Anthropology, Art and Contest

8/10/2019 Anthropology, Art and Contest

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boundedness of parti"ular "ultures( as though the! $ere $holesunto themsel#es.

-he "ontributors to this book( stri#ing to a#oid theirprede"essors) pitfalls( do not regard so"ieties as isolated(homeostati" s!stems "oasting in a timeless )ethnographi"present). nstead( the! pro#ide full! histori"i+ed e%amples of so"ieties undergoing "hange( of permeable "ultures in "onta"t$ith one another( all of them members( to a greater or lesserdegree( of the same $orld s!stem. -hese da!s( it $ould bediD"ult to sustain an! other sort of #ie$. EFung an no$ ha#etheir paintings sold in London and Paris. 7uslim middle*men of the #or! oast peruse the latest "op! of African Arts to see ho$

the market is mo#ing. -he land*di#ing islanders of Pente"ost(Ganuatu( seek ro!alties from bungee umping entrepreneursaround the $orld for brea"hing their )"ultural "op!right).

-his is not simpl! to shift from a nai#e #ie$ of "ultures asseparate unto themsel#es to an e4uall! simplisti" #ie$ of "ultures as "oherent but d!nami" groupings of people $hi"hbump into "onta"t $ith one another( like interse"ting "ir"les in aGenn diagram. t is rather to see "ulture as a "ontinuing"onstru"tion( $hi"h both organi+es and emerges from people)s

beha#iour. -he boundaries $hi"h di#ide o; the people of one"ulture from those of another are not ne"essaril! those rules(habits or dispositions $hi"h di;erentiate them stru"turall! butthose $hi"h its members "hoose to distinguish themsel#es fromothers. -he "ulture of a people thus be"omes open to a #ariet! of de,nitions as di;erent members interpret it in their o$n $a! fortheir ends( and the boundaries the! "hoose need not "oin"ide.

-oda!( this pro"ess be"omes e#er more e#ident as the pluralit! of global "ommuni"ations "ontinues to e%pand and as peoples

in"reasingl! enter the "apitalist $orld*s!stem. n this"ontemporar! "onte%t( the potentiall! "entral role of art "an besuddenl! and starkl! reali+ed( $ith peoples reif!ing or "reatingtheir sense of "ulture through the use of parti"ular ob e"ts. 5ere(art ob e"ti,es po$er.

Anthropologists of art fre4uentl! $orr! about ho$ to de,ne)art)( if the! are to use it as a "omparati#e "on"ept. -he! oftenpoint out that no similar term e%ists in the parti"ular so"ietiesthe! are stud!ing. -he problem here is ho$ to "omparesomething a"ross "ultures $ithout the parti"ular de,nition"hosen predetermining the ans$ers arri#ed at. -he diD"ult!


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arises be"ause 'estern ideas of art and aestheti"s arethemsel#es su"h histori"all! parti"ular produ"ts of uropean"ulture / agleton 199C> tanis+e$ski 199 . One possibilit!/7orph! 1993 is to emplo! the term in a broad sense in the hopethat the resulting tra$l of other "ultures ma! net su"h a #ariedrange of ob e"ts that the original de,nition $ill be re e%i#el!re#ised. -hat hope ma! be praise$orth! but remains diD"ult totranslate into a"tion $hile non*$hite artists "ontinue to berelati#el! po$erless pla!ers $ithin the 'estern*dominated $orldart market /Lippard 199C0 2**1=> :isher 199 . t is signi,"ant(ho$e#er( that( to m! kno$ledge( no anthropologist $ho hasparti"ipated in this debate has a"kno$ledged that the term )art)

or s!non!ms for it used in other "ultures ma! $ell be"omethemsel#es a "ause for internal "ontest bet$een interestedparties. n these "onte%ts( the 4uestion )&ut is it artH) is not as ahoar! "hestnut to be ignored but a politi"all!*moti#atedinterrogator! to be studied. As 7a" lan"! demonstrates in his"hapter about the "ontinuing debate bet$een &as4uenationalists( ournalists and artists o#er the nature and aims of 'elarte vasco' /)&as4ue art) ( )art) and its s!non!ms are notunproblemati" terms but "an themsel#es be"ome sites of dispute

as di;erent parties struggle to impose their o$n de,nition.A subsidiar! aim of this "olle"tion is to "ontribute to$ardsending the idea that the anthropolog! of art is e%"lusi#el!"on"erned $ith the stud! of non*'estern so"ieties and their art.

-his parti"ular fo"us( a "onse4uen"e of the histor! of thedis"ipline( has for long sma"ked of the arbitrar! and in the"ontemporar! $orld appears not merel! 4uaintl! idios!n"rati"but blinkered to present realities and #erging on the neo*"olonialist. At a time $hen established notions of "ulture appear

to be dissol#ing before our e!es and the "on"ept of "reoli+ationthreatens to be"ome the intelle"tual norm( it seems gra#el! outof pla"e for anthropologists of art to "ontinue to "on"entrate onthe traditional produ"tion of images among )the I) at thee%pense of in#estigating( sa!( the dis"ourses sustaining the'estern art market.

