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A commentary on coastal research in NewZealand universities

Abstract:University research in coastal geomorphology, processes and management has made amajor contribution to the fundamental understanding of coastal systems in NewZealand over thepast 43 years. This article examines the growth in university-based coastalresearch since 1964 anddiscusses the geographical pattern and themes of this research.Data indicate a significantgeographical concentration of research effort and focus on anarrow range of research themes.Underlying reasons for these characteristics of NewZealand coastal research are explored andchallenges facing university based research arediscussed. Such challenges can be overcomethrough a more coordinated research effortto realize the huge potential to undertake coastalscience of national relevance and internationalsignificance.Key words:coastal geomorphology,coastal management, New Zealand, postgraduate research.

A comparison of different protocols for RAPD analysis ofLittorinaAbstractRandomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) is a fast and useful method of genome marking that is usefulfor studies of, for example, parentage, mating patterns, taxonomy of sibling species and intra-specific

population genetic structures. Herewe compare three different procedures for extracting highmolecularweightgenomicDNA; phenol-chloroform, hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium-bromide (CTAB) and Chelex 100. Double

phenol-chloroform and CTAB extractions both generated high amounts of high quality DNA while Chelex100 failed to do so.We also compared PCR-amplification with different concentrations of template DNA andfound that 12 ng per 25_l ofamplification cocktail gave the best results. AmplifyingDNAprepared by the three extractionmethods revealedthatDNA extracted with double phenol-chloroform gave the clearest bands. The double phenol-chloroformextractionseems thus the most suitable extraction method for RAPD inLittorina, however Chelex may be the onlymethoduseful for extracting DNA from very small individuals, for example, pre-hatching stages.

A historical perspective of the genusMytilus (Bivalvia:Mollusca) in New Zealand: multivariate morphometricanalyses of fossil, midden and contemporary blue mussels

The taxonomic status of smooth shelled blue mussels of the genusMytilus has received considerable attentionin thelast 25 years. Despite this, the situation in the southern hemisphere remains uncertain and is in need ofclarification.Recent work suggests that contemporary New Zealand mussels from two cool/cold temperate locations areM.

galloprovincialis. However, the distribution ofMytilus in New Zealand ranges from 35 to 52 south (~1800 km), meaning that large areas of the subtropical/warm temperate north and the subantarctic south remainunsampled,an important consideration when species of this genus exhibit pronounced macrogeographical differences intheir distributions which are associated with environmental variables such as water temperature, salinity,wave action and ice cover. This study employed multivariate morphometric analyses of one fossil, 83 valvesfrom middens, and 92 contemporary valves from sites spanning the distributional range of blue mussels todetermine a historical andcontemporary perspective of the taxonomic status ofMytilus in New Zealand. The findings indicated that allfossil and midden mussels are best regarded asM. galloprovincialis and confirmed that contemporarymussels, with one

possible regional exception, are also best regarded as M. galloprovincialis. Contemporary mussels from theBay ofIslands (warm temperate/subtropical) exhibited much greater affinity toM. edulis than they did to


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M. galloprovincialis , indicating that mussels from this area require detailed genetic examination to determinetheirtaxonomic status. The analyses revealed a significant difference between the fossil/midden mussels and thecontemporarymussels, consistent with levels of present day differentiation among intraspecific populations and notthought to reflect any substantive temporal change between mussels of the two groups. The continuousdistributionofM. galloprovincialis in New Zealand from the warm north to the subantarctic south indicates that the

physiologyof this species is adapted to a wide range of water temperature conditions. Therefore, the distribution of thisspecieson a worldwide scale is unlikely to be restricted by its adaptation to warm water alone, as has previously beenwidelyassumed. 2004 The Linnean Society of London,Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2004, 82, 329344.ADDITIONAL KEYWORDS: distribution Mytilus galloprovincialis shell trait variation southernhemisphere.

A multilocus allozyme discontinuity in the musselMytilus galloprovincialis: the interaction of

ecological and life-history factors

ABSTRACT: Electrophoretically detectable genetic variability of the Mediterranean mussel Mytilusgalloprovincialis Lmk. was examined at 15 allozyme loci in 21 populations ranging from Santander(northern Spain) to Livorno (northwestern Italy). A major genetic break between Almeria and Alicante(southeastern Spain), as evidenced by 11 of 13 polymorphic loci examined, delimits 2 groups of populationswith a high internal homogeneity. Roughly 75% of the total genetic differentiation was attributableto the divergence between these 2 groups of populations that displayed a genetic distance

between them (D =0.03) in the range of conspecific populations. This genetic break in M. galloprovincialiscontrasts with earlier reports of genetic homogeneity among conspecific populations of the genusMytilus over vast geographical distances, and represents an uncommon result in manne organismswith larval dispersal. The Zone of genetic divergence in M. galloprovincialis corresponds to a discontinuityin the distribution of this mussel, and to tbe position of the well-defined Almeria-Oran oceanographic

front, with a distributional boundary between Atlantic and Mediterranean communities. In thisregion, other manne species exhibit similar patterns of intraspecific divergence, suggesting the actionof common biogeographic processes. It is proposed that contemporary influences on gene flow relatedto an ecological barrier, perhaps in combination with selective pressures associated to water mass differences,maintain the abrupt change in southeastern Spain.KEY WORDS: Mytilus . Allozyme . Genetic discontinuity . Larval dispersal . Ecological barrier

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) in the diet of roach (Rutilus rutilus) in outer archipelago areas of the western Gulf ofFinland, Baltic Sea

Abstract

The blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) is one of the key species in the Baltic Sea ecosystem and it isliving at the edge of its range in the western Gulf of Finland. Roach (Rutilus rutilus) is a

freshwater fish species that has benefited from recent coastal eutrophication and is at presenthighly abundant in the outer archipelago of the Gulf of Finland. In 2000 and 2001, a total of 516roach were sampled for diet analysis in three study areas. Shelled molluscs formed over 95% ofthe diet of roach, blue mussels being the dominant single species. The proportion of this speciesin the food of roach in the three study areas ranged between 3861% for smaller roach (225 mm) roach, indicating that blue mussel is a highlyimportant food source for roach in outer archipelago areas of the western Gulf of Finland, incontrast to reports from other parts of the northern Baltic Sea. The scarcity of large blue musselsin mussel beds in the easternmost study area was reflected in the lower proportion of blue


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mussels in the diet of larger roach. However, the growth of roach was not affected by theavailability of blue mussels. The twofold differences observed in the annual growth of roachbetween warm and cold years demonstrated that temperature is an important factor controllingthe growth of roach in the western Gulf of Finland.

Advances in marine conservation:the role of marine protected areasM. Tundi AgardyThe worlds oceans are now attracting theserious attention of conservationists.Paradoxically, as the value of marinebiological diversity is recognized, theecosystems that harbor this diversityare fast becoming degraded. Newthinking about how to conserve coastalareas has resulted in protected-areamodels that incorporate principles oflandscape ecology, adaptive andecosystem management, and zoning inprotected-area plans.

Advances in molecular technology and their impacton fisheries geneticsIntroductionThe past six decades have seen increasing applicationof genetics to fisheries management andecology (Waples et al. 2008), resulting in significantinsights into the organismal and population ecologyof marine exploited species, with consequent paradigmshifts that changed our perception of the

AbstractAlthough genetic approaches to questions in fisheries management have been veryuseful in the past, they have encountered consistent hurdles despite the development

of new marker systems. However, recent technological advances in moleculargenetics will help to overcome many of these hurdles and are likely to revolutionizefish and fisheries biology. DNA-sequencing costs have been decreasing exponentially,and recent breakthroughs have led to rapid increase in throughput that allowssequencing the entire expressed genome of a non-model organism with standard

project budgets. Increase in screening throughput and number of available markers,reduction in costs and improved insights into gene function and control of geneexpression will allow applications that were impossible until recently. Here, we brieflyrecount the recent history of fisheries genetics, provide an outlook on near-term andlong-term developments in genetic technology and consider their applications andimplications for fisheries science and education.Keywords DNA sequencing, genome analysis, molecular genetics, single nucleotide

polymorphisms, technological developments

Responsible Approach to Marine Stock Enhancement

AFLP-based genetic linkage maps of the blue mussel(Mytilus edulis)Summary We report the construction of the first genetic linkage map in the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis.AFLP markers were used in 86 full-sib progeny from a controlled pair mating, applying a


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double pseudo-test cross strategy. Thirty-six primer pairs generated 2354 peaks, of which791 (33.6%) were polymorphic in the mapping family. Among those, 341 segregatedthrough the female parent, 296 through the male parent (type 1:1) and 154 through both

parents (type 3:1). Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests revealed that 71% and 73% of type 1:1and 3:1 markers respectively segregated according to Mendelian inheritance. Sex-specificlinkage maps were built with MAPMAKER 3.0 software. The female framework map consisted of121 markers ordered into 14 linkage groups, spanning 862.8 cM, with an average markerspacing of 8.0 cM. The male framework map consisted of 116 markers ordered into 14linkage groups, spanning 825.2 cM, with an average marker spacing of 8.09 cM. Genomecoverage was estimated to be 76.7% and 75.9% for the female and male framework mapsrespectively, rising to 85.8% (female) and 86.2% (male) when associated markers wereincluded. Twelve probable homologous linkage group pairs were identified and a consensusmap was built for nine of these homologous pairs based on multiple and parallel linkages of3:1 markers, spanning 816 cM, with JOINMAP 4.0 software.

