Fuels and raw materials

Guidelines for the Selection andUse of Fuels and Raw Materialsin the Cement ManufacturingProcess

Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI)

December 2005

Version 1.0

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Executive summary 2

Introduction 3 Objectives of the guidelines The Cement Sustainability Initiative

Principles 5 Moving toward sustainable use of fuels and raw materials in the cement industry Sustainable resource use and eco-efficiency in the cement industry

Use of fuels and raw materials in cement manufacture 9 How cement is made Conventional fuels and raw materials Alternative fuels and raw materials Drivers for using alternative fuels and raw materials Global trends

Practical guidance for cement manufacturers 21 Considertions when selecting and using fuels and raw materials Guidelines for good practice in site operations

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) 30

Reporting 32

End notes 33

Glossary 34

About WBCSD 35

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Executive summary

To meet the demands of a growing worldpopulation, all industries must become smarterabout how they use, reuse, and recycle rawmaterials, energy, and wastes. The cement industryis no exception. Producing cement takes both largeamounts of raw materials and fuel, and producessubstantial carbon dioxide emissions. The cementindustry is actively engaged in industrial ecology,in which by-products from one industry becomeinputs for another. We can recover and use manyindustrial byproducts and other materials incement manufacturing. Some are incorporated intothe final product; others provide the fuel needed toconvert limestone into cement.

Using by-products as fuel reduces the amount ofvirgin fossil fuels needed, and thus reduces theassociated environmental impacts of finding,producing, transporting, and burning these fuels.Using by-products and/or wastes as fuel alsodecreases the demands on local landfills andincinerators and reduces their environmentalimpacts, including potential groundwaterpollution, methane generation and hazardous ashresidues. Cement kilns can be used to recoverenergy from many non-hazardous wastes such astires and biomass, as well as from some hazardouswastes. In some countries (Norway, Switzerland,and Japan are examples) cement kilns also play animportant role in waste management andhazardous waste disposal.

While the industry has been safely using thesematerials for many years, the processes, practicesand techniques to do so are generally part ofindividual company procedures, and thus not wellknown to a broader public. Stakeholders have toldus they are concerned about the kinds of fuels andmaterials we use, and the kinds of emissions

produced. They want to know that they areproperly managed, and that serious thought andeffort goes into understanding, controlling andminimizing impacts to our employees and thecommunities in which we operate.

Consequently, the Cement Sustainability Initiative(CSI) has produced these guidelines which offerboth basic explanations about our operations, therole of fuels and materials in our products, andsome very practical guidance for cementcompanies to use in managing their materials andfuels. During the preparation of this material wesought and received feedback from many of ourstakeholders, including very specific comments onthis document from more than 100 people in morethan 20 countries. The guidelines are built uponthe principles of sustainable development, eco-efficiency and industrial ecology. These guidelinesinclude information on the occupational health andsafety concerns of handling different materials. Ourhope is that the guidelines are equally helpful to allcement companies and public bodies; that they arewidely distributed and used, particularly incountries and regions where specific requirementshave not yet been identified. However, theseguidelines are not meant to, and can neitherreplace nor supersede local, national, orinternational requirements, which must befollowed.

This document is divided into three sections thatcover, respectively:

1 Principles for fuel and material selection2 The role of various fuels and materials in

cement manufacture, and3 Practical considerations for cement plant

owners and operators

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Introduction

Cement manufacturing is an energy- and resource-intensive process. Every year the cement industryproduces over 1.8 billion tonnes of cement atplants in almost every country in the world. Theway the industry selects and uses fuels and rawmaterials is an important factor in determining itsenvironmental, social, and economic impacts.

These guidelines provide a practical reference forcement companies and their stakeholders to helpthem to understand and identify responsible andsustainable approaches to the selection and use offuels and raw materials.

They have been developed by 17 major cementcompanies, in consultation with a range ofstakeholders representing NGOs, government,academia, and community groups across theworld, as part of the Cement SustainabilityInitiative (CSI), described in more detail below.Headquartered in 15 different countries, fromSwitzerland to India, our operations extend toalmost every continent. Together, we representmore than half of the worlds cementmanufacturing capacity outside China. We are alsoleaders in making our industry a force forsustainable development.

Objectives of the GuidelinesIn this document we attempt to define a consistentapproach to the selection and use of fuels and rawmaterials in the cement industry, built upon theprinciples of sustainable development. We willpromote this approach and associated goodpractices throughout the industry. The documenthas three parts:

1 The first section sets out the thinking andprinciples that underpin the CSIs approach tosustainable development in the selection anduse of fuels and raw materials.

2 The second explains how fuels and rawmaterials are used in cement manufacturing. Itdescribes some of the different kinds of fuelsand materials being used today and the driversbehind changes in industry practices.

3 The third section gives practical advice forcompanies and site managers, covering avariety of topics including selection, operatingpractices, process control, and working withlocal communities.

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The Cement Sustainability InitiativeThe CSI is a program of the World Business Councilfor Sustainable Development (WBCSD). Itsmembers, all cement companies, created it in 2000to develop and promote practical ways for theindustry to improve its environmental and socialperformance. The Initiative provides a forum forcompanies and stakeholders to come together tofind solutions to some of the challenges facing theindustry. The member companies agreed toconsider a 20-year timeframe and examine issuesstretching from the limestone quarry to delivery ofthe cement products to customers. As theseguidelines go to press, the 17 member companies(and their headquarter countries) are:

In July 2002, we published An Agenda for Actionfor the member companies of the CSI1 thatrecognized that the principles of sustainabledevelopment are vital to ensuring our industrysfuture success. The Agenda identified the industryskey impact areas and set out a five-year program ofwork on them. It contained two kinds of actions:joint projects on which a group of companies worktogether to tackle a specific issue; and individualactions, to be implemented by each company in itsown operations. Since 2002 we have been workingin five task forces focused on joint projectsaddressing:

1 Climate change and CO2 management(www.wbcsdcement.org/climate.asp)

2 Responsible use of fuels and materials(www.wbcsdcement.org/fuels.asp)

3 Employee health and safety(www.wbcsdcement.org/health.asp)

4 Emissions monitoring and reporting(www.wbcsdcement.org/emissions.asp)

5 Local impacts on land and communities(www.wbcsdcement.org/impacts.asp)

The guidelines in this document are the mainoutput of the task force dealing with the use offuels and materials.

In June this year we reported on our progress inimplementing the joint and individual actionspromised in the Agenda for Action. We will publisha five-year progress report in 2007. You can alsofind out more about our activities on the CSIwebsite at www.wbcsdcement.org. Individualmembers produce reports on their environmentaland social performance, which may be found ontheir individual company websites (Seewww.wbcsdcement.org/participants.asp for links tocompany websites.)

The cement industry can play a role in helpingsociety move toward sustainable forms of progress.Our stakeholders around the world increasinglylook to us to take a lead in social andenvironmental issues. As individual companies, wehope to benefit from the new businessopportunities created by sustainable approaches tomanaging waste and carbon dioxide emissions,and by new sustainable business concepts such asindustrial ecology and eco-efficiency.

> Ash Grove Cement (USA)> Cementos Molins (Spain)> Cemex (Mexico)> Cimpor (Portugal)> CRH (Ireland)> Gujarat Ambuja (India)> HeidelbergCement (Germany)> Holcim (Switzerland)> Italcementi (Italy)> Lafarge (France)> Secil (Portugal)> Shree Cement (India)> Siam Cement (Thailand)> Taiheiyo (Japan)> Titan (Greece)> Uniland (Spain)> Votorantim (Brazil)

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Principles

Moving toward sustainable use offuels and raw materials in thecement industrySustainable development can be defined as formsof development that meet the needs of peopleliving today without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.

Cement helps people today meet their needs forhousing, buildings, and for much of theinfrastructure of civilization; it will do so into thefuture until a better material is developed.However, its production is both energy- andmaterial-intensive, using non-renewable resourcestoday that will not be available for futuregenerations. Emissions from production processesmay affect the quality of air, water, and soil today,and also in, future generations. The cementindustry can contribute to sustainabledevelopment by using energy and resources asefficiently and cleanly as possible. It can also helpmanage the wastes and by-products of othersectors.