-he e%amples emplo!ed in this book are all of pi"torial ors"ulptural art. -his is purel! for reasons of spa"e and fo"us. 7ost(if not all( of the points made here about the use of pi"tures orob e"ts "ould appl! e4uall! $ell to the produ"tion of ,lms( poetr!or musi" /'ashabaugh 1996 ( the performan"e of beaut!


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pageants / ohen( 'ilk and toelt e 1996 ( the "rafting of "ho"olates /-errio 1996 or the sale of fashionable garb /Fondo1992 . &ut had to be sele"ti#e. $as editing onl! one book( nota series of #olumes. 5o$e#er( $hen the staging of 7iss 'orld inndia leads to terrorist threats and the deplo!ment of 2C(CCCpoli"e /&edi 1996 or $hen( in outh Afri"a( the $earing of highl!de"orati#e anti*apartheid -*shirts is made a punishable o;en"e/'illiamson 1989 ( the general politi"i+ation of aestheti"s in"ross*"ultural "onte%ts "annot be put in doubt.

-he "ontributors dis"uss a mesh of interrelated points. :orthe sake of e%positor! "on#enien"e( group them into se#eralthemes0 anti*"olonialism( anti*ra"ism> painting propaganda(

pi"turing po$er> indi#iduals( groups( "ategories> art as propert!>"on"epts and ob e"ts> the marketing of art.

Anti-colonialism, anti-racism

'hat aestheti" strategies are a#ailable to those $hose "ulture isbludgeoned b! e%patriate dominatorsH 'hat artisti" ta"ti"s "anbe emplo!ed b! those uprooted and then e%ploited in their ne$homelandH 5o$ ma! the! "ontest the model of themsel#es"reated b! the "oloni+ersH 5o$( in other $ords( ma! the! use artto ,ght the "onditions of life and terms of thought set b! theforeignersH

One $a! $as to re e"t "olonialism totall!( and to persist inthe produ"tion of indigenous forms $hi"h missionaries

"ondemned as )idols to de#ils). -he danger of adopting this ta"ti"$as its regressi#e and rigid "hara"ter( threatening to ossif!lo"als) sense of their o$n "ulture. As #asek points out /this#olume ( some "olonial art s"hooltea"hers( $ishing to )sa#eprimiti#e "ulture)( reinfor"ed this ta"ti" b! obliging their studentsto make onl! traditional ob e"ts. &ut if peoples $ere to sur#i#ethe "ontinued residen"e of $hites in their lands( the #aried andsteadil! e#ol#ing nature of "olonialism re4uired them to adopt amore supple( "reati#e strateg! than outright re e"tion. n a"limate of "hange( it $as better to fa"e the foe and $at"h hismo#es than to turn one)s ba"k( and not kno$ $here or ho$ he


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might strike ne%t.ome indigenes a""ommodated to the "hange( $ithout

simpl! emulating the model of themsel#es set b! the "oloni+ers(b! e%ploiting 'estern imager! for lo"al ends( transforming it inthe pro"ess. -his must be seen as an essentiall! "reati#eresponse to the "hallenge set b! the foreigners) arri#al. :orinstan"e( self* attering uropeans ha#e all too often interpretedlo"al s"ulptures of $hites as representations of themsel#es. -hisis fre4uentl! not the "ase( as the "ar#ed ,gures ma! $ellrepresent lo"al gods or male#olent spirits. &! "lothing them in'estern garb and gi#ing them 'estern ph!siognomies( theirartists tried to e%press in a modern mode the po$er of these lo"al

beings and( b! e%pressing it( tried to "ontrol it / ole 199C0 136**9 .Others appropriated 'estern images to boost positi#e

for"es( rather than to "onstrain negati#e ones. n the nineteenth"entur! the armed Asafo "ompanies of the ?hanaian :antes!nthesi+ed traditional and uropean i"onograph! and motifs toprodu"e a #isual militar! st!le /$hi"h "ontinues toda! meant toe%press )the in#in"ibilit! of the spirit( if not the $ar ma"hine( of the Asafo) /Preston 19= 0 68 . -hroughout mu"h of the t$entieth

"entur!( man! 7elanesians ha#e formed or oined reno#ator!mo#ements $hi"h ha#e adopted #isual or s!mboli" e%pressionsof 'estern might0 ags( badges( uniforms( instruments(ar"hite"tural forms( et". -he ke! aim of these re#itali+ation "ults$as not a simple*minded mimesis but a sophisti"ated taking onof $hites) #isual st!le in an e;ort to regain some of the po$er of $hi"h( the! felt( the interlopers had robbed them. As a leader of the John :rum mo#ement said to me during m! ,eld$ork in7elanesia( the! drilled like 'estern soldiers and pra!ed like

'estern belie#ers be"ause the! $aited John( on $hose return )'e$ill masters of oursel#es again( as $e $ere before the $hites"ame and told us $e $ere nothing.)

