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Advances in Tropical Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences

Advances in Tropical Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences is a peer-reviewed journal which devoted to the advancement and dissemination of scientific knowledge concerning tropical biodiversity and environmental sciences throughout the world for researchers and professionals. The scope of journal is wide and multidisciplinary that publishes original research papers, review articles, as well as conceptual, technical and methodological papers on all aspects includes research findings, experimental design, analysis and recent application in tropical biodiversity and environmental science studies.

This journal published in English and being distributed worldwide. It covers scientific and technological aspects from all fields that have general relevance to tropical biodiversity and environmental sciences including investigations on tropical biodiversity, systematics and taxonomy, terrestrial and aquatic ecology, wildlife management and control, ethnobotany and ethnozoology, tropical plant and animals cultivation, natural product chemistry, ecotourism, environmental remediation and management, and geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing and other modeling application for environmental studies.

ISSN 2549-6980

ISSN 2549-6980

Advances in Tropical Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences

Vol. 1, No. 1, February 2017

Table of Contents

Application of Dosage Combinations of Evagrow Biofertilizer and Chemical Fertilizer on Soil Characteristics, Growth and Yield of Rice I Nyoman Merit, I Wayan Narka, and Tatiek Kusmawati

01-05

The Potency of Endofit Fungi in Cocoa as Biological Agent to Control Cocoa Pod Disease Caused by Phytophthota Palmivora (Butler) Butler I Made Sudarma, Ni Made Puspawati, and I Ketut Suada

06-11

Increase Banana Production with Various Applications of Organic Fertilizers I Nyoman Sunarta and Ni Made Trigunasih

12-14

Utilization of Betel Leaf Extract as Botanical Pesticides to Control meloidogyne spp. and Tomato Plant Production Made Sritamin and I Dewa Putu Singarsa

15-17

Marine Biota and Biodiversity: A Sustainable Tourism Perspective Ni Ketut Supasti Dharmawan and Made Sarjana

18-22

Population Control of Viruses Insect Vectors in Chili with Plastic Mulch K.A. Yuliadhi, T.A. Phabiola, and K. Siadi

23-28

Journal of Advances in Tropical Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 1 No. 1, February 2017 1

Application of Dosage Combinations of Evagrow

Biofertilizer and Chemical Fertilizer on Soil

Characteristics, Growth and Yield of Rice

I Nyoman Merit*, I Wayan Narka, and Tatiek Kusmawati

Program Study of Agroecotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University

Bukit Jimbaran, Badung, Bali 80362

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract. Research on the effect of dosage combination of Evagrow bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizers on soil

properties, growth and yield of rice has been carried out in the glasshouse, Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University using

factorial experiment with a Randomized Block Design (RBD). The first factor is Evagrow bio-fertilizer in 3 level, i.e. E0

(without bio-fertilizers), E1 (5 g bio-fertilizer/L) E2 (10 grams bio-fertilizer/L). The second factor is chemical fertilizer,

which consists of 3 levels: K0 (without chemical fertilizers), K1 (150 kg Urea/ha + 75 kg SP36/ha + 37.5 kg KCl/ha), K2

(300 kg Urea/ha + 150 kg SP36/ha + 75 kg KCl/ha). The results showed that chemical fertilizers give a significant and very

significant effect on most of the rice growth and yield parameters. The application of chemical fertilizers K1 and K2

increased yield of dry grain harvest to 52.87% and 102.54% compared to controls. Application of Evagrow bio-fertilizer did

not significantly increase growth and yield of rice. There is no interaction between chemical fertilizers and Evagrow bio-

fertilizer. Similarly to some of the soil characteristics, biological fertilizer and chemical fertilizer application did not show

significant effect on most of the soil characteristics, except on salt levels.

Keywords: Evagrow Biofertilizer, Inorganic Fertilizer, Oryza Sativa

I INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the main source of

carbohydrate around the world including Indonesia [1].

Demand on rice increase continuously of about 2.23

% per year [2]. Demand of rice increase continuously as

population increased, however, this is not followed by

increased rice production. Demand for rice reached 32

million ton while current national rice production was

only 31.5 ton/ha [3]. Effort to increase rice production via

technology development must be done to support food

security in Indonesia.

Research on application of organic fertilizer such as

cow manure, compost, worm manure and green manure

has been done. Use of organic fertilizer alone, cannot

increase productivity and maintain food security.

Therefore, holistic nutrition approach which combine

application of organic fertilizer and an-organic fertilizer to

increase productivity and environmen-tal sustainability

need to be done [4]. Research on the effect of organic

fertilizer and an-organic fertilizer on rice growth and yield

has been published at Agrivigor Journal, Hasanudin

University, Makassar [5]. The use of bio-fertilizer is still

limited. Research on the use of Nitrobine bio-fertilizer

combine with compost and chemical fertilizer has been

done by El-Nagar (2010) on flower plants for 2 seasons

[6]. Results of their research shows that optimal dose was

15 ton compost/ha, 3g NPK inorganic fertilizer/pot/month

on treatment employ-ing Nitrobine bio-fertilizer 10 g/pot

shows the best respond. It revealed that Nitrobine bio-

fertilizer containing Azoto-bacter, Azospirillum and

phosphate solving bacteria plays an important role in

providing nutrition.

II RESEARCH METHOD

Research was conducted at a green house, Faculty of

Agriculture, Udayana University. Each pot contain 10 kg

soil, keep watered for a week to make it muddy and then

rice seedlings were planted. Research was conducted in

factorial design using Randomized Completely Block

Design. There are two factors were examined: Evagrow

bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizer. Evagrow

biofertilizer treatment consists of 3 level: without

Evagrow bio-fertilizer (EO), 5 g Evagrow bio-fertilizer

(E1) and 10 g Evagrow bio-fertilizer per liter (E2).

Chemical fertilizer consists of 3 level, i.e: without

chemical fertilizer (K0), 150 kg Urea/ha +75 kg SP36/ha

+ 37,5 kg KCl/ha (K1), 300 kg Urea/ha +150 kg SP36/ha

+ 75 kg KCl/ha (K2). In total there are nine treatment

combinations. Each combination consists of 3 replicates

so that there are 27 trial pots.

Parameter observed include soil and plants aspect.

Soil parameters were nitrogen level (N), phosphorous (P)

and Potassium (K), soil pH, C-organic and soil salt level.

Growth parameters include: number of shoots, plant

height, rice yield parameter include: productive shoots,

dry grain weight at harvest, oven dried grain weight, oven

dried of dry shoot weight, and oven dried root weight.

Nitrogen level (N), phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K),

were analyzed using Bray 1 method, C-organic using

mailto:[email protected]

Journal of Advances in Tropical Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences, p-ISSN: 2549-6980 2

Walkey & Black method and soil salt level using electric

conductometer. Materials needed in this experiment were

rice paddy soil sample, rice seedlings, chemicals for soil

analyses, Evagrow bio-fertilizer, and chemical fertilizer

such as Urea (45% N), SP36 (36% P2O5), KCl (60%

K2O). Equipment required were bucket for growing rice,

soil screener, sprayer, oven, digital balance, soil analyses

equipment.

III RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Based on variables observed on rice growth, it can be

seen that chemical fertilizer gave significant and highly

significat effect on plat height, number and dry weight of

shoots. Observation on number of shoot at 56 DAP (days

after planting) shows that highest number of shoots were

on treatment K2 (23.89 shoots), followed by K1 (18.56

shoots) and lowest K0 (13.44 shoots) or increased

38.02% and 77.69% to control, respectively (Table 1).

Increased of number of shoots, shoot dry weight and

shoots height was triggered by applica-tion of Urea (46%

N), SP36 (36% P2O5) dan KCl (60% K2O), which

increased N, P and K availability. Soil use in this

experiment has low fertility; it N-total level was 0.120%

(low), available-P was 1.77 ppm (very low), available-K

was 57.28 ppm (very low). Application of Urea, SP36

and KCl fertiliser has increased N, P and K availability so

that increased rice paddy growth. Rice paddy shoots is an

important indicator for rice paddy growth. Dry shoot

weight was increased on treatment K1 (47.38%) and K2

(91.27%). Improvement on growth, particularly on

number of shoots will increase number of productive

shoots (Table 2). Average productive shoots number after

application of chemical fertilizer was found highest of

treatment K2 (25.67%), which was significantly different

with K1 (20.44%) and K0 (14.78%). Increased on

number of productive shoots affected fruit weight per

shoots. Dry seed weight increased 52.87% and 102.54%

on treatment K1 and K2. This increased was caused by

improved plant growth, particularly on seedling number.

Estimation of grain yield per hectare, with planting

space 30 cm x 30 cm was 5.92 ton/ha on K1 and 7.84

ton/ha on K2, while for control was 3.97 ton/ha. This

increase was due to fertilizer application which give

impact to soil nutrition availability. Increased in nutrition

availability improved rice paddy growth, more seedling

growth and more productive shoots (Table 2), and

resulting in increase on harvested dry grain yield per

hectare (Fig. 1).

Statistical analyses show that chemical fertilizer and

Evagrow bio-fertilizer and its interaction do not give

significant impact on shoot/root. Average shoot/root on

Evagrow bio-fertilizer treatment was found on E1 (6.69),

decreased on E2 (6.00) and lowest on E (5.75), while

average shoot/root on chemical application was highest

on K1 (6.42) which was not significanty different with

K0 (6.01 and K2 (6.00) (Table 2).

TABLE 1.

EFFECT OF EVAGROW BIOFERTILISER AND CHEMICAL FERTILIZER ON RICE PADDY GROWTH.

Treatment

/parameter

Maximum vegetative plant

height

(cm)

Number of vegetative

shoots

(maximum)

Oven dried shoot

weight (g)

Oven dried root

weight (g)

E0 87.11 a 18.56 a 39.37 a 14.55 a

E1 85.56 a 18.22 a 40.03 a 12.34 a

E2 86.89 a 19.11 a 40.38 a 14.29 a

5% LSD - - - -

K0 82.1 a 13.44 a 27.31 a 9.18 a

K1 87.8 b 18.56 b 40.24 b 13.15 a

K2 89.7 b 23.89 c 52.23 c 18.84 b

5% LSD 3.30 2,96 4,98 4,35

E0K0 82.3 ab 13.67 a 27.76 a 9.07 a

E0K1 89.0 d 18.00 bc 40.54 b 14.26 abc

E0K2 90.0 d 24.00 d 49.82 c 20.31 c

E1K0 80.0 ab 11.67 a 25.09 a 9.21 a

E1K1 87.7 cd 19.67 c 40.85 b 11.40 ab

E1K2 89.0 d 23.33 d 54.14 c 16.40 bc

E2K0 84.0 abc 15.00 ab 29.07 a 9.27 a

E2K1 86.7 bcd 18.00 bc 39.34 b 13.79 abc

E2K2 90.0 d 24.33 d 52.73 c 19.82 c

Duncan MDRS MDRS MDRS MDRS

Note: Numbers that followed by same letter in the same column means it not significantly different on 5% LSD and Duncan

5%.


Fig. 1. Estimation of seed yield per hectare on after fertilizer treatment.

Evagrow application did not show significant impact

on growth, yield and soil characteristics. This maybe

caused by microbe that contained in Evagrow fertilizer

was not active and do not grow well. Hight temperature

on the glass house may cause less optimal growth of the

soil microbia. This was shown on the average of rice

paddy plants at 7 DAP to 56 DAP did not show

significant effect, between E0, E1 and E2, rice paddy

height was almost the same.

TABLE 2.

EFFECT OF EVAGROW BIO-FERTILIER AND CHEMICAL FERTILIZER ON RICE YIELD PARAMETER.