Larval Dispersal and MarinePopulation ConnectivityKey Wordslarval transport, biophysical modeling, complex life cycles, metapopulation,self recruitment, population dynamics

AbstractConnectivity, or the exchange of individuals among marine populations, is acentral topic in marine ecology. For most benthic marine species with complexlife cycles, this exchange occurs primarily during the pelagic larval stage.The small size of larvae coupled with the vast and complex fluid environmentthey occupy hamper our ability to quantify dispersal and connectivity. Evidencefrom direct and indirect approaches using geochemical and genetictechniques suggests that populations range from fully open to fully closed.Understanding the biophysical processes that contribute to observed dispersalpatterns requires integrated interdisciplinary approaches that incorporatehigh-resolution biophysical modeling and empirical data. Further, differentialpostsettlement survival of larvae may add complexity to measurements ofconnectivity. The degree to which populations self recruit or receive subsidy

from other populations has consequences for a number of fundamental ecologicalprocesses that affect population regulation and persistence. Finally,a full understanding of population connectivity has important applicationsfor management and conservation.

Application of DNA-Based Methods to Identify Fish and Seafood Substitution on the CommercialMarketABSTRACT: Fish and seafood substitution has become an important concern in domestic and internationalmarketplaces, in part due to increased international trade, per capita seafood consumption, and production of

processed foods. In many cases, seafood substitution is a form of economic deception, where highly prizedspecies are substituted with those of lesser value. To prevent illegal species substitution, a number of DNA-

basedmethods have been developed to detect fish and seafood species in commercial products. Thesemethods, alongwith commongene targets, have been reviewed previously in this journal. The current article ismeant to build upon earlier discussions by providing a comprehensive review of the application of these

DNA-based methods to the discovery of fish and seafood substitution on the commercialmarket. Popular fooduses, potential substitution cases, and peer-reviewed research articles published to date are discussed forallmajor species groups of concern, including flatfish, gadoids,scombroids, salmonids, percoids, sturgeons, sharks, eels, and bivalves. The use of DNA-based methods tomonitorcommercial whale meat products is also reviewed.

Application of RAPD for molecular characterization of plant species of medicinal value from an arid

environment


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The use of highly discriminatory methods for the identification and characterization of genotypes is essentialfor plant protection and appropriate use. We utilized the RAPD method for the genetic fingerprinting of 11

plant species of desert origin (seven with known medicinal value). Andrachne telephioides,Zilla spinosa,Caylusea hexagyna, Achillea fragrantissima,Lycium shawii,Moricandia sinaica,Rumex vesicarius,Bassiaeriophora,Zygophyllum propinquum subsp migahidii, Withania somnifera, and Sonchus oleraceus werecollected from various areas of Saudi Arabia. The five primers used were able to amplify the DNA from allthe plant species. The amplified products of the RAPD profiles ranged from 307 to 1772 bp. A total of 164

bands were observed for 11 plant species, using five primers. The number of well-defined and major bandsfor a single plant species for a single primer ranged from 1 to 10. The highest pair-wise similarities (0.32)were observed between A. fragrantissima andL. shawii, when five primers were combined. The lowestsimilarities (0) were observed between A. telephioides andZ. spinosa;Z. spinosa andB. eriophora;B.eriophora andZ. propinquum In conclusion, the RAPD method successfully discriminates among all the plantspecies, therefore providing an easy and rapid tool for identification, conservation and sustainable use of these

plants.

Applications of random amplified polymorphic DNA(RAPD) in molecular ecologyAbstractMolecular genetic markers have been developed into powerful tools to analyse genetic

relationships and genetic diversity. As an extension to the variety of existing techniquesusing polymorphic DNA markers, the Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)technique may be used in molecular ecology to determine taxonomic identity, assesskinship relationships, analyse mixed genome samples, and create specific probes. Mainadvantages of the RAPD technology include (i) suitability for work on anonymousgenomes, (ii) applicability to problems where only limited quantities of DNA areavailable, (iii) efficiency and low expense.Keywords: DNA fingerprinting, DNA probes, kinship analysis, paternity determination, RAPD,taxonomic identifications

Received3February 1992

Applied Environmental Economics. A GIS Approachto Cost-Benefit Analysis

This book focuses on one of the most exciting and rapidlyevolving trends in environmental economics and natural resourcemanagement: improving economic analyses of natural resource

planning and evaluation through the use of geographic informationsystem (GIS) technologies and data. The premise of the book isthat economic valuation approaches and cost-benefit analyses can

be substantially improved and made more relevant by incorporatingnatural resource and socio-demographic data that are both moredetailed (site-specific) and spatially related to a variety of other dataand phenomena.The book incorporates most of the contents of the Ph.D. thesis ofone of the authors, and many of its findings have been previously

published in various articles in the last decade, however it ishelpful to have the entirety of this material in one single medium.The focus of the presented research is on a single case study:the economic evaluation of converting agricultural land (primarilyin sheep production) to multipurpose woodland across the entirecountry of Wales (United Kingdom) in the early 1990s.The introductory chapter contains background material on bothGIS and cost-benefit analysis, but these treatments are very limited,which encouraged me to skip ahead to chapter 9 (GIS and costbenefitanalyses) before beginning to read chapters 28. Chapter 2summarizes recreation valuation methods used by economists to


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capture both use and non-use values (the contingent and travelcost approaches), while chapter 3 deals with recreation valuationspecific to woodlands. Chapter 4 covers the use of GIS for benefitstransfer (extrapolating prior valuation study results to another studylocation). The focus of chapter 5 is timber yield forecasting andestimating the productive values of woodlands, while chapter 6 dealswith estimating the net benefits of carbon sequestration. Chapter 8focuses on the opportunity costs of converting agricultural landto woodlands. Chapter 9 integrates economic analyses from allthe previous chapters, and the final chapter evaluates the policyimplications of this extensive research effort.The strength of the book is in its detail and breadth, which makeit a very useful read for researchers or policy makers interested inundertaking similar studies. The book also clearly demonstratesthe benefits to environmental and resource economists in takingadvantage of recently available GIS data and technologies.A potential weakness of the book to some readers is that is difficultto reference or locate specific technical topics, particularly GIS

procedures, using either the table of contents or index. On a relatednote, there are several cases where insufficient detail is provided

regarding the nuts and bolts of GIS methods used and, in myopinion, there are not enough caveats or warnings made regardingthe potential to misuse GIS techniques, particularly by economistswhomay have GIS training and experience. Therewere a few cases ofeconomics-based material being presented in too much detail, whileother topics were sorely missed, such as a discussion and analysis of

Aquaculture and environment from the perspective of aSpanish fish farmerF. Torrent Bravo and A. Snchez Montas

Aguaviva Azul S.L., San Martn de Porres 43, 1 P, 28035 Madrid, SpainSUMMARY The Spanish marine aquaculture industry is here described as a new emergingindustry, although

with a sound background from the trout and mussel production industries. Its impact on theenvironment isconsidered not negative and even positive provided a good production and environmentalmanagement system isundertaken. A comparison with other industries such as fisheries and other human activities is heredescribed,activities better socially accepted but in some cases more harmful for their negative impact on theenvironment.The necessity for a well scientifically based regulation by the Environmental Authorities is herestated.Key words: Aquaculture, environment, marine fish production.

Aquaculture in New Zealand

Aspects of the population genetics ofMytilus(Mytilidae; Mollusca) in the British IslesD. 0. F. SKIBINSKI, J. .A. BEARDMORE AAND 7'. F.CROSS*StLircIi gel electrophoi-esis was used to study \-ariation at I I loci in mussels sampled mainly fromBritish co'istal sites. Two types of mussel were identified, 2\f>sti"u ediilis, tlie common mussel rind itssoutliern relatit e .\fvti/iir ga//n/~~,/,,or~iricSien\/ ie~r.a 1 partially dingnortic loci were used to miip tliedistrihtition of tlie t\vo forms. .\fvti/riJediilis \\as present ;it all sites sampled in Britain and Ireland hut\\as at low frequency in S\VEngland; .\I. ga//ul,ioi'incia/ir\vas detected in S\VEngland, tlie south andwest of Ireland. Scotland and S E England. hut was absent from soutli \Vales. the Irish sea co;ists of


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tValt-s and Ireland. and SE England. Ap;irt fi-om tlie occurrence of . i f .g n//upinz,inrin/isin NEEngland. this distribution conforms bvith tlie results of studies using morphological characters and

parallels the distrihution of many other soutlicrn species in Britain. At thc microgeographical l e d ,.If. c d i i / i ~w as foriitdto prcfrr more slieltered and rstiiarine conditions than :\I.