One plasti" possibilit! $as to sub#ert the "olonial status 4uob! "reating images of the foreigner for satiri" ends. ari"atureand mimi"r! are the ma or modes here( for the $hite man $asnot seen as superior for long0

-he nati#es began to kno$ him better( and "eased de#ising tales$hi"h $ould e%plain his superiorit!. -he! soon found outthat the $hite man $as onl! another spe"ies of the human


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ra"e. 'hen the! be"ame familiar $ith him( the! treated himto their mo"ker! e%a"tl! as the! did an! member of theiro$n tribe( espe"iall! $hen the! re"ogni+ed his $eakness/Lips 193=0 1K .

n "olonial 'est Afri"a Hauka ( performers of spirit*possessionrituals( mimi"ked and mo"ked the $a!s of the $hite man in orderto )master) him / toller 199 . Among the ogon( dan"ersentertain their audien"e b! donning )$hite man) masks andlampooning his alien $a!s /7a!bur!*Le$is 19920 166**= . n7ala$i( the 7ana)an a aped( in their masked "omedies( the ke!,gures of atholi"ism( espe"iall! Joseph and 7ar!( $hose

imma"ulate "on"eption $as the sour"e of mu"h ribald "on e"ture/Framer 19930 1=C . n southeastern igeria( the O$erri gbo of southeastern igeria made mbari ( house*like stru"tures( assa"ri,"es to the gods in the fa"e of impending disaster. 'ithinthem( alongside representations of deities( the! in"luded ,gurese%pli"itl! designed to pro#oke laughter( su"h as "ouples"opulating in less "ommon positions and "ari"atures of "olonialoD"ials $ith long thin noses and t$o*fa"ed heads / ole 1982 .

One artisti" $a! of breaking the ne$ e"onomi" relations

established b! uropeans $as for indigenes to make spe"ialeDgies of mer"hants $ho s$indled them. :or instan"e( the5ermit slanders of the &ismar"k Ar"hipelago o; the Papua e$?uinean "oast "ar#ed ,gures displa!ing the ailments the! $ishedto see aMi"t their e%ploiters0 elephantiasis of the testi"les andother "auses of great pain. Lips /193=0 19C*1 "onsiders theseob e"ts( meant to operate #ia s!mpatheti" magi"( to ha#e been)"entral images in magi" rites( b! $hi"h the spirits $ereentreated to punish the e#il trader).

Other indigenes "hose to "hallenge the "olonial status 4uomore openl!. nstead of tr!ing to sub#ert the imposed model b!the relati#el! pri#ate use of satire( the! aimed to trans"end it b!a"4uiring "ompeten"e at skills $hi"h some "olonials "laimed the!did not possess. &! pro#ing their abilities in this manner( the!dire"tl! e%posed the "onstru"ted nature of the model and soundermined the ideologi"al foundations of the "olonialist pro e"t.n the pro"ess( the supposedl! innate superiorit! of the "oloni+ers$as re#ealed as but an aspe"t of hegemoni" rhetori". in thisinter"ultural arena( art "an be"ome a parti"ularl! po$erful$eapon in the ,ght for re"ognition of ra"ial e4ualit!. :or if


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"oloni+ers upheld /as the! did artisti" #ision as one of thehighest marks of "i#ili+ation( then members of the "oloni+ed $ho"ould demonstrate their painterl! pro$ess dramati"all! displa!edthe arti,"e underpinning their oppressors) suprema"ist theories.n "olonial Afri"a for instan"e( &ritish oD"ials held thatbla"ks $ere in"apable of "reating great art. All the! "ouldpretend to aspire to $as "raftmanship. n the ,rst half of this"entur! a series of lo"al artists set out to "ontest this ra"ist"ari"ature. Perhaps the best*kno$n of them is the self*taughtigerian Aina Onabolu / i"odemus 199 a> Okeke 199 . &!su""essfull! be"oming a master of portraiture( he stro#e todemonstrate that realisti" painting $as not e%"lusi#el! uropean

but a uni#ersal artisti" medium( the rightful heritage of all"ultures. &! the 19 Cs( $ith independen"e looming( man! lo"alartists "ame to think it no longer so important to dispute"olonialist superiorit!. nstead the! sought to displace it b!fabri"ating ne$ national "ultures and a ne$ modernism.

ome indigenes attempted to sub#ert the ra"ist order b!taking a di;erent ta"k0 b! taking on 'estern interpretations of bla"ks but re#aluing its terms in the pro"ess( turning denigratedattributes into laudable #irtues. Perhaps the most famous

e%ample of this strateg! $as the ) @gritude) mo#ement led b!L@opold enghor( $ho in 196C be"ame the ,rst president of enegal. %ploiting his reputation as a poet and philosopher andhis position as a national leader( he promoted the potential"ontribution of Afri"an "ulture to $orld "i#ili+ation and pro#ided"omprehensi#e state assistan"e for lo"al artists. -o enghor(artists had an integral role to pla! in the de#elopment of the ne$nation. ) Art Negre () he stated in a famous spee"h( )sa#es us fromdespair( uplifts us in our task of e"omoni" and so"ial

de#elopment( in our stubborn $ill to li#e. . . enegalese artists of toda!( help us li#e for toda! better and more full!.) 5e de#oted2 N of the state budget to "ulture( set up "ole des arts du@n@gal( a national s"hool of ,ne arts( drama( musi" and

ar"hite"ture( and had the state bu! the best produ"ts of itsgraduates. enghor( manipulating the rhetori" of uropeanmodernism and primiti#ism for his o$n Afri"anist ends( praised)l'ame ngre ) as being emoti#e( spiritual( e%pressi#e andrh!thmi". 5e "alled for an art that $ould assimilate 'esterne%periments in art $ith these supposedl! inherent Afri"an #alues.