Treatmet

/parameter

Number of

productive shoots

Grain weight at

harvest (g)

Oven-dried grain

weight (g)

Estimated dry grain weight

at harvest/ha (ton) Shoot/root

E0 20.33 a 52.57 a 40.11 a 5.84 a 5.75 a

E1 20.11 a 51.24 a 38.83 a 5.69 a 6.69 a

E2 20.44 a 54.79 a 42.09 a 6.09 a 6.00 a

5% LSD - - - -

K0 14.78 a 34.82 a 26.43 a 3.87 a 6.01 a

K1 20.44 b 53.24 b 40.69 b 5.92 b 6.42 a

K2 25.67 c 70.53 c 53.92 c 7.84 c 6.00 a

5% LSD 2,40 5,95 4,49 0,66 -

E0K0 16.00 a 35.8 a 27.50 a 3.98 a 6.07 a

E0K1 19.67 b 52.7 b 40.11 b 5.86 b 5.93 a

E0K2 25.33 c 69.2 c 52.72 c 7.68 c 5.26 a

E1K0 13.33 a 32.3 a 24.24 a 3.59 a 5.75 a

E1K1 21.67 b 53.6 b 40.92 b 5.96 b 7.33 a

E1K2 25.33 c 67.8 c 51.33 c 7.53 c 6.99 a

E2K0 15.00 a 36.3 a 27.53 a 4.04 a 6.22 a

E2K1 20.00 b 53.4 b 41.03 b 5.93 b 6.01 a

E2K2 26.33 c 74.7 c 57.69 c 8.29 c 5.76 a

Duncan MDRS MDRS MDRS MDRS -

Note: Numbers that followed by same letter in the same column means it not significantly different on 5% LSD and Duncan

5%.


TABLE 3.

EFFECT OF EVAGROW BIO-FERTILIZER AND CHEMICAL FERTILIZER ON A NUMBER OF SOIL PROPERTIES.

Treatment

/parameter

N-total

(%)

Available P

(ppm)

Available K

(ppm)

C-organic

(%)

Soil level (mmhos

/cm)

Soil

pH

E0 0,23 a 3,86 a 88,18 a 3,51 a 0,72 a 6,94 a

E1 0,24 a 3,90 a 88,09 a 3,34 a 0,75 a 6,92 a

E2 0,24 a 4,09 a 89,82 a 3,27 a 0,73 a 6,97 a

5% LSD - - - - - -

K0 0,22 a 3,53 a 87,31 a 3,18 a 0,56 a 6,96 a

K1 0,23 a 4,11 a 89,30 a 3,37 a 0,71 a 6,95 a

K2 0,26 a 4,22 a 89,48 a 3,58 a 0,93 b 6,93 a

5% LSD - - - - 0,21 -

E0K0 0,21 a 3,47 a 84,39 a 2,99 a 0,56 a 6,95 a

E0K1 0,23 a 4,04 a 89,99 a 3,66 a 0,69 ab 6,91 a

E0K2 0,25 a 4,08 a 90,16 a 3,90 a 0,90 bc 6,96 a

E1K0 0,23 a 3,41 a 86,78 a 3,27 a 0,58 a 6,96 a

E1K1 0,23 a 4,09 a 88,19 a 3,31 a 0,74 ab 6,92 a

E1K2 0,26 a 4,19 a 89,31 a 3,43 a 0,95 c 6,88 a

E2K0 0,21 a 3,70 a 90,77 a 3,27 a 0,56 a 6,95 a

E2K1 0,23 a 4,20 a 89,73 a 3,13 a 0,69 ab 7,01 a

E2K2 0,28 a 4,39 a 88,97 a 3,41 a 0,93 c 6,95 a

Duncan - - - - MDRS -

Note: Numbers followed by same letters in the same column shows non-significant at 5% LSD or 5% DMRT (Duncan

Multiple Range Test).

The same thing occurred on other growth parameters

such as number of shoot and oven dried shoot weight, did

not show significant effect (Table 1). Effect of Evagrow

bio-fertilier did not show significant effect on rice paddy

growth parameter, also on number of reproduc-tive

shoots. Average number of productive shoot. Evagrow

bio-fertilizer was found highest on E2 (20.33), decreased

but not significant on E0 (20.33 and lowest on E1

(20.11). This maybe due to soil microbia content on bio-

fertilizer, did not develop on soil so that cannot increase

soil nutrition availability

Analyses on a number of soil properties including N-

total, Available-P, available-K after chemical fertilizer

application revealed an increasing tendency but did not

statistically significant. This may due to soil samples was

collected at the end of the research. Nutrition that has

been given may has decreased its availability. This was

because Urea, SP36 and KCL applied was in salt form.

Average salt level on chemical fertilizer was found

highest on K2 treatment (0,93 mmhos/cm), significantly

different with K1 (0,71 mmhos/cm) and K0 (0,56

mmhos/cm (Table 3).

Combination between natural fertilizer and chemical

fertilizer was expected to have significant interaction,

because with the increased of nitrogen, phosphorous and

potassium availability will give favorable condition for

microbial growth. But in this experiment, interaction

between Evagrow bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizer did

not happen. This is because microbial on Evagrow bio-

fertilizer could not grow well, although nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium availability has increased.

IV CONCLUSION

1. Application of Evagrow biofertilizer did not show

significant impact on soil characteris-tics, growth and

yield.

2. Application of chemical fertilizer showed significant

impact on almost all growth and yield parameter.

Application of 150 kg Urea/ha +75 kg SP36/ha +37,5

kg KCl/ha (K1) and 300 kg Urea/ha +150 kg

SP36/ha +75 kg KCl/ha (K2) able to increase harvest

yield, each 52.87% and 102.54% compared to

control.

3. Applicaton of chemical fertiliser did not show

significant impac on soil structure, except for salt

level.

4. There is no interaction between Evagrow biofertilizer

with chemical fertilizer on all parameter observed. Recommendation

It is recommended to continue with field research or

set up a trial on difference bio-fertilizer to find out the

effect of biofertilizer on plant growth and soil structure.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to thank LPPM Udayana

University for the research grant.

REFERENCES

[1] Saragih, B. 2001. Keynote Address Ministers of

Agriculture Government of Indonesia, 2nd National

Workshop On Strengthening The Development And

Use Of Hybrid Rice In Indonesia 1:10.


[2] Arafah and M. P. Sirappa 2003. Kajian penggunaan

jerami dan pupuk N, P, dan K pada lahan sawah

irigasi. BPTP Sulawesi Selatan. Jurnal Ilmu Tanah

dan Lingkungan 4(1):15-24.

[3] Darma, M.D.I. 2007. Swasembada Beras Se-buah

Impian? Available: http://www.bali

post.co.id/balipostceta/2007/9/17/o2.htm.

[4] Suriadikarta, D.A. and R.D.M. Simanungkalit. 2006.

Pupuk Organik dan Pupuk Hayati, Organik Fertilizer

and Biofertili-zer. Bogor: Balai Besar Penelitian dan

Pengembangan Sumberdaya Lahan Pertanian, p. 312.

[5] Arafah. 2005. Pengaruh Pemberian Pupuk Organik

dan Anorganik terhadap Pertum-buhan dan Hasil Padi

Sawah. Jurnal Agrivigor 4(2).

[6] El-Nagar, A.H. 2010. Effect Biofertilizer, organik

compost and mineral fertilizers on the growth,

flowering and bulbs produc-tion of Narcissus tazetta,

Journal Agricul-ture and Environmental Science 9(1).


The Potency of Endofit Fungi in Cocoa as

Biological Agent to Control Cocoa Pod Disease

Caused by Phytophthota Palmivora (Butler) Butler

I Made Sudarma*, Ni Made Puspawati, and I Ketut Suada

Study program of Agroecotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University

Jl. PB. Sudirman, Denpasar, Bali


Abstract. Cocoa pod disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora has resulted in loss of cacao in Indonesia,

especially in Bali. So far the disease control strategy is not fully understood. So there is a need to find an alternative by using

endophytic fungi associated with cocoa plant. Endophytic fungi are needed to be explored in all parts of the cocoa plant such

as stems, leaves and husks. The prevalence of fungal endophyte was determined by the size of its domination on the surface

tissue for protection against pathogen. The exploration of the endophytic fungi benefits is aimed at finding biological agents

that could control of pathogenic P. palmivora. The results showed that 15 types of endophyte fungi have been found in the

healthy leaves, stem and pod husks, with the prevalence of fungal endophyte originated from healthy leaf Mecelia sterilia

(hyphae sterile) around 30%, the endophyte fungi originated from the healthy cocoa stem are Mycelia sterilia, Neurospora

spp and Trichoderma spp around 25%. While the endophytic fungi originated from healthy skin fruit is Trichoderma spp.

around 35%. The in vitro test results of endophytic fungi antagonistic against P. palmivora indicated that the endophyte

fungi originated from the leaf namely Aspergillus spp was obtained at 80 ± 2%, A. niger 90 ± 2%, A. flavus 100%, and

Trichoderma spp. 90 ± 1.5%, the endophytic fungus originated from rods namely Neurospora spp. was 95 ± 2%, and

Trichoderma spp. was 90 ± 2%. While the endophytic originated from rind namely Neurospora spp . was 95 ± 1.5 % and

Trichoderma spp. was 80 ± 2%. The results of in vivo test of antagonistic endophytic fungi against P. palmivora showed that

all of endophytic fungi (Aspergillus sp., A. niger, A. flavus, Neurospora sp., and Trichoderma sp.) have a significant effect in

suppressing the growth of mycelium P. palmivora.

Keywords: Endophytic Fungus, Phytophthora Palmivora, Inhibition, Prevalence, Biological Agents

I INTRODUCTION

Pod rot is important disease in cocoa cultivation in

Indonesia recently, and also in some cocoa producer

countries [1]. This disease has average about 20-30% per

year on damaging cocoa plant all over the world. In some

cases as happen in Samoa America, the cocoa did not

planted commercially because of this disease [2]. Cocoa

was planted around 532.000 ha in Indonesia on the year

of 1999. More than 70% cocoa farmers are the farmer in

Indonesia. Indonesia is the top third cocoa exporting

countries in the world, produce around 335.000 ton per

year, with value 294 million US dollars [3].

Indonesia is the biggest archipelago in the world with

has 17.000 islands (6000 has inhabitant). Indonesia is

tropical country with various climate and humidity from

highland to the lowland. Most of the areas are lowland,

while the biggest island has a mountain. Tropical climate

with rainy season and high humidity in many areas, some

Phytophthora diseases caused a significant damage and

uncontrollable. Phytophthora spp. causes disease on the

agricultural plants, horticultural and industrial in

Indonesia. At least 11 species Phytophthora has been

reported as they resulted in economically yield loss in

Indonesia. Phytophthora palmivora has been identified to

cause an important disease from economical point of

view compared to other Phytophthora species in

Indonesia. Phytophthora palmivora infected more than

138 plants species, with caused average loss around 25-

50% on cocoa plant, while P. capsici caused 52% of

decreasing yield on pepper plant. This disease infected

many plants but the demage still not be able to be

counted, direct demage through fruit infection is showed

by the black rotten. Recently, a set of fruits from young

fruit to mature one is very sensitive to the infection. [3].

Endophyitic fungi which have been isolated from the

tissue of healthy give an new hope for biocontrol of cocoa

pod disease. The study from Mejia et al. (2008) showed

that 40% (21/52) of isolated endophytic fungi were able

to control P. palmivora [4]. One of the isolated fungi

which has antagonist characteristic through a simple

competition mechanism is Trichoderma sp.

II RESEARCH METHOD

Endophyte Isolation

Endophytic fungi used in this study were collected

from cocoa planted in Tabanan. The survey of cocoa leaf

and fruit was done in four different locations at cocoa

plantation centre in Tabanan regency. The obtained leaf

and fruit were washed by flowing water with following



methods: 32 peaces of leaf with size 4 mm2, the shoot and

the flower were cut from the middle of each, the surface

was sterilized in 0,525% sodium hypochlorite for 3

minute, and 70% ethanol for 2 minute; and washed by

sterile water for 1 minute; and then put in the PDA media

(containing antibiotic livoploxacyne 0,1% (w/v). The

grown fungi from the piece of leaf were transferred to the

tube containing PDA for storage and classified through

morphospecies. In order to isolate the endophyte from rod

and fruit, those parts were washed by flowing water and

then devided into 8 pieces. Fruit were cut into 16 cubical

form (8 mm3), 8 from exocarp and 8 from mesocarp. The

surfaces were sterilized and storage with similar

procedure as isolation from the leaf.

