Walking your talk is a great way

to motivate yourself. No one

likes to live a lie. Be honest with

yourself, and you will find the

motivation to do what you advise

others to do. Vince Poscente

©Anthony Dowson

Verulam School

Workshop/Revision Session – Feb. 2012

Name___________________

"It is one of the strange ironies of this

strange life that those who work the

hardest, who subject themselves to the

strictest discipline, who give up certain

pleasurable things in order to achieve a

goal, are the happiest men (or women)”.

Brutus Hamilton

OCR Syllabus overview

Component of syllabus A*/A B C D E U

Concepts define energy (to include chemical, kinetic and potential), work and power and identify the units they are expressed in.

ATP

explain the role of ATP; the breakdown and resynthesis of ATP; the principle of coupled reactions and exothermic and endothermic reactions.

ATP

res

ynth

esis

explain the contribution made by each energy system in relation to the duration and intensity of exercise.

explain how an individual’s mix of muscle fibre type might influence their reasons for choosing to take part in a particular type of physical activity.

explain the three energy systems: adenosine triphosphate phosphocreatine (ATP/PC) (alactic); the lactic acid system; the aerobic system; (to include the type of reaction (aerobic or anaerobic), the chemical or food fuel used, the specific site of the reaction, the controlling enzyme, energy yield, specific stages within a system, and the by-products produced);

Ener

gy C

on

tin

uu

m identify the predominant energy system used related to the type of exercise

(duration and intensity);

explain the inter-changing between thresholds during an activity (eg the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)); the effect of level of fitness, availability of oxygen and food fuels, and enzyme control on energy system used.

The

reco

very

pro

cess

explain how the body returns to its pre-exercise state: the oxygen debt/excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC); the alactacid and lactacid debt components (to include the processes that occur and the duration of each component); replenishment of myoglobin stores and fuel stores and the removal of carbon dioxide;

explain the implications of the recovery process for planning physical activity sessions (eg training intensities, work/relief ratios).

Aer

ob

ic C

apac

ity

define aerobic capacity and explain how a performer’s VO2 max is affected by individual physiological make-up, training, age and sex

describe and apply methods of evaluating aerobic capacity (eg multi-stage fitness test, PWC170 test);

candidates should assess their own VO2 max, comparing their result with the aerobic demands of their chosen activities

describe different types of training used to develop aerobic capacity (continuous running; repetition running; fartlek and interval training);

explain the use of target heart rates as an intensity guide

describe the energy system and the food/chemical fuels used during aerobic work

explain the physiological adaptations that take place after prolonged periods of aerobic physical activity (eg an increase in stroke volume);

plan a programme of aerobic training based on their own assessment of their aerobic capacity and the requirements of their activity

Per

iod

isat

ion

Candidates should build on their knowledge of training principles (overload, progression, specificity, reversibility, moderation and variance) acquired in GCSE Physical Education by applying their knowledge to periodisation

Candidates should be able to: define periodisation; macro, meso and micro cycles

plan a personal health and fitness programme that will promote sustained involvement in a balanced, active and healthy lifestyle; the plan should include the principles of training.

Use of Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PARQ).

Component of syllabus A*/A B C D E U

Stre

ngt

h

define types of strength (to include strength endurance, maximum strength, explosive/elastic strength, static and dynamic strength);

• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of factors that affect strength (fibre type and cross sectional area of the muscle);

• describe and apply methods of evaluating each type of strength (eg grip strength dynamometer);

describe and evaluate different types of training used to develop strength (the repetition, sets and resistance guidelines used to improve each type of strength);

use of multigym, weights, plyometrics and circuit/interval training (with reference to work intensity; work duration; relief interval; number of work/relief intervals);

describe the energy system and the food/chemical fuels used during each type of strength training;

explain the physiological adaptations that take place after prolonged periods of physical activity (to include neural and physiological changes to skeletal muscle);

plan a programme of strength training based on their own assessment of their strength and the strength requirements of their activity