,~a//opmr,iiiria/i.A~.n alysisrising the hest diagnostic loci sliowed that tiybridizati(in is occurring between .if, rdiilis and

.\I. gn/lopiur~in~-iaa/itrall localities where the) occiir sympatrically hut that tlie extent of hybridization\aries considerahl) hetween localities. 'The distribution of localities ha\ing Iiigli proportions of hybridindividuals is hest interpreted hy assuming that 11) hrids ha\e higher fitness than parental tyries atthese localities.:\ stlid! \v.is made o f \ ariation within and between those localities where only .\f. ~diiliri ndi\ idualsTvei-e ohser\.ed. Little significant geographic \.ariation in dlele frequency was detected, hut significcrntdeficits of 1ieteroz)gotes comparedwith H;irdy-lVeinberg expectations nere seen for most loci..\n:ilysis suggests that the \Valilund effect is not involxd and that the most likely cause of tlie deficitis low frequencies (if niill 'illeles. In .\I. tdii/iJno differences in phenotypic \.ariance in shell height andwidth vwe ohserved hetween samples of multiply lietcrozygoiis and multiply liomozygoiis individuals;ind no qriietic differences were found bet\vern juveniles and adults. Overall little evidence was foundthat Iialnncing selectinn is responsible for m'rintrn;ince of the polymoi-phisms studied in .if. edulir.1 lie ~iatterioi fgcogr;ipliic \.ariation in gene frequencies in d i f v t i /~iins the British Isles is discussed inrelation to variation in tlie south and north of F.rirope and Sorth . h e r i c a . It is concluded that steepclines in gene li-eqiiencies in .\I. idrrlis ohser\-ed h! otlier \viirkers in tlie Bnltir and in Long 1sl;indSound cannot tie .ittribiited to the presencr of.\I. gn//ol"ui,incin/i.KEYiV0RDS:- Poptilation genetics ~.\!vfr/v~ ~electrophoresisI _allozymes - geographic \.ariation11)bridization speciation

ASSORTATIVE MATING PREFERENCESAMONG HYBRIDS OFFERS A ROUTETO HYBRID SPECIATIONHomoploid speciation generates species without a change in chromosome number via introgressivehybridization and has beenconsidered rare in animals. Heliconius butterflies exhibit bright aposematic color patterns that also

act as cues in assortativemating. Heliconius heurippa has a color pattern that can be recreated by introgression of the H.melpomene red band into an H.cydno genetic background. Wild H. heurippa males show assortative mating based on color patternand we here investigate theorigin of this preference by studying first-generation backcross hybrids between H. melpomene andH. cydno that resemble H.heurippa. These hybrids show assortative mating preferences, showing a strong preference for theirown color pattern over thatof either parental species. This is consistent with a genetic basis to wing pattern preference andimplies, first, that assortativemating preferences would facilitate the initial establishment of a homozygous hybrid color pattern byincreasing the likelihood

that early generation hybrids mate among themselves. Second, once established such a lineagewould inherit assortative matingpreferences that would lead to partial reproductive isolation from parental lineages.KEY WORDS: Homoploid speciation, introgression, mating preference, pleiotropy, transgressivesegregation.

Benthic mapping using local aerial photo interpretation and resident taxainventories for designing marine protected areasSUMMARYGiven the frequent socioeconomic, political and


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concomitant ecological failures of science-drivenmarine protected area (MPA) programmes, it is nowimportant to design MPAs by integrating natural andsocial science research more comprehensively. Thisstudy shows how indigenous peoples assisted in thedesign of MPAs by identifying marine substrates andrelated resident taxa on aerial photos, informationwhich was then incorporated into a geographicalinformation system (GIS) database, along with divesurvey data. Two questions were asked: (1) Is indigenousecological knowledge accurate enough formapping the benthos and associated taxa? (2) Is suchan approach an appropriate way for assisting in the

biological and social design of MPAs in Oceania?Conventional quadrat field dive surveys were usedto measure the accuracy of substrate identification

by local informants and a visual survey was usedto test hypotheses formulated from local knowledgeregarding the spatial distribution and relativeabundance of non-cryptic species within certain

benthic habitats. Equivalence rates between indigenousaerial photo interpretations of dominant benthicsubstrates and in situ dive surveys were 7585%for a moderately detailed classification scheme ofthe benthos, which included nine locally-definedabiotic and biotic benthic classes for the MPAseabed. Similarly, the taxa inventory showed a strongcorrespondence between the qualitative predictions oflocal fisherfolk and the quantitative analysis of noncrypticspecies distribution, including their relativeabundance and geophysical locations. Indigenous

peoples predictions about the presence or absence offish in different benthic habitats corresponded77%and

92% of the time (depending on scoring schema)with in situ visual measurements. These resultsdemonstrate how incorporating local knowledge of

benthic heterogeneity, existing biological communities,and particular spatio-temporal events of biologicalsignificance into a GIS database can corroboratethe production of scientifically reliable base resourceCorrespondence: Dr Shankar Aswani Tel.: +1 805 893 5285 Fax:+1 805 893 8707 e-mail: [email protected] for designing MPAs in an environmentally andculturally sound fashion. This participatory approachwas used to design and then establish MPAs inthe Roviana and Vonavona region of the Western

Solomon Islands. Under appropriate conditions, interdisciplinarywork can complement the designof scientific fishery management and biodiversityconservation prescriptions for coastal Oceania.Keywords: benthic mapping, geographical informationsystems (GIS), indigenous ecological knowledge, marine

protected areas, Oceania, taxa inventories


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BIBLIOGRAFA

Biochemical-genetic variation in the green-lipped musselPerna canaliculus around New Zealand andpossible implications for mussel farmingAbstract Genetic variation was surveyed at 10

polymorphic enzyme loci in six samples of greenlipped

mussels, Perna canaliculus, from aroundNew Zealand. There is a significant heterogeneityat five loci and at four of these the heterogeneityis produced by significant differences betweennorthern and southern samples. The differences may

be explained by limited genetic exchange owing tocurrent movements coupled with local selection.Four loci were tested in spring and autumn seedmussels from Marlborough Sounds and Ninety MileBeach. There is a significant difference betweenspring and autumn seed at one locus. Seed musselsshow a significant excess of homozygotes at 6 outof 16 tests whereas for adult mussels at the same

loci only 4 out of 24 tests are significant. It is suggestedthat the differences between spring andautumn seed and the greater homozygosity in seedmussels may be produced by partial assortativemating. For farming operations there may begenetic disadvantages in transferring seed from onewater mass to another for ongrowing.Keywords green-lipped mussel; Perna canaliculus;electrophoresis; genetic variation; musselfarming

Biogeography of New Zealands Coastal Marine Environment: Evaluation of ClassificationSchemes for Systematic Conservation PlanningKey Words: benthic communities, biogeography, bioregions, macroalgae, marine reserves, NewZealand, subtidal reefs, systematic conservation planning2Abstract: The scale of current global change in natural systems and initiatives to protect biodiversitymean that biogeography has moved from the status of scholarly pursuit to an urgent requirement forsystematic conservation planning. In New Zealand, as for many coastal nations, several different

biogeographic classification schemes have been proposed for the marine environment. This poses amajor challenge for managers in choosing an appropriate spatial framework 5 for systematicconservation planning. The aim of this study was to provide a systematic, robust approach forevaluating and developing a biogeographic classification within a hierarchical spatial framework.Systematically collected data for shallow subtidal (


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between northern and southern locations but regional groupings were less distinctive. Thebiogeographic data and analytical techniques used in this study provide an objective approach toevaluating and choosing large-scale biogeographic frameworks necessary for systematic conservation

planning and the design of representative and comprehensive networks of marine protected areas.

Blue mussel - Mytilus edulisMediterranean mussel -M. galloprovincialis

Bridging the gap between the genotype and the phenotype:linking genetic variation, selection and adaptation in fishes

AbstractOne of the most challenging problems in evolutionary biology is linking the evolutionof the phenotype with the underlying genotype, because most phenotypes areencoded by many genes that interact with each other and with the environment.Further, many phenotypes are correlated and selection on one can affect evolution ofthe other. This challenge is especially important in fishes, because their evolutionaryresponse to harvest, global warming and conservation actions are among the leastunderstood aspects of their management. Here, we discuss two major geneticapproaches to studying the evolution of complex traits, multivariate quantitative

genetics and molecular genetics, and examine the increasing interaction between thetwo fields. These interactions include using pedigree-based methods to study theevolution of multivariate traits in natural populations, comparing neutral andquantitative measures of population structure, and examining the contribution thatthe two approaches have made to each other. We then explore the major role thatquantitative genetics is playing in two key issues in the conservation andmanagement of fish populations: the evolutionary effects of fishing and adaptationto climate change. Throughout, we emphasize that it is important to anticipate theavailability of improvements in molecular technology and statistical analyses bycreating research populations such as inbred lines and families segregating at fitnesstraits, developing approaches to measuring the full range of phenotypes related tofitness, and collecting biological material and ecological data in natural populations.These steps will facilitate studies of the evolution of complex traits over informativetemporal and spatial scales.Keywords Climate change, fisheries-induced selection, genomics in fishes, multivariatequantitative genetics, phenotypic evolution

BUSINESS PLANNING HANDBOOKFOR THEOCEAN AQUACULTURE OF BLUE MUSSELS

Can Developing CountriesLearn from Our Mistakes?