Identification of Endophytic Fungi

The storage endophytic fungi were grown on petri

disc containing PDA and repeated 5 times. The cultures

were incubated at dark room and temperature ±27oC. The

isolate was identified macroscopically after 3 days of

culture periode by observe of the colony colour, growth

rate, and microscopically identification was done to

investigate septa on the hyphae, the spora form/conidia

and the sporangiophore. Fungi identification was done by

using some reference books of Samson et al., 1981; Pitt

and Hocking, 1997; Barnett and Hunter, 1998; Indrawati

et al., 1999 [5][6][7][8].

Prevalence of Endophytic Fungi

Determination of endopyhtic fungi prevalence were

done based on frequency of endophytic fungi isolate were

found (eight pieces from leaf, rod, flower and fruit) per

petri disc, divided by all founded isolates timed by 100%.

The number of isolate prevalence will be determining the

dominancy of the endophytic fungi on the healthy cocoa

plant.

Inhibition Assay of Endophytic Fungi to the Pathogen

The ability of each endophytic fungi to inhibit the

growth of pathogenic P. palmivora was tested by dual

culture technique (one pathogen colony in the middle and

two endophytic fungi next to the pathogen, side by side).

Their inhibition can be calculated as follow [9][10]:

A – B

Inhibitory (%) = x 100

A

A = colony diameter P. palmivora in the single culture

(mm)

B = colony diameter P. palmivora in the dual culture

(mm).

In Vivo Antagonistic Assay

In vivo antagonistic assay of endophytic fungi was

done by impaling the fresh fruit by small spleden needle

for 20 times, and then covered by the spore of antagonist

fungi (spore from one petri dish was dissolved in 250 ml

sterile aquadest), then dyed into the spore of pathogenic

fungi (P. palmivora). The assays were setting as follows:

A = control (without covering by antagonist)

B = Antagonist treatment 1 (spore suspension 5x107)

C = Antagonist treatment 2 (spore suspension 5x107)

D = Antagonist treatment 3 (spore suspension 5x107)

E = Antagonist treatment 4 (spore suspension 5x107)

F = Antagonist treatment 5 (spore suspension 5x107)

All of the treatment was repeated 5 times. Experiment

was designed by random group design, and after variance

analysis by ANOVA following by signi-ficance test at

level of 5%. The infection parameters were measured by

counting the number of infected impale divide by all

impale (20 times) timed by 100%.


Endophytic Fungi

The results showed that endophytic fungi obtained

from cocoa plant namely the endophyte from leaf were 7

isolates of Micelia sterilia with, 2 isolates of Aspergillus

spp., 3 isolates of Aspergillus niger, 1 isolate of

Aspergillus flavus, 1 isolate of Fusarium sp., 1 isolate of

Mucor sp., 5 isolates of Trichoderma spp. and 1 isolate of

Verticillium sp. Endophyte from the rod were 5 isolates of

Micelia sterilia, 1 isolate of Botryoderma sp. 1 isolate of

Dactylium sp. 2 isolates of Fusarium sp., 1 isolate of

Oidium sp. 5 isolates of Neurospora spp. and 5 isolates of

Trichoderma spp. The endophyte obtained from the skin

fruit were 3 isolates of Micelia sterilia, 1 isolate of

Cylindrocarpon sp., 2 isolates of Fusarium sp. 1 isolate

of Mortierella sp. 5 isolates of Neuro-spora spp., 1 isolate

of Septocylindrium sp. and 7 isolates of Trichoderma spp.

as showed in Table 1 and Fig. 1.

Endophytic fungi normally exist without any

symptoms (asymptomatically) in the tissue of the host

plant and they have strong attachment to their host. There

are two main reasons of thus attachment i.e. first, they are

growing indicated that endophyte is able to found in all

kind of plant with high abundance and vary. Most of this

endophyte are found in internal infection site at leaf, root,

rod and skin then transmitted horizontally through the

spore. Secondly, the endophyte can produce mycotoxin

and convert the physiology and morphology of the host

plant. Mycotoxin from endophyte has an advantage to the

host plant as acquired plant defenses to face herbivore

insect and grass host [11].

Endophyte from leaf and rod of Endofit yang berasal

dari daun dan Hevea brasiliensis which frequent to found

are the genus of Penicillium, Pestalotiopsis and

Trichoderma [12]. Aspergillus and Fusarium produced

bioactive compound from the host which contain

insecticide activity, cytotoxic and anticancer [13]. The

study from Amin et al. (2014) have found 6 genus of

endophytic fungi in VSD M.05 resistant cocoa plant,

namely Curvularia sp., Fusarium sp., Geotrichum sp.,

Aspergillus sp., Gliocladium sp., and Colletotrichum sp.,

and another four were not be able to identified [14].

Prevalence of Endophytic Fungi

This study showed that prevalence of endophytic

fungi originated from healthy leaf is Mycelia sterilia

(sterile hypha) around 30%, in endophyte from healthy

cocoa rod are Mycelia sterilia, Neurospora spp.

Trichoderma spp. around 25% of each. While in the

endophyte from the fruit skin is Trichoderma spp. 35%


(Table 1). Trichoderma spp., are the dominant genus in

south part of China (4 isolates, 23,5%). It has been

reported that endophytic fungi can produce antitumor or

antifungi activity. The fungi which has been isolated from

the skin fruit of medicinal plant including Pasecilomyces

sp., Cephalosporium sp., Mortierella sp., Mucor sp.,

Trichoderma sp., and Cladosporium sp. [15].

TABLE 1.

THE ENDOPHYTIC FUNGI PREVALENCE ON THE LEAF, ROD AND FRUIT OF THE HEALTHY COCOA PLANT.

Fungi Endophyte from the leaf Endophyte from the rod Endophyte from the fruit skin

Micelia sterilia 6 (30%)* 5 (25%) 3 (15%)

Aspergillus spp. 2 (10%) - -

Aspergillus niger 3 (15%) - -

Aspergillus flavus 1 (5%) - -

Botryoderma sp. - 1 (5%)

Cylindrocarpon sp. - - 1 (5%)

Dactylium sp. 1 (5%)

Fusarium sp. 1 (5%) 2 (10%) 2 (10%)

Oidium sp. 1 (5%)

Mortierella sp. - - 1 (5%)

Mucor sp. 1 (5%) - -

Neurospora spp - 5 (25%) 5 (25%)

Septocylindrium 1 (5)

Trichoderma spp. 5 (25%) 5 (25%) 7 (35%)

Verticillium sp 1 (5%) - -

Total 20 20 20

*Note: the percentage is prevalence (frequency of isolates)

Fig. 1. Endophytic fungi originated from leaf, rod and fruit skin of cocoa plant.

Endophyte from leaf

Endophyte from stem

Endophyte from fruit peel


The Results of Antagonistic Assay Endo-phytic Fungi on

Phytophthota palmivora

The result of this study showed that its obtained

around 80±2% of Aspergilus spp., 90±2% of A. niger,

100% of A. flavus and 90±1,5% of Trichoderma spp in

endophyte from leaf. 95±2% of Neurospora spp. and

90±2% of Trichoderma spp. are obtained from endophyte

which originated from rod. While 95±1,5% of

Neurospora spp. and 80±2% of Trichoderma spp. from

endophyte originated from the fruit skin (Table 2, Fig. 2).

Aspergillus flavus and A. terreus which growing

internally are seed transmitted fungi that can inhibit the

growth of pathogenic Rhizoctonia solani Khun, and then

it’s useful for the control of seed transmitted diseases

which infected several important plant [16]. Most

endophyte which is found in cocoa rod are the genus that

familiar known as soil fungi (Clonostachys and

Trichoderma) [4].

TABLE 2.

INHIBITORY ASSAY OF ENDOPHYTIC FUNGI TO P. PALMIVORA

Fungi Endophyte from leaf Endophyte from rod Endophyte from fruit skin

Micelia sterilia - - -

Aspergillus spp. 80±2% - -

Aspergillus niger 90±2% - -

Aspergillus flavus 100% - -

Botryoderma sp. - - -

Cylindrocarpon sp. - - -

Dactylium sp. - - -

Fusarium sp. - - -

Oidium sp. - - -

Mortierella sp. - - -

Mucor sp. - - -

Neurospora spp - 95±2% 95±1,5%

Septocylindrium - - -

Trichoderma spp. 90±1,5% 90±2% 80±2%

Verticillium sp - - -

Fig. 2. Antagonistic assay of endophytic fungi to P. palmivora, (A) Aspergillus sp., (B) Aspergillus niger, (C)

Aspergillus flavus, (D) Neurospora sp., (E) Trichoderma sp., and (K) Control (Phytophthora palmivora)

7 day after incubation

Trichoderma sp. also found as endophtic fungus

which is able to inhibit Crinipellis perniciosa (Stahel)

Singer, the main cause of Witches Broom disease on

cocoa plant [17]. Trichoderma, has potency as a

biological agent to control Phytophthora spp., moreover

A B

D

C

E K


Fusarium and Verticillium are antagonistic to some

pathogenic fungi [18].

In Vivo Antagonistic Assay

The in vivo antagonistic assay showed that all five

biological agents have a significant different on inhibition

of the P. palmivora growth. The five biological agents

that tested on the fresh fruit i.e. Aspergillus sp., A. niger,

A. flavus, Neurosporas sp., Trichoderma sp. (Fig. 3).

Among endophytic fungi founded on Hevea brasiliensis,

Trichoderma is the most often been found and isolated

[12], and is able to inhibit the growth of P. palmivora

either by competition or antibiosis mechanism. The

percentage of infection are significantly different in all

treatment compared to the control (Fig. 3, Table 3).

Antagonistic treatment using Aspergillus sp. has

percentage infection around 10%, while the other (A.

niger, A. flavus, Neurospora sp. and Trichoderma sp.) has

percentage infection around 5% each.

Fig. 3. The result of in vivo antagonistic assay on fresh fruit (A) Aspegillus sp., (B) Aspergillus niger, (C) Aspergillus flavus,

(D) Neurospora sp., (E) Trichoderma sp. and (K) Control 7 days after incubation

TABLE 3.

THE INFECTION PERCENTAGE OF P. PALMIVORA ON THE FRUIT IN EACH TREATMENT.

No. Tretment Percentage of Infection

1 Control 100 ± 0 a **

2. Treatment with Aspergillus sp. 10 ± 0,2 b

3. Treatment with Aspergillus niger 5 ± 0,1 b

4. Treatment with Aspergillus flavus 5 ± 0,3 b

5. Treatment with Neurosporas sp. 5 ± 0,2 b

6. Treatment with Trichoderma sp. 5 ± 0,1 b

** Significant different at BNT 1%.

IV CONCLUSION

Endophytic fungi which have been found on the leaf,

rod and fruit skin of healthy cocoa are 15 species, with

prevalence of endophytic fungi from healthy leaf are

Mecelia sterilia (sterile hifa) around 30%, on the

endophyte from healthy rod it’s found mycelia sterilia,

Neurospora spp. and Trichoderma spp. around 25% of

each. While at the endophyte originated from fruit skin,

it’s found Trichoderma spp. around 35%. The in vitro

antagonistic assay results of endophytic fungi to P.

palmivora showed that at the endophyte from leaf its

obtained Aspergilus spp. around 80±2%, A. niger 90±2%,

A. flavus 100%, and Trichoderma spp. around 90±1,5%.

On the endophyte from rod, it’s obtained 95±2% of

Neurospora spp. and 90±2% of Trichoderma spp. While

endophyte from the fruit skin, its obtained 95±1,5% of

Neurospora spp. and 80±2% of Trichoderma spp. The

result of in vivo antagonistic assay showed that all of

endophytic fungi (Aspergillus sp., A. niger, A. flavus,

Neurospora sp., dan Trichoderma sp.) have a significant

effect on inhibition the mycelium growth of P. palmivora.