A focus on sustainable development has directedus in developing these guidelines and in arriving atthe conditions below, which define the cementindustrys contribution to a more sustainablesociety.

The four basic elements for the cement industryscontribution to sustainable development are:2

> Managing resources: increasing the efficiencywith which we use energy and materialresources (eco-efficiency), and recovering andfinding new ways to use wastes and by-products from other industries (industrialecology);

> Protecting ecosystems: actively intervening toreduce our footprint in our operations andprevent quarrying or related activities fromdegrading natural systems past the point wherethey can successfully recover;

> Reducing pollution: minimizing concentrationsof polluting substances in the air, ground, orwater which might result from ourmanufacturing activities;

> Promoting quality of life: producing high-quality cement products for all types ofconstruction projects, while protecting thehealth and safety of our workforce; providinghigh-quality employment opportunities, andworking with our local communities tocontribute to their changing social andeconomic needs.

Of course, individual company strategies andactions need to be designed to balance thecomplex demands of society, economicdevelopment, and the environment, whilemaintaining the financial viability of the companyand its ability to respond to a changing world.

Our visionTo assist cement companies in designing their ownstrategies, we have developed the following visionfor CSI member companies, including how theywill select and use fuels and raw materials in thefuture:

> We will maintain an economically vibrantindustry, delivering profit to shareholders,rewarding employees, and contributing to localcommunities through employment, taxes andcommunity activities.

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> We will continue to deliver high-quality,competitively-priced goods and services thatmeet our customers needs and the strictestproduct standards. We will develop newcement products in response to societyschanging social, environmental and economicneeds.

> The health and safety of those involved in andaffected by the production of cement will beparamount in decision making. Installation,transport, handling, and operating procedureswill be designed to protect the health andsafety of employees, contractors, and localcommunities.

> We will be recognized as attractive employersand we will work to build relationships of trustwith the communities in which we operate.

> We will evaluate our choices within the broadercontext of sustainable resource management.We will seek to use the waste and by-productsof other industrial, agricultural, or municipalprocesses in our operations to replace naturalfuels and raw materials where possible andappropriate.

> We will be involved in the waste managementinfrastructure of the countries in which weoperate. We will be prepared to respondquickly to changes in the supply of waste andby-product resource streams, in particularwhere more sustainable options for their useemerge.

> We will seek to use fuels and raw materials asefficiently as possible by designing ourinstallations using the best available techniques,and by continuously improving our processmanagement systems.

> We will use common principles for monitoring,managing, and reporting impacts in key areas,in particular health and safety, carbon dioxideand other airborne emissions, and materialsubstitution rates.

> We will continuously monitor and improve oursafety, health, environment, and qualitymanagement practices, and train employees in

the policies and procedures relevant to theirroles. We will pay particular attention tomaintaining strong management practices incountries where few safety, health,environment, or quality regulations currentlyexist.

> We will comply with laws, regulations andstandards relating to safety, health,environment and quality where they currentlyexist.

> We will engage in constructive dialogue withstakeholders, and make decisions regarding theuse of fuels and raw materials in an open andaccountable way.

> We will collect data to continuously improveour understanding of the impacts of ouroperations and report regularly on ourperformance.

Our companies have already begun to deliver inmany of these areas. A primary aim of the CSI is toraise awareness of good practices so that they canbe more widely applied in our industry. We alsowant to enable our stakeholders to understand therole we can play in society, and to facilitate theircollaboration with us.

Sustainable resource use and eco-efficiency in the cement industryUsing resources more efficiently is an essential steptoward creating a more sustainable society. Eco-efficiency means producing more with less: lesswaste and pollution, and fewer resources. It notonly helps to break the link between economicgrowth and environmental degradation, but canhelp companies improve financial performance asthey pay less for inputs and pay less for waste andpollution management.3

Cement companies can achieve eco-efficiency gainsin several ways:

> Optimized processes - reducing fuel andmaterial use and minimizing pollution bycontinuously increasing the efficiency ofmanufacturing equipment and processes.

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> Waste co-processing and energy / materialrecovery - using the waste and by-products ofother industries as fuels and raw materials forcement manufacture, creating closed loops ofresource use.

> Eco-innovation - using new knowledge andtechnology to make cement productsincreasingly resource-efficient to produce anduse.

The industry has and continues to make progressin improving the efficiency of cementmanufacturing equipment and processes. Currentestimates suggest that the industry can increase itsenergy efficiency by 0.5% to 2% per year, althoughregions that are already highly efficient (forexample, Japan) may improve more slowly thancountries like the United States, which are lessefficient.4 Replacing old or outdated equipment isthe most effective way to increase efficiency: asnew, dry-process plants replace older, wet-processunits, significant energy efficiency gains arepossible. Such improvement must also befinancially viable so that new investments are paidfor with the energy savings and/or otherimprovements in product quality andmanufacturing cost.

For some time, the industry has focused on mineraland energy recovery from the waste and by-products of other processes, a process known asco-processing. Cement kilns can be used forenergy recovery from non-hazardous wastes such astires and biomass, as well as some hazardous wastes.This allows us to reduce the volume of virgin fuelsand raw materials used to produce a tonne ofcement, thus increasing resource efficiency andfrequently reducing costs.

This practice also provides society with a usefulwaste management option that can be aneconomically viable and environmentally soundalternative to land disposal, treatment, orincineration. In Norway, national policy makescement kilns the preferred method for hazardousmaterial management, including destruction ofpolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), an approach that

has been used safely and successfully for more than10 years. In recent years, animal bone meal has beensuccessfully destroyed in a number of kilns followingits implication in mad cow disease.As well as increasing resource efficiency, co-processing reduces the volume of waste ultimatelygoing to landfill, and can help reduce societysoverall carbon dioxide emissions.5 It may alsoreduce the need for quarrying and extraction ofvirgin fuels and raw materials. This approachcomes under the heading of industrial ecology orby-product synergy, in which by-productsunusable by the producing industry may becomefeed-stocks in the processes of another industry.

The strict quality controls for cement products andthe nature of the manufacturing process mean thatonly carefully selected waste and by-products aresuitable for use. Some examples of these are givenon pages 9 - 10. Changes in technology andconsumer behavior mean that co-processing maynot always be the most economic orenvironmentally sustainable way of using a wasteand by-product resource stream. Such decisionsneed to be re-evaluated over time. For example, insome countries, used tires are sometimes used asan alternative fuel. Now some are being used as anadditive in road beds and playgrounds.Nevertheless, nearly 50 million tires are stilldiscarded each year world-wide, and many arecurrently abandoned, and untreated - anunacceptable approach.

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Figure 1 - The waste hierarchy

Society can manage wastes in a number of ways,depending on their physical and chemical nature,and on the economic, social, and environmentalcontext in which they are produced. Some of theseare listed below. Specific decisions will always beinfluenced by local circumstances such as theavailability of waste treatment facilities, alternativemarkets for materials, and the infrastructureavailable to safely collect, manage and transportwaste materials.

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Use of fuels and raw materialsin cement manufacture

Figure 2: Process of cement manufacture

Traditional fuelsCoal, gas, petroleum coke,fuel oil

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What is Cement?Cement is made from an intermediate product called clinker. Clinker itself is a complex mixture formedduring high temperature reactions of limestone, clay, sand and iron. It contains calcium oxide (CaO),aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silica dioxide (SiO2) and small amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3). When the primaryingredients (SiO2, CaO and Al2O3) are mapped on a phase diagram, (see figure below), it is easy to see howcement (OPC), clinker and other materials are related to these basic mineral elements. Changing the finalcomposition can impact the properties of the cement produced - its reactivity, strength, and setting time.