By KENNETHM. GWILLIAMABSTRACT: It is often asserted that developing countries can bestavoid the deterioration of the environment that is a consequence ofthe unfettered increase of motorization by studying the failure of

industrialized countries to make the necessary political and resourcecommitments to confront the issue. Such assertions usually fail torecognize that differences in social objectives and both administrativeand fiscal capacity typically exclude the application in developingcountries of many of the restraining measures advocated for theindustrialized world. Instead, it is argued that the development ofefficient social and personal incentive systems, rather than the traditionalemphasis on systems of subsidy, public sector service provision,and physical restraint, is the critical policy imperative for thedeveloping world.


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Chapter 5

Characterization of single-nucleotide polymorphismmarkers in the Mediterranean mussel,Mytilus galloprovincialis

Manuel Vera1, Belen G Pardo1, Ania Pino-Querido1, Jose AntonioA lvarez-Dios2, Jose Fuentes3 &Paulino Mart|nez11Departamento de Gene.tica, Facultad deVeterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de

Compostela, Campus de Lugo, Lugo, Spain

2Departamento de Matematica Aplicada, Facultad de Matematicas, Universidad de

Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de

Compostela, Spain

3Centro de Investigacio.ns Marin_as, Xunta de Galicia,Vilanova deArousa, Pontevedra,

Spain

Correspondence: M Vera,Departamento de Gene.tica, Facultad deVeterinaria, Universidad deSantiago de Compostela, Campus de Lugo,

27002 Lugo, Spain. E-mail:[email protected]

AbstractThe Mediterraneanmussel,Mytilus galloprovincialis,isoneofthemostimportantaquaculturespeciesin

Europe. Appropriatemolecularmarkersarerequired

toevaluategeneticresourcesand totracegenealogies

in breedingprogrammesforimprovingmussel

culture. Microsatelliteshave beencommonlyapplied

tothispurposeinotherspecies. However, Mediterranean

musselmicrosatelliteshave demonstrated high

frequenciesofnullallelesthathamperaccurateestimates

ofpopulationparametersand condentparentage

inferences. Asalternativemarkers,wehave

characterized in silico 25 potentialsingle-nucleotidepolymorphism (SNP) markersinthe Mediterranean

musselfromexpressed sequencetag (EST) public databases.

Thegenotypingof SNPswasperformed

usingasingle-baseextensionapproach.Theirpolymorphism

wasevaluated in 47 individualsfroman

Atlanticpopulation. Outofthe 25 potential SNPs

tested,12 weretechnicallyfeasible (producingasingle

amplicon) and polymorphic. Allwere biallelicand

had anunbiased heterozygosityrangingfrom 0.160

to 0.504. One SNP wasfromamitochondrialgene.

Thecombined potentialofnuclear SNPsforparentage

assignmentgaveanexclusionprobabilityofa

falsecoupleofparentsof 0.9471.Thesemarkerswill

beusefulforevaluatingresourcesand tracinggenealogies

ingenetic breedingprogrammesimplemented

tosolvethemainproblemsofmusselculture.

Keywords: single-nucleotidepolymorphism, SNPs,SNaPshot,mussel,Mytilus galloprovincialis


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Chromosomal markers

Chromosome polymorphism inAstyanax fasciatus

(Teleostei, Characidae), Part 3: Analysis of theRAPD and ISSR molecular markersAbstractThe Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR) molecularmarkers were usedto complement the study of chromosomal polymorphism inAstyanax fasciatus (Teleostei, Characidae) fromthe Mogi-Guacu River(Southeastern Brazil), analyzed in three collection sites along the river (Ouro Fino e MG, Cachoeira de Emase SP and Barrinha eSP). Two cytotypes (or karyotypic types), denominated standard cytotypes, were previously characterized,one including 2n 46chromosomes and the other 2n 48 chromosomes, where all the chromosomes of the complement formhomologous pairs. Additionally,

variant karyotypic forms with 2n 45, 46 and 47 chromosomes were also detected, although with a lowerfrequency inrelation to the standard cytotypes. RAPD turned out little informative in the analysis of the observed situation,indicating a highvalue of migrants per generation among the cytotypes. On the other hand, ISSR showed a small structure,especially among thestandard cytotypes from the Barrinha region where the Nm was 0.4301 with a genetic identity of 0.6862 andgenetic distanceof 0.3765. However, the general results obtained do not discard the possibility of interbreeding between bothstandard cytotypesand/or their descendants as a source of chromosome variation. The association between the cytogenetic andmolecular markersviabilized putative explanatory scenery for the origin and evolution of the forms seen inA. fasciatus.

_2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Astyanax fasciatus; ISSR marker; RAPD marker; Chromosome variation; Polymorphism

Clonality in the endangered Ambrosia pumila (Asteraceae)inferred from RAPD markers; implications for conservationand management

Abstract Clonal plants have the ability to spread and

survive over long periods of time by vegetative growth.For endangered species, the occurrence of clonality canhave significant impacts on levels of genetic diversity,

population structure, recruitment, and the implementationof appropriate conservation strategies. Herewe examine clone structure in three populations of

Ambrosia pumila (Nutt.) Gray (Asteraceae), a federallyendangered clonal species from southern California.

Ambrosia pumila is a perennial herbaceous speciesspreading from a rhizome, and is frequently found indense patches of several hundred stems in a few squaremeters. The primary habitat for this species is upperterraces of rivers and drainages in areas that have been


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heavily impacted by anthropogenic disturbances andchanging flood regimes. RAPD markers were employedto document the number and distribution ofclones within multiple 0.25 m2 plots from each of three

populations. Thirty-one multi-locus genotypes wereidentified from the 201 stems sampled. The spatialdistribution of clones was limited with no genotypesshared between plots or populations. Mean clone sizewas estimated at 9.10 ramets per genet. Genets in most

plots were intermingled, conforming to a guerrillagrowth form. The maximum genet spread was 0.59 msuggesting that genets can be larger than the 0.25 m2 plots. Spatial autocorrelation analysis found alack of spatial genetic structure at short distances andsignificant structure at large distances within populations.Due to the occurrence of multiple genets withineach population, the limited spread of genets, and alocalized genetic structure, conservation activitiesshould focus on the maintenance of multiple populationsthroughout the species range.KeywordsAmbrosia pumila Asteraceae

Clonality Conservation genetics RAPDssampled

Coastal oceanography and sedirnentology in New Zealand, 1967-91Abstract This paper reviews research that has taken

place on physical oceanography and sedimentologyon New Zealand's estuaries and the inner shelf sincec. 1967. It includes estuarine sedimentation, tidalinlets, beach morphodynamics, nearshore and innershelf sedimentation, tides and coastal currents,numerical modelling, short-period waves, tsunamis,and storm surges. An extensive reference list covering

both published and unpublished material is included.Formal teaching and research programmes dealing

with coastal landforms and the processes that shapethem were only introduced to New ZealandM91078

Keywords estuary; sediments; tidal inlets; beaches;coastal erosion; inner shelf; tides; currents; waves;tsunamis; storm surge; numerical modelling

Colonization and Connectivity of HabitatPatches for Coastal Marine Species Distantfrom Source PopulationsConectividad de Fragmentos de Hbitat y su Colonizacin por Especies Marinas Costeras Distantes dePoblacionesFuenteResumen:El intercambio de propgulos o adultos mviles entre fragmentos de hbitat aislados es de importanciacrucial para algunos tipos de reservas, especialmente para especies que no se pueden propagar localmente.