Flex

ibili

ty

define flexibility (to include static and dynamic flexibility

demonstrate knowledge and understanding of factors that affect flexibility (type of joint; length of surrounding connective tissue)

describe and apply methods of evaluating flexibility (eg sit and reach test; goniometer (angle measure));

describe different types of training used to develop flexibility (including static (active and passive), dynamic, ballistic and proproceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF));

explain the physiological adaptations that take place after prolonged periods of physical activity (to include physiological changes to skeletal muscle and connective tissue)

plan a programme of flexibility training based on their own assessment of their flexibility and the flexibility requirements of their activity

Bo

dy

Co

mp

osi

tio

n

explain what is meant by body composition

describe different methods of assessing body composition;

calculate the body mass index (BMI) of an individual;

demonstrate knowledge and understanding of basal metabolic rate (BMR) and the different energy requirements of different physical activities (use of metabolic equivalent/MET values);

estimate their daily calorific requirements (dietary/nutritional intake) based on their BMR and average additional energy consumption;

evaluate critically their own diet and calorie consumption;

demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the health implications of being overweight or obese and how this affects involvement in physical activity.

Ergo

gen

ic a

ids

• explain the positive and negative effects of each type of aid together with the type of performer who would benefit from its use;

• identify the legal status of each type of aid;

• evaluate critically the use of ergogenic aids in order to be able to make informed decisions about their use.

use of dietary manipulation, pre-/post-competition meals/supplements and food/fluid intake during exercise

use of creatine supplements and human growth hormone

gene doping

blood doping and recombinant erythropoietin (Rh EPO)

use of cooling aids to reduce core temperature and aid recovery

use of training aids to increase resistance, eg pulleys; parachutes

other aids can be considered and candidates should already have prior knowledge of the effects of alcohol, caffeine and anabolic steroids

Body Composition

It is unlikely that during your workshop you will have time to take all of the measures listed below. Please ensure you ask your tutor which measurements are needed. Use the guidance sheets and ensure you are as accurate as possible with your results.

From the measurements below it is possible to compute a person’s;

Body mass index Body fat percentage Amount of muscle tissue Somatotype

Height_______________cm Weight______________kg BMI_________________ BMI = weight in kg / height in m2

Body Composition (BIA method)

Body fat_____________% (skinfold method)

Body fat_____________% Bone Breadths Femur_____________cm Humerus___________cm Girths Flexed arm__________cm Calf________________cm

Skinfolds Biceps______________cm Triceps_____________cm Chest (men)_________cm Subscapula__________cm Iliac crest___________cm Suprailiac___________cm Abdominal__________cm Thigh_______________cm Medial calf__________cm

Lactate threshold and OBLA

Although VO2 max testing is carried out to assess an athlete’s endurance, frequently sports scientists will carry out testing to evaluate an athlete’s lactate response to running at a variety of intensities. To carry out lactate testing on a cycle ergometer the athlete is required to work for 4 minutes at increasing intensities. Starting at a low intensity at the end of each 4 minutes a capillary blood sample is taken. The athlete will continue for 5-8 stages/increments until they work at approximately 70% of VO2 max. A typical lactate response for a well-trained endurance athlete running at 7 different speeds is shown below. A number of different terms are used to describe the changes that occur to blood lactate when this type of testing is carried out.

Lactate threshold is accepted as the first ‘break-point’ in blood lactate accumulation (about 15 km/h on the diagram below).

Onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) is identified as the work-rate that corresponds to a blood lactate of 4 mmol.L-1. It is now known that if a person exercises at a speed below OBLA for approximately 30 minutes blood lactate levels will reach steady-state (or even drop slightly) as the test progresses. However, if they worked at an intensity above OBLA for this length of time lactate values will rise continuously until exhaustion occurred. The greater the work-rate above OBLA, the faster the person will become fatigued and have to stop exercising.