Figure 3

How cement is madeCement is made by heating limestone with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450C in akiln, a process which requires large amounts of fuel. The resulting hard intermediate product, called clinker,is ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).Blending additional constituents, such as coal fly ash, limestone, pozzolana (a naturally occurring volcanicash), and blast furnace slag with the clinker creates blended cements with different properties dependingon the materials added. Ordinary Portland Cement and blended cements are the most commonly usedtypes of cement.

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Cement must conform to the strict buildingstandards set for it. Consequently, themanufacturing process itself must be closelymonitored and controlled to obtain clinker andcement that meet these standards. The chapterPractical guidance for cement manufacturers ofthis report discusses good operating andmanagement practices in more detail.

Conventional fuels and materialsFuelsA cement plant consumes 3,000 to 6,500 MJ offuel per tonne of clinker produced6, depending onthe raw materials and the process used.7 Mostcement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke asprimary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas 8

and fuel oil. As well as providing energy, some ofthese fuels burn to leave fuel ash containing silicaand alumina compounds (and other traceelements).

These combine with the raw materials in the kilncontributing to the structure of the clinker andform part of the final product. Energy use typicallyaccounts for 30-40% of the production costs.

Raw materialsAs noted above, the main components of cementare oxides of calcium, silica, aluminum, and iron.These are formed by the transformation of mineralsand materials in the kiln. Calcium is providedmainly by raw materials such as limestone, marl, orchalk. Silica, aluminum, and iron components, aswell as other elements, are provided by clay, shale,and other materials. The different kinds of rawmaterials needed to achieve the required cementcomposition are ground and mixed to produce ahomogeneous blend processed in the kiln. Thecomposition of the raw materials is tested on aregular basis.

Natural limestone contains calcium carbonate anda complex mixture of minerals that varies fromplace to place. The typical contents of some heavymetals (in parts per million by weight) in naturalmaterials and industrial by-products often used incement production are shown in Table 1 on pages12 - 13:9

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Elements ppm (byweight) parts permillion - typicalranges shown

Limestone Lime marl Clay andargillaceous

rock

Granulatedblast furnace

slag

Fly ash frombituminous

coal

Lead 0.27-21 1.3-8.5 9.7-40 1.0-10 58-800

Cadmium 0.02-0.50 0.04-0.35 0.05-0.21 0.01-0.5 0.2-4.0

Chromium 0.70-12.3 4.6-35 20-90 1.0-75 71-330

Nickel 1.4-12.9 5.9-21 11-70 1.0-10 92-250

Mercury 0.005-0.10 0.009-0.13 0.02-0.15

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Gypsum Oil shale Pozzolans Continental crust

Soil(average

worldwidevalues)

0.3-20 10-50 10-70 15

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Other cement constituentsA variety of other constituents can be used withclinker to create different kinds of cement withdifferent uses. These other raw materials may havecementitious properties in their own right. InOrdinary Portland Cement, the proportion ofgypsum (required to control the setting time ofcement) to clinker is around 5%. For blendedcements, a variety of materials can be added invarying proportions, in addition to clinker andgypsum. These include pozzolana and limestone.The properties and proportions of clinker, gypsum,and other constituents must be managed carefullyto provide a product that meets the desiredperformance criteria or set of standards.

None of the natural materials (fuels, marls, andlimestone) used in cement production are puresubstances as extracted from the ground; all arecomplex mixtures and all contain trace mineralelements, including heavy metals.

Figure 3 on page 9 shows how the chemicalcompositions of typical materials compare to theclinker and to Portland Cement.

Alternative fuels and raw materialsThe cement industry has many opportunities toreplace a portion of the virgin natural resources ituses with waste and by-products from otherprocesses. These may be used as fuels, rawmaterials, or as constituents of cement, dependingon their properties.

Alternative fuels and raw materials must meetquality specifications in the same way asconventional fuels and raw materials. Their useshould follow the good practices discussed inchapter: Practical guidance for cementmanufacturers of this document.

Alternative fuels Selected waste and by-products with recoverablecalorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln,replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, likecoal, if they meet strict specifications. Sometimesthey can only be used after pre-processing toprovide tailor-made fuels for the cement process.

At other times they can be just used as they aredelivered without further processing. In nearly allcases, fuel components are blended prior to use toensure a homogenous mixture with near constantthermal properties.

Alternative raw materialsSelected waste and by-products containing usefulminerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and ironcan be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacingraw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone.

Because some materials have both useful mineralcontent and recoverable calorific value, thedistinction between alternative fuels and rawmaterials is not always clear. For example, sewagesludge has a low but significant calorific value, andburns to give ash containing minerals useful in theclinker matrix.

Waste or Fuel?When the Prestige, a large tanker carrying heavyoil, broke up off the coast of Spain in 2004,much of its oil cargo reached the shoreline,contaminating local beaches. As there is noeffective cleaning method to restore the sand, itultimately had to be removed. At the request oflocal governments, it was burned in a cementkiln, where the oil residue contributed thermalenergy, and the sand provided the silica dioxidenecessary to make cement.

When mad-cow disease was linked tocontaminated animal feed in 2000, severalgovernments requested and received specialassistance to burn the remaining feed in cementkilns where it was completely destroyed.

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Mineral and energy recovery from waste materials in the kilnCement kilns have several features that make them particularly appropriate and efficient for the recoveryof minerals and energy from waste fuels and raw materials.

> Kilns have high temperatures, which the process requires: 2,000C in the flame of the main burner,1,450C in the material to make clinker, and 1,000 to 1,200C in the precalciner.

> The typical residence time of combustion gases in the kiln is more than five seconds at a temperaturehigher than 1,000C. By constrast, gas residence time in a typical incinerator is only two seconds.Residence time for solid materials varies from tens of minutes to an hour depending on the cementprocess.

> The process takes place under oxidizing conditions.> The stable nature of these conditions in a well-operated kiln guarantees the complete destruction of the

organic components of the waste, provided that the waste is introduced in the hot part of the process.> Waste materials in the kiln are in contact with a large flow of alkaline (basic) materials that remove

potential acid off-gases from combustion.> Any inorganic mineral residues from combustion including most heavy metals* are trapped in the

complex matrix of the clinker and cement.> Complete combustion and the trapping of mineral residues mean that in most cases there is no ash

residue from the process **.

Given the differences in temperature between different parts of the process, it is important that wastematerials are introduced at the correct point in the process to ensure complete combustion orincorporation and to avoid unwanted emissions. For example, raw materials with volatile organiccomponents may be introduced in the cement kiln at the main burner, in mid-kiln, in the riser duct, or atthe precalciner. They should not be introduced with other raw materials except where tests demonstratethat this will have no effect on the off-gases. (See Section Manufacturing operations, p. 27)

*Some volatile heavy metals are not completely immobilized in this way; so their content in raw and/orwaste materials must be assessed and controlled.**Excess in chlorine or alkali which may be in some virgin materials may produce cement kiln dust orbypass dust which must be removed, recycled or disposed of responsibly.

Alternative cement constituentsThese materials can be used with clinker toproduce different types of cement. They may helpto control the setting time of the cement (syntheticgypsum); they may have cementitious properties intheir own right (blast furnace slag), or they may becompletely inert.

The use of these alternative constituents isextremely important in reducing the environmentalimpact of cement production. They can reduce theamount of energy-intensive clinker required foreach tonne of cement, further reducing CO2emissions per tonne.

Controlling impacts on air, soil, and waterMany people are concerned about emissions fromcement kilns, particularly in cases where the kilnsuse waste fuels and alternative raw materials. The

cement industry recognizes these concerns and isestablishing processes to monitor, measure, andreport emissions from its operations10

A recent report by SINTEF11

reviewed the availableresearch into the effects of fuels and raw materialson dioxin/furans emissions from cement kilns. Thereport concluded that there is no relationshipbetween the fuels and raw materials used incement production and the emission of persistentorganic pollutants (POPs), in a well designed, welloperated, well maintained kiln. Governmentregulators in the US and the UK have reachedsimilar conclusions.