-he predominant pi"torial st!le $hi"h arose out of these e;orts(


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kno$n as the ) "ole de akar)( $as "hara"teri+ed b!semiabstra"t( modernist e%pressions of traditional Afri"ane%oti"a. As "riti"s ha#e pointed out( the trouble $ith this $ell*intentioned but ideali+ing approa"h is that it "an be seen asAfri"ans internali+ing uropean #isions of them( aiding theperpetuation( rather than the dismissal( of primiti#ist anduni#ersali+ing "on"eptions of bla"ks. in"e the demise of the"ole( leading enegalese artists ha#e $orked independentl! of the state. -he! tr! to "reate ne$ pi"torial forms( $here art "an be"onfrontational( transgressi#e and histori"all! grounded / bong1991> 5arne! 1996 .

-hese #aried responses to "olonialism are not merel!

rea"tions b! indigenes to "he"k e%ternal pressures. -he! are atthe same time internal attempts b! members of peoples tore"reate themsel#es in the transformati#e "onte%ts of the"olonialist pro e"t. -o the Ameri"an bla"k "ultural "ommentatorbell hooks( the! are attempts to re"ogni+e the e%isten"e of( andto substantiate non*'estern sub e"ti#ities. he sees them as a$a! for oppressed peoples to "onstru"t a spa"e for themsel#es(and so pro"laims the need to )set our imaginations free).A"kno$ledging that )$e ha#e been and are "oloni+ed both in our

minds and in our imaginations)( she "alls for the promotion and"elebration of "reati#e e%pression /hooks 199 0 K . On thesegrounds( art is not a de"orati#e border to the anti"olonialist andantira"ist struggles( but an integral( essential part of them.People( to be free( ha#e to ,ght against both the ob e"ti#e"onditions and the terms of sub e"ti#it! imposed on them. -o dothat( the! need( among other things( to "reate and to share art.

Painting Propaganda, Picturing Po !r

5itler kne$ $ell the po$er of paint. A failed painter himself( hekne$ that( if tightl! "ontrolled( the produ"tion of art "ouldenhan"e the authorit! of his regime> if un"ensored( it "ould"ontribute to its undermining. -hus "ulture had to be regulatedruthlessl! and the a#ant*garde obliterated. At the infamous


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) egenerate Art) e%hibition( staged in 193= in 7uni"h( his minionsdispla!ed $hat $as una""eptable0 "ontorted forms( #iolent"olours( and disturbing sub e"t*matter. After the "alamitousperiod of the 'eimar Bepubli"( people needed to be )healed)( b!the promotion and produ"tion of uplifting( realist portra!als of e%emplar! ?erman t!pes0 the $arrior( the fa"tor! $orker( themother. )Pathologi"al) e%pressionism $ith its primiti#ist fo"us $astaboo /5in+ 199 > 'hitford 199 . Little $onder then that a lo"alanthropologist of art( Julius Lips( $as "onstantl! harrassed b!a+i oD"ials sear"hing for his ) igger pi"tures) ** photographs of tribal representations of uropeans /Lips 193=0 %%#iii .

n the t$entieth "entur! the totalitarian approa"h to "ulture

has been an all too "ommon strateg!. &oth :ran"o and 7ussolinihad artists ful,ll their di"tatorial $ishes. After the BussianBe#olution( 7a!ako#sk! "hampioned the ideologi"al "ontrol of artand $ished to help establish )the di"tatorship of taste). talin$anted to transform artists into )engineers of the human soul)/though he ended up onl! turning them into so"ialist realists . t isdisturbing( then( that a group of t Petersburg artists has re"entl!re#i#ed the talinist aestheti". Lauding a "lassi"all! deri#edrealism( the! "ondemn the epo"h of modernism as a latter da!

) ark Age) infe"ted $ith )primiti#e( Afri"an( shamanisti") #alues/O)7ahon! 1996 .Garious nationalist groups ha#e attempted to adopt

"omparable hegemoni" strategies. -o &as4ue nationalists/7a" lan"! ( art $as "ontemptible if not inspired b! patriotism.ndeed pi"tures not inspired b! patriotism "ould not be good art.

