AP2 Lec Exam Unit 5

8/3/2019 AP2 Lec Exam Unit 5

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A&P II

EXAM 1: STUDY GUIDE

pp. 532-537, 931-964

endocrine gland- A collection of cells that secrete hormones

into body fluids that are distributed by the cardiovascular

system.

exocrine gland- A collection of cells that produce a solutionor structure that is secreted through a tubule onto the

surface of the skin or secreted directly onto the surface.

steroid- Any of a large class of organic compounds with a

characteristic molecular structure containing four rings of

carbon atoms. E.g. testosterone.

receptor protein- An intracellular protein or fraction having

high specific affinity for binding agents known to stimulate

cellular activity such as steroid hormones or cAMP

hormone- Chemical messengers which are released into

the blood to be transported throughout the body.

pancreas- Located partially behind the stomach in the

abdomen and functions as both an endocrine and exocrine

gland. Produces insulin, glucagon and other digestive

enzymes concerned with regulation of blood sugar levels.

pituitary gland-(Hypophysis). Endocrine gland located in the

hypophyseal fossa of the sellaturcica of the sphenoid bone;

consists largely of two functional lobes.

insulin- A hormone produced by the pancreas. Elevated

blood glucose levels stimulate its release, which decreasesblood sugar levels.

glucagon- Hormone produced in the pancreas which acts

antagonistically to insulin. It stimulates the liver to break

down glycogen stores to glucose and subsequently to release

the glucose to the blood.

diabetes- Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes

mellitus: inability of body cells to utilize glucose and the

subsequent loss of glucose in the urine. Hyposecretion of

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) results in diabetes insipidus:

condition characterized by excessive thirst and frequent

urination.

amine- An organic compound derived from ammonia by

replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by organic

radicals.

protein kinase A- (PKA) A family of enzymes whose activity is

dependent on cellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP); a kinase

enzyme that modifies other proteins by chemically adding

phosphate groups to them (phosphorylation).

cAMP- Cyclic AMP). A second messenger in many biological

processes.

cascade- A chain of steps for dissipating the momentum of

falling water in a steep place in order to maintain a steadyrate of flow.

amplification- Act or result of increasing in size or effect

LH-(Luteinizing Hormone)- An anterior pituitary tropic

hormone; a gonadotropin which regulates gamete production

and hormonal activity of the gonads.

follicles- A saclike structure in which immature ovum

develops.

ovarian cycle-(Phase of menstruation). A series of events in

the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation of the

oocyte (egg or ovum); consists of the follicular phase,

ovulation, and the luteal phase.

follicular phase- (Proliferative phase). Phase of the

menstrual cycle during which the follicles in the ovary

mature; ends with ovulation.

luteal phase-(Secretory phase, Days Past Ovulation). The

latter phase of the menstrual cycle that begins with the

formation of the corpus luteum.

granulosa cells-When more than one layer is encasing animmature ovum within a follicle.

ovulation- When a developing egg has reached the

appropriate stage of maturity, and is ejected from the ovary.

menses-time of menstruation

feedback loop- is a system or process that is looped back to

control a system within itself.

primordial follicle- During oogenesis, it is the formation of

single layer of squamouslike follicle cells and the oogonia,

after it reaches the number of divisions reaches 2 million or

more.

ovarian cycle-(Phase of menstruation). A series of events in

the ovaries that occur during and after the maturation of the

oocyte (egg or ovum).

ICSH-(Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone) luteinizing

hormone ; a gonadotropic hormone that is secreted by the

anterior pituitary which stimulates regulates gamete

production and hormonal activity of the gonads.


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FSH- Follicle-stimulating hormone. Another anterior pituitary

tropic hormone (gonadotropin) which regulates gamete

production and hormonal activity of the gonads.

graafian follicle- A.K.A. vesicular follicle. Oocyte increases in

size again and is ejected out of the ovary, most granulosa

cells stay behind (some still surround the 2oocyte), theca

interstitial cells invade the follicle through the disintegrating

basement membrane.

corpus luteum- A solid glandular structure or a structure

containing a scalloped lumen that defelops from the ruptured

follicle. Residual follicle with granulosa cells (which secrete

Estrogen) and theca interstitial cells (which secrete

Progesterone).

polar bodies-cell structure found inside an ovum

germ layers-ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm - group of cells

formed during embryogenesis

corpus albican- If pregnancy doesnt occur, the follicle

degrades and hormone production decreases.

ovulation- When a developing egg has reached the

appropriate stage of maturity, and is ejected from the ovary.

spermatids- Haploid cells that are the actual product of

meiosis. Notfunctional gametes.

spermatozoa- A motile sperm cell; moving form of the

haploid cell that is the male.

leydig cell- Interstitial cell. Produce testosterone in the

presence of luteinizing hormone (LH).