Lactate testing is crucial for endurance athletes as it enables them to identify correct pacing for racing, enables them to monitor training effectiveness and can be used to training programmes at the correct intensity.

Lactate Threshold & OBLA testing

Methods

A typical blood lactate and heart rate response to an incremental

exercise test

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Running Speed (km/h)

Blo

od

la

cta

te (

mM

)

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

He

art

ra

te (

bp

m)

Blood Lactate (mM) Heart rate (bpm)

Results Min

& Workload

HR RPE Blood Lactate

(mmol.L-1)

Resting

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

24

28

Discussion (include information on; what the results mean, what the results mean for

performance, reliability and validity of testing, knowledge of energy systems, how

training will affect results etc.)

Questions 1. On the graph below draw a new line to represent the changes you would expect to occur after a person

undertook 8 weeks of continuous and interval training to improve their endurance. (2)

2. Why is lactic acid produced in the muscle? (3 marks)

3. What affect does lactic acid have within the muscle? (4)

4. What happens to lactic acid when it has been produced in the muscle? (3) 5. Why do some athletes in events that take 2-10 minutes to complete take sodium bicarbonate as a

performance enhancing substance? (3)

A blood lactate response to an incremental exercise test

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Running Speed (km/h)

Blo

od

la

cta

te (

mM

)

Energy Systems Summary

When a person starts to exercise the muscles work to move the bones.

Chemical or potential energy is converted into the ____________ energy that

enables muscular contractions.

The only fuel that can actually be used to power muscular contractions is

__________________(________). ________ is found in the ___________

of the muscle and its breakdown is catalyzed (speeded up) by the enzyme

__________. ATP is broken down to __________ and ______, releasing

energy and causing the ‘ratchet mechanism’ of the sliding filament theory.

There is a limited amount of ATP so when it is broken down it needs to be

________________. Other fuels found in the body are used to do this, so

despite providing us with energy they do not directly power our muscular

contractions. The other fuels are PCr, carbohydrates (glucose/glycogen), fats

and proteins. Proteins only make a small contribution to ATP resynthesis (less

than 10%) so we do not need to worry about them in A Level PE. These three

fuels are used in 3 different energy systems; The alactic system, the lactic

acid system and the aerobic system.

The table below shows which fuels are used by each of the energy systems.

Alactic system Lactic acid system Aerobic system

_______________ _______________ _______________

_______________

YOU MUST REMEMBER THAT DURING ANY EXERCISE, IT DOESN’T MATTER WHAT

THE INTENSITY AND DURATION IS ALL THREE ENERGY SYSTEMS WILL BE

OPERATING. HOWEVER, THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO ENERGY PRODUCTION (OR ATP

RESYNTHESIS) VARIES. THIS DEPENDS ON; THE AMOUNT OF FUELS THAT ARE

AVAILABLE, THE INTENSITY/DURATION AND ANY PREVIOUS EXERCISE.

_______________________ System

AKA the _______ or _____________ system

During maximal and high intensity work of short duration the _______ SYSTEM

predominates. The breakdown of ATP can be summarised below.

ATP ______ + _____ + Energy

During explosive actions ATP is used very quickly so must be resynthesised very

quickly too. The ________ system is the best system to use in these instances

because the breakdown of PCr is very quick. The breakdown of PCr can be

represented by this equation.

______ ______ + _____ + Energy

This energy is then used to resynthesise ATP by joining ADP and P back together.

The enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of PCr is called ________ ________ and

this reaction also occurs in the ______________.

Some textbooks will write the equation slightly differently and you may see the

equation written in this way.

ADP + PCr ATP + Cr

Like ATP, there is only limited amounts of ______ in the muscle. When we sprint at

maximal speed the levels of ______ drop very quickly as they are being broken down.

This energy system will predominate during ____________ intensity exercise that

lasts for under _______ seconds.