-he! $anted( and $ere prepared to sponsor the produ"tion of(minutel! detailed realist paintings of folklori" s"enes portra!ingan impossibl! e#er*harmoni" #ie$ of &as4ue rural life. Artists of

the period "hafed against these restri"tions and nationalists onl!"ame to regard their $orks as a""eptable $hen the! gainednational prestige and thus "ould be turned to propagandisti" end.uring the !ears of :ran"oist suppression these roles re#ersedsome$hat as man! &as4ue politi"ians remained 4uiet $hileartists be"ame politi"al protagonists( promoting )&as4ue art) as ake! instrument in the fabri"ation of an auto"hthonous "ulture.

-he demo"rati" asso"iations $hi"h artists established $ere to bethe harbingers of a ne$ form of independent self*go#ernment.

&e!ond urope( #arious re#olutionar! mo#ements ha#eupheld similar prin"iples of promoting art for propagandisti"


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purposes( often leading to the same tension bet$een politi"osand artists. a"hs 199C .

7ost :ourth ations artists $ho paint or s"ulpt in themodernist manner $ould tend to agree. 'hile man! of them $ishat one and the same time to e%ploit the dimensions o;ered b!the medium the! "hoose and to make politi"al statements( thosestatements need not be propagandisti"all! "lear. ndeed some of the most eD"a"ious art produ"ed b! politi"i+ed "ontemporar!

artists is e;e"ti#e pre"isel! be"ause its meanings "annot be,%ed. 7an! of this sort of "an#ases e%hibit an empo$eringpla!fulness. n paintings b! some nati#e Ameri"ans( the "omple%and satiri"al ,gure of o!ote as -ri"kster has "ome to s!mboli+ethe relation of their "ulture $ith that of the dominant one( usedb! his portraitists to pass ironi" "omment on the portra!al of nati#e Ameri"ans b! non*nati#es /:isher 1991 . Jimmie urham/1993 ( a herokee artist $ho e%hibits internationall!( "ommentssardoni"all! on 'estern "ategori+ations of others b! presenting

himself as a aliban $ho kno$s the language of the "oloni+erbetter than he does himself. &ut for all its $it and humour( thispla!fulness is deepl! serious. :or as the he!enne artist dgar5eap of &irds /19910 339 sa!s( e%pressi#e forms of "ommuni"ation )must ser#e as our present*da! "ombati#eta"ti"s). -hus $hile the Foorie art of urban Aboriginals ma! bedes"ribed as )angr!( humourous( ironi"al( $himsi"al) /B!an 199306C**2 ( it is still meant to pro"laim ) Tyerabarrbowaryadu )( ) shallne#er be"ome a $hite man).


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"ndi#iduals, Groups, Cat!gori!s

#en toda! the #ast ma orit! of ob e"ts in a museum of anthropolog! are e%hibited anon!mousl!. All too often thea""ompan!ing label reads on the lines of )7alangan( e$ reland(donated b! Be#d. J. 7a"donald 1931) or ) nuit t$o*fa"e mask(Lo$er Yukon( "olle"ted b! the Alaska ommer"ial o.( dateunkno$n). t is as though an ob e"t)s 'estern pro#enan"e is asimportant as its ethnographi" sour"e( $ith the name of the ethni"

group substituting for that of its maker. n these "onte%ts theethni" group is the signature( de,ning its origin( guaranteeing itsauthenti"it!. Justi,ers of this pra"ti"e might argue that man! non*'estern so"ieties do not ele#ate indi#idual "reati#it! to the sameobsessi#e e%tent as uropeans( though this is to ignore thedegrees of inno#ati#eness and indi#idualit! $hi"h non* uropeanpeoples do re"ogni+e in the produ"tion of art ob e"ts.

ndigenous "onstraints on indi#idual e%pression ma! be realnonetheless( and in times of u% and de#elopment the! ma! $ell

be internall! "ontested. Among traditional "ommunities of theAmeri"an outh$est( $here egalitarianism is one of the highestso"ial #alues( inno#ati#e artists su""essful at selling their $orksto uropeans $ere ostra"i+ed and a""used of pra"tising$it"h"raft. ome $ere banned from their home #illages and theirlife threatened /'ade 198 . n the 19 Cs Os"ar 5o$e( a nati#eAmeri"an from the Plains( $as strongl! "riti"i+ed b! lo"al"onser#ati#es for painting ubist*in uen"ed $orks. A de"adelater a student of his $ho dared to in"lude in his pi"tures images

of i"e "ream "ones( beer bottles and other artifa"ts of 'hite"ulture had his e%hibitions pi"keted b! traditionalistsdemonstrating against his )grotes4ue and shameful) depi"tions of nati#e Ameri"ans /5igh$ater 198 . n ndia toda!( $herereligious dispute has so politi"i+ed so"ial identities( traditionalforms tend to be regarded( not as produ"ts ripe for "ommer"iale%ploitation( but as resour"es to be treasured and respe"ted.

