Albert Ellis and the Buddha Rational Soul Mates

7/27/2019 Albert Ellis and the Buddha Rational Soul Mates

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techniques, and will go on to occupy a place in the history of behaviour

modification. Extending the notion of Buddhism as a precursor to modern

psychology, it has been argued that Buddhism itself was, and is in fact,

specifically a psychology and dramatically not a religion (Mikulas, 1991).

Buddhism shares with clinical psychology the motivation to facilitate beneficialgrowth and change on individual and societal levels (Kumar, 2002). The

Buddhist monk is seen as someone who can take a detached and objective view of

a problem, and produce sensible solutions, or at least provide support and

consultation. This tradition is historically well grounded as the Buddha himself

was, in his life, very much a counsellor in this way (deSilva, 1993). Nonetheless,

the depiction of Buddhism solely as a psychology ignores the spiritual context

within which Buddhism was developed. An analysis of the empirical and

scientific components of Buddhism only represents one perspective of

approaching the teachings of the Buddha. As such, although this paper focuses

primarily on the psychological elements inherent to Buddhism, as a practicingTheravada Buddhist, the author also wishes to recognize the importance of the

less scientific and more mystical processes of the spiritual evolution many

Buddhists experience.

Strictly from the scientific perspective, the concept of a Buddhist Psychology

continues to evolve as principles and techniques outlined by the Buddha are

subjected to the empirically scrutinizing methods of current day. This empirical

basis of Buddhism is evident in early Buddhist discourse. During a noteworthy

sermon (Kalama Suttra; deSilva, 1984) the Buddha advised a group of inquirers

to not accept anything on hearsay, authority or pure argument, but instead toaccept what is empirically and experientially verifiable. deSilva (1990) further

notes that although Buddhism clearly developed prior to and outside the context

of modern Western science, it does, however, as a non-theistic religion, offer

clearly testable hypotheses (unlike theistic religions: e.g., does God exist?) and

therefore can be brought within the realm of scientific inquiry.

Given both the increased familiarity and popularity of Zen Buddhism in

comparison to other sects of Buddhism in Western society, the majority of

Buddhism and Psychology literature in Western academic journals has tended

to focus on Zen. The Zen tradition was born of Buddhist ideology and its

founding is somewhat analogous to the development of various sects born of

other major religions (i.e., theoretical similarity between seminal religion and

related sect). As such, although the focus in this paper is primarily on Buddhism

as a whole, for purposes of convenience and clarity, Zen Buddhism will often

serve as the point of comparison. Relatedly, much of the same literature has had a

distinctly analytical flavor, which is to be expected given the extensive attention

Jung (1969) and other psychoanalysts gave to Zen. However, in addition to the

psychoanalytical majority, a small minority of behavioural and cognitive-

behavioral theorists have begun to note the philosophical and applied similarity

between these approaches and the various sects of Buddhism, including Zen.In the winter of 2002, the academic journal, Cognitive and Behavioural Practice

bli h d i l i i l d I i B ddhi Phil h i h C i i d

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Behavioural Practice. This series provided one of the first articulations of

Buddhism by empirically trained therapists and theorists with varying degrees

of interest and personal involvement in Buddhist practice. Specific articles

explored the application of Buddhist concepts to the practice of dialectical

behaviour therapy (Robins, 2002), enhancement of mindfulness and compassion(Kumar, 2002), treatment of anxiety disorders (Toneatto, 2002), and other

clinical areas.

Philosophical similarities

Particularly relevant to the comparison of Zen Buddhism to contemporary

behavioural and cognitive-behavioural psychotherapies is an analysis of Albert

Elliss Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT). In drawing comparisons

between REBT and Zen, Kwee and Ellis (1998) contend that, both appreciatean empirical working mode and the logico-empirical methods of science, which

are flexible and anti-dogmatic ( p. 19). Ellis (1979) contends that in addition

to Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, the Buddha had a profound influence over

the empirical focus Ellis infused into REBT. Elliss adherence to Buddhist

philosophy is perhaps best exemplified by REBTs implementation of the

Buddhas active-directive teaching style, in which he challenged his students

to look at their self constructed thoughts and feelings, to reconsider them

when they did not work, and to work vigorously at changing them (Kwee &

Ellis, 1998).