A B

E

A B C

D E K

A

D


ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We acknowledge the rector of Udayana University,

the head of the LPPM, The dean of Faculty of

Agriculture, Udayana University, for all the support from

the start until finishing of this research.

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Tanaman Perkebunan di Indonesia. Yogyakarta:

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Resources Coope-rative Research & Extension 12:1-

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Diversity and Management of Phytophthora in

Southeast Asia Edited by A. Drenth and D.I. Guest,

ACIAR Monograph 114:70-75.

[4] Mejia L.C., E.I. Rojas, Z. Maynard, S.V. Bael, A.E.

Arnold, P. Hebbar, G.J. Damuels, N. Robbins, and

E.A. Herre. 2008. Endophytic fungi as biocontrol

agents of Theobroma cacao pathogens. Biological

Control 46:4-14.

[5] Samson, R.A., E.S. Hoekstra, and C.A.N. Van

Oorschot. 1981. Introduction to Food-Borne Fungi.

Centraalbureau Voor-Schimmelcultures. Institute of

The Royal Netherlands. Academic of Arts and

Sciences.

[6] Pitt, J.I. and A.D. Hocking. 1997. Fungi and Food

Spoilage. 2nd Edition. London: Blackie Avademic

and Professional.

[7] Barnett, H.L. and B.B. Hunter. 1998. Illustrated

Genera of Imperfect Fungi. APS Press. Minnesota:

The American Phytopathological Society.

[8] Indrawati. G., R.A. Samson, K. Van den Tweel-

Vermeulen, A. Oetari and I. Santoso. 1999.

Pengenalan Kapang Tropik Umum. Yayasan Obor

Indonesia. University of Indonsia Culture Collection

Depok, Indonsia and Centraal bureau voor

Schirmmelcultures, Baarn, The Netherlands.

[9] Dolar, F.S. 2001. Antagonistic effect of Aspergillus

melleus Yukawa on soilborne pathogens of

Chickpea, Tarim Bilimleri Dergisi 8(2):167-170.

[10] Mojica-Marin, V., H.A. Luna-Olvera, C.F.

Sandoval-Coronado, B. Pereyra-Alférez, H. Lilia,

Morales-Ramos, E. Carlos, Hernández-Luna, and

G.O. Alvarado-Gomez. 2008. Antago-nistic activity

of selected strains of Bacillus thuringiensis against

Rhizoctonia solani of chili pepper. African Journal

of Biotechnology, 7 (9):1271-1276.

[11] Faeth, S.H. 2002. Are endophytic fungi defensive

plant multualist? Oikos 98:25-36.

[12] Gazis, R. and P. Chaverri. 2009. Diversity of fungal

endophytes in leaves and stems of wild rubber trees

(Hevea brasiliensis) in Peru. Fungal Ecology 3:240-

254.

[13] Zhao, J., L. Zhou, J. Wang, T. Shan, L. Zhoung, X.

Liu, and X. Gao. 2010. Endophytic fungi for

producing bioactive compound originally from their

host plants. In Current Research, Technology and

Educa-tion Topics in Applied Microbiology and

Microbial Biotechnology. A. Mendez-Villas (Ed.)

Formatex pp.567- 576

[14] Amin, N., M. Salam, M. Junaid, Asman and M. S.

Baco. 2014. Isolation and identification of

endophytic fungi from cacao plant resistant VSD

M.05 and cacaomplant susceptible VSD M.01 in

South Sulawesi, Indonesia. International Journal of

Current Micorbiology and Applied Science.

3(2):459-467.

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Congfa. 2010. Isolation and primary identification

of endophytic fungi from Cephalotaxus manii trees.

Maejo Int. J. Sci. Technol. 4(03): 446-453.

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Characterization of anti-fungal property of seed coat

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451.

[17] Rubini, M.R., R.T. Silva-Ribeiro, A.W.V. Pemella,

C.S. Maki, W.A. Araujo, D.R. dos Santos, and J.L.

Azevedo. 2005. Diversity of endophytic fungal

community of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and

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Isolation and Identification of Indigenous

Microorganisms of Cocoa Farms in Cote d’Ivoire

and Assessment of Their Antagonistic Effects Vis-

A-Vis Phytophthora palmivora, the Causal Agent of

the Black Pod Disease, Biodiversity Loss in a

Changing Planet 303-318.


Increase Banana Production with Various

Applications of Organic Fertilizers

I Nyoman Sunarta* and Ni Made Trigunasih

Staff and Lecturer of Agrotechnology Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali,

Indonesia.


Abstract. Banana is a fruit that must be present in every activity of the Balinese people. Almost in every cultural and

religious activity it is compulsory to present the banana fruit, even more Bali as a tourism area really need fruits including

bananas. Therefore the need of bananas is highly demanded in traditional markets or supermarkets in Bali. Until now, the

banana production in Bali is far below demand, therefore we still import form places outside of Bali. Banana has a high

nutrient value due to nutrients found in it such as potassium and folic acid that is needed by the body. It is also a good source

of calcium, phosphor, nitrogen, and vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin C, and B complexes which helps to repair and

regenerate tissues of the body. Banana plants can grow in many places, from low grounds until highlands and in various

types of soil. Nevertheless for the optimal growth; fertile soil, crumbly thick, lots of humus, aeration, and a good drainage as

well as enough water is all needed. By optimizing land use, banana plants are often planted as a sideline plant for plantation

of coconut, cocoa, and coffee, as well as sideline plants for many other in-between plantations. The way of planting the

banana is a conventional method that is commonly used by local farmers including those in the Angkah village. For growth

of banana plants we must consider and ensure before planting a crumbly soil when it is solid, to make drainage, and to make

levels in slopes. During plantation organic/compost fertilizers is needed as much as 15-20 kg for each hole for plantation.

Organic fertilizers that are added influences the good production for both quantity and quality which makes the fruit tastier

and has a higher nutritional value. There are some types of organic fertilizers that are used in this research that are: cow

waste organic fertilizer, chicken waste organic fertilizer, pig waste organic fertilizer, goat waste organic fertilizer, and

compost fertilizer with a dosage of 15 kg per plant. The placement of fertilizers for each places of treatment is conducted by

using a Random Group Design (RGD). The total treatments are 6 and are repeated 3 times. Planting is conducted on the 7th

of July 2016 with a ground hole size of 60cmx60cm and a depth of 50 cm. The seedlings that are used are decedents that are

50-65cm in height. The specific aim that is wished to be achieved is the increase production of banana as sustainable food in

Indonesia. The result up to the progress of this research was found that treatment with chicken waste fertilizer has given the

best influence for growth of the banana plant, increased number of leaves, as well as increased height of the plants, all

compared to the controlled. The increment of banana plant with chicken waste fertilizer was 63.33 cm for 3 months.

Keywords: Banana, Nutritional Values, Production, Organic Fertilizer

INTRODUCTION

I INTRODUCTION

Banana is the most popular fruit in the community

especially in Bali. Almost in every cultural and religious

ceremony there must be some banana fruits, even more

Bali as a tourism area needs fruits especially bananas.

Until today the production of banana in Bali is far from

what is needed, therefore it is imported from places

outside of Bali such as the island of Java, Lombok,

Sumbawa, and even from Celebes. Banana fruit has a

high nutritional value because of its nutritious

composition such as potassium and folic acid which is

highly needed during pregnancy. It is also a good source

of calcium, phosphor, nitrogen, and vitamins such as

vitamin A, vitamin C, and B complexes which helps to

repair and regenerate tissues of the body. Due to its good

nutritional values, therefore banana is a very good healthy

food as a crop fulfillment.

Banana plants can grow in many places, from low

grounds until highlands and in various types of soil.

Nevertheless for the optimal growth; fertile soil, crumbly

thick, lots of humus, aeration, and a good drainage as

well as enough water is all needed. By optimizing land

use, banana plants are often planted as a sideline plant for

plantation of coconut, cocoa, and coffee, as well as

sideline plants for many other in-between plantations.

The way of planting the banana is a conventional method

that is commonly used by local farmers including those in

the Angkah village.



A good media for plantation will be very helpful for

the growth of the bananas. As stated by Anon. (2016) of

which to achieve a good growth of banana plants,

therefore before plantation it is necessary to ensure a

crumbly soil when it is solid hard, to make drainage, and

to make levels in slopes [1]. During plantation

organic/compost fertilizers is needed as much as 15-20 kg

for each ground hole for plantation [2]. Organic fertilizers

that are added influences on a good production for both

quantity and quality which makes the fruit tastier and has

a higher nutritional value [3]. There are a few types of

organic fertilizers found in the Angkah village that can be

used such as: cow waste organic fertilizer, chicken waste

organic fertilizer, pig waste organic fertilizer, goat

organic waste fertilizer, and compost fertilizer from plant

and other organic wastes. The utilization of organic

fertilizers are not yet optimal, it is shown by much

manure are scattered in the farmer’s fields (near the

animal housings) which may be drifted away during rainy

season, especially for the pig waste. Organic fertilizers

are very useful for plants because it could provide macro

and micro nutrients, the media for root growth will be

better, also it has the same characteristic as a soil such as;

soil are more crumbly, can restrain moist longer, better

soil aeration and drainage, and can reduce the drifting of

soil during raining seasons [4].

Considering the reasons above therefore it is needed

to conduct a research/evaluation of the use of various

types of organic fertilizers that are found for banana

plants so it could be useful to use manure waste and more

sustaining a better environment. On the other hand, it is

hoped that the production of the bananas could increase;

therefore the fulfillment of fruits as food stocks can be

optimal. By the increased production, it is hoped that

farmers could earn more; therefore the prosperity of

farmers can be elevated.

II RESEARCH METHOD

The materials used in this research are seedlings of

Green Thailand Bananas as much as 50 plants, cow waste

organic fertilizer, chicken waste organic fertilizer, pig

waste organic fertilizer, goat waste organic fertilizer, and

compost fertilizer. The tools that are used in this research

are plastic bags for soil and manure sampling, stationaries

for observation and measurement in the field, a hoe, a

sickle, knife/cutter, and other things. This Research is a

field experiment which uses a factorial design with a

fundamental Random Group Design (RGD). This

research is commenced by achieving soil samples to

analyze the nutrients. Soil sample that are taken in

different pieces are achieved by the depths up to 30 cm in

some of the research area and are then combined into one

soil sample. The soil sample is dried by wind and then

analyzed in the laboratory to find out the results of: pH

(H2O), N-Total, P2O5 availability, K-Total, salinity, and

organic materials in the soil, as well as the texture of the

soil. For organic fertilizer that is used, samples are also

taken to analyze the composition values of: pH (H2O), N

total, P2O5, and K2O. Experiment with the organic waste

fertilizers are treated by the followings:

1. P0 : Without fertilizers (controls)

2. PS : Treatment with cow waste organic

fertilizer at 15 kg per plant

3. PA : Treatment with chicken waste organic


4. PB : Treatment with pig waste organic


5. PK : Treatment with goat waste organic


6. Kom : Treatment with organic compost


All of the six treatments are each repeated 3 times,

giving a total of 18 treatment areas. Observation of the

research is started by looking at the vegetative

development of the plant such as: height of the plant,

amount and width of the leaves, flower timing (banana

buds), and the weight of the fresh fruit. Results of the

observation are analyzed statistically with differential

Duncan test.


The research results of influences of the types of

organic fertilizers towards the growth and production of

banana plantation are up until this paper was made has

just been up to the observation aspect of the plantation.

Observation of the vegetative growth was the increment

of the amount of leaves and the height of the plant. The

analysis result of the organic fertilizers and the soil of the

research location can be found in Table 1. On the table

above shows that the composition or nutrients and

organic soil in the research area were very low, therefore

it is very much needed to be fertilized, especially with an

organic fertilizer. The average growth of the plant can be

seen in the observation result of the amount of leaves and

the height of the banana plants found in Table 2 and

Table 3.