Controlling emissions to the atmosphere fromcement manufacture requires precise control of theprocess, whether using conventional or alternativefuels and raw materials. Particular attention is paidto the specification of the fuel, (specifically its

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homogeneity, particle size, and flammability) andto the use of best combustion practices, includingproper metering, feeding, and burner technologyto maintain smooth kiln operating conditions.12

The third section of this document, Practicalguidance for cement manufacturers sets outrecommendations for the design of installations,their management and operation, particularly withregard to controlling and minimizing the impactsof the fuels and raw materials use on air, soil andwater.

Use of cement kilns for waste disposalIn some countries, the cement industry providesa public or industrial service by disposing ofwastes even those with little or no useful energyor mineral content. This may be done at therequest of national governments or in responseto local demand. It can be done because acement kiln provides high temperatures, longresidence time, and a carefully controlled facilitycapable of high destruction efficiency. However,this activity is not part of the fuel or raw materialsubstitution process.

Cement kilns have been used in this way formany years in countries such as Japan, Norway,and Switzerland, where there is little space forlandfill sites. In Norway, PCBs have beendisposed of in this way for more than ten years.More recently, modern kilns have been used forwaste disposal in some developing countrieswhere the lack of existing waste disposal andincineration infrastructure means that kilns arethe most economical option. Even where goodwaste disposal infrastructure exists, it may beuseful to increase local capacity through use ofcement kilns.

The use of cement kilns for waste disposal maybe less desirable than other approaches, such asrecycling or reprocessing, but is a usefulalternative to landfill or dumping. The industrywill avoid disposing of wastes that could bemore effectively handled by other means.

The CSI aims to apply the same principles to theselection and use of wastes as it does foralternative fuels and raw materials. Theirtreatment must meet strict environmental,health, and safety standards, and must notimpair the quality of the final product. Theprocess must be precisely controlled whendestroying such wastes, and emissions regularlymeasured.

Examples of alternative fuels and rawmaterials used by the cement industry andtheir sourcesThere are many sources of waste materials and by-products that can be used as alternative fuels, rawmaterials, and cement constituents. The diagrambelow lists some of those used by the industry, andtheir sources.

Recycling wastes from one process as raw materialsand fuels for another creates a web of relationshipsbetween industries that moves society closer to azero-waste economy.

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Fig. 4 Examples of alternative fuels and raw materials

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Feed point will vary depending on composition. (See page 27 of this document)

This diagram (fig. 4) and many of the comments

about material use in kilns apply to modern, well-

operated, well-maintained, rotary cement kilns.

Other types of kilns are in use, and not all are

equally suitable for using alternative fuels and

materials. In particular, most vertical shaft kilns, still

common in many smaller Chinese cement factories

for example, would not be suitable, due to poor

emissions control.

Traditional fuelsCoal, gas, petroleum coke,fuel oil

Fuel to kiln

Crushed sand and foundry sandFoundries, (Si, Al, Ca, Fe)

AutomotiveMoulding, sand, paints residue,used tires

Spent pot liner

Soil remediation residuesSilicate SiO2

Local municipalitySewage sludge, sludge fromwater purification

ChemicalsSolvents, plastics, catalysts

Petroleum refiningClay, oils, spent catalysts

Pulp & paperMill residue, incineration ash

Energy

Aluminum manufactureFluorine

Spent catalysts

Electric powerFly ash, dust, gypsum, sulfur

Construction andbuilding materialsWaste board and gypsum

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Reasons for using alternatives toconventional fuels and rawmaterialsThe selection of alternative fuels and materials isdriven by a number of interrelated considerations,including:

> Impact on CO2 emissions and on fuelconsumption,

> Impact on fuel cost,> Impact on other emissions,> Impact on mining and quarry activity.

These are discussed briefly below.

Managing CO2 emissions and reducing fuelconsumptionThe cement industry is committed to managingand reducing its CO2 emissions. The industryproduces 5% of global man-made CO2 emissionsworldwide. Half of this is a result of the chemicalprocess involved in the transformation of limestoneinto clinker; 40% is a result of burning the fuel. Theremaining 10% is split between electricity use andtransport.13

There are three main techniques available to theindustry in reducing net total and per tonne CO2emissions:

> Maximize the efficiency of the manufacturingprocess and associated equipment to use fuelsand materials as efficiently as possible;

> Reduce the amount of fossil fuel used in theprocess by replacing it with biomass and wastesthat would otherwise have been burnedwithout energy recovery, and other materialshaving lower carbon content;

> Replace a proportion of the clinker in cementwith alternative materials (which do not requirethermal processing), reducing the CO2emissions per tonne of cement produced.

Use of alternative fuels and raw materials cansignificantly reduce the CO2 emissions from anindividual plant, and of society as a whole.

Reducing fuel and raw material costsThe costs of fuel are a significant part of the costsof manufacturing cement. Waste fuels may be lessexpensive than primary fossil fuels although costswill vary with the type of waste and localconditions. Against these lower fuel costsalternative fuels and materials must frequently bepre-treated and made sufficiently homogeneous tobe used in a cement kiln. Some additionalenvironmental equipment may also be installed tocontrol emissions. Special control and processmeasures may be needed to maintain safety,quality, and environmental standards.

Providing resource management servicesto societyMany of the alternatives to conventional fuels, rawmaterials, and additives are wastes and by-products from industrial, agricultural and otherprocesses that are generally managed throughlanddisposal, treatment or incineration. Organicwaste disposed in landfills may release methane (amore potent greenhouse gas than CO2), orcontaminate groundwater. An incinerator producesCO2 and residual ash (typically high in heavymetals which requires careful disposal). Mostincinerators do not recover energy. A cement kilnincorporates inorganic ash into the clinker complexso there is no residual waste to be land-filled. Also,the energy produced in the kiln is used to createthe high temperatures needed to make cement.Using waste and by-products in cement productionnot only reduces the industrys demand for virginfossil fuels and raw natural materials, it alsoenables society to use resources more efficientlyand move toward more sustainable productionand consumption patterns.

Reducing the need for mining andquarrying of raw materials and fuelsMost of the fuels, raw materials, and additivestraditionally used to make cement are mined orquarried. The majority of the fuels used are non-renewable fossil fuels. Extraction, processing andtransport of these materials can have a significantand lasting impact on the environment, particularlyon the landscape. Using wastes as a fuel or rawmaterial reduces the exploitation of naturalresources and the environmental footprint of suchactivities.

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Cement Sustainability Initiative 19

Recent Trends in the Use of Alternative fuels and MaterialsLocal and national governments are recognizing that the cement industry can play an important role inefficient waste management. We in the industry are waking up to our opportunity to reduce our overallcarbon dioxide emissions and to operate more sustainably in a carbon-constrained world.

The substitution of fossil fuels and virgin raw materials with alternatives is a well-developed practice in asmall number of countries. Some countries have been using it for almost 30 years, and some nationalgovernments actively promote this approach. In a number of countries this practice is well understood andhighly developed. (See tables below.)

Country or region % Substitution14

Netherlands 83

Switzerland 47.8

Austria 46

Norway 35

France 34.1

Belgium 30

Germany 42

Sweden 29

Luxembourg 25

Czech Republic 24

EU (prior to expansion in 2004) 12

Japan15 10

United States16

8

Australia17

6

United Kingdom 6

Denmark 4

Hungary 3

Finland 3

Italy 2.1

Spain 1.3

Poland 1

Ireland 0

Portugal 0

Greece

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TTyyppee ooff ffuueellQuantity

in kT

SSoolliidd ffuueellss ((8800%%)) 33,,553322

Meat and bone meal & animal fat 890

Other wastes 788

Tires 554

Plastics 210

Paper/cardboard/wood 180

Impregnated saw dust 167

Coal slurries/distillation residues 112

Sludge (paper fiber, sewage) 107

Fine/anodes/chemical cokes 89

Refuse derived fuels 41

Shale/oil shales 14

Packaging waste 12

Agricultural and organic waste 11

LLiiqquuiidd ffuueellss ((2200%%)) 884411

Waste oil + oiled water 402

Solvents and others 266

Other hazardous liquid fuels 173

Table 3: Types of alternative fuels (2001)

MMaatteerriiaall

Blast furnace slag

Fly ash (coal ash)

By-product gypsum

Others *

Total tonnage used in 2002 inEurope and Japan: 45,723

Note: Others include steel manufacturing slag,nonferrous slag, coal tailings, dirt, sludge, etc.