-hus lo"al artists $ho $ish to probe the $a! the past ma! beused for present purposes ha#e to tread parti"ularl! "arefull!/Boberts 199K .

ndi#idual artists do not onl! ha#e to fa"e potential "riti"ism


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from members of their o$n "ulture( the! ha#e as $ell to "ontesttheir ethni" "ategori+ation b! 'estern art marketeers. #aseksho$s that $ithin a de"ade of independen"e( ?hanaian artists(disen"hanted $ith the failed politi"al programmes of national orpan*Afri"an unit!( began to state that the! did not $ish to be#ie$ed as )Afri"an artists) but as indi#iduals( as artists $hohappened to be Afri"an. -o them the rele#ant distin"tion $as nolonger Afri"an and non*Afri"an( but those part of the internationalart s"ene and those not( and the! kne$ on $hi"h side of theboundar! the! $anted to lie. &! shifting allegian"e to a "ult of indi#idualit!( the! a"kno$ledge the "hange in "ontestator!arena. -heir forefathers used paint to "hallenge the "olonial

status 4uo. -he! use it to "riti"i+e the limitations of ?hanaianpoliti"s and the une4ual global distribution of e"onomi" po$er. Asthe! are a$are( 'estern e%hibitors of art are often moreinterested in displa!ing unusual forms of modern Afri"an art( su"has fantas! "oDns( than $orks on "an#as dire"tl! "omparable $iththose produ"ed b! their "ounterparts in the 'est. -he diD"ult!for indigenous artists $ho paint in a modern 'estern mode isthat the ma orit! of uro*Ameri"an bu!ers of art onl! appear tobe interested in non*'estern $orks to the e%tent that the! are

re"ogni+abl! )di;erent). At su"h times it seems as though the"olonial stereot!pe of bla"ks has been repla"ed b! a ne$( bute4uall! distan"ing( e4uall! restri"ting brand of e%oti"ism.

-he problem is most a"utel! e%posed b! 'estern art "riti"s)use of terms su"h as )transitional) and )h!bridit!).


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the e%isten"e of modern( professionall! trained artists. t"ame "lose to an ideologi"al $arfare against modern Afri"anart as su"h. . . 'e ha#e seen that all this t$addleabout. . .)transitional) art is nothing but a refusal toa"kno$ledge the paradigm shift $hi"h is at the heart of modern Afri"an art> it is a "linging to the same kind of pre udi"es against $hi"h Onabolu laun"hed his $ar 9C !earsago / i"odemus 199 b0 3 . ee also Bi"hards 199C> Oguibe1993 .

-he idea of )h!bridit!)( populari+ed in anthropolog! b!li;ord /19880 1*1= ( is sub e"t to similar stri"tures. li;ord

$ishes to "elebrate "ultural "ontaminations( in a $orld $heresurrealism is not out of pla"e and it is notions of pure produ"ts$hi"h are "ra+!. 'ithin the parameters of his postmodernit!(h!brids are not odd b!*produ"ts but the global order of the da!.

-his idea of h!bridit!( ho$e#er( threatens to mask parti"ularit!for the sake of an o#ersimplif!ing generalit!. eplo!ing it in auni#ersali+ing fashion( as li;ord does( runs the risk of "elebrating a global notion of di;eren"e at the e%pense of re"ogni+ing lo"al di;eren"es. -hus( though postmodernists

pro"laim a ne$ anti*essentialism the! end up in fa"t doing theopposite( b! pra"tising a time*honoured form of essentialistlabelling. n the 'estern art $orld for instan"e( interest in theidea of )h!bridit!) allo$s "riti"s and "urators to displa! )their o$n"apa"it! for a"kno$ledging "ultural di;eren"e( $hile refrainingfrom engaging $ith the stories and $orks that emerge fromelse$here) /-homas 19960 9 . Also( )h!bridit!) "arries $ith it"onnotations of stasis. And $hat some non*'estern artists $ishto underline is not a stati" mi%ture but a perpetual u% bet$een

"ultures( $here none is dominant and the tensions bet$een themremain unresol#ed / amson 199 .


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an!one /in the 'est imprison me in a little ghetto /in5arne! 19960 C .

t is "omments su"h as this $hi"h sho$ that the need fornon*'esterners to enlighten $hites remains as pressing as e#er.A rise in the number of indigenous "riti"s $riting about art mightredress the imbalan"e some$hat. &ut e#en if their number $ereto rise( their e;e"t $ould be limited. &e"ause of the stru"ture of the 'estern art market /Boot 1996 ( the! $ould ha#e greatdiD"ult! gaining an! #isibilit! or regard( and the! $ould still ha#eto emplo! the terms of 'estern art dis"ourse.

on*'estern artists( b! entering the "apitalist $orld*s!stem(

in ho$e#er marginal a manner( ine#itabl! surrender a degree of autonom!( and ma! $ell end up as minor a"tors in a pla!s"ripted and dire"ted b! others. As :rank 7" $en( stimulator of the imbab$ean ) hona) s"hool of s"ulpture( put it(

Promotion "ounts as mu"h as the art( and if the promotion is rightthe art $ill be right( and if the promotion is $rong it $ill go$rong( and that)s the $hole ans$er. -he future is in thehands of the promoters /4uoted in mith 199 .

Art as prop!rt$

Art ob e"ts are things( and as su"h ma! be possessed.


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o$nership o#er their "ulture and the $a! it is portra!ed. -he! donot $ant others to gain possession of $hat the! regard as theirs.