Para especies marinas, se puede estudiar el papel de la dispersin del plancton en el mantenimientode poblaciones locales viables examinando caractersticas de la historia de vida de especies que colonizan (o

que no logran colonizar) fragmentos de hbitat aislados. Comparamos las abundancias de especies

bentnicasen un rompeolas rocoso expuesto rodeado de hbitats distintos en la costa de Washington (EE.UU.) con

especies en sitios rocosos distantes dentro de reas fuente potenciales. A pesar de su aislamiento, el

rompeolas


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careci solo de una pequea proporcin de las especies de algas potenciales; estas ausencias podran

deberse

al hecho de encontrarse a distancias de 40- a 100- km de reas fuente ms extensas o a diferencias sutiles de

hbitat en el rompeolas. Las algas coralinas tienen propgulos de vida corta y adultos que probablemente no

floten, lo que sugerira que son malas propagadoras. Estas algas no se encontraron en el rompeolas

estudiado,sin embargo se encontraron en otros rompeolas aislados de la costa. Experimentos de transplante a

corto plazo indicaron que las coralinas pueden sobrevivir localmente una vez que hayan colonizado una

zona. Se not la ausencia de pocos animales, uno de los cuales fue un quitn que se fija a algas coralinas yse alimenta de las mismas. Eran abundantes en el rompeolas los animales con dispersin obligada de cras

an siendo incapaces de propagarse localmente y a pesar de la dilucin de sus larvas dispersantes en el

plancton proveniente de fuentes lejanas. Tambin se encontraban algunas especies animales sin fase

planctnica. Por lo tanto, aquellos organismos con un amplio rango de atributos de historia de vida pueden

sobrevivir en este pequeo y distante fragmento de hbitat adecuado. El aislamiento a lo largo de la costa no

elimin ni a los dispersores pobres ni a los dispersores obligados

Co-management Policy Can ReduceResilience in Traditionally ManagedMarine EcosystemsABSTRACT

Best-practice environmental policy often suggestsco-management of marine resources as a means ofachieving sustainable development. Here we considerthe impacts of superimposing co-management

policy, in the form of territorial user rights forfishers over an existing traditional communitybasednatural-resource management system inChile. We consider a broad definition of co-managementthat includes a spectrum of arrangements

between governments and user groups describedby different levels of devolution of power. We usedparticipatory rural appraisal techniques and questionnairesto understand the mechanisms that

underpin the traditional management system forthe bull-kelp cochayuyo (Durvillaea antarctica).Traditional management was based on the allocationof informal access rights through a lotterysystem. This system was controlled by a complexweb of traditional institutions that were shown to

be successful in terms of equity and resilience.Using a similar approach, we analyzed the effects ofsuperimposing a government-led co-management

policy into this traditional system. Two major effectsof the new policy were encountered. First,traditional institutions were weakened, which hadnegative effects on the levels of trust within thecommunity and intensified conflict among users.Second, the management systems adaptive capacitywas reduced, thereby jeopardizing the ecosystemsresilience. Our results suggest that thedevolution of power to this kind of fisher communitystill has not reached the level required forfishers to legally address the local deficiencies of theChilean co-management policy. Additionally, legaladjustments must be made to accommodate traditionallymanaged ecosystems that offer benefits


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comparable to those mandated under the formalpolicy. A fuller understanding of the interactionsbetween co-management and traditional institutionscan help us to identify ways to promoteresilience and facilitate equal access by mitigatingthe potential negative effects of co-management

policy and informing its future implementation.Key words: property rights; environmental entitlements;sustainability; resilience; artisanal fishers;traditional institutions; human dimension;cochayuyo; bull-kelp; Chile

Comment on Impacts of BiodiversityLoss on Ocean Ecosystem ServicesJohn JaenikeWorm et al. (Research Articles, 3 November 2006, p. 787) used a power relation to predict a globalcollapse of fisheries by the year 2048. However, a linear regression of the data for the past 40years yields an excellent fit, with a predicted date of collapse of 2114. Thus, long-term projectionsof fisheries collapse are highly dependent on the specific statistical model used.

Loss on Ocean Ecosystem ServicesMichael J. Wilberg* and Thomas J. MillerWorm et al. (Research Articles, 3 November 2006, p. 787) reported an increasing proportionof fisheries in a collapsed state. We show that this may be an artifact of their definition ofcollapse as a fixed percentage of the maximum and that an increase in the number ofmanaged fisheries could produce similar patterns as an increase in fisheries with catches below10% of the maximum.

Comment on Impacts of BiodiversityLoss on Ocean Ecosystem ServicesFranz Hlker,1* Doug Beare,1 Hendrik Drner,1 Antonio di Natale,2 Hans-Joachim Rtz,3

Axel Temming,4 John Casey5Worm et al. (Research Articles, 3 November 2006, p. 787) investigated the importance of biodiversityto marine ecosystem services across temporal and spatial scales. In projecting the extent of futurefisheries collapse, we argue that the authors inappropriately extrapolated beyond their availableobservations and used data on marine reserves and fishery closures that are not representative ofglobal fisheries.

Common property institutions and sustainable governance of resources

Comparative analysis of genetic diversity in Indian bitter gourd(Momordica charantia L.) using RAPD and ISSR markers fordeveloping crop improvement strategiesAbstractA genetic analysis of 38 diverse Indian bitter gourd (Momordica charantia var. charantia, and var. muricata)accessions was performed using 29RAPD and 15 ISSR markers. RAPD primers yielded 208 amplicons of which 76 (36.5%) were polymorphic

providing an average of 2.6 ampliconsper primer. RAPD amplicons per primer ranged from 3 (OPE-19, OPW-09) to 15 (OPW-05), and varied insize from 200 bp to 3000 bp. FifteenISSR primers provided a total of 125 bands of which 94 (74.7%) were polymorphic. Polymorphic ISSRmarkers ranged from 0 (UBC-841) to 12(UBC-890) providing a mean of 6.3 amplicons per primer that ranged in size from 150 bp to 2700 bp.

Nevertheless, the concordance among bittergourd accession groupings after cluster analysis was relatively high (r = 0.77), indicating that RAPD- andISSR-based diversity assessments in this


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germplasm array were generally consistent. The M. charantia var. charantia (domesticated) and var. muricata(wild, free-living) accessionsexamined were genetically distinct, and these differences provided for the development of strategies forgenetic analyses and crop improvement inthis species.Complex larval connectivity patterns among marineinvertebrate populationsBased on the belief that marine larvae, which can spend days tomonths in the planktonic stage, could be transported considerabledistances by ocean currents, it has long been assumed that populationsof coastal species with a planktonic larval stage are demographicallyopen and highly connected. Such assumptions about theconnectivity of coastal populations govern approaches to managingmarine resources and shape our fundamental understanding of populationdynamics and evolution, yet are rarely tested directly due tothe small size and high mortality of marine larvae in a physicallycomplex environment. Here, we document a successful application ofelemental fingerprinting as a tracking tool to determine sources ofsettled invertebrates and show that coastal mussel larvae, previouslythought to be highly dispersed, can be retained within 2030 km of

their natal origin. We compare two closely related and co-occurringspecies, Mytilus californianus andMytilus galloprovincialis, and determinethat, despite expected similarities, they exhibit substantiallydifferent connectivity patterns. Our use of an in situ larval culturingtechnique overcomes the previous challenge of applying microchemicaltracking methods to species with completely planktonic development.The exchange of larvae and resulting connectivities amongmarine populations have fundamental consequences for the evolutionand ecology of species and for the management of coastalresources.elemental fingerprinting _in situ larval culturing _ larval retention _larval transport _Mytilus

Defining Evolutionarily Significant Unitsfor conservationwriting in the first issue ofTREE,Ryder brought the term EvolutionarilySignificant Unit (ESU) to the attentionof a broad audience of ecologists andevolutionary biologists. The ESU conceptwas developed to provide a rational basisfor prioritizing taxa for conservationeffort (e.g. captive breeding), given thatresources are limited and that existingtaxonomy may not adequately reflectunderlying genetic diversity*. With theexplicit recognition of the genetic componentof biodiversity in conservationlegislation of many countries and in theConvention on Biological Diversity, theESU concept is set to become increasinglysignificant for conservation of naturalas well as captive populations.However, the ESU remains poorly defined,

both conceptually and operationally.Most definitions suggest than an ESU


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should be geographically discrete, butgenetic criteria range from significant divergenceof allele frequencies3 throughsome level of genetic distance to congruentlystructured phylogenies amonggene+. Several authors have arguedthat an ESU should display concordantdivergence for both molecular and nonmoleculartraitG6. Although all are tryingto achieve the same end, it seemsthat the operational definitions varyaccording to the biological and legislativecontext. The purpose of this essay isto revisit the ESU concept in relation torecent developments in molecular populationgenetics. The suggested definitionsand criteria are not supposed to

be proscriptive - rather, the intention isto promote debate on the purpose and

practice of using genetic information to

define conservation units.