Observation results of the amount of leaves and height

of the banana plant was found that chicken waste organic

fertilizer had the highest influences compared to the other

organic fertilizer. There is a real influence of organic

waste fertilizer towards the height of the banana

plantation. This is caused by the composition of nutrient

in the soil is low (table 1), and the composition of

nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium elements in chicken

waste fertilizer is the most highest compared to the other

organic fertilizer. With the increase height of the plant

and the amount if banana leaves is hoped to produced

fruits which are much more abundance and faster.


TABLE 1.

ANALYSIS RESULT OF ORGANIC FERTILIZER AND THE SOIL OF THE RESEARCH GROUNDS

No. Item that are analyzed Result of Analysis

pH (1:2,5) C Organic (mmhos/cm) N total (%) P2O5 (ppm) K2O (ppm) Texture

1 Cow waste 7,1 N 28,85 ST 0,63 T 533,86 ST 550,80 ST

2 Pig waste 7,2 N 20,27 ST 2,78 ST 410,27 ST 520,54 ST

3 Chicken waste 7,4 N 24,04 ST 3,27 ST 977,61 ST 1074,35 ST

4 Goat waste 7,2 N 23,80 ST 2,16 ST 816,53 ST 446,36 ST

5 Compost 6,8 N 17,39 ST 0,53 T 706,67 ST 589,51 ST

6 Soil of research ground 6,7 N 1,72 R 0,18 (R) 0,27 (SR) 71,07 (SR) Thick clay

Notes: N= Neutral; R = Low; SR = Very Low; T = High; ST = Very High

TABLE 2.

INFLUENCES OF TREATMENTS TOWARDS AMOUNT OF BANANA LEAVES

Treatment Total Leaves (Sheets) On The Age Of The Plant

1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month

P0. Controlled 3.67 6 7.33 8,00 a

PB. Pig waste 4.33 6.67 7.67 7,67 a

PA. Chicken waste 5.67 7.33 8.67 8,67 a

PK. Goat Waste 5.33 7.33 8.67 8,67 a

PS. Cow Waste 5.00 7 7.67 8,67 a

Kom. Compost 4.67 6.67 7.67 8,33 a

Note: The numbers that are followed by the letters in the same column shows there are differences with no real difference

during the BNT test at 5%.

TABLE 3.

INFLUENCES OF TREATMENT TOWARDS THE HEIGHT OF THE BANANA PLANTS

Treatment Height of Banana Plant at Different Ages

During plantation (cm) 1 Month (cm) 2 Month (cm) 3 Month (cm) 4 Month (cm)

P0. Controlled 55.67 57.67 61.33 71.35 89,33 a

PB. Pig waste 51.33 53.33 57.33 84.67 103,33 d

PA. Chicken waste 53.33 57 66.67 92.33 116,33 e

PK. Goat Waste 62 64.33 68.00 77.33 99,67 c

PS. Cow Waste 61.67 64.33 68.33 76 98,00 c

Kom. Compost 50.67 55.67 59.00 72.67 93,67 b

Note: The numbers that are followed by the letters in the same column shows there are differences with no real difference

during the BNT test at 5%.

IV CONCLUSION

The soil in the research location really needs to be

fertilized especially with organic fertilizers. The chicken

waste organic fertilizer has the best influences and was

significant towards the growth (height) of the banana

plant which was 115,3% from the time it was planted.

While the controlled plant only grown by 88,33% by the

time of plantation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researcher would like to thank the Dean of

Agriculture Faculty and Head of LPPM of Udayana

niversity for the help that is given so this service of

research can be conducted. This research and services is

funded by DIPA PNBP of Udayana University based on

the legal letter For Research commencement Number:

1268/UN14.1.23 /PL/2016, dated on the 21st of

September 2016.

REFERENCES

[1] Anonymous. 2016. Budidaya Pisang. Available

from: http://www.produknaturalnusantara

[2] Bellamy, A. S. 2013. Banana Production Systems:

Identification of Alterna-tive Systems for More

Sustainable Production. Ambio. 42(3):334-343.

[3] Soeparjono, S. 2016. The Effect of Media

Composition and Organic Fertilizer Concentration

on the Growth and Yield of Red Ginger Rhizome

(Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Agri-culture and

Agricultural Science Procedia Vol. 9:450-455.

[4] Ssali, H., B. McIntyre, and C. Gold. 2003. Nutrient

Cycling in Agroeco-systems 65:141. doi:10.1023/A:

1022184927506.

http://www.produknaturalnusantara/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Bellamy%20AS%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=23055273

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3606705/

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210784316301620




http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/22107843

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/22107843

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/22107843/9/supp/C


Utilization of Betel Leaf Extract as Botanical

Pesticides to Control meloidogyne spp. and Tomato

Plant Production

Made Sritamin* and I Dewa Putu Singarsa

Agroechotechnology Program, Faculty of Agriculture of Udayana University


Abstract. Meloidogyne spp. Are among the polyphagous pest that has spread around the world and has been

reported to attack cultivated plants with economic values. Various ways had been applied to control the

Meloidogyne spp. nematodes but has not yet showed any effective results. We are currently using synthetic

pesticides because of its fast response and ability to maintain plant productions. The improper application of

synthetic nematicides would have a negative impact on the environment. The aim of this research is to know the

effectiveness of betel leaf concentration (Piper betel L.) to curb the development of nematodes on Root-Knot

Meloidogyne spp and the growth of tomato plants. This is a descriptive research, with the utilization of betel leaf

extract (Piper betel L,) by concentration treatment of 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 % and 20%, each of which are repeated

five times. Complete Random Sampling (CRS) with the F test is used and continued with the Duncan test at a 5

% rate. The result shows that the betel leaf extract of the 20% concentration was the most effective either on the

growth of plants and to the root-knot nematodes. The suppression of growth in the ground was 80,06% and the

lowest was recorded with the 5% concentration ( 2,32 %); the suppression of root-knot was 45,45 % while the

lowest was with the 5% concentration (12,12 %); the suppression of nematodes population in the roots was 45,45

% while the lowest was with the 5% concentration (39,76 %); and last was the suppression of egg mass which

was 61,73 % while the lowest was shown in the 5% concentration (18,32 %). It can be concluded in this research

that the most effective betel leaf extract concentration was at 20%.

Keywords: Meloidogyne spp., Piper betel L., CRS

I INTRODUCTION

There was a decrease in tomato plant productions

from 647.020 tons in 2005 to 629.744 tons in 2006 [1].

One of the important pests causing the decrease of tomato

production is the root-knot nematodes causing root ulcers,

Meloidogyne spp. These nematodes have an important

role in causing damage on the roots of horticultural

plants, crops, plantation, and weeds [2]. The damage

caused by Melodogyne spp. especially in tomato plants

around the world is significant. Meloidogyne spp. are

among the concerning pests due its polyphagous

characteristic and its growth population has spread

around the world [3].

The Meloidogyne spp. nematode attacks almost every

vegetable plant and some plants can be attacked by more

than one nematodes species. Meloidogyne spp. are spread

all around the world and many have been reported to

attack cultivation plants with economic values, serious

losses could occur when plants are severely infested.

Agrios (1969) stated that losses due to root-knot

nematodes Meloidogyne spp. are variable depending on

the type of plant being infested, the species of

Meloidogyne, and the environment condition [4]. If

young susceptible plants are infested, it would cause it to

die, however if an adult plant are infested, it would have

only a small effect towards the production.

From previous studies using many plant leaves extract

as botanical pesticides, it is found that the use of betel

leaf extract was the best way to suppress nematodes

population, however it is not yet known the most

effective concentration of its botanical use to control

nematodes [5]. Meloidogyne spp. nematodes attack

almost all vegetable plants and some of those plants can

be attacked by more than one nematode species.

Meloidogyne spp. are spread all across the world and

have been reported to attacked many cultivation plants

with economic values, of which severe losses can happen

if the plants are severely infested. Agrios (1969) stated

that the loss due to root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne

spp. varies depending on the types of plants.

Various ways of controlling is applied towards root-

knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp. which includes

plantation of nematode resistant varieties, plant rotation,

and technical culture, however these controlling methods

is less effective to suppress Meloidogyne spp. population

[6]. Until now, many farmers are still using synthetic

pesticide on tomato plantation to control nematodes due



to its fast response and ability to maintain plant

productions; however improper application of synthetic

nematicides will have a negative outcome towards the

environment. The purpose of this research is to know the

effectiveness of the concentration level of betel leaves

extract to suppress the development of root-knot

nematodes Meloidogyne spp. in tomato plants, to know

the development of tomato plants after being treated with

betel leaves extract and also to know the result of tomato

plant productions. The major purpose in this research is to

support farming and to increase their family income,

especially for tomato productions.

II RESEARCH METHOD

The research is conducted in an experiment garden of

the Agriculture Faculty in conjunction with Laboratory of

Pests and Plant Disease of Agriculture Faculty Udayana

University, of which is a descriptive research which

utilize piper betel leaf extract as treatment with the

concentration of 0%, 5%, 15% and 20%. Each treatment

is done with five repetitions which are given to tomato

plants which have been infested with root-knot

nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. This research uses a

Complete Random Design (CRD) analyzed by F-test and

continued with Duncan’N 0,05 (5%).


The research result shows that all treatment that was

given had a real effect towards all changes that was

observed. Towards the growth of plants, the

concentration of betel leaf extract that was used, has

given different effects on the changes observed, one of

which the 20% concentration has given the best result

towards plant growth compared to the other, while the

growth is retarded with the usage of lower concentration.

This result is supported by other studies conducted by

Ambika and Poonima (2014) in India which states that

treatments with Kirinyuh leaf extract applied into the soil

of soy bean plantation can increase the height of the plant

by 15 %, root length by 40%, and attached beans by

163%. Statistical analysis result showed real differences

between treatment with 20% concentration compare with

the controls and between treatments which had shown

real differences presented in Table 1.

IV CONCLUSION

As for the nematodes population in the soil, the 20%

concentration has had the biggest suppression at 80,06%,

and the smallest was with the 5% concentration with

2,32%; as for the amount of root-knot, the 20%

concentration suppression was 45,45% and lowest was

with the 5% concentration at 12,12%; as for nematodes in

the roots, the 20% concentration suppression was 76,14%

and lowest was with the 5% concentration at 39,76%; and

for the amount of egg mass with the 20% concentration

suppression was 61,73% and lowest was with the 5%

concentration at 18,32%. In this research, it has been

concluded that the most effective concentration of betel

leaf extract is 20%. Treatment applied for plant growth

showed the best plant growth also occurred with the 20%

concentration treatment while the least growth occurred

with the 5% concentration treatment. From the result it

can be concluded that the best concentration of betel leaf

extract is with the 30% concentration.

Feedback:

1. Need to conduct further research in the field with the

effective concentration (20%) with tomato plantation.

2. Needs to conduct further research with other types of

plants and different types of nematodes; on different

types of plants that are attacked by root-knot

nematodes or parasitic nematodes

TABLE 1.

THE INFLUENCE OF BETEL LEAF EXTRACT APPLICATION IN VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS TOWARDS

SOME CHANGES.

Note: Numbers of which are followed by different letters in the same columns has a result of significantly different at the

level of testing with Duncan’N 5% (0,05)


ACKNOWLEDGMENT

1. To the Headmaster of Udayana University who had

given us the chance to conduct this research until

completion.

2. To the head of LPPM of Udayana University who

had given me the chance to conduct this research

through the budget listing of Budget conduction

program of Udayana University.

3. To the team of research and university students who

had been involved in this research.

REFERENCES

[1] Badan Pusat Statistik dan Direktorat Jendral Bumi

dan Produksi. 2006. Produksi Tomat Menurut

Provinsi Tahun 2002-2006. Available:

http://www.bps.go.id//produksitomat/ [15 June

2013].