Conc!pts and o%&!cts

-he histor! of 'estern understandings of others) art is a histor!of 'estern( not of others)( "on"eptions0 )idols)( ) u* u ,gures)()fetishes)( et".


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the "apital. n the e%ample he gi#es( the "elebrations on the)home"oming) of one parti"ular ob e"t( the Afo*a*Fom( $ere sogreat be"ause it represented a rare indisputable triumph of thelo"al o#er the global. -he po$er of a "hiefdom /the Fom ( its "hief and its m!sti"al agen"ies /ob e"ti,ed in the ,gure itself haddefeated the might! Ameri"an market. -he fa"t that Ameri"andealers had appraised the ob e"t in e%tremel! high monetar!terms onl! added to the #i"tor!( and the degree of itssigni,"an"e.

&! ma%imi+ing the "omple% #alue of ob e"ts in this $a!(lo"al elites manage to fabri"ate a #er! strong sense of identit!$hi"h the! "an use to bu;er the domineering pro"li#ities of the

state. &! appropriating appropriations and b! e%ploiting multiple"ategori+ations( the! thi"ken the "onte%ts of the ob e"t andin"rease its po$er as $ell as that of themsel#es and of theirgroup in the pro"ess.

All the sadder then( that the Afo*a*Fom gained a ne$signi,"an"e a !ear later $hen it someho$ found its $a! ba"k tothe e$ York art market /?reen,eld 19890 2=K .

T'! mar(!ting o) art

7an! 'esterners are onl! a$are of non*'estern art thanks(ultimatel!( to the international market in it. :or it is abo#e all thee%isten"e of this trade $hi"h has led to the sur#i#al of so man! of these imported ob e"ts( and their "ontinued produ"tion.

7issionaries( "olonial administrators( and members of e%peditions ma! ha#e brought items ba"k primaril! as sou#enirsbut most ha#e sur#i#ed be"ause the! had "ommer"ial #alue(being bought b! dealers( artists( "olle"tors and museums. -heprestige $ith $hi"h famous artists and grand museums ha#eindire"tl! endo$ed these ob e"ts has onl! helped to s$ell thetrade. ndeed no$ada!s the role of the market has be"ome soimportant it is diD"ult to look at man! $ell*kno$n pie"es $ithoutthinking of $hat the! are $orth.

-he market is a "onstantl! e#ol#ing one. As pri"es for themore e%pensi#e items rise be!ond the ,nan"ial le#el of most(


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bu!ers $ith "ultural aspirations but $ithout the means to fundthem sear"h for ne$ kinds of ob e"ts to ful,ll their desires.Artefa"ts on"e ignored are re*e%amined( and often re*#alued.e$ sub*"ategories of marketable items are "reated. n the198Cs )traditional te%tiles) be"ame an established part of themarket /7a" lan"! 1988 . -hen( Afri"an dealers re*presentedsling shots and house*ladders as )art$orks) for sale / teiner199K . Be"entl!( )ethni" "olle"tibles) and )re"!"led art) / ern! anderi; 1996 ha#e been re"ogni+ed as distin"t( emerging se"torsof the trade( $ith some pla!ers in these ne$ sub*markets alread!di;erentiating bet$een )lo$) and )high 4ualit!) items.

-he 'estern art market is a most unusual one. A""ording to

7ar4uis /1991 ( if "on#entional "riteria of "ommer"ial la$ $ere tobe applied( man! of its parti"ipants $ould be arraigned for)insider dealing). Perhaps it is for this sort of reason that( as ato#demonstrates in his "ontribution( all pla!ers at the 'estern endof the tribal art trade ** appraisers( "olle"tors( and "urators **den! an! abilit! to in uen"e the market. urators of anthropolog! museums are keen to distan"e themsel#es from theLondon au"tion houses be"ause the! "onsider so man! aspe"tsof the market morall! dubious. 7an! of them "ontest

"ommer"iall!*oriented approa"hes to material "ulture $hi"hfa#our the aestheti" o#er the ethnographi". Yet( ato# argues( itis in fa"t #er! diD"ult for them to maintain this position $ith an!"onsisten"! sin"e man! of them admit to the importan"e of aestheti"s $hen bu!ing ob e"ts and sin"e the post"ards in theirgift*shops emphasi+e the artistr! of artefa"ts in their "olle"tions.5o$e#er marginal the! ma! think their roles to be( the! "annoteasil! disa#o$ their e;e"t on the market nor den! that the! areamong the bene,"iaries of 'estern interest in the non*'estern

$orld. Anthropologists are not separate from their homeso"ieties. -he!( and their dis"ourses( are "omponent parts of them.