oocyte- A cell in the ovary that may undergo meiotic division

to form an ovum.

primary oocyte- The oocyte that arises from the oogonium

during oocytogenesis, and gives rise to the secondary oocyte

and polar body after meiosis I, the first meiotic division.

oogenesis- The process of female gamete formation which

occurs in the ovary.

cleavage- A series of mitotic divisions without intervening

growth periods which results in a multicellular embryonic

body.

implantation- The attachment of the fertilized egg or

blastocyst to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy.

morula- The 32-cell stage of zygote cleavage where the

embryo resembles a raspberry in form.

gastrulation- The cleavage stage in which a gastrula develops

from a blastula by the inward migration of cells.

blastula- A ball of cells surrounding a central cavity; the final

product of cleavage

ectoderm - One of the three primary germ layers; the

outermost layer of cells or tissue in early development of the

embryo. Derivatives include: all epithelial structures/ skin/

nervous system.

endoderm- The innermost layer of cells or tissue of an

embryo in early development. Derivatives include: digestive

system/ digestive accessory organs/ respiratory system.

mesoderm- The middle layer of an embryo in early

development. Derivatives include: skeletal system &

connective tissues/ muscular system/ circulatory & urinarysystem.

2. Compare and contrast the nervous system and the endocrine system:

CHARACTERISTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Speed of effect Fast Slow

Duration of effect Short Long

Mode of

communication

Electrical (action p.)

Chemical (neurotran.)Chemical only

Messenger Neural impulse Hormones

Pathway Nerves Blood

Function Both coordinate the function of tissues & organs


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3. Compare and contrast Endocrine and Exocrine glands:

Exocrine Gland - a collection of cells that produce a solution

or structure that is secreted through a tubule onto the

surface of the skin or secreted directly onto the surface

Endocrine Gland - a collection of cells that secrete hormones

into body fluids that are distributed by the cardiovascular

system

4. List the general effects of hormones:

EFFECT

Regulation of the

Chemical Composition ofInternal Fluids

Regulation of the Rate

and Type of ChemicalReactions

Regulation of the

Events during Stress(Emotional or

Physical)

Coordinates the

Process ofReproduction in Males

& Females

Integration of

Events duringGrowth &

Development

CONDITIONLow blood calcium levels Low blood calcium levels Crucial job Interview Low blood calcium

levels

Formation of the

integumentary sys

HORMONEParathyroid Hormone

(PTH)

Parathyroid Hormone

(PTH)

Epinephrine Parathyroid Hormone

(PTH)

Epidermal Growth

Factor (EGF)

SOURCE Parathyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland Adrenal Glands Parathyroid Gland Unknown

TARGET

TISSUE

Osteoclasts Osteoclasts Cardiovascular System Osteoclasts Epithelial cells

RESULT

Increase PTH -> Increase

bone resorption ->

Increase blood Ca+

Increase PTH -> Increase

bone resorption ->

Increase blood Ca+

Dilution of peripheral

blood vessels (to

skeletal muscles),

constriction of internal

blood vessels (to

visceral) increased

preparedness for

emergencies

Increase PTH ->

Increase bone

resorption -> Increase

blood Ca+

Stimulation of cells

to divide

5. Describe the mechanism of hormone action:

- Hormones will affect only those cells with specific protein receptors on their surface membranes (Water-soluble Hormones Case

#1) or specific receptors with the cytoplasm or nucleus (Lipid-soluble Hormone Case #2)

- Hormone binds to receptor due to complimentary fit shape and charge distribution are exact opposite to receptor structure.


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6. Categorize hormones based on their chemistry:

I. BIOGENIC AMINES SINGLE, MODIFIED AMINO ACIDS

a.Tyrosine (from Thyroid) & (from Adrenal Medulla)T

3& T

4

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine

b. Histidine (from Mast Cells & Platlets) Histamine

c. Tryptophan (from Platlets & Pineal Body)Serotonin & Melatonin

II. POLYPEPTIDES & PROTEINSCHAINS OF AMINO ACIDS

a. (may have carbohydrate

groups attached, considered glycoproteins.Examples:

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), Prolactin (PRL), Thyrotropin

Releasing Hormone (TRH)

b. Synthesized on RERTo know: Oxytocin (OT),

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH), Glucagon,

Insulin.

