AP Psychology Chapter AP Psychology Chapter TwoTwo

Methods of Methods of ResearchResearch

How do How do psychologists psychologists collect data collect data about behavior?about behavior?

Clever Hans!Clever Hans!

Regardless of the method Regardless of the method used, all research is based used, all research is based on the Scientific Method of on the Scientific Method of PsychologyPsychology

ScientificScientific means means systematic, testable, and systematic, testable, and objective.objective.

What are the three What are the three main principles main principles that guide the that guide the Scientific Method Scientific Method of Psychology?of Psychology?

Step 1 – Step 1 – TheoryTheoryStep 2 – Step 2 – HypothesesHypothesesStep 3 – Step 3 – Research Research and Observationand Observation

TheoriesTheories organize known organize known facts and summarizes current facts and summarizes current research in the field. research in the field.

Theories are Theories are a well-a well-

substantiatsubstantiated ed

explanation explanation of existing of existing

data. data. E.g – Low self-esteem E.g – Low self-esteem

leads to depressionleads to depression

A A hypothesishypothesis is a is a testable testable predictionprediction based on what is known based on what is known or what is “theorized”.or what is “theorized”.

They let us reject They let us reject or revise our or revise our theory.theory.

I Feel So Dumb I Can’t Do Anything!

Eg: Eg: People with low People with low self-esteem score self-esteem score

higher on a higher on a depression scale.depression scale.

Research or observation Research or observation or experimentsor experiments are are generated to collect data, which generated to collect data, which then goes into evaluating the then goes into evaluating the hypothesis, which may or may hypothesis, which may or may not add to the existing theory.not add to the existing theory.

What are the two What are the two broad types of broad types of research that research that psychologists psychologists conduct?conduct?

Research DesignsResearch Designs

Quantitative and Quantitative and Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

Quantitative researchQuantitative research emphasizes emphasizes numbersnumbers and statistics and use and statistics and use

tools like tools like questionnairesquestionnaires

.

It is very It is very objectiveobjective and all about the and all about the

numbers and hard numbers and hard data!data!

QualitativeQualitative data is in the data is in the form of words, pictures or form of words, pictures or objects and emphasizes objects and emphasizes observationsobservations and narratives and narratives

It is much more It is much more subjectivesubjective and results are based on and results are based on observation and observation and interpretation.interpretation.

What are some What are some examples of examples of qualitative qualitative research research methods?methods?

Naturalistic Naturalistic ObservationObservation

Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic Observation Study behavior in its Study behavior in its natural context. natural context. Spontaneous Spontaneous behavior in a behavior in a subject’s subject’s naturalnatural environment. environment.

No interaction with No interaction with the subject.the subject. Is this natural?

IE. If you want to study the IE. If you want to study the interactive behavior of a specific interactive behavior of a specific breed of gorillas, you would need breed of gorillas, you would need to go to where the gorillas live in to go to where the gorillas live in nature (not a zoo). nature (not a zoo).

You would need to observe them You would need to observe them without their knowledge, and without their knowledge, and without manipulating anything. without manipulating anything.

What are some What are some potential potential problems with problems with this type of this type of research?research?

BiasBias Situation in which a Situation in which a

factor unfairly factor unfairly increases the increases the likelihood of a likelihood of a researcher reaching a researcher reaching a particular conclusionparticular conclusion

Example of BiasExample of Bias I am researching teenagers I am researching teenagers behavior and I was recently behavior and I was recently mugged by a group of mugged by a group of teenagers… am I likely to teenagers… am I likely to observe teenage behaviors as observe teenage behaviors as being motivated by evil versus being motivated by evil versus good? good?

Why?Why?

Case StudiesCase Studies

Case StudyCase StudyIn depth study of one individual In depth study of one individual

with the hopes of determining with the hopes of determining universal principlesuniversal principles

Case StudyCase Study Case studies often Case studies often

include face-to-face include face-to-face interviews, paper interviews, paper and pencil tests, and and pencil tests, and more.more.

Very open to biasVery open to bias

Difficulty of applying Difficulty of applying data from one person to data from one person to everyoneeveryone

IE. I want to know why Bart IE. I want to know why Bart killed thirty-five people over killed thirty-five people over a twenty-year period of a twenty-year period of time. I will examine the time. I will examine the police files, observe and police files, observe and interview Bart, talk to his interview Bart, talk to his and the victims families, etc.and the victims families, etc.