Designing Marine Reserves forFishery ManagementRecent reports have raised serious concerns about the rapid declines of historically productivemarine fisheryresources and the degradation of essential fish habitats. This global crisis has spurred developmentof innovativemanagement strategies to rebuild depleted fisheries and marine ecosystems. One highly toutedstrategyinvolves the design and creation of marine reserves (areas off limits to extractive uses) to rebuildfisheries andconserve marine biodiversity. In this paper, we propose an integrated sequence of methodologies

that providesan objective, quantitative framework for the design of marine reserves in spatially heterogeneouscoastal oceanenvironments.The marine reserve designs proposed here satisfy the multiple, often-conflicting criteria of disparateresourceuser groups. This research is the first attempt to explicitly explore the trade-off between theconservation goalsof fishery management and coral reef protection and the consumptive interests of commercial andrecreationalfishing fleets. The spatial distribution and size abundance of reef fish stocks throughout the FloridaKeys coralreef ecosystem were estimated from a database consisting of more than 18,000 visual samplestaken from 1979to 2002. These distributions of multispecies abundance and biomass, in conjunction with ageographic databaseof coral reef habitats, are used to demonstrate an integer goal programming methodology for thedesign ofnetworks of marine reserves, called plans. Once multiple plans are proposed, a simulation model isused toassess the effects of reserve size and shape on select Florida Keys reef fish populations underdynamic spatialand temporal conditions.


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Key words: integer goal programming; simulation; fisheries management; marine reserves; FloridaKeysHistory: Accepted by Linda V. Green, public sector applications; received July 18, 2003. This paperwas withthe authors 2 months for 1 revision

Development of EST-SSRs in the Mediterranean bluemussel,Mytilus galloproviancialis

AbstractEight polymorphic microsatellite repeat markers were identified fromMytilus galloproviancialis,expressed sequence tags (EST) deposited in public sequence database. Numberof alleles per locus ranged from two to 10, and the observed and expected heterozygositiesranged from 0.029 to 0.872 and from 0.031 to 0.811, respectively. Three additional Mytiloidaspecies assessed for cross-species amplification revealed four loci could give positiveamplifications. EST-derived simple sequence repeats provide robust, informative and potentiallytransferable polymorphic markers suitable for population genetic, parentage, and

mapping studies ofM. galloproviancialisDIFFERENTIAL GENE FLOW BETWEEN POPULATIONSOF MYTILUSGALLOPROVINCIALISDISTRIBUTED ALONGIBERIAN AND NORTH AFRICAN COASTSABSTRACT

Thispopulationgeneticsstudyon Mytilus

galloprovincialisaimstoclarifywhethernorthern

Moroccanpopulationsfitintothe biogeographical

patternof Iberianpopulationscharacterized bya

maingenetic discontinuityatthe Almera - OrnOceanographic Front (AOOF). Wereportareduced

geneflow betweennorthern Moroccanmussels

distributed at bothsidesof Gibraltar Straitand a

limited geneflow between Iberianand Moroccan

populationsinthe Alboran Sea.Theseresultsobserved

withmicrosatellites donotfullymatchpreviousones

where Moroccanpopulationsfrom Alboran did not

differfromother Atlanticpopulations.

DIFFERENTIAL PATTERNS OF MALE AND FEMALE MTDNA EXCHANGE ACROSSTHE ATLANTIC OCEAN IN THE BLUE MUSSEL,MYTILUSEDULISAbstract. Comparisons among loci with differing modes of inheritance can reveal unexpected aspects ofpopulationhistory. We employ a multilocus approach to ask whether two types of independently assorting mitochondrial

DNAs(maternally and paternally inherited: F- and M-mtDNA) and a nuclear locus (ITS) yield concordant estimatesof geneflow and population divergence. The blue mussel,Mytilus edulis, is distributed on both North American andEuropeancoastlines and these populations are separated by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Gene flow across theAtlanticOcean differs among loci, with F-mtDNA and ITS showing an imprint of some genetic interchange and M-mtDNA


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showing no evidence for gene flow. Gene flow of F-mtDNA and ITS causes trans-Atlantic populationdivergencetimes to be greatly underestimated for these loci, although a single trans-Atlantic population divergence time(1.2MYA) can be accommodated by considering all three loci in combination in a coalescent framework. Theapparentlack of gene flow for M-mtDNA is not readily explained by different dispersal capacities of male and femalemussels.A genetic barrier to M-mtDNA exchange between North American and European mussel populations is likelytoexplain the observed pattern, perhaps associated with the double uniparental system of mitochondrial DNAinheritance.Key words. Coalescent, divergence population genetics, DUI, gene flow, interlocus contrasts,phylogeography.

DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers areuseful as genetic markers

ABSTRACT

Molecular genetic maps are commonly constructed byanalyzing the segregation of restriction fragment lengthpolymorphisms (RFLPs) among the progeny of a sexualcross. Here we describe a new DNA polymorphismassay based on the amplification of random DNAsegments with single primers of arbitrary nucleotidesequence. These polymorphisms, simply detected asDNA segments which amplify from one parent but notthe other, are inherited in a Mendelian fashion and canbe used to construct genetic maps in a variety ofspecies. We suggest that these polymorphisms becalled RAPD markers, after Random AmplifiedPolymorphic DNA.

Driven by the West Wind Drift? Asynthesis of southern temperate marinebiogeography, with new directions fordispersalism

ABSTRACTAim Twentieth century biogeographers developed intriguing hypothesesinvolving West Wind Drift dispersal of Southern Hemisphere biota, but suchmodels were largely abandoned in favour of vicariance following the developmentof plate tectonic theory. Here I present a synthesis of southern temperate marine

biogeography, and suggest some new directions for phylogeographic research.Location The southern continents, formerly contiguous components ofGondwana, are now linked only by ocean currents driven by the West Wind Drift.Methods While vicariance theory certainly facilitates the development of testable

hypotheses, it does not necessarily follow that vicariance explains much ofcontemporary southern marine biogeography. To overcome the limitations ofnarratives that simply assume vicariance or dispersal, it is essential for analyses totest biogeographic hypotheses by incorporating genetic, ecological and geologicaldata.Results Recent molecular studies have provided strong evidence for dispersal,

but relatively little evidence for the biogeographic role of plate tectonics indistributing southern marine taxa. Despite confident panbiogeographic claims tothe contrary, molecular and ecological studies of buoyant macroalgae, such as


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Macrocystis, indicate that dispersal predominates. Ironically, some of the bettersupported evidence for marine vicariance in southern waters has little or nothingto do with plate tectonics. Rather, it involves far more localized and recentvicariant models, such as the isolating effect of the Bassian Isthmus duringPleistocene low sea-level stands (Nerita).Main conclusions Recent phylogeographic studies of southern marine taxa (e.g.Diloma and Parvulastra) imply that passive rafting cannot be ignored as animportant mechanism of long-distance dispersal. I outline a new direction forsouthern hemisphere phylogeography, involving genetic analyses of bull-kelp(Durvillaea) and its associated holdfast invertebrate communities.KeywordsHistorical biogeography, holdfast, kelp, macroalgae, oceanic dispersal, phylogeography,rafting, vicariance.

Ecological and evolutionaryconsequences of biotichomogenizationBiotic homogenization, the gradual replacement ofnative biotas by locally expanding non-natives, is aglobal process that diminishes floral and faunal distinctions

among regions. Although patterns of homogenizationhave been well studied, their specific ecologicaland evolutionary consequences remain unexplored. Weargue that our current perspective on biotic homogenizationshould be expanded beyond a simple recognitionof species diversity loss, towards a synthesis of higherorder effects. Here, we explore three distinct forms ofhomogenization (genetic, taxonomic and functional),and discuss their immediate and future impacts on ecologicaland evolutionary processes. Our goal is toinitiate future research that investigates the broaderconservation implications of homogenization and topromote a proactive style of adaptive management that

engages the human component of the anthropogenicblender that is currently mixing the biota on Earth.

ECOLOGICAL DIVERGENCE ASSOCIATEDWITH MATING SYSTEM CAUSES NEARLYCOMPLETE REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATIONBETWEEN SYMPATRIC MIMULUSSPECIESSpeciation often involves the evolution of numerous prezygotic and postzygotic isolating barriersbetween divergent populations.Detailed knowledge of the strength and nature of those barriers provides insight into ecological andgenetic factors that directly orindirectly influenced their origin, and may help predict whether they will be maintained in the face ofsympatric hybridization andintrogression. We estimated the magnitude of pre- and postzygotic barriers between naturally

occurring sympatric populations ofMimulus guttatus andM. nasutus. Prezygotic barriers, including divergent flowering phenologies,differential pollen production,mating system isolation, and conspecific pollen precedence, act asymmetrically to completelyprevent the formation of F1 hybridsamong seeds produced by M. guttatus (F1g), and reduce F1 hybrid production among seedsproduced by M. nasutus (F1n) toonly about 1%. Postzygotic isolation is also asymmetric: in field experiments, F1g but not F1nhybrids had significantly reduced


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germination rates and survivorship compared to parental species. Both hybrid classes had flower,pollen, and seed production valueswithin the range of parental values. Despite the moderate degree of F1g hybrid inviability,postzygotic isolation contributes verylittle to the total isolation between these species in the wild. We also found that F1 hybrid floweringphenology overlapped morewith M. guttatus than M. nasutus. These results, taken together, suggest greater potential forintrogression from M. nasutus to M.guttatus than for the reverse direction. We also address problems with commonly used indices ofisolation, discuss difficulties incalculating meaningful measures of reproductive isolation when barriers are asymmetric, andpropose novel measures of prezygoticisolation that are consistent with postzygotic measures.KEY WORDS: Flowering phenology, introgression, natural hybridization, Phrymaceae, reproductiveasynchrony, Scrophulariaceae,speciation.