III. STEROID HORMONESEXAMPLES

a. All derived from cholesterol (lipid-based)Estrogen (E2), Testosterone, Cortisol

b. 4 adjacent carbon rings

IV. EICOSANOIDSEXAMPLES

a. Derived from Arachodonic Acid

Prostaglandins

b. 20-carbon fatty acid

7. Explain how steroid and non-steroid hormones produce effects on target cells:

Non Steroid : Like insulin, they cannot diffuse thru plasma membrane. These hormones influence cytoplasmic activities thru a 2nd

messenger, cAMP, which in turn affects the cellular biochemistry & metabolism. 2nd messenger often initiate an enzyme cascade,

where each step activates an enzyme that in turn activates the next enzyme in the series. These enzyme cascades amplify the effects

of hormone molecules on target cell metabolism. EX: Blood sugar level down insulin is released

Sequence of events for water-soluble hormones Case # 1.

1) Hormone binds to receptor on surface membrane of target cell.

2) G-protein diffuses from receptor to Adenylate Cyclase (AC) and activates it (or inhibits its activity).

3) Active AC catalyzes formation of cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)

4) cAMP binds to and acitvates Protein Kinase A (PK A).

5) PK A phosphorylates other enzymes which

6) Changes the type and rate of cellular metabolic chemical reactions.


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Steroid: Like estrogen, they directly affect gene expression in their target cells. These hormones are lipid soluble & can diffuse

directly thru the plasma membrane of a cell to bind w/ special receptors in the nucleus. Once this happens the hormone receptor

complex activates specific genes & cause the genes to be expressed. EX: Estrogen Ovaries are stimulated to produce eggs

Sequence of events for lipid-soluble hormones Case # 2.

1) Steroid hormones diffuse through cell membrane & bind reversibly with specific receptor

2) Hormone/receptor complex is in cytoplasm or nucleus and then binds to DNA

3) DNA is stimulated to synthesize (transcription) of messenger RNA (mRNA)

4) Messenger RNA leaves nucleus and binds to ribosomes in the cytoplasm to instruct in the synthesis of protein enzymes

5) Protein enzymes may then change the rate and type of intracellular chemical reactions


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8. Illustrate the feedback mechanisms involved with glucose regulation:

Type I Diabetes

* Insulin-dependent Diabetes

* Autoimmune Disease (self-produced

antibodies attack and destroy Beta-

cells)

Therapy: Daily injections of insulin to promote the

uptake of glucose from the blood stream by all cells

of the body including the liver.

Type II Diabetes

* Insulin-independent Diabetes

* Aka: Gestational Diabetes

* Develops in overweight persons

over the age of 40. (Target cells

hide their insulin receptors.)

Therapy: Weight control, can recover normal

function.

9. Describe the histology of the Pancreas, Testis, and Ovary:

PANCREAS:

STRUCTURE: Islets of Langerhans / Acini

CELL TYPE: Islet Cells / Acinar Cells


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TESTIS:

STRUCTURE: Seminiferous Tubule

LAYER: Tunica Albinquinea

TISSUE: Dense Irregular Connective

CELL TYPE: Leydig Cells

OVARY:

STRUCTURE: Primordial OvarianFolliclePrimary Ovarian Follicle

Secondary Ovarian Follicle

CELL TYPE: Granulosa CElls

Oocyte


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10. Describe the components of the male reproductive system:

Bulbourethral glands: Secretion of seminal fluid called pre-

ejaculate. This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra forspermatozoa to pass thru, & to help flush out any residual

urine or foreign matter. (< 1% of semen)

Cells of Leydig: Responsible for production of testosterone.

Closely related to nerves.

Ejaculatory ducts: Causes reflex for ejaculation. During

ejaculation, semen passes thru the ducts & exits the body via

the penis.

Epididymis: Storage & maturation of sperm.

Penis: Male reproductive organ & also male organ of

urination.

Prostate gland: Stores & secretes a clear, slightly alkaline

fluid constituting up to 1/3 of the volume of semen. Raise

vaginal pH.(25-30% of semen)

Scrotum: Regulates temperature at slightly below body

temperature.

Semen: Components are sperm, & "seminal plasma". Seminal

plasma is produced by contributions from the seminal vesicleprostate, & bulbourethral glands.

Seminal vesicles: About 65-75% of the seminal fluid in

humans originates from the seminal vesicles. Contain

proteins, enzymes, fructose, mucus, vitamin C, flavins,

phosphorylcholine & prostaglandins. High fructose

concentrations provide nutrient energy for the spermatozoa

as they travel thru the female reproductive system.

Seminiferous tubules: Meiosis takes place here, creation of

gametes (sperm).

Testes: Gonads that produce sperm & male sex

hormones.Production of testosterone by cells of Leydig in the

testicles.

Urethra: Tubular structure that receives urine from bladder &

carries it to outside of the body. Also passage for sperm.

Vas deferens: During ejaculation the smooth muscle in the

vas deferens wall contracts, propelling sperm forward. Sperm

are transferred from the vas deferens into the urethra,

collecting fluids from accessory sex glands en route.