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Table 4: Types of alternative materials (2002)

Cement Sustainability Initiative 21

Practical guidance for cementmanufacturers

The guidelines below are in no way meant toreplace local, national, or international laws,regulations, and conventions. We believe theseguidelines represent a minimum set of goodpractices to be used in managing fuels andmaterials. They can be augmented with successfulcompany operating experience, where acceptableperformance can be documented.

Successful substitution of fuels and materials incement manufacturing is hard work. Guidelinesalone cannot ensure adequate performance.Execution of these guidelines requires well-trainedstaff, knowledge of current environmentalregulations, and well-maintained and well-operated facilities. Appropriate monitoring andreporting systems must be in place to providegood plant control, measure performance,minimize impacts, and make adjustments whereneeded.

Considerations when selecting andusing fuels and raw materialsMany cement plants operate nearby quarries thatsupply raw materials such as limestone, marl, andclay. High transport costs mean that cementproduction is usually a localized activity. Wherechoices of raw materials and fuels are greater, theselection of these can be a complex process.Selection is a result of subjective as well asobjective valuation of alternatives, and we mustoften manage trade-offs among a variety of factors:availability, transport costs, calorific value, mineralcontent, CO2 emissions, equipment requirements,etc. Each facilitys circumstances are unique, andthe selection of fuels and raw materials can rarelybe made from a simple list.

This guidance does not set limits for specificchemical content or other characteristics, becausethese will be determined by the company in thelight of the required characteristics of the finalproduct, the parameters of the process, and thelimits set for emissions. Decisions must be made byeach plant on a case-by-case basis, within thebroad framework of sustainable developmentconsiderations as discussed in the previoussections.

Guidance for the selection of fuels and rawmaterialsThe operator should develop a fuels and rawmaterials evaluation and acceptance procedurethat includes the following features:

> Each material supplier should be required toprepare a sample of fuel or material, which willbe used to evaluate the fuel or material beforedelivering it to the plant. This should include adatasheet detailing the chemical and physicalproperties of the fuel or material beingsupplied, information on relevant health, safety,and environmental considerations duringtransport, handling, and use, and a typicalsample of the material. It should also specifythe source of the particular shipments beingmade.

> The samples physical and chemicalcharacteristics should be tested and checkedagainst specifications.

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Based on this information, the operator shouldthen:> Assess the potential impact of transporting,

unloading, storing, and using the material onthe health and safety of employees, contractors,and the community. Ensure that existing andnew equipment or management practicesrequired to address these impacts are in place.

> Assess what personal protective equipment willbe required for employees to safely handle thefuel or material on site.

> Assess the effect the fuel or material may haveon plant emissions and whether newequipment or procedures are needed to ensurethat there is no negative impact on theenvironment.

> Assess the potential impact on process stabilityand quality of the final product. Assess thecompatibility of the new fuels and rawmaterials with those currently in use. Reactiveor non-compatible fuels and materials shouldnot be mixed.

> Determine what certifications or materialsanalysis data the supplier will be required toprovide with each delivery, and whether eachload should be tested prior to off-loading at thesite.

> If it is a waste fuel or material, the operatorshould ask the supplier to confirm thatshipments crossing international boundariesand classified as hazardous waste under theBasel Convention meet with the requirementsof the Convention.

ExclusionsCSI member companies will not use any of thefollowing in our kilns as fuel or raw material, as aconstituent of cement, or in our waste recoveryand disposal operations: > nuclear waste,> infectious medical waste,> chemical or biological weapons destined for

destruction,> entire batteries,> unknown or non-specified waste.

Individual companies may exclude additionalmaterials depending on local circumstances.

Variables to consider in the selection of fuels andraw materials

Kiln operation:

Chlorine, sulfur, and alkali content (fuel or rawmaterial): these may build up in the kiln system,leading to accumulation, clogging, andunstable operation; excess in chlorine or alkalimay produce cement kiln dust or bypass dust(and may require installation of a bypass) whichmust be removed, recycled or disposed ofresponsibly.

Water content (fuels or raw materials): highwater content may reduce the productivity andefficiency of the kiln system.

Heat value (fuel): the heat value is the keyparameter for the energy provided to theprocess.

Ash content (fuel): the ash content affects thechemical composition of the cement and mayrequire an adjustment of the composition of theraw materials mix.

Clinker and cement quality:

Phosphate content: this influences setting time. Chlorine, sulfur, and alkali content: these affect

overall product quality.

Chromium: this may cause allergic reactions insensitive users.

Emissions:

Sulfides in raw materials: these may result in therelease of SO2.

Organic carbon in raw materials: this may resultin carbon monoxide, CO2 and volatile organiccompound (VOC) emissions.

As well as the above considerations, the volatileheavy metal content of a fuel or raw material mustbe assessed and controlled.

Heavy metals in fuel or raw material: volatileheavy metals, which are not completelycaptured in the clinker, must be monitored andcontrolled

The choice of fuels and substitute materials canalso affect greenhouse gas emissions. Forexample, substituting alternative materials forlimestone reduces CO2 emissions and maydecrease fuel use, as discussed elsewhere in thisreport.

Cement Sustainability Initiative

Guidelines for good practice in siteoperationsThis section offers operators general guidance inthe responsible use and handling of conventionaland alternative raw materials and fuels. It describesgood practice in the different areas of siteoperations.

In some countries, sites will have obtained anoperating permit from local authorities, which willspecify conditions of operation in certain areas.Where such a permit is in place, the site shouldfully comply with it.

We cannot provide specific numerical limits andvalues in many instances because:

> manufacturing equipment and process can varysignificantly;

> the composition of trace components in fuelsand raw materials can vary significantly;

> there are complex interactions between thedifferent components used to make cement.Therefore changes in composition in onefeedstock may affect the suitability of othermaterials;

> different types of cement are manufactured indifferent ways, having different productspecifications and chemical properties;

> local permit and regulatory requirements canvary significantly and will take precedence overthese guidelines.

Basic management systemsCompliance with regulations or companypolicy> Relevant laws, regulations, standards, and

company policies relating to safety, health,environment, and quality control should beidentified, and compliance continuallyreviewed.

> Employees should be made aware of therelevant laws, regulations, and standards andshould be made aware of their responsibilitiesunder them.

> Where company policy is more stringent thannational regulations, or where there are norelevant national regulations in place, the siteshould comply with company policy.

> Companies operating in regions without safety,health, and environmental quality (SHEQ)regulations may work together with national,regional, and local authorities and other cementcompanies to develop such regulations.

Basic management systems should cover:Personnel management

> Sufficient resources and training should beprovided to operate and manage SHEQ systemsefficiently.

Operational Management

> Sites should develop procedures for operationand maintenance that cover safety of workersand installations.

> Operation and maintenance procedures shouldbe systematically reviewed followingmodifications to or new installations ofequipment, fuels, and raw materials.

Emergency procedures

> Sites should develop robust emergencyprocedures. Such procedures may bedeveloped in cooperation with relevantauthorities and experts.

Stakeholder communications

> A stakeholder engagement plan should beestablished for working with the localcommunity and authorities. Such a plan shouldinclude procedures for responding tocommunity interests, comments, or complaints,and feedback should be given promptly.

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The following sections apply to key areasof operations and provide more specificguidelines

Installation designGeneral design considerations> Assess operations for health and safety risks or

concerns to ensure that equipment is safe andto minimize risks of endangering people orinstallations, or damaging the environment.

> Use appropriate procedures to assess risks orhazards for each stage of the design process.Only competent and qualified personnel shouldundertake or oversee such hazard andoperability studies.

> Carefully consider plant layout to ensure accessfor day-to-day operations, emergency escaperoutes, and maintainability of the plant andequipment.