Difficulty of applying data from one person to everyoneDifficulty of applying data from one person to everyonebias, etcbias, etc

What are some What are some potential potential problems with problems with this type of this type of research?research?

SurveysSurveys

Survey MethodSurvey MethodResearch method that Research method that

relies on self-reports; uses relies on self-reports; uses questionnaires, interviews.questionnaires, interviews.

Usually a very Usually a very efficient and efficient and inexpensiveinexpensive method to method to collect a lot of information collect a lot of information and create basic and create basic assumptions about assumptions about behaviors. behaviors.

When Creating A SurveyWhen Creating A Survey

Questions need precise Questions need precise answersanswers

Language and wording Language and wording must be simplemust be simple– IE. 77% of New Yorkers where interested in IE. 77% of New Yorkers where interested in

plants and trees, but only 39% where plants and trees, but only 39% where interested in botany; 48% where interested interested in botany; 48% where interested in fossils, but only 39% where interested in in fossils, but only 39% where interested in paleontology; 42% where interested in rocks paleontology; 42% where interested in rocks and minerals, but 53% where interested in and minerals, but 53% where interested in GeologyGeology

When Creating A SurveyWhen Creating A Survey

Ask questions that won’t embarrass Ask questions that won’t embarrass or humiliateor humiliate

Responders will lie if there is a Responders will lie if there is a perceived punishment – Anonymity is perceived punishment – Anonymity is keykey

Don’t ask morally ambiguous Don’t ask morally ambiguous questions – keep it simple and to the questions – keep it simple and to the pointpoint

Who the interviewer is will affect the Who the interviewer is will affect the responders answersresponders answers

When Creating A SurveyWhen Creating A Survey

Shortly phrased questions. Shortly phrased questions. – IE. As you know, the term Holocaust IE. As you know, the term Holocaust

usually refers to the killing of usually refers to the killing of millions of Jews in Nazi death camps millions of Jews in Nazi death camps during WWII. Does it seem possible during WWII. Does it seem possible or does it seem impossible to you or does it seem impossible to you that the Nazi extermination of the that the Nazi extermination of the Jew never happened?Jew never happened?

– 1 out of 5 Gallup poll responders said that the Holocaust never 1 out of 5 Gallup poll responders said that the Holocaust never happened due to the phrasing of the questionhappened due to the phrasing of the question

When Creating A SurveyWhen Creating A Survey

Hot Topics/Key Words:Hot Topics/Key Words:– IE. Do you favor an IE. Do you favor an amendment amendment prohibiting prohibiting abortionsabortions? <50% opposed ? <50% opposed OR Do you favor an OR Do you favor an amendment amendment protecting the protecting the lifelife of an unborn child? >70% of an unborn child? >70%

When Creating A SurveyWhen Creating A SurveyLimited Answer OptionsLimited Answer OptionsOrder of Questions – easier to Order of Questions – easier to

more difficult works bestmore difficult works bestFright Terms – avoid using Fright Terms – avoid using

terms with big repercussions terms with big repercussions – IE. Use Problem V. Crisis, Past V. IE. Use Problem V. Crisis, Past V. Dead, Dealt With V. PunishDead, Dealt With V. Punish

– Use a RANDOM SAMPLE (more on Use a RANDOM SAMPLE (more on that later…)that later…)

False Consensus Effect False Consensus Effect

Skews the Skews the reports by reports by jumping to jumping to large large conclusions conclusions that fit into our that fit into our pre-conceived pre-conceived ideas.ideas.

Tendency to Tendency to overestimate the extent overestimate the extent to which others share to which others share our beliefs and our beliefs and behaviors. behaviors.

CorrelationCorrelation

What What would a would a critical critical thinker thinker say say about about this this headlineheadline??

Correlational StudyCorrelational StudyResearch study designed Research study designed

to determine the degree to determine the degree to which two variables to which two variables are are relatedrelated to one to one anotheranother

IE. What is the IE. What is the relationship relationship between exercise between exercise and weight? and weight? Smoking and Smoking and cancer? Brain cancer? Brain size and size and intelligence? intelligence? Education and Education and level of income? level of income?

Is there a Is there a correlatiocorrelatio

n?n?

What are some What are some potential potential problems with problems with this type of this type of research?research?

Watch out for Watch out for

illusory correlationsillusory correlations!!