[2] Dropkin, VH. 1991. Pengantar Nematologi

Tumbuhan Edisi 2. (Terjemahan). Yogyakarta:

Gadjah Mada University Press.

[3] Adiputra, M. G. 2006. Pengantar Nematologi

Tumbuhan. Jurusan Hama dan Penyakit Tumbuhan

Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Udayana.

[4] Agrios, G.N. 1970. Plant Pathology. 2nd Printing.

New York: Academic Press. 629 p.

[5] Sritamin, M., I N. Wijaya, dan I D.P. Singarsa.

2015. Efektifitas Berba-gai Konsentrasi Ekstrak

Jenis Daun Tanaman Terhadap Populasi Nematoda

Puru Akar, Meloidogyne spp. dan Hasil Tanaman

Tomat. Laporan Hasil Penelitian Hibah Unggulan

Udayana 2015.

[6] Kerry, B.R. 2001. Exploitation of the nematophagus

Fungal Verticullum chlamydosporum Godard of the

Biological Control of Root-Knot Nematodes.


Marine Biota and Biodiversity: A Sustainable

Tourism Perspective

Ni Ketut Supasti Dharmawan1 and Made Sarjana2

1 Civil Law Department, Faculty of Law, University of Udayana, Jalan Bali No.1, Denpasar, Bali, 80114, Ph./Fax: 0361

222666, Email: [email protected] 2 Civil Law Department, Faculty of Law, University of Udayana, Jalan Bali No.1, Denpasar, Bali, 80114, Ph./Fax: 0361

222666, Email: [email protected]

Abstract. Protection and conservation of marine biodiversity and their utilization based on sustainable environment,

balance, and fairness play an important role in the context of sustainable tourism. The importance of protecting the

availability of a healthy environment, which not only focuses on the present, but also a sustainable environment for future

generations, is regulated under several provisions such as: Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 27 Year 2007 on the

Management of Coastal Areas and Small Islands, Law No. 32 of 2009 on the Environmental Protection and Management,

Law No. 10 Year 2009 on Tourism, Law No. 5 Year 1990 on the Conservation of Biological Diversity and Ecosystems, the

UN WTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, and the Convention on Biological Diversity. In order to protect and conserve

marine biodiversity, it is considered relevant to use deep ecology approach in realizing the presence of marine biota and

sustainable biodiversity for the entire ecosystem of life, including human life ecosystems in the development of tourism

activities. States and all stakeholders have responsibility for the protection and conservation of biodiversity, including

sustainable development of marine biota and its diversity for tourism activities.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Protection, Conservation, Responsibility, Sustainable Tourism

I INTRODUCTION

Article 5 letter b of Law No. 10 Year 2009 on

Tourism (Tourism Law) regulates linkages between

tourism activities with Human Rights, especially based on

the principle of individual right which one of the

embodiment is the right to tourism [1]. However, such

Tourism Law also regulates the rights aimed at the

interests of the Third Generation of Human Rights,

namely its collective nature or intended for the public.

That can be seen in the Considering section letter (a)

which determines that the nature, flora and ancient relics,

relics of history, art and culture of the Indonesian nation

constitute as resources and capitals of tourism

development to increase the prosperity and welfare of the

people as contained in Pancasila and the Preamble of the

1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia. The

resources and capitals of tourism development are very

important to be maintained in order to establish a

sustainable tourism. The Third Generation of Human

Rights is also known as the Collective Rights or Peoples

Rights [2]. Vasak (1990) suggested that the Third

Generation of Human Rights is based on the principles of

fraternity or solidarity while the First and Second

Generation of Human Rights are based on the principle of

Individual Rights [3]. The fulfilment of the individual

rights, such as the right to tourism supposes not making

the rights of society as a whole to be reduced or

neglected.

In order to fulfil the right of everyone to tourism,

various tourism activities have been developed. In the end

it is realized that tourism activities actually bring in

foreign exchange and improve people's welfare and

national development. Such development also aims to

attract tourists to see the view of various rivers,

mountains and the beautiful expanse of nature, to the

tourist areas known as the underwater attractions. The

underwater attractions present the beauty inside the sea.

By diving for example, reefs and wide variety of species

of fish and marine life will be seen and enjoyed by

tourists. Indonesia’s underwater tourism is widely known

in international level. One of them is located in

Tulamben, Karangasem of Bali Province. Tulamben is

very popular because it is easy to reach the location, it has

beautiful coral reefs and a variety of unique underwater

creatures and the diversity of marine fish ranging from

small ones like sea slugs, crabs, shrimps, jack fish, lion

fish, garden eels, ghost pipe fish and pygmy seahorse

until up to the big ones as sharks, molamola. Tulamben




also supported by beatiful coral reefs that sticks to the

walls of the cargo ship United USAT Liberty Glo sinking,

who difers at a depth of 5 to 30 meters can enjoy the

cracks ship united with marine life, coral reefs and variety

of unique fishs which are sweaming around the venue.

Moreover, Tulamben also offers a wide range of products

related to the submarine tourism such as: offering many

dive sites suitable for diving courses, fun dive and

underwater photography.

The charm of the underwater flora and fauna as well

as the beauty of diversity marine life on one hand can

support enjoyment of the tourists. They enjoy, happy, and

may more fresh after vacation surrounding the marine

tourism areas. However, on the other hand the beauty of

the underwater attractions and a variety of marine life and

its biodiversity can be potentially endangered as a result

of excessive and irresponsible exploitation of tourism

activities. The sea with its biodiversity is losing its quality

standards and function as a result of such overuse. The

tourism sector is also criticized as the sector that is

supported by the sea as its charm which in the end leaves

another problem related to the sustainability of

biodiversity including the ecosystems of underwater

biota. In relation to this phenomenon, it is important to

examine the responsibility of tourism sector related with

protection and conservation to marine biota and its

biodiversity. This study focuses on the study of: how is

the regulation of marine biodiversity related to

sustainable tourism? As well as who is responsible for the

management of protection and conservation of the

biodiversity? The purpose of this paper is to analyse the

regulation of marine biodiversity, including in the

national and international dimension as well as to analyse

the responsibility of the state and relevant stakeholders in

the management of protection and conservation of marine

life biodiversity.

II RESEARCH METHOD

This is a normative legal research which employs

Statute, Conceptual, Comparative as well as Deep

Ecology approaches. The examined legal materials are

the primary and secondary legal materials. All legal

materials were analysed in descriptive qualitative.


The Regulation on Marine Biodiversity Conservation in

Tourism Activities

Point (c) of the Consideration section of Tourism Law

stipulates that tourism is an integral part of national

development which is done in a systematic, integrated,

sustainable and responsible ways while providing

protection towards religious values, the living culture in

society as well as sustainability and quality of the living

environment. In relation to that, the appropriate

stakeholders of tourism activities, especially the

corporations that take advantage of the panoramic of

underwater biota and biological diversity as part of its

activities, together with the government and the state are

responsible for realizing the tourism activities oriented to

the sustainable management, conservation and

environmental protection.

In improving sustainable tourism activities especially

those which are supported by the charms of the sea,

several provisions can be seen as relevant, namely:

Article 5 paragraph (1), Article 20 paragraph (1) and

Article 33 paragraph (3) of the 1945 Constitution of the

Republic of Indonesia and Law No. 27 Year 2007 on the

Management of Coastal Areas and Small Islands [4][5].

Coastal areas and small islands are part of the natural

resources given by God Almighty which wealth is

controlled by the state and must be preserved as well as

its utilizations are for the greatest prosperity of the

people, both for the present and future generations. In this

regard, the exploitation of marine life and biodiversity in

tourism activities shall refer to the Law No. 27 Year

2007.

Indonesia is famous as a country with its beautiful and

extensive of coral reefs. Indonesian coral reef

preservation plays a very important role both nationally,

regionally and globally - a total area of the world’s coral

reefs reached 284.300 km2. Of the area, the Indonesian

water is the one who has the most extensive coral reef,

which is 51.020 km2 (18% of the world's coral reefs)

followed by Australia (48.000 km2) and the Philippines

(25.000 km2). Because of it is extensive and its diversity

of species is very high, Indonesia is mentioned by the

oceanographers as the centre of global coral triangle.

Although Indonesia has beautiful and extensive coral

reefs, however it cannot be denied that the reefs in

Indonesian water are suffering serious destruction and

therefore requires attention from all parties. The

prohibition against malicious activity on coral reefs

stipulated in Article 35 of the Law No. 27 Year 2007

which basically sets the prohibitions on taking coral reefs

in the conservation areas, using explosives, toxic

substances, and/or other substances that destroy coral reef

ecosystems and taking equipment, means, and other

methods that destroy coral reef ecosystems. The provision

of Article 1 paragraph (3) of Law No. 32 of 2009 on the

Environmental Protection and Management also regulates

sustainable development as a conscious and planned

effort that combines aspects of environmental, social, and

economic development strategies to ensure the

environmental integrity and safety, capability, prosperity

and quality of life of present and future generations [6].

With regard to the achievement of tourism sustainable

development, there are three important pillars that must

be considered and maintained in harmony, namely: the

balance of economy, environmental and social coupled

with the pillar of climate change. The issue of climate

change has an influence both directly and indirectly to the

development of economy and social culture [7].

The regulation on biodiversity can also be found in

Article 2 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity

1992 (CBD): “Biological diversity” means the variability

among living organism from all sources including, inter

alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and

the ecological complexes of which they are part: this

includes diversity within species, between species and of

ecosystems [8]. Based on the definition set out in Article


2 of the CBD, Kundis Robin Craig (2005) identified three

(3) important elements in regulating the definition of

biodiversity, namely: genetic diversity, species diversity

and ecosystem diversity [9]. Besides that, such Article 2

also stresses that biodiversity including the study of

biodiversity in the terrestrial, marine and other aquatic

ecosystems and the ecological complexes which they are

part (other aquatic ecosystems). Indonesia as one of the

countries that ratified the CBD through Law No. 5 Year

1994 stipulates that "biodiversity" is diversity among

living organisms from all sources, including, terrestrial,

marine and other aquatic ecosystems as well as the

ecological complexes that are part of its diversity, this

includes diversity within species, between species and of

ecosystems. The existence of biodiversity both in the

marine, terrestrial and other aquatic ecosystems are very

important to be protected and preserved because its

existence has a very large contribution to the quality of

human life.

The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP),

stressed that the loss of biodiversity threatens our food

supplier, opportunities for recreation and tourism, as well

as sources of wood, medicines and energy [10]. To

emphasize the importance of preserving the existence of

biodiversity, Indonesia as a member state, in the letter (b)

of the Considering section stipulates that The existence

and sustainability of biodiversity includes ecosystems,

species and genetic includes animals, plants and micro-

organisms need to be guaranteed for life. Indeed the

existence of biodiversity, including marine life is very

helpful. One of the benefits is to support food chains and

nets. Biodiversity supports ecosystem stability, namely:

food chains and nets are in balance, the balance of species

composition, as well as the more complex components of

the ecosystem, the more efficiently the ecosystem will

last [11]. In order to support policies and agreements to

the CBD, a number of protocols have been issued in

international level such as: the Cartegena Protocol on

Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, and

the Nagoya Protocol on Access to genetic Resources and

the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from

their Utilization to the Convention on Biological

Diversity (Nagoya Protocol) [12].

Regulation on the protection and conservation of

biodiversity including marine life is very important to be

enforced, especially in the context of sustainable

ecosystem. It is because sustainable ecosystems always

put balance and harmony, interdependence between

humans and the natural surroundings based on the deep

ecology with ecosophy approach and its relevance with

human rights. The utilization of the current biodiversity

resources has relevance to ensure sustainable

environment included therein in order sustainable

tourism. Article 1 Paragraph (2) and Paragraph (3) of

Law No. 5 Year 1990 on the Conservation of Biological

Diversity and Ecosystems regulates matter on the

management of natural resources which utilization is

wisely used to ensure a balance supply while maintaining

and improving the quality of its biodiversity and values,

as well as the existence of natural resource ecosystems

[13]. It is a system of interrelationships between

elements in nature, both living and non-living, which are

mutually dependent and influencing.