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11. Depict the stages of spermatogenesis:

1. The testes contain seminiferous tubules and Leydig cells.

2. The anterior pituitary gland secretes ICSH hormone (interstitial cell stimulating hormone).

3. ICSH stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone.

4. The testosterone produced by the Leydig cells crosses the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule and binds to the

spermatogonia (germ cells) inside the tubules.

5. The spermatogonia divide via mitosis, producing a primary spermatocyte and a replacement germ cell (both 2N).

6. The primary spermatocyte divides via meiosis I (the reduction/division step), producing the secondary spermatocyte (now 1N).7. The secondary spermatocyte divides via meiosis II (the equatorial division step), producing spermatids (each is 1N).

8. The secondary spermatids mature into spermatozoa (all are 1N gametes).

12. Describe the components of the female reproductive tract:


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14. Depict the stages of OOGENESIS:1. Germ cell in ovary is called the oogonium (it is a 2N chromosome cell)

2. It increases in size with no division and is then called the primary oocyte (still 2N)

3. Primary oocyte divides via meiosis I (the reduction/division step) and produces the 1st polar body and the secondary oocyte

(very different in size due to the cytoplasm being divided unevenly) (all are 1N now)

4. From oogonium to the middle of meiosis I - occurs before birth

5. 1st polar body divides via meiosis II (the equatorial division) and produces two 2nd polar bodies (both 1N)

6.

Secondary oocyte divides via meiosis II (the equatorial division) and produces one 2nd polar body and one ootid (both 1N)7. Tertiary oocyte is what is shed during menstruation if fertilization doesnt occur

8. Completion of meiosis II ONLY occurs with fertilization!

9. If ootid becomes fertilized, it becomes an ovum (still 1N).

15. Illustrate the hormonal regulation of the female reproductive cycle (FRC):

Purpose: (2 fold)

1. To initiate production of a fertilizable oocyte (egg) via the

process of ovulation

2. To prepare the uterus for implantation (receipt of a zygote

and provision of a protective & nutritive environment)

This process is regulated by hormones:

1. Hypothalamus (in brain): produces Gonadotropin-Releasing

Hormone (GnRH)

2. Anterior Pituitary gland (below brain): produces FollicleStimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

3. Granulosa cells (in ovarian follicle): produces Estrogen (E2)

and Inhibin

4. Theca interstitial cells (in ovary): produce Progesterone (P2)

5. Placenta (in uterus): human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)


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16. Graphically represent the female reproductive cycle:

17. Describe the very early stages of development, specifically, cleavage:

Description - Human Development are the progressive changes that occur in an individual from its beginning (zygote) to maturity

and death.

I. Fertilization: the uniting of gametes to form a zygote, should occur within 24 hrs of ovulation

II. Cleavage: begins at about 30 hours after fertilization

1st week = mitotic division of the zygote into numerous cells

Formation of the germ layers, which are the origin for tissues and organs

Morula- The 32-cell stage of zygote cleavage where the embryo resembles a raspberry in form.

Blastula- A ball of cells surrounding a central cavity; the final product of cleavage

Gastrula- process of the reorganization of the single layer blastula into a 3 layered structure.

III. Embryonic Development: 2 to 8 weeks

1. Formation of placenta2. Development of the main internal organs

IV. Fetal Growth: 9th week to birth

Growth continues


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ESSAY:

1. What are the 5 general physiological effects that may result from stimulation by hormones? Provide an example of each type:

SAME as #4 above.

Regulation of the Chemical

Composition of Internal

Fluids

Regulation of the Rate and

Type of Chemical Reactions

Regulation of the Events

during Stress (Emotional

or Physical)

Coordinates the Process

of Reproduction

Integration of Events

during Growth &

Development

Low blood calcium levels Low blood sugar levels after

exercise

Job interview Pre-ovulatory stage of

female reproductive cycle

Formation of the

integumentary system

2. Illustrate and describe the events that occur when a target cell binds a non-steroid hormone.

3. Illustrate the events of oogenesis and include the points at which ovulation and fertilization occur.

y The image illustrates the mitotic and meiotic events of oogensis.

y It indicates the stage of the follicles in pre-pubescent females (1* oocytes in primordial follicles)

y It illustrates what happens each month (development of a group of primordial follicles to primary follicles oocyte is still a

primary oocyte)

y It illustrates the events that occur at ovulation (1 oocyte finishes Meiosis I, producing 1 polar body and a secondary oocyte

arrested in metaphase of Meiosis II)

y It illustrates what happens upon fertilization (the secondary oocyte finishes Meiosis II, becoming an ovum)


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4. Graphically represent the levels of the hormones (FSH, LH, E2 and P2) produced during the follicular phase of the menstrual

cycle and associate the changes with the events of follicle development. SAME as #16 above.

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AP2 Lec Exam Unit 5