Does sugar make kids more Does sugar make kids more hyper?hyper?

Does a full moon make people act Does a full moon make people act crazier?crazier?

Does going outside with no coat Does going outside with no coat on mean you will catch a cold?on mean you will catch a cold?

Which is the more likely hand?Which is the more likely hand?

Which is a more likely hand?Which is a more likely hand?

1 in 2,598,960

Which is the more likely hand?Which is the more likely hand?

1 in 2,598,960 1 in 2,598,960

We often We often perceive order perceive order

in random in random events!events!

Correlational StudyCorrelational Study

Correlation studies DO Correlation studies DO NOT prove causation.NOT prove causation. They can only They can only suggestsuggest that there is or is not a that there is or is not a relationshiprelationship between the between the two variables.two variables.

IE. IE. – A correlation study A correlation study may suggest that may suggest that people who earn higher people who earn higher levels of education levels of education generally earn higher generally earn higher salaries, but it can’t salaries, but it can’t definitively say that definitively say that getting a degree will get getting a degree will get you a higher paying job. you a higher paying job.

IE. Student scores on the SAT are IE. Student scores on the SAT are collected, as are senior year collected, as are senior year GPA’s. GPA’s.

We want to see if a high GPA We want to see if a high GPA correlates to a high SAT score. correlates to a high SAT score.

We can’t say one causes the We can’t say one causes the other, but we can imply that other, but we can imply that students who have high/low GPA’s students who have high/low GPA’s score high/low on SAT’s. score high/low on SAT’s.

Can we use GPA as a predictor of SAT performance?

But But Remember….Remember…. Correlation Correlation Does Not Does Not

Imply Imply Causation!Causation!

Graphing Graphing Correlation Correlation

RelationshipsRelationships

After you plot the data the After you plot the data the slope (direction) of the line slope (direction) of the line indicates whether or not indicates whether or not there is a positive, negative, there is a positive, negative, or no relationship between or no relationship between variables.variables.

How close the dots are How close the dots are together indicates how close together indicates how close the relationship between the the relationship between the variables is.variables is.

PositivePositive Correlation Correlation

As the value of one As the value of one variable increases (or variable increases (or decreases) so does the decreases) so does the value of the other value of the other variable.variable.

Studying and GradesStudying and Grades–As students study more, their grades As students study more, their grades

increase.increase.Practice and AthleticsPractice and Athletics

–As athletes practice more, their batting As athletes practice more, their batting averages increaseaverages increase

Dieting and Weight LossDieting and Weight Loss–As dieters ate less, their weight dropped.As dieters ate less, their weight dropped.

NegativeNegative Correlation Correlation

As the value of one variable As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other increases, the value of the other variable decreases.variable decreases.–The more you exercise, the less you The more you exercise, the less you

weighweigh–The more you study, the less your The more you study, the less your

teachers yell at youteachers yell at you

ZeroZero Correlation Correlation

There is no relationship There is no relationship whatsoever between the two whatsoever between the two variables.variables.–The length of your hair has no The length of your hair has no

influence on your level of influence on your level of intelligence.intelligence.

Correlational StudyCorrelational Study Important NOT to imply a cause and Important NOT to imply a cause and

effect relationship between the effect relationship between the variablesvariables

Correlational study does not Correlational study does not determine determine whywhy the two variables are the two variables are related--just that they are related.related--just that they are related.

Correlational studies are helpful in Correlational studies are helpful in making predictions.making predictions.

Positive, Negative or Zero Positive, Negative or Zero Correlation?Correlation?

Happy students have higher GPAsHappy students have higher GPAs

Living together leads to DivorceLiving together leads to Divorce

Eating oatmeal causes CancerEating oatmeal causes Cancer

The hotter the temperature, the less The hotter the temperature, the less clothing you wearclothing you wear

ExperimentExperiment

Experiment Experiment

An An investigatioinvestigation seeking to n seeking to understand understand relations of relations of cause and cause and

effecteffect. .

The experimenter changes a variable

(cause), which in turn changes another variable (effect).

At the same time the experimenter hopes to

hold all of the other variables constant

IE. I want to know if new drug IE. I want to know if new drug AA will help will help to alleviate the symptoms of insomnia. to alleviate the symptoms of insomnia.

Patients will be given different doses at Patients will be given different doses at different times to see what works and different times to see what works and what doesn’t. what doesn’t.