Ecological interaction between sympatricMytilusspecies on the west coast of Canada investigated usingPCR markers

AbstractM. californianus is the dominant marine mussel species on exposed rocky shores, whileM. trossulus is usually the dominant mussel species in more sheltered waters on the westcoast of North America. Since these species are physically indistinguishable when small(< 10.0 mm), we developed two polymerase chain reaction (PCR) -based markers to discriminate

between them. Using these markers, we identified mussels taken from anexposed coast (n = 114), a sheltered harbour (n = 80), and an upper-intertidal pool (n = 42)on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.M. californianus werefound only on the open coast. SmallM. trossulus (< 20.0 mm) were common to all threesample sites, but were extremely rare at larger sizes (> 20.0 mm) on the open coast. Ourresults indicate thatM. californianus are excluded from sheltered waters via early life factors,whileM. trossulus are excluded from the open coast due to mortality later in life.Keywords: competition, marine mussels,Mytilus californianus ,Mytilus trossulus, open coast,

species markersEcological risk assessment using RAPD and distribution patternof a rare and endangered species

AbstractEnvironmental and ecological risk assessment always provide useful evidence for characterisationand conservation of the rare andendangered species, e.g. seven-son flower (Heptacodium miconioides Rehd.). Seven-son flower isa deciduous arbor species, but endangered,with a restricted distribution in the subtropical forests of China. Genetic risk assessment of 56samples of the flower from ninemain populations in Zhejiang (China) was carried out by using the RAPD analysis. This was tostudy the ecological characteristics, spatialdistribution and genetic features of the seven-son flower communities and establish a feasible

conservation plan. Twenty-one primersscreened from 50 yielded 119 RAPD bands with 72 polymorphic products and 60.50% of totalbands. The genetic variation was found tobe partitioned mainly among rather than within populations. Percentages of genetic diversity amongpopulations were quantified byShannon index and the Neis gene diversity coefficient. AMOVA also demonstrated that these relictpopulations were highly differentiated.The high level of population variation observed is in contrast to that expected for a primarilyoutcrossed woody perennial plant,


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and suggests that there may be a degree of inbreeding. The dendrogram constructed from geneticdistances through UPGMA methodbased on Neis coefficients shows two groups among nine population clusters, which is furthersupported by a principle components analysis(PCA) of RAPD phenotypic data. The analysis showed that the biologic characteristics and habitatfragmentation were the reasonsof the great genetic variation among populations. Some strategies of its genetic diversityconservation were proposed in the fragmented habitats based on its genetic structure and itsbiological characteristics in this study.

Ecological theories and indicators in economic models ofbiodiversity loss and conservation: A critical reviewWe evaluate how well environmental-economic models describe biodiversity loss andconservation issues. Four types of economic models turn out to dominate economicresearch into biodiversity conservation. For each of these, we assess the extent to whichthey integrate relevant ecological theories and indicators of biodiversity loss. A mainconclusion is that models with more economic detail contain less detailed descriptions ofthe ecological dynamics of biodiversity change. We provide suggestions for improvingeconomic models of biodiversity conservation and discuss the advantages of using lessstylised representations of ecological processes.

Efecto de la temperatura en el desarrollo embrionario y larvaldel mejilln,Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lamarck, 1819)Temperatureeffectintheembryonicand larval developmentofthemussel,

Mytilus galloprovincialis (Lamarck,1819)

Resumen.- Elmejilln del Mediterrneo (Mytilusgalloprovincialis Lamarck,1819) hasidoregistrado

recientementeenlascostaschilenas, desde Concepcin (36S)hastael Estrecho de Magallanes (54S). Enelestudio defactibilidad desucultivomasivoen Chile (Proyecto FONDEF

D05I-10258) seevaluelefecto delatemperaturasobresudesarrollotempranoparamodularempricamentelastasas de

crecimientolarval. Losembrionesylarvassecultivarona12,16y 20C,enunaunidad productora desemillasmarinasenlabaha de Coliumo (36S), Chile, desde dondeseextrajeronlosreproductores. El desarrolloembrionariosiguilasecuenciaconocidaparaotros bivalvos. Lastrocforassetransformaronenvelgeras,alas 45 hpostfertilizacin,seguidasporlaslarvasD (longitud inicial99

6 m),convelociliado,estmagobien definidoylneas decrecimientoconcntricasenlaconcha;laslarvasumbonadas,apartir del da15 postfertilizacin,desarrollaronmanchasocularesymsculosaductores;laspedivelgeras (tallainicial 265

2 m) desarrollaronunrganopedalyfilamentos branquiales. Losestadiosembrionarioy

larvalfueronaceleradosamayorestemperaturas. Lastasas decrecimientolarvala 20C (9,1 m*da-1) fueronsignificativamentemayoresquea12 y16C (6,7 m*da-1y7,4 m*da-1,respectivamente). ComparadoconMytiluschilensis,M. galloprovincialis presentmejores detasas decrecimientoaigualestemperaturas. Estosugiereque,en Chile,

sepuedeproducirsemillas deM. galloprovincialis en

condicionescontroladas,parasucultivomasivo.


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Palabrasclave: Mytilidae,mejilln,embrin,larva,temperatura,tasa decrecimiento

E ect of pollution on genetic diversity in the baymussel Mytilus galloprovincialis and the acornbarnacle Balanus glandula

AbstractTo test if environmental contamination acts as a selection force a ecting genetic diversity atthe population level, two intertidal invertebrate species, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Balanusglandula, were collected from seven di erent bay sites in southern California. Collections weremade at three relatively pristine `clean' sites and four `impacted' sites exposed to heavyindustrial or boating activity, and which had previously been identied as having measurablelevels of pollution. Genetic diversity at each site was assessed by comparing fragment poly-morphisms generated from genomic DNA by randomly amplied polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR). All populations retained a large amount of geneticdiversity and were genetically similar to each other. However, several di erent measuresof diversity indicated that, for most primers, the populations of both species from impactedsites had lower genetic diversity compared to those populations from clean sites. Individualsat impacted sites were more likely to share the same haplotypes than were those from cleansites. Few bands seen in the clean sites were absent from the impacted sites or vice versa, but anumber of bands in the clean site populations were signicantly less common in the impactedpopulations, while a few bands uncommon in clean site populations were more common atimpacted sites. Together, these results suggest that pollution at the impacted sites may reducegenetic diversity among the resident invertebrate populations. #2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.

All rights reserved.

Effects of ocean acidification on the immuneresponse of the blue musselMytilus edulis

ABSTRACT: The effects of medium term (32 d) hypercapnia on the immune response ofMytilusedulis were investigated in mussels exposed to acidified (using CO2) sea water (pH 7.7, 7.5 or 6.7;control: pH 7.8). Levels of phagocytosis increased significantly during the exposure period,

suggestingan immune response induced by the experimental set-up. However, this induced stress responsewas suppressed when mussels were exposed to acidified sea water. Acidified sea water did nothaveany significant effects on other immuno-surveillance parameters measured (superoxide anionproduction,total and differential cell counts). These results suggest that ocean acidification may impactthe physiological condition and functionality of the haemocytes and could have a significant effecton cellular signalling pathways, particularly those pathways that rely on specific concentrations ofcalcium, and so may be disrupted by calcium carbonate shell dissolution.KEY WORDS: Mytilus edulis Ocean acidification Carbon capture and storage Seawater pH Immune response Phagocytosis

Environmental transformations in developingcountries: hybrid research and democratic

policyThis paper introduces a special edition ofThe GeographicalJournalon the theme of 'environmentaltransformations in developing countries'. Geographical research intohuman-environment relations is well established. However, many recent studies of politicalecology or constructivist approaches to environment either overlook biophysicalaspects of environmental change, or uncritically accept 'orthodox' explanations of physicaldegradation without appreciating the social and political construction of such models.This paper, and those following, attempt to outline ways in which environmental


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research may remain sensitive to political and cultural debates, yet also give insights topractical environmental management of biophysical resources 'externally real' tohuman experience. It is argued that understanding human impacts on environmentmay only be achieved through long-term environmental histories compiled usinglocally-based 'hybrid' social and physical research methods; plus an awareness of thesocial and political construction of environmental 'orthodoxies' by powerful domesticand global agendas. As such, 'transformations' may be viewed as both physical changesin factors such as land cover or health hazards; but also as the socio-economic transitionsin the driving forces of environmental degradation and perceptions of risk whichin turn fuel new orthodoxies in research and policy.KEY SVORDS: environmental management, environment and development, desertification, deforestation,industrialization, environmental policy.