Examples of activities that could be given include;

Elite sprinter in 100 m race (remember the elite bit as not many of us can run a 100 m race in under 10 seconds)

Give another athletics example

Give a games example

After exercise where the PCr levels have dropped to almost zero (e.g. after a

200 m sprint), it takes approximately 3 mintues to fully resynthesise PCr.

_______________________ System

or ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

The only fuel that is used during anaerobic glycolysis is ________________. The

body stores limited amount of _________________ in the body; only 300-500

grams in the muscles, approximately 100 grams in the liver and 5-10 grams in the

blood. Carbohydrate stored in the muscle and liver is usually in the form of

______________ (long chains of glucose). Glucose is found in the blood… it is

released by the liver when blood glucose levels fall. A fall is caused by exercising or

through starvation. Each molecule of glucose stores lots of energy. Most of the

energy that we can use comes from the hydrogen and electrons that help to make up

the monosaccharide. To fully appreciate the lactic acid system we must have an

overview of the breakdown of glucose. Glucose is made up of 6 _________ atoms, 12

_________ atoms and 6 _________atoms. We must safely break up glucose so we

can release the energy that is stored in the molecule without being left with harmful

or toxic by-________________. An example is carbon ___________. Glycolysis is

the partial breakdown of glucose. Within the _____________ (the muscle’s

cytoplasm), glucose is broken down in 10 stages, by 10 different enzymes (including

hexokinase, glycogen phosphorylase and phosphofructokinase [______]), into two

molecules of pyruvate. In the process of breaking down glucose (into two pyruvates),

enough energy is released to resynthesise 2 ATP molecules. During glycolysis some

hydrogen atoms are removed. If there is a plentiful supply of ___________ within

the muscle then they are carried (by _________) into the mitochondrion. However,

when the intensity of exercise is high then there will not be enough NAD+ molecules

available to transport the hydrogen to the mitochondria, so hydrogen would build up.

An increase in hydrogen within the sarcoplasm would be very damaging to the muscle

and result in breakdown of muscle tissue. For this reason the enzyme

________________(_______) joins a pyruvate with a hydrogen. The new molecule

is called ______________________. A simple way of representing this energy

system is;

Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 P 2 pyruvates + 2 ATP

The lactic acid system predominates in _____________ intensity exercise that lasts

for between ____ __________________ and _____ __________________.

Examples of activities that could be given include;

Running a 200 m race

Running an 400 m race

Swimming in a 200 metres front crawl race.

A few examples from games situations would be

Give example

Give example

The production of too many hydrogen atoms and lactate by this system will lead to

fatigue. Anyone giving their best effort in a 400 m or 800 m race is likely to have

experienced this in the last 50 m, when it feels like the legs are ‘burning up’ and

incapable of continuing to drive. The affect of hydrogen on lactate is shown in the

table below

There is a ______________in pH / an _____________________ in acidity

The change in acidity within the sarcoplasm leads to reduction in the action of

certain glycolytic enzymes, specifically _____________. This reduces the

bodies ability to use the lactate system to resynthesise pH.

The change in acidity also affects the function of lipases meaning there is a

reduction in ___________, and increased _________________ utilisation.

The hydrogens or lactate is also thought to interrupt ______________-bridge

formation so there is some mechanical fatigue.

During exercise the body tries to deal with any lactate that has been produced. To

maintain appropriate pH levels in the sarcoplasm lactate is ejected through the outer

membrane. If it is produced in the ______________ twitch muscle fibres it may

pass into the ___________ twitch ones. This is because the ____________ twitch

muscle fibres have a better oxygen supply, as oxygen is needed to deal with the

lactate. Alternatively it will be passed into the ________________ where it can be

transported around the body. When it travels around the body it will be taken into

tissues and organs that have a good blood (and therefore ______________) supply,

for example the respiratory muscles or the heart. It can also be taken up by less

active muscles, like the ones in the face… unless the person is grimacing a lot! In

these tissues the lactate is ___________________, which means that it is broken

down as a fuel, using oxygen, into carbon dioxide and _________________.