I need to control other factors, like I need to control other factors, like mattress softness and room mattress softness and room temperature, to eliminate them as temperature, to eliminate them as causes of sleep deprivation.causes of sleep deprivation.

How do I create How do I create a a validvalid and and reliablereliable experiment?experiment?

Step 1:Step 1: Choose a Choose a HypothesisHypothesis

A hypothesis expresses a A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two relationship between two variables. (it’s a testable variables. (it’s a testable prediction – remember?)prediction – remember?)

IE. My hypothesis is that IE. My hypothesis is that watching violent television watching violent television programs makes people more programs makes people more aggressive.aggressive.

Step Two:Step Two: Choose Variables Choose Variables

Variables are things that Variables are things that are measured, controlled, are measured, controlled, or manipulated in or manipulated in research.research.Type of television

program, violent behavior, environment, participants, etc…

The The independentindependent variable variable is the manipulated is the manipulated variablevariable..

IE. IE. The The type of TV type of TV programprogram viewed is viewed is the independent the independent variable because I variable because I can adjust what can adjust what shows are viewed, shows are viewed, for how long, by for how long, by whom, etc.whom, etc.

IE. Measuring the change in IE. Measuring the change in aggression levels is the aggression levels is the

dependent variable in our dependent variable in our experiment because it changes experiment because it changes

based on what is viewed, for how based on what is viewed, for how long, etc.long, etc.

The The dependentdependent variable is measured variable is measured for change.for change.

Step Three:Step Three: OperationalizeOperationalize

When you operationalize When you operationalize your variables, you are your variables, you are defining defining them and them and explaining how you will explaining how you will measuremeasure them. them.

IE. The operational definition of the independent variable (what defines a violent show?) scenes of fighting, bloodshed, use of weapons, etc

IE. The operational definition of the dependent variable (what defines an increase in aggressive behavior?) might be: threats of bodily harm, kicks, punches, throwing objects (must be specific!)

Step Four:Step Four: Identify Potential Identify Potential Extraneous Extraneous

Variables/Confounding Variables/Confounding VariablesVariables

Any factor or variable that Any factor or variable that might have an effect (or might have an effect (or potential affects) other than potential affects) other than the variable being studied is the variable being studied is considered an extraneous considered an extraneous variable and must be variable and must be eliminated or accounted for…eliminated or accounted for…

IE. An extraneous IE. An extraneous variable in our variable in our experiment would be a experiment would be a phone call from a phone call from a solicitor during a solicitor during a program, program,

a viewer stubbing their a viewer stubbing their toe during a show, toe during a show, alcohol abuse, etc. alcohol abuse, etc.

All of these could All of these could increase aggressiveness, increase aggressiveness, but are not related to but are not related to viewing violent viewing violent television.television.

Step Five:Step Five: Identify Who You Will Identify Who You Will Be TestingBe Testing

The individuals on which the The individuals on which the research will be conducted are research will be conducted are called called subjectssubjects (or participants). (or participants).

A small group of subjects are drawn A small group of subjects are drawn from a larger potential from a larger potential populationpopulation..

IE. Our subjects will be drawn from IE. Our subjects will be drawn from the overall population of 12the overall population of 12thth grade grade males at Appo. High School.males at Appo. High School.

Step Six:Step Six: How Do We Decide Who How Do We Decide Who Will Be Subjects, and Who Won’t?Will Be Subjects, and Who Won’t?

Since we can’t Since we can’t realistically test all realistically test all 1212thth grade males grade males at Appo. High at Appo. High School, we have to School, we have to create a create a representative representative sample sample of the of the population so that population so that we can generalize we can generalize our findings to the our findings to the whole group.whole group.

Many Options!Many Options!Rigorous Control DesignRigorous Control Design

Designing an experiment with specific, Designing an experiment with specific, hand-picked groups in mind.hand-picked groups in mind.

IE. Only testing males, 18 years old, in AP IE. Only testing males, 18 years old, in AP PsychologyPsychology..

Sample DesignSample Design A A samplesample is a representation of the is a representation of the

entire population. entire population. A A random samplerandom sample allows that allows that every every member of an overall population has an member of an overall population has an

equal chance to be in the sample. equal chance to be in the sample. IE. Drawing names from a hat.IE. Drawing names from a hat.