Protection and conservation of marine biota constitute

an integral part of the marine protection in a broader

context, as can be seen from the Law No. 32 Year 2014

on Marine (Marine Law). Marine conservation cannot be

separated by the activities or efforts towards the sea.

Indonesian marine law also emphasized the importance of

the underlying management and utilization of marine

resources based on the notion of blue economy. Based on

the elucidation of Article 14 Paragraph 1 of Marine Law,

it is noted that “blue economy” is an approach to improve

the sustainable marine management and conservation as

well as coastal resources and their ecosystems in order to

realize economic growth with the principles among

others: community involvement, resource efficiency,

waste minimization, and multiple revenue. Gunter Paulli,

originator of the first blue economy concept which

criticized the weakness of the concept of the green

economy, argues that the blue economy is the economic

development based on marine aspects, but not only

exploit marine resources but also the maintain and protect

marine ecosystems. This concept is a form of marine

industrialization and fisheries policies which is based on

modernization. In other words, this blue economy

accelerates economic growth by exploiting the marine

and fisheries potential [14].

The blue economy concept is very relevant to be

applied in marine management in Indonesia, including in

the biodiversity and marine biota protection and

conservation. It is because as it is known, Indonesia is the

largest archipelago in the world with 95.181 km long of

coastline, and with the sea area of 5.4 million km2.

Indonesia has huge potential marine resources, including

its biodiversity and the largest non-living marine and

aquaculture of the world. In connection to Indonesia’s

marine potential, the government’s role is needed to

develop the marine-based economic sectors. One idea that

can be applied to accelerate the development of marine

economy of Indonesia is to use the concept of the blue

economy (Ibid.).

Stakeholder’s Responsibilities in Protecting Marine Biota

and Biodiversity

The continuation existence of biodiversity and

ecosystems, including marine biota as has been stated

previously, is very beneficial to the surrounding

environments, including human life. The extinction of

one species of biodiversity will disturb other ecosystems,

therefore, in a variety of regulations that intersect with the

environment including marine environment, it is easily to

be found provisions on the protection and conservation

which are able to guarantee the sustainability of the

ecosystem for the benefit of future generation. In other

words, sustainable development, sustainable environment

and sustainable tourism aimed not only to the present life,

but also ensure its survival for future generation.

Holistically with the principle of Deep Ecology approach,

in order to ensure the sustainability of biodiversity and

the whole ecosystem, the frontline responsibility is on the

shoulders of the state. The provision on it can be seen


through the general elucidation of Law No. 32 Year 2009

which regulates that a good and health living environment

constitutes as human rights and constitutional rights of

every citizen of Indonesia [15]. Therefore, the state, the

government and all stakeholders are obliged to carry out

sustainable environmental protection and management

therefore environmental still being as source of life and

support of the Indonesian people as well as other living

things.

Article 235 of the United Nations Convention on the

Law of the Sea (hereinafter referred to as UNCLOS) of

1982 determines that each state is responsible for

fulfilling international obligations concerning the

protection and preservation of the marine environment.

Each state should ensure the availability of effort in their

law system on how to obtain compensation promptly and

adequately with regard to the damage caused by natural

persons or legal entities under its jurisdiction. Each state

should cooperate in implementing the international law

governing the responsibility and liability indemnity for

compensation for losses due to pollution of the marine

environment, as well as the payment procedure. Indonesia

is one of the states that have ratified the UNCLOS 1982.

Article 25 in conjunction with Article 26 of Marine Law

stipulates that in order to utilize and manage the marine

industry (one of which industrial biotechnology), the

Central Government and the Local Government are

responsible to develop and enhance the marine

biotechnology industry which is done by utilizing the

potential of biodiversity aimed to transform and prevent

the extinction of marine life as a result of exploration

excess, develop environmentally friendly technology at

every marine industry, and develop marine resource

management system on an on-going basis. Besides that,

all relevent stakeholders in the utilization of biological

diversity are responsible together with the government to

ensure the protection and implementation of conservation

and to prevent environmental pollution so it is not

damaging or interfering with the survival natural

resources biodiversity including marine biota. Provisions

governing the responsibilities of stakeholders can be seen

in: Article 23-26 of Tourism Law, as well as Article 3 the

UN WTO [16].

IV CONCLUSION

1. Regulation on the protection and conservation of the

biodiversity and marine life is set out in a range of

conditions both internationally as the United Nations

Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992 and its

Protocols or nationally which basically stipulates that

biodiversity is including diversity among living

organisms from all sources, including, terrestrial,

marine and other aquatic ecosystems as well as

ecological complexes that are part of its diversity, this

includes diversity within species, between species and

ecosystems. Conservation activities are very

important to be maintained, protected and carried out

its presence is very beneficial to the quality of human

life, especially in the context of sustainable human life

in the human rights dimension, including sustainable

tourism.

2. The parties responsible for the law enforcement in

relation to the protection of biodiversity and marine

life in the context of sustainable tourism are the state

and all stakeholders including corporations in tourism

sector associated by various laws such as the CBD,

the UN WTO, Law on Environmental Protection and

Management, Tourism Law and Marine Law.

Suggestion

1. Government is expected to make Action Plan with

regard to the protection and conservation of

biodiversity, particularly marine biota and disseminate

it in a sustainable manner, especially to the relevant

stakeholders engaged in tourism activities. Therefore,

the existence of biodiversity of marine life will be

save and continue to be useful in the context of the

fulfilment of human rights towards ecosystem

resources for the future generations.

2. Governments, law enforcement officers and

academics are expected to disseminate the

responsibilities of all stakeholders to jointly enforce

the law both in the local, national and international

levels with regard to the protection and conservation

of biodiversity, in particular, marine biota.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Through this article, we would like to deliver our

sincere gratitude to the Dean of the Faculty of Law,

University of Udayana, Head Master of Notary and

LPPM of University of Udayana for the financial and

moral supports therefore this HUPS research and its

publication can be held on time.

REFERENCES

[1] Law No. 10 Year 2009 on Tourism

[2] Freedman, R. 2013. Third generation Rights: Is

There room for Hybrid Constructs Within

International Human rights Law, Cambridge Journal

of International and Comparative Law (2)4:935.

[3] Bülent. A. 2004. Rethinking Third Generation

Human Rights, Ankara Law Review Vol. l, No. 1.

Summer 2004.

[4] The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia.

[5] Law No. 27 Year 2007 on the Management of

Coastal Areas and Small Islands

[6] Law No. 32 of 2009 on the Environmental

Protection and Management.

[7] Chatarayamontri, N. 2009. Sustainable Tourism

And The Law: Coping wih Climate Change

(Dissertation & Theses), Paper 6, Available:

http://digitalcommons.pace.edu /lawdissertations/6.

[8] The UN Convention on Biological Diversity.

[9] Craig, R. K. 2005. Protecting International Marine

Biodiversity: International Treaties and National

Systems of Marine Protected Areas, Journal of Land

Use Vol.20, No.2., Spring 2005.

[10] UNEP (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological

Diversity). 2000. Sustaining life on Earth How the

Convention on Biological Diversity Promotes

Nature and Human Well-Being.


[11] Arthana, I.W. 2016. Tantangan dan Solusi

Perlindungan dan Pemanfaatan Berkelanjutan

Keanekaragaman Hayati di Bali, makalah dalam

Konsultasi Publik Diplomasi Indonesia menuju

Konferensi Negara Pihak ke-13 Konvensi PBB

Keanekaragaman Hayati, 16 Juni 2016.

[12] Arsika, I M.B. 2011. Implikasi Ratifikasi Dan

implementasi Atas Konvensi PBB mengenai

Keanekaragaman Hayati, Makalah dalam Konsultasi

Publik Diplomasi Indonesia menuju Konferensi

Pihak ke-13, 16 Juni 2016.

[13] Law No. 5 Year 1990 on the Conservation of

Biological Diversity and Ecosystems.

[14] Satria, A. E. 2014. Ekonomi Biru Sebagai Prinsip

Ekonomi Berkelanjutan di Indonesia, Available:

http://www.kompasiana.com/andikaekasatria/ekono

mi-biru-sebagai-prinsip-ekonomi-berkelanjutan-di-

indonesia_54f4b808745513a32b6c8d3b

[15] Law No. 32 Year 2014 on Marine

[16] The UN WTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism.


Population Control of Viruses Insect Vectors in

Chili with Plastic Mulch

K.A. Yuliadhi *, T.A. Phabiola and K. Siadi

Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia


Abstract. The incidence of diseases caused by pathogenic viruses in chili is still a major problem in reducing the

production of chili in Indonesia. Most agricultural crops are hosts for one or more types of plant viruses, so the virus

continued to be a problem in the tropics. Virus is passive, requires intermediaries vector to be transmitted to other plants.

The goal of this research was to develop control strategies for aphids that act as a viral vector and pest chili plants using

plastic mulch. Control design that was developed in this study based on the habits of local farmers, using plastic mulch with

two colors, black and silver. Mulching is done to dispel the arrival aphids into the chili crop, at the same time preventing the

emergence of weeds that act as alternative hosts of the virus. The use of silver plastic mulch to control vector viral

populations was better compared to black plastic mulch during chili planting. The use of silver plastic mulch can improve

yields of chili crops.

Keywords: Aphid, whiteflies, Chili chili, virus

I INTRODUCTION

The chili production is still low in Indonesia, which

merely 4.35to/ha, while the potential production are more

than 10ton/ha. One of the cause is plant pests that affect

from nursery through the post-harvest. Among the plant

pests, that most affecting the production of chili is the

group of viral pathogens. Viral infection on chili plant

reduced between 32-75% of its production [1] or up to

68.22% found by Nyana (2012) [2]. The host range of

viruses that cause disease in chili is very broad, including

intermediate host that can provide a source of inoculum at

any time, such as some weeds. Weeds that are growing

around chili plants can lead to competitions among the

and may also be an alternative host of the viruses [3].

Chili plant virus remains a problem to this day. This is

because the source of inoculum available throughout the

year, abundance of the vector that are active all the time,

and there is no insulation between the gardens. Insects are

the most important vectors of plant viruses. There were

approximately 700 known species of plant viruses in

1991, which 426 species are transmitted by insects [4].

The species of Aphids have been known to avoid silver

reflection of light [5]. The avoidance of silver light by

the insects gives us an opportunity to use plastic mulch to

plant crops. Control of virus spread was aimed of this

study by preventing the contact between infective aphids

carry viruses (viruliferous) with chili cultivated plants.

Prevention was done by implementing silver and black

plastic mulch.

II RESEARCH METHOD

The research has been conducted at Kerta Village,

Payangan, Gianyar Regency. The research was begins

with the soil tillage and seed preparation, installation of

plastic mulch in the beds, planting, maintaining and

harvesting crops. This study was dsesigned in a

randomized block design with 3 treatments and 9

replications. All three treatments tested were: 1. Planting

virus-free seedlings without mulch (K), 2. Planting virus-

free seedlings with silver plastic mulch (MP) and 3.

Planting virus-free seedlings with Black plastic mulch

(MH). Confirmation of viral infection is done in

serological testing by ELISA technique.

Serology detection with ELISA technique was

performed using symptomatic plants mosaic with specific

antiserum CMV and TMV, while for ChiVMV was using

antiserum Universal Potyvirus with DAS-ELISA method

following the procedure described in the kit antiserum

used (Agdia, USA). Value absorbance was measured at

405 nm with an ELISA Reader Data was analysed. In

order to determine the effect of the treatments given, the

observed data was analysed in the analysis of variance

(ANOVA), if there was a significant different among

treatments (p ≤ 5%) observed, further Duncan analysis

was conducted.




