing Papers*1. Chronological or Time Based Approach-from the

earliest to present Traces history Describes growth of an organization or process Compares similar subjects

2. Naming Major Topics-First name them and then write on them in the order named

3. Simple to Complex-leads reader from easy introduction to more weighty issues, formulas, and equations

4. Least Important to Most Important details-leads subject to a crescendo

5. Problem Solution-states the problem in brief sentence, followed by possible solutions, and how each could solve the problem

6. Reason- state an opinion or point of view and give reasons why you support it*(Kosciulek, 2005)

Tips for Writing Your First Draft * Don’t waste your best efforts on your first draft! Just get your thoughts down on paper-you can

sharpen your content later! Before Your First Draft: Think-Plan-Organize

Prepare by exhaustively reading on the topic you want to cover

Create citations for each piece you read After Your First Draft: Revise-Revise-ReviseTips:

1. Pick out Key Points and development them sequentially

2. Write Out Loud – so you can hear what you are saying

3. Open with a Strong Lead-grab your reader from start*(Kosciulek, 2006)

Advice from an Editor* (Herbert, 2007)

1. Does your review of the literature specify a clear statement of the problem being addressed in the paper? leads to the major research question documents the need for the study

2. Are there specific research questions/hypotheses that are the defined operationally? how concepts in literature review pertain to

outcome variables in the research questions3. Is the research methodology explained

sufficiently to allow for replication? Major procedural elements described so readers

understand what happened and rationale for following the identified procedures

Advice from an Editor* (Herbert, 2007)

4. Is there a clear explanation for choosing the selected research design and have the statistical assumptions associated with this design been met? Readers should understand why the researcher

employed a particular design and its advantages and limitations

5. Beyond reporting statistical significance explain findings within confidence limit intervals and effect size estimates to better understand the utility of the data. In cases where lack of statistical significance occurs, authors should ascertain whether there was sufficient statistical power.

6. Are conclusions and implications for research and practice consistent with data found in the study? Do not overstate what the data indicate particularly in

cases where lack of statistical significance, weak effect sizes, and/or small confidence interval estimates occur

Address the 4 Big Issues in Scholarly Writing*1. Paradox of Writing for Graduate Students who for

first time in their lives may need to: 1. Focus on learning how to write2. Receive support to improve their writing3. Change their writing habits to complete a major writing

task on time

2. Errors in Writing1. Mechanical errors of Grammar and Spelling2. Mechanical errors of no citations to back up point of view3. Microstructure of writing-poor flow of thoughts not well

connected and lack of sequencing of thoughts and concepts

4. Macrostructure of writing-weak quality of argumentation and lack of clarity of purpose*(Diezmann, 2005)

Address the 4 Big Issues in Scholarly Writing*

3. Ethical Issues in Writing1. Avoid plagiarism to insure the scholarly writing is

yours and not just cherry picked from other writers

2. Understand and abide by the ethical responsibilities as a researcher and writer

4. Timely Completion of Writing1. Need to avoid the contagious disease plaguing

graduate students: procrastination2. Need to set and follow a strict timeline for

completion of the scholarly research and writing necessary to complete the project*(Diezmann, 2005)

Evaluate Your Writing*Does your writing hold up to these four criteria?1. Quality of Ideas

1. Clear focus2. Tackles complexity of topic well giving both sides of

the issue3. Demonstrate good critical thinking-answers: “So

What?”4. Effect use of substantial references and citations

2. Rhetorical situation and arrangement1. You present as a persuasive, credible and reliable

source2. Paper is logical and rhetorically appropriate to the

subject and purpose3. Title and Introduction captures reader’s interest

*(Leahy, 2002)

Evaluate Your Writing*1. 3. Development

1. Information in paper is full, accurate and satisfying2. You have thorough researched the paper to fill in gaps

or to enrich the content of the paper3. You demonstrate strong development of ideas by the

points you make in strong well stated paragraphs which are presented in an orderly fashion

4. There is little padding or repetition 2. 4. Style

1. All spelling, grammar, wording, and punctuation are accurate

2. Paper follows APA Guidelines as accurately as humanly possible

3. There are good transitions between paragraphs4. Sentences are strongly and accurately worded for good

emphasis and power*(Leahy, 2002)

So Are You Ready to Write Scholarly?Make sure you: Use the APA Publication Manual and APA Style

Guidelines for Electronic References Read all of the articles posted in the references in

this presentation Have done an exhaustive search of the literature on

your specific focus of your scholarly and research work

Have a thorough understanding of all of the mechanics which go into the writing of manuscripts

Just Do It!! Get your initial draft done with a catching introduction

Then revise, revise, revise, etc.Best of Luck!

References

APA. (2007). APA Style Guide to Electronic References. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.

APA. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.

Broskoske, S. L., (2007). Prove your case: A new approach to teaching research papers. College Teaching, 55(1), 31-32.

Diezmann, C. M. (2005). Supervision and scholarly writing: writing to learn-learning to write. Reflective Practice, 6(4), 443-457.

Hebert, J. (2007). Further thoughts on writing for publications. Rehabilitation Education, 21(2), 71-72.

Kosciulek, J. F. (2005). Practical guidelines for effective writing Part II-Organization. Rehabilitation Education, 19(1), 3-4.

Kosciulek, J. F. (2006) Practical Guidelines for Effective Writing Part III-Writing the first draft. Rehabilitation Education, 20(1), 3-4.

Lambie, G.W., Sias S.W., Davis, K.M., Lawson, G., & Akos, P. (2008). A scholarly writing resource for counselor educators and their students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 86(1), 18-24.

Leahy, R. (2002). Conducting writing assignments. College Teaching, 50(2), 50-54.

Simmons, M. P. (2004). Writing for successful publication. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 70(3),13-17.

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APA Style and Scholarly Writing Jim Messina, Ph.D