> Apply recognized standards to the design ofinstallations and equipment. Any modificationto installations and equipment should meetrequirements set in the standards. Thoroughlyevaluate existing equipment refitted for adifferent service from a safety and performancestandpoint before resuming commercialproduction.

> Document modifications to installations andequipment.

Reception and storage of materials

> Establish suitable and safe transfer systems fromtransportation to the storage area to avoidSHEQ risks from spillage such as fugitiveemissions or vapor displacement. Suitablevapor filtration and capture equipment shouldbe in place to minimize impact to the receptionpoint and surrounding areas from unloadingactivities.

> Assure that storage facilities fit their purpose.Appropriate storage for liquids should meetrelevant safety and design codes for storagepressures and temperatures.

> Solid materials handling systems should haveadequate dust control systems.

> Storage design should be appropriate tomaintain the quality of the materials: for solids,prevent build-up of old materials; for liquids,mix or agitate to prevent settlement, etc.

> Design transfer and storage areas to manageand contain accidental spills into rainwater orfirewater, which may be contaminated by thematerials. This requires appropriate design forisolation, containment, and treatment.

> Appropriate storage for liquids should haveadequate secondary containment.

Material handling and feed systems

> Handling systems and feed systems should beappropriate to the fuel and raw material used.The feed systems should allow stable andcontrolled input of materials to the kiln.

> The operator should assess risks from fugitiveemissions; equipment failure modes andappropriate safeguards should be incorporatedinto the design to prevent environmentalpollution, health, and safety problems.

Delivery and on-site transport> Use appropriate vehicles and equipment to

transport fuels and raw materials.

> Personnel involved in transportation should beadequately trained and qualified.

> The transport provider (including in-housetransport) should document maintenance andoperator training.

Selection and reception of materials> Select fuels and raw materials only after the

supplier, and the chemical and physicalproperties and specifications of the materialshave been clearly identified.

> Stop vehicles carrying fuels and raw materialsupon arrival at site and make the necessaryidentifications. Such vehicles should beweighed in and out of the site. Deliveriesshould be recorded.

Cement Sustainability Initiative

> Check documents relating to vehicles carryingwaste and determine their compliance with siteacceptance specifications and regulations.Document checks may cover waste certificates,transport certificates, etc. A vehicle found not tocomply should not be allowed to enter the site.

> Instructions for unloading, including safety andemergency instructions, should be provided indue time to vehicle drivers.

> Sample and analyze vehicle loads once on siteaccording to the frequency and protocoldefined in the site control plan; checkagreement with site specifications according tothe plan of control.

> Fuels and materials can be accepted once theirproperties are confirmed to agree withspecifications.

Management for non-compliant deliveriesof waste fuels and raw materials

Make written instructions available that describemeasures to be implemented in case of non-compliance with specifications set for waste fuelsand raw materials.

The producer of waste fuels and raw materialsshould be informed about non-compliantdeliveries.

If non-compliance cannot be cleared withproducer, the shipment must be rejected; ifrequired in the permit, authorities must benotified.

Deliveries should be evaluated for each produceron a statistical basis in order to assess theperformance and reliability of the waste fuels andraw materials producers; periodically reviewcontract accordingly.

On-site handling and storage> There should be written procedures and

instructions in place for the unloading,handling, and storage of the solid and liquidfuels and raw materials used on site.

> Relevant employees should be trained in thecompanys operating procedures, andcompliance with such procedures should beaudited regularly.

> Storage facilities should be operated in such away as to control emissions to air, water, andsoil.

> Designated routes for vehicles carrying specifiedfuels and raw materials should be clearlyidentified within the site.

> Appropriate signs indicating the nature ofmaterials should be in place at storage,stockpiling, and tank locations.

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Management of quality controlDevelop a plan of control that covers fuels, rawmaterials, and any material entering, processedat, or produced at the site. The plan shouldprovide detailed instructions for sampling,personnel assignment, frequency of samplingand analysis, laboratory protocols and standards,calibration procedures and maintenance, andrecording and reporting protocol. The planshould include specifications for each material.

The detailed control plan will depend on thenature and origin of the fuels and rawmaterials.

Adequate laboratory design, infrastructure,sampling and test equipment should beprovided and maintained.

Inter-laboratory tests may be carried outperiodically in order to check and improve theperformances of the laboratory.

Personnel should be trained according to theirspecific needs and to the nature of the fuelsand raw materials used.

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Risks and safety tips for handling andstorage of fuels

Solid fuels: coal and pet-coke

Risks are fire with auto-ignition for coal andexplosion for given concentrations of oxygen anddust with an ignition source.

Fine coal and pet-coke silos should be fitted withcarbon monoxide and temperature monitoringsystems, an explosion safety device, and anatmosphere control device such as CO2inertization.

Liquid fuels: heavy oil and used oils

Risks are leaks and spills from storage andhandling areas, with contamination of soils,surface, and water tables.

Oil storage and handling areas should be tight;storage areas should be fitted with secondarycontainments.

Scrap tires: whole and shredded

Risks are fire, and for whole tires, a proliferation ofmosquitoes and rodents.

Storage halls should be fitted with water sprinklersystems.

Waste solvents

Risks are fire and explosion, leaks and spills fromstorage and handling areas, with contamination ofsoils, surface, and waters tables.

Solvent tanks and handling areas should be tight;tanks should include secondary containment.Tanks should be fitted with an explosion safetydevice. Additional devices may be considered suchas atmosphere control (e.g. N2 inertization) andtemperature control (e.g. shell cooling), etc.

Impregnated saw dust

Risks are fire with auto-ignition after temperaturerises spontaneously, and explosion of vapors fromthe solvent fraction of the product.

Silos should be fitted with carbon monoxide andtemperature monitoring systems, an explosion

safety device, and an atmosphere control device(e.g. CO2 inertization).

Storage halls should be vented to controlaccumulation of solvent vapors (which could besent to the kiln), and fitted with water sprinklersystems.

Fuels derived from refuse

Risks are fire.

Storage halls should be fitted with water sprinklersystems.

Meat and bone meal

Risks are fire with auto-ignition after temperaturerises spontaneously, and explosion for givenconcentrations of oxygen and dust, with an ignitionsource.

Silos should be fitted with temperature monitoringsystems and an explosion safety device.

General

Maintain good housekeeping in all areas. Storageareas should be kept clear of uncontrolledcombustible materials. Clear safety warnings, nosmoking, fire, evacuation route, and any proceduressigns should be posted.

An emergency shower and eye washing stationshould be clearly marked and located near thestorage of liquid alternative fuels.

A fire protection system must be available at alltimes and should meet all standards andspecifications from local authorities (e.g. local firedepartment).

Adequate alarms should be provided to alert allpersonnel about emergency situations.Communications equipment (e.g. telephone)should be maintained at the site so that the sitecontrol room and the local fire department can becontacted immediately in case of a fire.

Equipment should be grounded and appropriateanti-static devices and adequate electrical devicesselected (e.g. motors, instruments, etc.).

Cement Sustainability Initiative

Selection of feed point for alternative fuelsand raw materials

The point at which alternative fuels and rawmaterials are fed into the kiln (feed point)should be selected according to the nature (and,if relevant, hazardous characteristics) of thealternative fuels and raw materials used.

Alternative fuels should be introduced in thehigh-temperature combustion zone of the kilnsystem, i.e. the main burner, the precalcinerburner, the secondary firing at the preheater, orthe mid-kiln (for long dry and wet kilns).

Alternative fuels with highly stable molecules,such as highly chlorinated compounds, shouldbe introduced at the main burner to ensurecomplete combustion due to the highcombustion temperature and the long retentiontime. Other feed points are appropriate onlywhere test have shown high destruction andremoval efficiency rates.

Alternative raw materials with volatile organiccomponents should not be introduced withother raw materials in the process, unless testshave shown that undesired emissions at the stackdo not occur.

Manufacturing operations> There should be written procedures and

operating instructions in place for the use ofconventional and alternative fuels and rawmaterials; such operating instructions shouldcover start-up and shut-down of the kiln andactions to comply with set quality requirementsof the product and emissions.