Alleviation of suffering and hassle

A striking similarity between REBT and Zen is the premise that human existence

is essentially rooted in suffering (deSilva, 1984, 1990; Kwee & Ellis, 1998). From

a Buddhist perspective to live means to suffer and as such life is generally

unsatisfactory; suffering in turn is caused by craving or desire and can only be

ended via the cessation of craving or desire (Ronruen, 1998). Similarly, in his

seminal work, Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, Ellis (1962) in great detail

describes the human compulsion toward irrational thought, and subsequently

depicts life as a hassle riddled with difficulties.

In striving to improve the human condition, the teachings of the Buddha

and Ellis promote the attainment of similar goals; namely, rational and

appropriate feeling and affect, commitment to life, and an egoless state of

being (Kwee & Ellis, 1998, p. 26). When applied specifically to REBT, the

ensuing goal becomes the ability to provide clients with a method by which they

can have rational beliefs, and as a result reduce anxiety and hostility (Patterson &

Watkins, 1996). And when applied specifically to Zen, the goal becomes theattainment of satori or illumination (Ross, 1960). In striving to achieve the state

f i h Z d k h f li h i d

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through the ages by many Buddhas. The Zen experience of satori best translates

into self-awakening, or . . . recognizing the real noumenon of a person, his

original feature, not necessarily recognizing the real substance of various acts

(Ross, 1960, p. 45). Paradoxically, this self-recognition is tantamount to the

disidentifying of ones self with ones overt and covert behaviour and signifies thetermination of the cycle of suffering due to the cessation of craving (deSilva,

1990).

REBT and Zen both were empirically derived and consequently adhere to

science rather than dogmatism. Zen, although in the strictest sense is considered a

religion, has no sacred scriptures whose words are law; no fixed cannon; no rigid

dogma; and no Savior or Divine Being through whose favor or intercession ones

eventual salvation is assured (Aitken, 1993). The exclusion of zealous religious

devotion in both REBT and Zen facilitates genuine interaction between teacher

and client/student. In REBT, the therapist guides the client toward a more

rational lifestyle, and in Zen the master guides the novice toward enlightenment;neither technique disregarding the necessary and unique contributions the client/

student adds to the process.

Ethics

Buddhist ethics merit adherence not because a violation of them will offend some

religious dogma, but rather because bad habits (e.g., alcohol abuse) can lead todemonstrable ill effects, such as poor health, mental derangement, loss of wealth,

and proneness to socially embarrassing behaviour (deSilva, 1984). In this way,

even the Buddhas direct instructions were based on rational consideration.

Moreover, the Buddha urged followers to lead a morally sound life not solely

because it resulted in enlightenment or cessation of suffering, but also because

such a life was conducive to tangible benefits for the individual, and perhaps

more importantly, for society as a whole (deSilva, 1984). Essentially, a lifestyle

characterized by the ethical standards of restraint and moderation at the

individual level is in fact ethical because it perpetuates community well-being,

satisfactory living, and equal rights.

The REBT ethical code mirrors the Buddhas emphasis on empiricism and

anti-dogmatism, such that clients are encouraged to test theories co-generated

by client and therapist during session in a real-life setting. Moreover, REBT

also stresses the notion that individual acts can and often do have a global result,

to the extent that enlightened self-interest (that recognizes the rights of others),

social interest, and commitment to something outside of oneself are key

therapeutic components of REBT (Ellis, 1979). That is, as the individual

facilitates his own well being, he reciprocally benefits society. Relatedly, the

ability to give more to others is eased by the unconditional acceptance ofoneself as a fallible human being who is ready to take action for change

(Elli 1973)



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Applied similarities

A-B-Cs and the Middle Way

It is through the pursuit of a rational and ethical lifestyle that REBT and Zenadherents seek to terminate hassle and suffering, respectively. The direct method

whereby an individual can terminate hassle is achieved therapeutically via

treatment according to Ellis REBT framework. The Buddhist equivalent is

through adherence to the Buddhas Four Noble Truths, which incorporate the

Buddhas seminal works (Pinyunchon & House, 1996). These are: (1) all life is

suffering, (2) suffering comes from desires, (3) the cure for suffering is the

extinction of desire, and (4) the extinction of desire can be obtained by following

a path of right, which is called the Noble Eightfold Path (Pinyunchon & House,

1996, p. 16).