Pyruvate + O2 energy + H2O + CO2

Lactate is also processed in the liver, where it is can be converted into

___________________, ____________________ or

______________________.

A tiny amount of lactate will be lost in sweat or urine. However, neither of these

processes is suitable as they both result in wasted energy.

The ____________________ System

The __________________ system is the most efficient system. There are three

stages to this system; ______________________, _____________ ____________

and the ________________ __________________ _________________.

The purpose of the aerobic system is to safely remove the energy from ____________

or carbohydrates. Essentially it is the removal of hydrogen from these fuels that is

required and this occurs in the first 2 stages. In the 3rd stage the energy from the

hydrogen atoms is harnessed to resynthesise ATP. The process requires

_________________ so this must be inhaled in the ____________________ and

transported to the muscles.

Stage 1: _________________________

Glycolysis is the same as the lactate system, however, when enough oxygen is present the

end products (____________________ and ____________________) are passed into

the mitochondrion to be further processed and there will be no __________________

production.

Stage 2: _________________________

As mentioned, the function of this stage is to remove hydrogens so these can be taken to

stage 3. In stage 2, ________________ (3 carbon sugar) is initially converted into a

molecule called _________________ (2 carbon sugar) (through the removal of a carbon

dioxide molecule and the adding of a co-enzyme ‘CoA)’. This then joins with

____________________ (4 carbon sugar) to form a 6 carbon sugar, which is called

_________________ ____________. In a number of steps citric acid is broken down

into _____________________ and in the process more hydrogen is removed and taken

away by _____________________ or __________________, and more carbon

dioxide is released. One _________ molecule is resynthesised for each pyruvate, which

means that 2 are re-formed for each original glucose molecule.

Stage 3: _____________________________

The electron transfer chain is he most complex stage to understand as there is lots going

on. Within the inner membrane there are many protein carrier molecules which work to

resynthesise ATP using the energy from the hydrogen atoms. The first thing that

happens is that each hydrogen is split into a proton and an electron. The electron passes

down the carrier molecules in a specific order, in a process called a ‘series of REDOX

reactions’. The energy from the electron is used to transfer hydrogen ions from the

matrix of the mitochondria into the ________________________

_____________________ space. The build up of hydrogen ions (an atom will sometimes

become an ion when it loses an electron) leads to a massive electrochemical charge. The

hydrogen ions pass back out into the matrix of the mitochondria, powering a protein

complex called _________________________, which resynthesises lots of ATP. In the

meantime, the final protein carrier molecule will be taking up and holding some oxygen.

The oxygen molecule is split into two and each one is combined with two

__________________ atoms to form ___________________. For each molecule of

glucose there will be 32 to 34 ATPs produced in the ETC… so the mitochondria really is

the ‘powerhouse’ of the muscle.

A summary of the amount of ATPs resynthesised through the breakdown of glucose is

shown below:

Stage 1: ___________________________ = ______ ATPs

Stage 2: ___________________________ = ______ ATPs

Stage 2: ___________________________ = ______ to _____ ATPs

Total from all stages = ______ to _____ ATPs

Fats can also be used as a fuel They are broken down into acetyl CoA and enters

________________ ___________________ in the same way that carbohydrates do.

However, fats require more O2 to be broken down so are not the preferred fuel when

the intensity of exercise increases.

June 2010

The recovery process returns the body to its pre-active state. Describe the main

processes involved in the alactacid component of recovery. (5 marks)

Explain what is meant by the term metabolic equivalent/MET. How can

knowledge of METs be useful to a performer? (4 marks)

Carbohydrates are a valuable source of energy. Why is it important for a

performer to ensure that they have adequate supplies of carbohydrate? How

can a performer make sure that they don’t deplete their stores of

carbohydrate? (6 marks)

* Devise a six month training programme that will develop aerobic capacity.

Justify your programme by referring to the theory of periodisation and the

principles of training. (20 marks)

Notes