Stratified SampleStratified Sample Subdivide the population into at least two Subdivide the population into at least two

different subpopulations different subpopulations that share the that share the same characteristicssame characteristics, then draw a random , then draw a random

sample from each group.sample from each group. IE. 8 random men and 8 random womenIE. 8 random men and 8 random women

Systematic SampleSystematic Sample

Select a starting point from your Select a starting point from your population and then select every ?th population and then select every ?th participant.participant.

IE. choose every 100IE. choose every 100thth name on a list. name on a list.

Cluster SampleCluster Sample Divide your population into Divide your population into multiple subgroupsmultiple subgroups, ,

randomly choose a subgroup to test, and then randomly choose a subgroup to test, and then test the entire population of that subgroup.test the entire population of that subgroup.

IE. Choose a grade level (like the Juniors) and IE. Choose a grade level (like the Juniors) and test all of themtest all of them

Convenience SampleConvenience Sample

IE. Like your friends or familyIE. Like your friends or family

Use a population that is readily availableUse a population that is readily available

Step Seven:Step Seven: AssignmentAssignment

Once you have chosen Once you have chosen your subjects to study, your subjects to study, you must assign them to you must assign them to one of one of twotwo groups; those groups; those that that will bewill be “manipulated”, and those “manipulated”, and those that that won’t.won’t.

Group 1: Experimental Group 1: Experimental GroupGroup

The The experimental experimental groupgroup receives the receives the independent variable independent variable and is manipulated and is manipulated throughout the throughout the experiment.experiment.

IE. In our television violence IE. In our television violence experiment, those in the experiment, those in the experiment groupexperiment group will watch will watch varying degrees of varying degrees of violent violent program, for varying lengths of program, for varying lengths of time, etc., and their changes in time, etc., and their changes in levels of aggression measured.levels of aggression measured.

Group 2: Control GroupGroup 2: Control Group

The The control control groupgroup does not does not receive the receive the independent independent variable.variable.

IE. In our television violence IE. In our television violence experiment, the experiment, the control groupcontrol group will be shown a variety of will be shown a variety of non-violentnon-violent programming in programming in order to create a baseline to order to create a baseline to compare the experiment compare the experiment group against.group against.

PlaceboPlacebo

A non-active substance or condition A non-active substance or condition administered instead of a drug or administered instead of a drug or active agentactive agent

Given to the control groupGiven to the control group Sugar pill in the test made Sugar pill in the test made

to look like the to look like the SmartPill SmartPill ™™

How Do We Choose Our How Do We Choose Our Subjects?Subjects?

Method 1: Random Method 1: Random AssignmentAssignment Random assignmentRandom assignment (don’t (don’t

confuse with random sample) confuse with random sample) means that the subjects have an means that the subjects have an equal chance of being placed into equal chance of being placed into each group. If we allow subjects each group. If we allow subjects to choose their own group, we to choose their own group, we may have a may have a subject-relevant subject-relevant confounding variable.confounding variable.

Subject-Relevant Subject-Relevant Confounding VariablesConfounding Variables

A A subject-relevant subject-relevant confounding variable confounding variable would would allow those people that liked allow those people that liked violent movies or were prone violent movies or were prone to violence already to choose to violence already to choose to be in the experimental to be in the experimental group. group.

What’s wrong with that?What’s wrong with that?

Blind procedureBlind procedure

To help avoid this confounding To help avoid this confounding variable, we prescribe a variable, we prescribe a single-single-blind designblind design. The subjects are . The subjects are “blind” to whether they have “blind” to whether they have been randomly placed in the been randomly placed in the control or experiment group.control or experiment group.

The researcher would know who is The researcher would know who is getting the getting the SmartPill SmartPill ™ ™ but not but not the participantthe participant

Double Blind ProcedureDouble Blind Procedure An experimental procedure where An experimental procedure where

both the research participants and both the research participants and those collecting the data are those collecting the data are ignorant (blind) to the expected ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experimentoutcome of the experiment

(the people handing out the pills nor the people taking the pills know who actually got the

SmartPill ™

Method 2: Group Matching Method 2: Group Matching

When assigning members When assigning members to the experiment or to the experiment or control group, it is control group, it is important that the important that the characteristics of both characteristics of both groups need to be as groups need to be as similar as possible.similar as possible.

IE. After rigorously or randomly IE. After rigorously or randomly determining our subjects, as determining our subjects, as many white, black, tall, short, many white, black, tall, short, overweight, slim members overweight, slim members should be in the control group as should be in the control group as there are in the experiment there are in the experiment group.group.