The Noble Eightfold Path advocates the Middle Way, that is, the avoidanceof extremes of either overindulgence and luxurious life on the one hand or a life of

rigorous self-mortification on the other (deSilva, 1990). More specifically, the

Buddha espoused the view that the rational man incorporates the idea of the

Middle Way into eight paths of life: right understanding, right thought, right

speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right

concentration (deSilva, 1990). In following the right (or rational) aspects inherent

to the Middle Way, the individual expedites and ensures his steady progression

toward satori.

The Buddhas Middle Way, essentially a lifestyle that avoids extremes,is rational and leads to the cessation of suffering, is nearly isomorphic with the

A-B-Cs of REBT. That is, as the core of Elliss framework, the A-B-Cs are

designed to provide insight into the individuals ability to determine, in good part,

his own behavioural and emotional experience (Patterson & Watkins, 1996). The

B or Belief component of the model is the crucial factor, for rational beliefs (rB)

lead to rational consequences (rC) and irrational beliefs (iB) lead to irrational

consequences (iC). Thus, an irrational consequence and subsequent emotional

disturbance is caused, not by the A or Activating events, but by the views people

take of these events (Ellis, 1976a). Similarly, the message that humans are largely

responsible for their own emotions and disturbances echoes in the Buddhas

words, . . . it is foolish to see any other person as the cause of our own misery

or unhappiness (Storig, 1964, p. 93). In successfully navigating the Noble

Eightfold Path, the individual attempts to see reality as it is, without distortions

arising from the various factors that characterize the unenlightened persons

functioning (deSilva, 1990). An integral aspect of reaching the state of satori is

the freeing of ones perceptions from these distorting internal influences; when

one reaches a state of perfection, ones perceptions become free of such

distortions and allow for a rational appraisal of the objects (or events) (deSilva,

1990).The REBT therapeutic focus is on the present life situation of the client.

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that Zen facilitates progression along the Noble Eightfold Path in present time.

As Sato (1958) remarks, It is interesting to note that the emphasis on the

now and here in recent Western psychotherapy has been one of the fundamental

principles of the Zen mode of thought ( p. 215).

Active style

An active therapist style is perhaps the most notorious feature of Ellis REBT.

The therapist is verbally active throughout the entire therapy process, and Ellis

(1973) recognizes that he does a great deal of talking rather than passively

listening to what the client has to say. In a decidedly direct fashion, the

identification of irrational beliefs, helping the patient to understand that these

irrational beliefs cause emotional difficulties, and ultimately changing the

irrational beliefs constitute the applied focus of REBT. Accordingly, Ellis

argues that psychotherapy is the curing of unreason by reason (Patterson &

Watkins, 1996). It is asserted in REBT that strong irrational beliefs, neurotic

feelings, and dysfunctional behaviour may need forceful, dramatic, and affective

approaches if they are to change (Ellis, 1962). Similarly, the active or directive

therapeutic style evident in Zen is perhaps best exemplified by the following

parables:

Once Ma-tsu and Pai-chang were walking along and they saw some ducks

fly by. What is that the master asked. Wild ducks, Pai-chang replied.

Where have they gone? Theyve flown away, Pai-chang said.

The master then twisted Pai-changs nose, and when Pai-chang cried

out in pain, Ma-tsu said, When have they ever flown away?

Elder Ting asked Lin-chi, Master, what is the great meaning of

Buddhas teachings? Lin-chi came down from his seat, slapped Ting

and pushed him away. Ting was stunned and stood motionless. A monk

nearby said, Ting, why do you not bow? At that moment Ting attained

great enlightenment (cited in Watson, 1993).

Many examples illustrating the use of such an approach can be found in Buddhist

texts (deSilva, 1984). Relatedly, a particularly functional method of identifying

and changing irrational beliefs inherent to both REBT and Zen is the narrative

technique.