R R R

-he "ontestator! roles that art ma! pla! are man! and di#erse.Onl! a suggestion of that range "an be pro#ided $ithin the"ompass of this book. 5o$e#er( $hat its "hapters dodemonstrate "on"lusi#el! is that meaning should not be taken tobe unitar! unless it "an be "on#in"ingl! sho$n other$ise( that a


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depoliti"i+ed notion of art threatens to perpetuate ideologiesinstead of "riti"all! anal!+ing them. -he substan"e of the"hapters also suggests that it is time to trans"end simple binar!di#isions su"h as the global and the lo"al( traditional artists andassimilated ones( market "ommodities and ob e"ts )made fornati#e use)( and the "ontemplator /usuall! $hite and the"ontemplated /usuall! indigenous . Bather $e need to e%aminethe histori"all! parti"ular and intera"ti#e nature of "ross*"ulturalen"ounters( $hether in the entral Ameri"a of thecon uistadores ( the Afri"an "olonies of the &ritish( or themuseums and art galleries of the "ontemporar! 'est.olonialism is not understood the same $a! nor does it ha#e the

same e;e"ts in e#er! site. -he forms it ma! take are not singularbut plural. -he stud! of art has remained on the margins of

anthropolog! for too long. &ut as the potential politi"al role of artbe"omes e#er more manifest( the opportunit! e%ists for its stud!to enter the "entre*stage of the dis"ipline. -his book is a"ontribution to that end.


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R!)!r!nc!s

Anderson( Bi"hard L. /19=9 ( Art in !rimitve "ocieties . ngle$oodli;s( J0 Prenti"e*5all Arat#ara$ Art of t%e &irst Australians . /1993 ( ologne0 u7ont&u"h#erlag&edi( Bahul /1996 ( )2C(CCC to poli"e 7iss 'orld "ontest) aily Telegrap% ( London( 23 o#ember( p. 1ern!( harlene( and eri;( u+anne /eds. ( /1996 ( (ecycling)

(e*"een+ &olk Art from t%e ,lobal "crap Heap . e$ York0 5enr!. Abrams n"li;ord( James /1988 ( T%e !redicament of Culture+ Twentiet%*

Century -t%nograp%y) .iterature) and Art . ambridge( 7ass05ar#ard


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?reen,eld( Jeanette /1989 ( T%e (eturn of Cultural Treasures .ambridge0 ambridge


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Aboriginal "ystem of =nowledge . hi"ago0 8t% century . Paper presented atthe )7ediums of hange0 the arts in Afri"a) "onferen"e at the"hool of Oriental and Afri"an tudies( 1 O"toberO)7ahon!( John /1996 ( ) &eaut! up there in red lights)( T%e,uardian ( 1= :ebruar!( p. 2=

Phillips( -om /ed. ( /199 ( Africa$ T%e Art of a Continent . 7uni"h0PrestelPreston( ?eorge elson /19= ( )Perseus and 7edusa in Afri"a07ilitar! art in :anteland 183K**19=2)( African Arts ( #ol. G ( no. 3(pring( pp. 36**K1( 68**=1Bi"hards( olin /199C ( )desperatel! seeking Safri"aS) in Art from"out% Africa . O%ford0 7useum of 7odern Art( pp. 3 **KKBoberts( John /199K ) ndian Art( dentit! and the A#ant*?arde.

-he "ulpture of Gi#an undaram)( T%ird Te4t ( no. 2=( ummer(

pp. 31**36Boot( eborah /1996 ( Cannibal Culture$ Art) Appropriation) ? t%eCommodi@cation of Culture . &oulder0 'est#ie$Bosman( Abraham and Bubel( Paula ?. /199C ( ) tru"turalpatterning in F$akiutl art and ritual)( Man ( #ol. 2 ( no. K( pp.62C**639B!an( Judith /1993 ( )Australian Aboriginal Art0 Otherness of aDnit!H) in Arat#ara ( pp. K9**63a"hs( Albie /199C ( )preparing oursel#es for freedom) in Art from

"out% Africa . O%ford0 7useum of 7odern Art( pp. 1C**1amson( olin /199 ( ) Mesti;a#e ( piritual oundbites and the Artof Bub@n -re U)(T%ird Te4t ( no. 32( Autumn( pp. = **8Khelton( Anthon! /ed. ( /199 ( &etis%ism$


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t%e Culture of Art . e$ York0 Penguin -errio( usan J. /1996 ( ) rafting ,rand Cru ho"olates in

ontemporar! :ran"e) American Ant%ropologist ( #ol. 98( no. 2(pp. 6=**=9 -homas( i"holas /1991 ( -ntangled 1b#ects . ambridge( 7ass05ar#ard 8t% Century African

Art . e$ York0 enter for Afri"an Art'ade( d$in L. /1986 ( ) traddling the ultural :en"e0 -heon i"t for thni" Artists $ithin Pueblo o"ieties) in d$in L.

'ade /ed. ( T%e Arts of t%e Nort% American 2ndian+ NativeTraditions in -volution . e$ York0 5udson 5ills PressTPhilbrookArts entre( -ulsa( pp. 2K3**2 K'arren( Faren J. /1989 ( )A philosophi"al perspe"ti#e on the ethi"sand resolution of "ultural propert! issues) in Ph!llis 7. 7essenger/ed. ( T%e -t%ics of Collecting Cultural !roperty+ 3%ose CultureB3%ose !ropertyB Alber4ue4ue0


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Endnot!s

Documents

Anthropology, Art and Contest