Was the experiment Was the experiment reliablereliable?? (did you get the results (did you get the results

you expected; consistent you expected; consistent results)results)

Was it Was it ValidValid? (did it test what it ? (did it test what it was supposed to test)was supposed to test)

Can the experiment be Can the experiment be replicatedreplicated? (can someone else ? (can someone else conduct the same experiment conduct the same experiment

and get similar results?and get similar results?

Was the experiment a Was the experiment a success?success?

REMEMBER !!!REMEMBER !!!

Only experimental data Only experimental data can conclusively can conclusively

demonstrate causal demonstrate causal relations between relations between

variables variables (A (A causescauses B to B to

happen).happen).

Step Eight:Step Eight: Address Other Address Other Potential Issues With Potential Issues With

ExperimentsExperiments Situation-relevant confounding variablesSituation-relevant confounding variables

refer to making sure that the situations refer to making sure that the situations that the experiment and control groups that the experiment and control groups are placed in are exactly the same. We are placed in are exactly the same. We must have must have equivalent environmentsequivalent environments..

IE. We cannot have those watching IE. We cannot have those watching violent films in a large auditorium, and violent films in a large auditorium, and those viewing sitcoms in a small living those viewing sitcoms in a small living room.room.

Experimenter BiasExperimenter BiasExperimenter BiasExperimenter Bias occurs when the occurs when the

experimenter unconsciously treats experimenter unconsciously treats members of the control and members of the control and experiment groups differently, experiment groups differently, which increases the chances of which increases the chances of confirming their hypothesis.confirming their hypothesis.

IE. The experimenter gives soda to the control IE. The experimenter gives soda to the control group, and beer to the violent viewers. The group, and beer to the violent viewers. The experimenter speaks more abruptly with the experimenter speaks more abruptly with the violence crowd (inciting them?).violence crowd (inciting them?).

The The Hawthorne EffectHawthorne Effect refers refers to the fact that some subjects to the fact that some subjects will alter their behaviors will alter their behaviors simply because they know simply because they know that they are part of an that they are part of an experiment, regardless of experiment, regardless of what is being done to them.what is being done to them.

The The Placebo EffectPlacebo Effect refers to the refers to the phenomenon that a patient's phenomenon that a patient's symptoms can be alleviated by symptoms can be alleviated by an otherwise ineffective an otherwise ineffective treatment, apparently because treatment, apparently because the individual expects or the individual expects or believes that it will work.believes that it will work.

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias is the tendency is the tendency to believe, once the outcome is to believe, once the outcome is already known of course, that already known of course, that you would have foreseen it…you would have foreseen it…that even though it's over and that even though it's over and you know the outcome, you know the outcome, YOU YOU KNEW IT ALL ALONG…KNEW IT ALL ALONG…

He’s awesome! An MVP!He’s awesome! An MVP!

I KNEW he was on I KNEW he was on steroids….how else could he steroids….how else could he

have hit that many have hit that many homeruns!homeruns!

OverconfidenceOverconfidence occurs when we occurs when we tend to think that we know tend to think that we know more than we do. Make over-more than we do. Make over-generalizations when reporting generalizations when reporting results, forcing results into results, forcing results into preconceived hypothesis to say preconceived hypothesis to say “I told you so”, instead of “I told you so”, instead of letting the results speak for letting the results speak for themselves, etc.themselves, etc.

Researcher BiasResearcher Bias

The tendency to The tendency to notice evidence notice evidence which supports one which supports one particular point of particular point of view or hypothesisview or hypothesis

Example of Researcher BiasExample of Researcher Bias

If my hypothesis is that excessive If my hypothesis is that excessive sugar intake causes poor test sugar intake causes poor test performance, I will readily conclude performance, I will readily conclude this as fact when three students this as fact when three students who failed the test were observed who failed the test were observed drinking a soda prior to the test. drinking a soda prior to the test. Other students who failed and other Other students who failed and other factors are ignored.factors are ignored.

Participant BiasParticipant Bias

Tendency of research subjects to Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because respond in certain ways because they know they are being they know they are being observed. The subjects might try observed. The subjects might try to behave in ways they believe to behave in ways they believe the researcher wants them to the researcher wants them to behave.behave.

Once I have Once I have completed my completed my research, how do I research, how do I present my present my findings ?findings ?