Narratives and koans

The Zen narrative technique is conceivably the most utilized method to assist

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narrative teachings or koans can be best described as a profound story or riddle

that is a tool for the master to help the novice attain an insightful experience

(Sato, 1958). Paramount to Zen practice, koans began in the 7th century and

were more fully developed by the Rinzai school of Zen beginning in the 12th

century (Aitken, 1993). In Zen training the koan can become a process to focusones questioning and corresponding doubt; it becomes a means to see through

the false mind of duality that creates and perpetuates a life of pain, suffering and

anxiety (Nhat Hanh, 1995). With intense effort the koan takes ones natural

questioning beyond thought and perception, beyond the relative and the absolute,

to awaken that which has always been there but has been obscured by clouds of

delusion (Loori, 1994).

Koans can also employ dramatic, forceful, and strongly evocative methods.

Traditionally, the Rinzai school represents a dynamic, powerful Zen, in which

adherents are demanded to experience enlightenment and realize this

experience in their own lives (Kapleau, 1989). Eisai, the fonder of the RinzaiSchool was well-known for his unusual methods, (e.g., shouting, hitting, use of

paradox) which were employed to jolt students out of their fixed ways of

thinking and their habits (Kapleau, 1989). These methods often take the form

of a question and answer session between disciple and master, which involves

sudden beatings and illogical answers all in an attempt to wake or stimulate the

disciples mind to make it ready for the discovery of the truth inside. This style

is perhaps best exemplified by the following koan entitled Chu-chih Raises One

Finger:

Whenever Chu-chih was asked a question, he simply raised one finger.

One day a visitor asked Chu-chihs attendant what his master preached.

The boy raised a finger. Hearing of this, Chu-chih cut off the boys finger

with a knife. As he ran from the room, screaming with pain, Chu-chih

called to him. When he turned his head, Chu-chih raised a finger. The

boy was suddenly enlightened. When Chu-chih was about to die, he said

to his assembled monks: I received this one-finger Zen from Tien-lung.

I used it all my life but never used it up. With this he entered his eternal

rest (cited in Schloegl, 1976).

Koans (or narratives) also have therapeutic value in REBT, particularly as a

method of establishing rapport or infusing humor into the therapeutic situation

(Kwee & Ellis, 1998). Moreover, Kwee and Ellis (1998) contend that from an

REBT perspective, emotional disturbances are largely due to over-seriousness,

and humorous interventions can, (a) highlight the fatuous nature of irrational

beliefs, (b) be an effective teaching device, (c) become a vehicle for rapport

building (p. 10). Accordingly, the following koan was used during an REBT

group therapy session to address guilty feelings when one member reported thathe thinks about other women during sex with his wife. This was done to

ha i that h id a a n al and it i ft n diffi lt t aintain a hi h



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degree of attraction within a long-term marriage (Yankura & Dryden, 1990,

p. 129):

A couple had a good sexual and marital relationship. Theyd been

married for 25 years, their children were grown-up and marriedthemselves, and everything was fine. They decided, Hell its our 25th

wedding anniversary wed better do something special! So they went

for a gourmet meal, which they love. But neither one got very aroused or

excited. Finally, after about ten minutes, the wife patted her husband on

the shoulder and said, Well dear, I guess on this night of all nights,

youre having trouble of thinking of someone else too!

Unwanted cognitions

Another focal point for therapeutic intervention in nearly all psychotherapies is

the issue of dealing with unwanted, intrusive cognitions. Here REBT and Zen

differ somewhat with regard to their exact methodologies. To bring about a

change in irrational thinking the REBT therapist confronts the clients irrational

beliefs, that is, the therapist attacks the irrationality of the cognition (Ellis,

1976b). In contrast, Zen often relies on more non-verbal, internal techniques to

eliminate unwanted cognitions (deSilva, 1985). deSilva (1985) outlines several

techniques based in Buddhist literature that are used to eliminate unwanted

cognitions; these are presented in hierarchical fashion, each to be tried if thepreceding one fails ( p. 438):