> Operators should be trained in the companysoperating procedures, and compliance withsuch procedures should be audited regularly.

> The monitoring and reporting of emissionsshould be carried out according to national andlocal regulations and requirements, and as aminimum as defined in the CementSustainability Initiatives Emissions Monitoringand Reporting protocol.18

> Adequate personal protective equipmentshould be made available to employees andcontractors, and to individuals visiting theinstallation.

Process control for alternative fuels andraw materials

The use of alternative fuels and raw materialsshould not detract from smooth and continuouskiln operation, product quality, or the sitesenvironmental performance. Therefore aconstant quality and feed rate of the alternativefuels and raw materials must be ensured.

The general principle of good operational controlof the kiln system using conventional fuels andraw materials should be applied. In particular, allrelevant process parameters should be measured,recorded and evaluated continuously; this shouldcover free lime, excess oxygen, and carbonmonoxide levels.

The impact of alternative fuels and raw materialson the total input of circulating volatile elementssuch as chlorine, sulfur, or alkalis must beassessed carefully prior to acceptance as theymay cause operational troubles in the kilnsystem. Input limits and operational set pointsfor these components should be set individuallyby the site based on the process type and on thespecific site conditions.

For start-up, shut-down, or upset conditions ofthe kiln, written instructions should be issued,describing conditions of use of alternative fuelsand raw materials. Kiln operators should knowand understand these instructions.

In most cases, waste fuels should not be usedduring start-up and shut-down of kilns, exceptwhere kiln temperatures are achieved to produceclinker that meets quality standards.

Waste fuels should not be used during failure ofthe air pollution control devices (e.g. filter orprecipitator at the stack of the kiln).

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On-site security> Adequate systems and procedures should be in

place to minimize the risk of unauthorizedaccess to hazardous materials and explosivesused on-site.

Emergency response plan> A emergency response plan should be in place

which:

identifies potential spill or contaminationareas;

defines clean-up procedures; identifies areas of high risk on site or in the

local community;

provides written instructions in the event ofan emergency;

documents equipment required in the eventof an emergency;

assigns responsibilities to employees andlocal officials;

details emergency response trainingrequirements;

describes reporting and communicationrequirements both within the company andwith interested external stakeholders.

> The emergency response plan may be reviewedwith relevant external emergency services.

> Emergency drills may be arranged with thelocal community emergency response servicesto ensure a coordinated response underemergency conditions.

Safety requirementsFor a more complete coverage of health and safety,please see the work of the Cement SustainabilityInitiatives Task Force 3 on health and safetywww.wbcsdcement.org/health.asp.

> Safety and emergency instructions, such asSafety Data Sheets, should be provided to

employees and contractors in due time, andshould be easily understandable. Hazardsrelating to new materials should be reviewedwith operating staff prior to using suchmaterials in the facility. Conducting a job safetyanalysis is one approach to identifying hazardsand potential exposures, along withappropriate control practices and techniques.

> Adequate personal protective equipmentshould be made available to employees andcontractors, and to individuals visiting theinstallation. Its use should be required. Thisincludes but is not limited to: helmet, glasses,gloves, hearing protection, safety shoes,respiratory protection, and other protectiveequipment specified in the Safety Data Sheets.

> Automated handling equipment should beused wherever possible.

> Wherever a contact risk such as infection or skinirritation exists, the company should provideappropriate facilities for operators to takerequired hygiene precautions.

> Maintenance work should be authorized byplant management, and carried out once asupervisor has checked the area and necessaryprecautions have been taken.

> Special procedures, instructions, and trainingshould be in place for such routine operationsas:

working at height, including proper tie-offpractices and use of safety harnesses;

confined space entry where air quality,explosive mixtures, dust, or other hazardsmay be present;

electrical lock-out, to prevent accidentalreactivation of electrical equipmentundergoing maintenance;

hot works (i.e. welding, cutting, etc.) inareas that may contain flammable materials.

Cement Sustainability Initiative 29

Employee trainingSafety, health, environment and quality

> The company should develop and implementappropriate documented training programs foremployees to be trained in SHEQ issues relevantto their jobs. New employees should be trainedduring an induction process.

> Such training programs should be given tocontractors and, in some instances, suppliers.Personnel reporting to work on site for the firsttime should be trained through a site inductionprogram.

> Training records should be kept on file.

> The training program should include thefollowing:

general and job specific safety rules; safe operation of equipment; details of the site emergency plan; procedures for handling alternative fuels and

raw materials;

use of personal protective equipment.

Stakeholder communications andengagementWe earn our license to operate from ourstakeholders, particularly those who work on oursites and live in communities around them. As wellas building goodwill, working with local groups,national NGOs, and regulators can result in better-informed and more effective business planning. Itcan be particularly useful in addressing localenvironmental and social issues. Effective, open,and transparent communication with stakeholdersis essential if we are to play a responsible role insocietys waste and resource management systems.

In 2002, WBCSD published stakeholderengagement guidelines for site managers, and werecommend that managers at cementmanufacturing sites ensure that they have a copyof these.19 We recommended that companies andsites develop and implement a stakeholderengagement program and policy that includesspecific reference to the use of fuels and rawmaterials. Site managers may choose to work withtheir local or regional headquarters to develop andimplement this program. It should contain thefollowing elements.

Stakeholder identification and analysisThe site or company should identify its mainstakeholders, and understand their expectations ofand their relationship with the company and thecement industry locally, nationally, andinternationally.

Site community engagement programAt site level, management should provideopportunities for stakeholders to express theirconcerns, listen to and understand those concerns,and build trust with the community through activeengagement.

Reporting performanceBuilding trust with stakeholders requires bothtransparency and accountability in company andsite operations. The production of regular reportson performance in areas of interest helps toprovide key stakeholders with the information theyneed to make a fair and balanced judgment of thecompanys or sites activities and performance. Asmembers of the WBCSD, all the membercompanies of the CSI are committed to producingregular reports on their environmental and socialperformance.

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Key performance indicators (KPIs) provide a measure of how companies are moving toward more eco-efficient use of fuels and raw materials. The measures below are what the companies in the CSI have agreedto measure and report publicly on an annual basis. KPIs have also been developed by other CSI Task Forcesincluding those for Emissions Monitoring and Employee Health and Safety.

Energy KPIs

1 Specific heat consumption for clinkerproduction, in MJ per tonne of clinker

2 Alternative fossil fuel rate: consumption ofalternative fuels, as a percentage of thermalconsumption20

3 Biomass fuel rate: consumption of biomass,as a percentage of thermal consumption21

Raw material KPIs

1 Alternative raw materials rate: consumptionof alternative raw materials, as a percentageof total raw materials for cement production(calculated on a dry basis)

2 Clinker / cement factor: ratio between clinkerconsumption and cement production

Specific heat consumption, alternative fossil fuel, and biomass fuel rate, and clinker/cement factor aredefined according to the WBCSD-WRI CO2 protocol issued in September 2001.

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Alternative raw materials are defined as non-quarried raw materials for the purpose of clinker and cementproduction.

Example Alternative raw materials rate:

Raw materials for clinker production:

Conventional raw materials Alternative raw materials

High limetone Low limestone Fly ash Iron additive Slag

Wet basis 1,136,175 t 1,305,950 t 68,674 t 11,473 t 7,053 t

Moisture 9.6 % 10.2 % 20.7 % 9.9 % 5.8 %

Dry basis 1,027,102 t 1,172,743 t 54,458 t 10,337 t 6,644 t

Total conventional raw materials: 2,199,845 tTotal alternative raw materials: 71,439 t

Key performance indicators

Cement Sustainability Initiative 31

Conventional raw materials Alternative raw materials

High limetone Natural gypsum Fly ash Slag Synthetic gypsum

Wet basis 50,000 t 120,000 t 150,000 t 400,000 t 230,000 t

Moisture 9.6 % 7.5 % 0.2 % 5.4 % 4.5 %

Dry basis 45 200 t 111 000 t 149 700 t 378 400 t 219 650 t

Raw materials for blended cement:

Total conventional raw materials: 156,200 tTotal alternative raw materials: 747,750 t

Alternative raw materials rate:

%8.25750,747200,156439,71845,199,2

750,747439,71=

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Rep

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The indicators and reporting periods aredetermined according to the accounting rules andconsolidation criterion set in the most currentversion of the CO2 Protocol and Guidelines,available on the CSI website.www.wbcsdcement.org/climate.asp

Which installations are covered?This protocol covers the use of AFRs of a companywhere the company has either:> the majority of ownership (> 50%) or > the management control.