Apids Population

Insect virus vector found in this study was the species

of aphids and whiteflies, the species of whitefly was

Besimia tabaci (Table 1). The average population of

aphids and whiteflies changes in accordance with the host

plant growth stages of each period of observation. Myzus

persicae population at the beginning of the observations

increased (Fig. 1), in line with the growth of chili plants

and culminated in the observation VI.

Fig. 1. The average abundance of Myzus persicae at time observation (individuals/plant).

An increase in the population of both species of

aphids M. persicae and A. gossypii from the initial

observation period to the highest in the observation

period VI, because the chili or chili plant was in peak

period of vegetative growth, and the availability of young

leaves attract the M. persicae and A. gossypii to visit.

Young leaves provide food sources for aphids. Aphids

can grow optimally when plants sprout [6]. The

abundance of M. persicae and A. gossypii will decrease

when the plant get older or entering the generative period,

the plant tissue is tougher and the cell fluid was reduced,

so it can support the aphid life. The abundance of aphids I

chili crops was closely related to the plnat metabolism

activities [7] and the quantity and quality of plant

nutrition. Reduction of food supply will affect the

abundance of aphids.

The low population of B. tabaci population was

observed at the beginning of study in chili plantation. In

line with the growth of chili plants, the average

population of B. tabaci has increased and reached its peak

in the observation VI, then the presence of B. tabaci

declined and the lowest when plants at the age of 12 week

after planting (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. The average abundance Aphis gossypii at time observation (individuals/plant).


Fig. 3. The average Bemisia tabaci at time observation (individuals/plant).

The population of B. tabaci was abundance when chili

plants were in vegetative phase, on the observation VI,

and decreased in generative phase (algorithmic) on

observation XII which may follow the growth of plants.

The quantity of plants can be measured by the number

of plant biomass, while the plant quality is depended on

various plant nutrition content that are required by insects

[8]

TABLE 1.

THE AVERAGE ABUNDANCE OF MYZUS PERSICAE, APHIS GOSSYPII AND BEMISIA TABACI ON

OBSERVATION VI

Treatments Average abundance (idividuals)

M. persicae A. gossypii B. Tabaci

NT 21.8 a 22.1 a 18.4 a

MH 18.9 b 15.2 b 13.2 b

MP 11.8 c 10.9 c 8.3 c

Note: The number followed by different letter in similar column significantly different at the Duncan test at 5%. NT: no

treatment/control; MH (black plastic mulch); MP (silve plastic mulch)

Statistical analysis showed that the average population

of vector species either M. persicae, A. gossypii and B.

tabaci in silver mulch treatment was significantly

different from the population of each vector in black

mulch treatment and control. The low average population

of each vector of disease-causing viruses on chili plants

in the silver mulch treatment because silver has the ability

to reflect about 33 percent of near ultra violet light [9],

light waves that are favored by most insects, so the

insects will follow the direction of reflection and leaving

crops [10]. Light reflection is able to reduce the heating

effect of rhizosphere under the plastic surface, and the

range of light favored by insects, so the insects will

follow the direction of reflection and leaving crops.

Consequently insect populations act as vectors of disease-

causing viruses can be reduced in the planting area [11].

Virus Disease Symptoms

The results showed that chili plants in controls (NT)

showed symptoms of the virus, wich were higher

compared to the treatment of black plastic mulch (MH)

and silver plastic mulch (MP), with the symthom of

mosaic viruses (61.7%), yellow (21%) and chlorosis

(9.1%) at the observation of 10 week after planting (Table

2). The average crop with the mosaic virus symtoms was

highest in the control treatment, as many as 61 plants was

affected. Based on ELISA test results, it was found that

CMV-infected plants is the ultimate for all treatments

(Table 3).

Based on the result of ELISA test (Table 3), there

were several types of viruses associated with mosaic

disease in chili ie. CMV, TMV, and ChiVMV. The

highest symtoms of virus attack was found in control

plant treatments, followed by chili plants treated in black

plastic mu;ch and the lowest was in silver plastic mulch

(Table 3). Similar trend was found by Nyana (2012), that the

chili with mosaic symptoms were associated with three

different virus types, namely Tobacco mosaic virus

(TMV), Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) or Chilean veinal

motle virus (ChiVMV).


TABLE 2.

THE PERSENTAGE OF CHILI PLANTS WITH THE VIRUS SYMTOMS IN EVERY TREATMENT (WITHOUT

MULCH/CONTROL, BALCK PLASTIC MULCH AND SILVER PLASTIC MULCH).

Treatments

The percentage of plant with virus symtoms (week after planting)

6 8 10

M K Kl M K Kl M K Kl

NT 32.9 8.7 6.8 45.6 12.0 8.6 61.7 21.0 9.1

MH 9.0 5.4 3.8 14.0 8.0 4.8 23.0 14.0 6.8

MP 5.0 2.9 1.5 7.7 3.3 2.3 10.1 4.8 3.4

Note: NT: control, MH: black plastic mulch, MP: silver plastic mulch, M: mosaic,

K: Yellow, Kl: Chlorosis

TABLE 3.

THE PERCENTAGE OF VIRUS-INFECTED PLANTS WITH MOSAIC SYMPTOMS OF DAS-ELISA TEST RESULTS

OF THE PLANTS ON THE OBSERVATION 10 WEEK AFTER PLANTING

Treatments Number of symptomatic

mosaic plant Number of virus infected plant*

Mosaic CMV TMV ChiVMV

NT 61 22 19 19

MH 23 9 4 8

MP 10 3 1 2

*The present of the virus base on DAS-ELISA test.

The high percentage of plants symptomatic CMV in

each treatment (control, black and silver plastic mulch) is

due to this type of virus has a wide range of plant hosts,

including the weeds as an intermediate host, so provide

source of inoculum all the time. This CMV virus can be

transmitted by many aphid species with very high

transmission efficacy that also plays a role in spreading

the virus [12]. On the other hand, low percentage of virus

symptoms in the treatment of silver plastic mulch is due

this mulch has the ability to reflect about 33 percent of

the sunlight that hits its surface [9], which will put away

the insects from the plants toward the reflected light, so

escaping plants to be infected by virus carried by the

aphids.

Plant Height

The result shows that chili plant height planted on

silver plastic mulch was the highest (101.05 cm)

compared to one that planted in a black plastic mulch

(83.16 cm) and controls (49.97 cm) (Table 4).

Statistical analysis showed that plant height in the

treatment of silver plastic mulch was higher and

significantly different to black plastic mulch treatment

and control. Plant height seems to be associated with

symptoms that appear in an infected plant virus. Chili

plants in the control treatment had the lowest average

plant height compared to black and silver plastic mulch

(Table 4), but the percentage of chili plants attacked by

viral disease at control, was the highest among treatments

(Table 3). The metabolism of plants that were showing

symptoms of viral infection was impaired. The decreased

production of growth hormone produced by plants,

accompanied by a decrease in the amount of chlorophyll

is a common effect that occurs in plants infected by the

virus. This will result in disturbance of plant growth,

therefore plant height [13].

TABLE 4.

PLANT HEIGHT, NUMBER OF BRANCHES AND YIELD (TONS/HA) OF CHILI PLANTS PLANTED IN THREE

DIFFERENT TREATMENTS (NT: NO TREATMENT OR COMTROL; MH: BLACK PLASTIC MULCH AND SILVER

PLASTIC MULCH).

Treatment Plant height (cm) Number of primary branch Yield

(ton/ha)

NT 49.97 c 10.92 b 4.87 c

MH 83.16 b 14.6 a 8.89 b

MP 101.05 a 14.8 a 12.43 a

Note: Number followed by the same letter in the same column showed no effect among treatments on Duncan test at 5%.


Number of Primary Branches

The highest average number of primary branches

produced was from chili planted in the silver plastic

mulch (14.8), followed by black mulch treatment (14.8)

and the lowest was in control treatment (10.92).

Statistical analysis shows that the average number of

primary branches produced was not significantly differ

between chilis planted in silver and black plastic mulch,

but with control treatment (Table 4). Metabolic processes

in the vegetative period greatly affects the process by

which plants entering the generative period [13]. Effect of

plastic mulch on the growth and yield determined by the

balance of the light that hits the surface of the plastic

used.

In general, the sunlight that hits the surface of the

silver mulch, large proportion will reflected back, and

only a small portion is absorbed, transmitted and reaches

the ground surface, while all light that hits black plastic

mulch is absorbed. The capability of the plastic mulch in

reflecting, absorbing and passing the light is determined

by the color and the thickness [14][15][16]. Light

reflected from the surface of the plastic mulch affects the

lower surface of leaves of the plant, so that the light

distributed evenly for photosynthesis, while the light

transmitted into the subsurface plastic mulch will affect

the physical, biological and chemical of the rhizosphere

covered. Sunlight that passed across the surface of mulch

stuck in the ground and form a greenhouse effect in a

small scale [17][18]. Increasing number of primary

branches per plant affect the amount of flowers formed

per plant. The more primary branches are produced, more

flower also formed from the axial of the branches [19].

Yields

Similar to the number of primary branches produced,

the yields were significantly higher in chili plants

growing in silver plastic mulch (12.43 ton/ha), compared

to black plastic mulch (8.89 ton/ha) and control (4,87

ton/ha) (Tabel 4). Plastic mulch has several advantages,

such as it has effectiveness in protecting the soil from

exposure of direct raindrops, preventing splash of soil

onto the plant, preventing the nutrient leaching,

maintaining soil porosity, slowing the release of soil

carbon dioxide from respiration activity of micro-

organisms, maintain soil temperature, prevent soil water

evaporation, and maintain soil organic matter content.

Mulch also has important function to control the growth

of weeds, which is the main competitor in of plant to gain

nutrient from soil. Weeds has been found as the host of

the virus, as well as has the ability to suppress viral vector

insect populations [20], therefore viral infection of the

plant. As a result, chili plants were well growing,

indicated by increasing plant heights, number of primary

branches and yeilds.

Low yileds from control plants related to high number

of plants were infected by viruses at the beginning of

growing phase. Low amount of growth hormone was

produced in plants infected by viruses, which are

accompanied by a decrease in the amount of chlorophyll.

This leads to disruptions in plant growth that directly

affects the yileds [13]. The use of plastic mulch affects

microorganisms activity (as a result of increases

rhizosphere temperature), which are contributing to the

growth and yield by increasing carbon dioxide

concentrations in the planting zone [11] and the supply

mocro organic matter [21]. Dark-colored plastic mulch is

very effective in controlling weeds [9]. This happens

because the seeds of weeds under black plastic mulch has

no access to sunlight for photosynthesis, so the weeds

will experience etiolation and grow weaker. This weak

growth will be exacerbated by the relatively hot

temperatures and high soil moisture.

Hot and high moisture enviroment has a higher lethal

effect to the weeds than dry heat. Other studies also found

that the use of black-silvered plastic mulch consistently

effective in suppressing the growth of weeds, where the

weed is a major competitor of the plant in taking water

and nutrients [20][22][23][24]. The advantages of the use

of silver plastic mulch in producing the highest yields

compared to black plastic mulch and control (no

treatment), was related to its ability in reducing pest

populations in chili plants, and indirectly able to reduce

the incidence of viruses [20]. This is because the pests

were served as vectors of the viruses [25], where

indirectly, the use of silver plastic mulch can suppress

viral disease, resulted in plants were growing better, so

increase plant resistance [11].

Another advantage of the use of silver plastic mulch is

that, it is able to reflect light so it does not illuminate the

ground directly. The increasing amount of light that

plants cought will increase the photosynthesis, resluts in

higher carbohydrate produced [26].

This is in accordance with Harjadi (1993) who found

that the amount carbohydrates will affect the size of the

cell formed, because the carbohydrates produced from

photosynthesis will be used in the process of cell division

and enlargement of the fruit.

IV CONCLUSION

The use of silver mulch in chili crops was found the

best in controlling insect viral vector compared to black

plastic mulch and control, and increased in crop yields.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This study was funded by Udayana University with

Letter of Agreement No.: 641-

7/UN14.2PNL.01.03.00/2016, dated 15th June 2016.

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