(1) Switch to an opposite or incompatible thought

(2) Ponder on harmful consequences

(3) Ignore and distract

(4) Reflect on removal of causes

(5) Control with forceful effort

Meditation, homework, and modelling

Unwanted cognitions are a phenomenon that hold a particularly problematic

significance in Zen training because they distract the novice during meditation

(deSilva, 1985). A mastery of mindfulness meditation becomes essential to the

novice as he progresses toward the state of satori via the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Pali word for meditation, bhavana, etymologically means development or

cultivation (Rajsuddhinanamongkol, 1997), the aim of which is to achieve total

and immediate awareness or mindfulness of all phenomena. Thus, the competent

meditator is able to gradually remove all thoughts and images, thereby allowinghim to let go of cognitive labels, to reopen the senses, and to be more receptive to

int nal and t nal ti li in th d f a Z n a t th indi id al



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learns to be able to see the flower for the five hundredth time as he saw it the first

time (Shapiro & Zifferblatt, 1976, p. 588).

Although relevant, meditation plays a much less significant role in REBT

where it is primarily utilized as a relaxation method (Ellis, 1984; Shapiro &

Zifferblatt, 1976). Often practiced outside of the therapy session, Ellis (1984)notes, . . .meditation usually requires a great deal of self-training, especially

cognitive self-regulation through homework ( p. 672). Meditation from the

REBT perspective in and of itself will not change irrational thinking, but can,

however, help patients with their overwhelming anxieties and dysfunctional

obsessions and compulsions.

In addition to homework, REBT patients are given assignments and in vivo

experiences to complete. Kwee and Ellis (1998) argue that these shame-attacking

exercises of REBT in which clients engage publicly in behaviours normally

considered foolish or silly resemble ordeals that could also be assigned to Zen

novices on their way to satori. Whereas Ellis would urge a client to go into adrugstore at a crowded hour and say to the clerk in a loud enough voice for

everyone to hear, I want a gross of condoms. And because I use so many of them,

I want a special discount (Kwee & Ellis, 1998, p. 35), a Zen master would

perhaps, instead instruct a novice who is fearful of public speaking to work

toward himself becoming a master via giving a public sermon.

Another extension of the homework process is bibliotherapy, whereby

REBT clients familiarize themselves with REBT literature. Similarly, a Zen

master will often train his novice to read and commit to memory the original

Buddhist cannon, the Tipitaka, which consists of three parts: Sutta Pitaka, whichcontains the discourses of the Buddha on various occasions throughout his

preaching life; Vinaya Pitaka, which contains the rules of discipline for the

monks; and Abhidhamma Pitaka, which contains highly systematized philosophi-

cal and psychological analyses.

Both Ellis and the Buddha espouse the notion of setting examples for

followers via modelling or vicarious learning. Teaching by example is a trademark

of both REBT and Zen, and it is through role playing techniques that the client or

novice can begin to generalize to a more rational philosophy of life. More

specifically, to succeed in generalizing to a more rational philosophy of living, the

REBT client will substitute irrational attitudes and beliefs for rational ones. This

goes beyond dealing with specific illogical ideas of clients, it gives consideration to

irrational ideas in general (Patterson & Watkins, 1996). The development of a

rational lifestyle from a modern Zen perspective entails the use of Zen practices

for prophylactic purposes (deSilva 1984, 1990). Mindfulness meditation training,

self-monitoring, following the Middle Way, and other Buddhist techniques

appear to play a potential role in the prevention of certain kinds of psychological

disorders (deSilva, 1990). And finally, the REBT client usually meets with his

therapist once a week, whereas the Zen relationship between novice and master is

continuous and lengthy.The degree of overlap between REBT and Zen becomes rather evident when

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concepts to the REBT therapeutic framework, a shared identity between the two

ideologies emerges. Both Ellis and the Buddha sought to improve the human

condition; and to do so in a rational, empirical manner. An analysis of their

respective theories reveals that the birth of REBT was heavily influenced by the

Buddhas teachings and modern Zen includes Elliss predilection for relativism.Ultimately, as the founding father of REBT, Ellis wryly notes that, like the

Buddha, I try to practice what I preach, and worked my ass off to achieve self-

mastery from my childhood onwards (Kwee & Ellis, 1998).

Author note

The author wishes to thank Randal P. Quevillon, PhD, and two anonymous

reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.

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Albert Ellis and the Buddha Rational Soul Mates