In both cases the protocol requires the reportingcompany to include 100% of their operationperformance (unlike the CSI CO2 emissionprotocol, which allows pro-rata reportingaccording to ownership share).

The WBCSD definition of control is used for thisprotocol, as follows:"Control is defined as the ability of a company todirect the operating policies of anotherentity/facility. Usually, if the company owns morethan 50 percent of the voting interests, this impliescontrol. The holder of the operating license oftenexerts control. However, holding the operatinglicense is not a sufficient criterion for being able todirect the operating policies of an entity/facility. Inpractice, the actual exercise of dominant influenceitself is enough to satisfy the definition of controlwithout requiring any formal power or abilitythrough which it arises."

Reporting frequency and periodsThe KPI values have to be reported on an annualbasis by each company individually. Companiescan make their own decisions about which kind ofdocumentation will be used for the reporting (e.g.an environmental or sustainability report, web site,etc.).

Reporting can be based on financial years, ratherthan calendar years. This can help to reducereporting costs and causes no problems providedthat it is done consistently over time, with no gapsor overlaps. Any changes in the reporting yearshould be clearly indicated. National regulationsshould be taken into account.

Performance targetsAs agreed in the CSI Agenda for Action, each CSImember company will establish, publish andreport on their own individual target values foreach KPI.

Reporting

Cement Sustainability Initiative 33

End

notes

End notes

1 The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Our Agendafor Action published by the CSI and WBCSD in July2002 and available at www.wbcsdcement.org

2 These principles are based on careful review ofstakeholder comments received during a 2-yearresearch and consultation program and owe muchto input from The Natural Step International(www.naturalstep.org). Other sources include: Stephan Schmidheiny et al. Changing Course, aGlobal Business Perspective on Development andthe Environment (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,1992) World Commission on Environment andDevelopment. Our Common Future (Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press, 1987)

3 For more information on this see Eco-efficiency creating more value with less impact publishedby WBCSD in October 2002 and available atwww.wbcsd.orgwww.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/3jFPCAaFgl1bK2KBbvV5/eco_efficiency_creating_more_value.pdf.

4 Information taken from Substudy 8 of Toward aSustainable Cement Industry, published by theBattelle Memorial Institute in 2000www.wbcsdcement.org/publications.asp

5 For more information on this see The CementCO2 Protocol: CO2 Emissions Monitoring andReporting Protocol for the Cement Industry ,published by WBCSD in October 2001 and part ofthe WRI-WBCSD Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiativewww.ghgprotocol.org. Updated in 2005.http://www.ghgprotocol.org/standard/Current_Tools/cement_WBCSD_guidancev1.6.doc

6 Electricity and transport together add about 10%more to the total energy used, and are notincluded in this figure.

7 Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials - A Technicaland Environmental Review Cembureau

8 Now used primarily in the Middle East as it is areadily available byproduct of the oil industry

9 Concrete - Hard, Strong and Fair, VDZ

10 More details on this can be found in the reportof the Emission Monitoring and Reporting TaskForce of the CSI:www.wbcsdcement.org/emissions.asp

11 The Formation and Release of POPs in theCement Industry, a report prepared for theWBCSD and the Cement Sustainability Initiative bySINTEF, March 2004

12 The United Nations Environment Program(UNEP), acting as Secretariat for the StockholmConvention, has recently developed BAT/BEPguidelines for cement kiln operation to minimizePOPs formation. www.unep.org

13 Source: Agenda for Action CementSustainability Initiative 2002 p20

14 % thermal substitution of alternative fuels forconventional fossil fuels

15 Source: Taiheiyo estimated the thermalsubstitution rate based on JCA data, pet coke isexcluded.

16 Source : Portland Cement Association, USA

17 Source : Cement Industry Federation, Australia

18 More details on this can be found in the reportof the Emission Monitoring and Reporting TaskForce www.wbcsdcement.org/emissions.asp

19 Stakeholder Engagement A Guide for CementSite Managers published by WBCSD. A copy canbe obtained from the CSI website(www.wbcsdcement.org)

20 As an alternative, substitution ratios could beexpressed in kg per tonne of clinker

21 As an alternative, substitution ratios could beexpressed in kg per tonne of clinker

22 The Cement CO2 Protocol: CO2 EmissionsMonitoring and Reporting Protocol for the CementIndustry, published by WBCSD in October 2001.More information on the protocol can be found onthe WRI-WBCSD Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiativewebsite at www.ghgprotocol.org

34

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Definitions from the Battelle report andsubstudies

> By-product: A secondary product of anindustrial process,

> Blast furnace slag: A processed byproduct ofiron production in blast furnaces that is usableas a pozzolan,

> CEMBUREAU: The European cement association,the representative organization of the cementindustry in Europe, based in Brussels.

> Co-processing: Term used to refer to thepractice of introducing alternative fuels and rawmaterials into cement production,

> Eco-efficiency: Reduction in the resourceintensity of production; i.e. the input ofmaterials, natural resources and energycompared with the output; essentially, doingmore with less

> Fly ash: By-product with binding propertiestypically produced as a residue from coal firedpower plants,

> Industrial ecology: Framework for improvementin the efficiency of industrial systems byimitating aspects of natural ecosystems,including the cyclical transformation of wasteto input materials,

> Pozzolan: A mineral admixture that acts asupplement to standard Portland cementhydratation products to create additional binderin a concrete mix,

> Sustainable development: Ability to continuallymeet the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of future generationsto meet their own needs,

> Waste: Waste is is the material that is producedas an unwanted side effect of a productionprocess, and which the waste generator wantsto discard.

Glossary

Cement Sustainability Initiative 35

Ordering publicationsWBCSD, c/o Earthprint LimitedTel: (44 1438) 748111 Fax: (44 1438) 748844 wbcsd@earthprint.com

Publications are available at: www.wbcsd.org www.earthprint.com

DisclaimerThis report is released in the name of the WBCSD. Itis the result of a collaborative effort by members ofthe secretariat and executives from several membercompanies participating in the CementSustainability Initiative (CSI). Drafts were reviewedamong CSI members, so ensuring that thedocument broadly represents the majority view ofthis group. This does not mean, however, thatevery member company agrees with every word.

About the WBCSDThe World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) is a coalition of 175 internationalcompanies united by a shared commitment to sustainable development via the three pillars of economicgrowth, ecological balance and social progress. Our members are drawn from more than 35 countries and20 major industrial sectors. We also benefit from a global network of 50 national and regional businesscouncils and partner organizations involving some 1,000 business leaders.

Our missionTo provide business leadership as a catalyst for change toward sustainable development, and to promotethe role of eco-efficiency, innovation and corporate social responsibility.

Our aimsOur objectives and strategic directions, based on this dedication, include:

> Business leadership: to be the leading business advocate on issues connected with sustainabledevelopment

> Policy development: to participate in policy development in order to create a framework that allowsbusiness to contribute effectively to sustainable development

> Best practice: to demonstrate business progress in environmental and resource management andcorporate social responsibility and to share leading-edge practices among our members

> Global outreach: to contribute to a sustainable future for developing nations and nations in transition

Layout: Estelle Geisinger (WBCSD)Copyright: WBCSD, August 2005ISBN: 2-940240-76-0

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4, chemin de Conches Tel: (41 22) 839 31 00 E-mail: info@wbcsd.orgCH - 1231 Conches-Geneva Fax: (41 22) 839 31 31 Web: www.wbcsd.orgSwitzerland