Equivalence in yield from marine reserves and traditional fisheries management

Community structure of the macroinfauna in the sediments below anintertidal mussel bed (Mytilus chilensis (Hupe)) of southern ChileEstructura comunitaria de la macroinfauna en los sedimentos bajo un banco intermareal de

bivalvos (Mytilus chilensis (Hupe)) en el sur de ChileABSTRACT

The mytilid musselMytilus chilensis (Hupe) can form dense beds in sedimentary areas of the inland coast ofthe Nord-Patagonic archipelagos of the Chilean coast (ca. 40-43rS). During the autumn of 2002, we collectedreplicated samples at five intertidal stations in Panitao (Golfo de Reloncav) ordered along a transect parallelto the low tide level and extended from the center of the bank (stations one and two with 100 and ca. 25 % ofmussel cover, respectively) to the bare sediments of the intertidal (stations 3, 4 and 5, without mussels). Themacroinfauna was numerically dominated by Polychaeta, Oligochaeta and Crustacea Peracarida. The totalnumber of species collected was 14, being the most abundant the polychaete Perinereis vallata, oligochaetesfrom the family Tubificidae and the crustacean amphipod Corophium insidiosum. The number of species,Shannon-Wiener diversity and total abundance of the macroinfauna did not differ significantly amongstations. However, the percent contribution of polychaetes was significantly higher at the sediments sampledoutside the mussel bed (stations three, four and five), while the percentual contribution of oligochaetes wassignificantly higher at the sediments sampled in the mussel bed (stations one and two). No significantdifferences were found between the percentual contribution of peracarid crustaceans between stations

sampledin the mussel bed versus that sampled on the bare intertidal. The graphic results of NMMDS show that themacroinfaunal assemblage of the stations located inside the mussel bed differed from that of stations locatedoutside the bed. Results of SIMPER and ANOSIM showed that the macroinfaunal composition of stations oneand two was significantly dissimilar (61-54 %) to that of the stations located outside the mussel bed, whichhad similar composition. The graphic results of a NMMDS based upon sedimentological characteristics showthat most replicates of station one and some of station two separate from that of the other stations (i.e. locatedoutside the mussel bed). Results of ANOVA showed significant differences for all sediment variables, withthe exception of percentages of gravel particles and mean grain size of sands. The most noticeable differencewas that shown by station 1 (lower contents of sand and higher content of mud, biogenic aggregates and totalorganic matter). The results of BIO-ENV routine showed that the best fit between the taxonomic compositionof the macroinfauna and single sediment variables, was reached with percentages of sand and mud. It isconcluded, that mussel beds of sedimentary bottoms of southern Chile have a significant role on the sedimentquality and community structure of the macroinfauna, a probable combined effect of physiological processes(ingestion of larvae, biodeposition) and the complex physical matrix of the bed.Key words: mussel beds,Mytilus chilensis , macroinfauna, southern Chile.

MARINE RESERVES AND OCEANNEIGHBORHOODS: The Spatial Scale of MarinePopulations and Their ManagementAbstract The movement of individuals defines a spatial neighborhood that canhelp determine marine management strategies. Here, I briefly review four fields ofmarine biology that each differentially illuminate the scale of marine neighborhoods:


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effects of marine reserves, tagging studies, microchemistry, and population genetics.These suggest adult neighborhood sizes for many demersal fish and invertebrates assmall as kilometers and up to 10 to 100 km. Larval dispersal may be shorter than

previously suspected: neighborhood sizes of 10 to 100 km for invertebrates and 50 to200 km for fish are common in current compilations.How can small reserves protect such species? One conceptual framework is to setreserve size based on adult neighborhood sizes of highly fished species and determinespacing of a reserve network based on larval neighborhoods. The multispecies natureof fisheries demands that network designs accommodate different life histories andtake into account the way local human communities use marine resources.

Evolutionary Genetics ofAtlantic Salmon (Salmo salarL.)- Molecular Markers and Applications AbstractVasemgi, A. 2004. Evolutionary Genetics ofAtlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) - Molecular

Markers andApplications.

ISSN 1401-6230, ISBN 91-576-6708-XThis thesis deals with evolutionary genetics of Atlantic salmon populations, with the specialemphasis on the roles of migration, random genetic drift, mutation and natural selectionaffecting the patterns of molecular variation across contemporary and historical time scales.

Studies of mitochondrial DNA variation supported the hypothesis of multiple post-glacialcolonization events of the Baltic Sea. The Eastern Atlantic populations differ from thegeographically close southern Baltic populations, indicating absence of inward and limitedoutward gene flow through the Danish straits during the last 8000 years. Four commonEuropean mitochondrial haplotypes derive from the ancestral ND1-BBBA haplotype byone-step substitutions. Our results suggest that wild populations have an important role inre-colonization processes of the former salmon rivers where populations have been drivento extinction due to human activities. Spatio-temporal analysis over eighteen years providedgenetic evidence of immigration from compensatory hatchery releases into one of the

biggest wild Atlantic salmon population in the Gulf of Bothnia (R. Vindellven) andemphasize the genetic risks associated with current large-scale stocking practices in theBaltic Sea. For restoration of former salmon rivers in the Gulf of Finland we recommendthat two closest native salmon populations should be preferred to help to fill in the currently

missing building blocks that are important for the persistence of genetic variation andlong-term survival of salmon populations in Estonia. We identified several expressedsequence tag (EST) loci that are potentially affected by divergent selection demonstratingthat EST-scans may provide suitable strategy to discover functionally important geneticvariation both in model and non-model organisms.Keywords: population genetics, microsatellites, mitochondrial DNA, MHC,adaptation, natural selection, migration, genetic drift, expressed sequence tags,EST

Evolutionary Relationships among the Male and Female Mitochondrial DNALineages in the 2Mytilus edulis Species ComplexA novel form of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inheritance has previously been documented for the bluemussel(Mytilus edulis). Female mussels inherit their mtDNA solely from their mother while males inherit mtDNAfrom

both their mother and their father. In males, the paternal mtDNA is preferentially amplified so that the malegonad is highly enriched for the paternal mtDNA that is then transmitted from fathers to sons. Wedemonstratethat this mode of mtDNA inheritance also operates in the closely related species M. gulloprovincialis and M.trossulus. The evolutionary relationship between the male and female mtDNA lineages is estimated by

phylogeneticanalysis of 455 nucleotides from the large subunit ribosomal RNA gene. We have found that the male andfemale


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lineages are highly divergent; the divergence of these lineages began prior to the speciation of the threespecies of

blue mussels. Further, the separation between the male and female lineages is estimated to have occurredbetween5.3 and 5.7 MYA.

Experimental evolution reveals natural selection on standing genetic variation

Evolution depends on genetic variation generated by mutationor recombination from standing genetic variation. In sexualorganisms, little is known about the molecular populationgenetics of adaptation and reverse evolution111. We carryout 50 generations of experimental reverse evolution inpopulations of Drosophila melanogaster, previously differentiatedby forward evolution, and follow changes in thefrequency of SNPs in both arms of the third chromosome. Wecharacterize the effects of sampling finite population sizes andnatural selection at the genotype level. We demonstrate thatselection has occurred at several loci and further that there isno general loss or gain of allele diversity. We also observe thatdespite the complete convergence to ancestral levels of

adaptation, allele frequencies only show partial return

Exploited marine invertebrates: genetics and fisheriesAbstractThe application of genetic techniques to invertebrate fisheries is in many ways essentially similar to that invertebrate(i.e. finfish) fisheries, for which there is already an extensive body of published data. However, thereare also relative differences which lead to particular problems in the use of genetic data to study commerciallyimportant invertebrate species. The main role for genetics of both vertebrates and invertebrates has been, andislikely to continue to be, the identification of groups of interbreeding individuals as the basis for a fishery. It isin the identification of the breeding unit that the genetic differences between vertebrates and invertebrates can

be of practical significance. The genetic breeding unit, usually called a stock in fisheries biology, generallyshows a certain uniformity of size in most marine fish which have been studied. Smaller or less mobile fish(e.g.flatfish) may only range a few tens of kilometres to their breeding grounds, whilst in more mobile,

particularlymigratory pelagic species (e.g. Scombridae), the area occupied by a stock is likely to be far greater and for afew (e.g. large pelagic elasmobranchs), a single unit of stock may be almost circumglobal. However, marinefishgenerally, particularly those large or plentiful enough to be of commercial interest, are likely to be fairlymobileand in many cases the order of mobility is likely to be in the region we might predict from our knowledge ofthe biology and habits of the species. In the genetic assessment of stocks for invertebrate fisheries, we face anumber of additional problems, mostly related to the large evolutionary range of invertebrates exploited and

theirwidely different biology. Although in Europe and North Americamarine invertebrate fisheries may be thoughtof as

being mainly for decapod crustaceans and bivalve molluscs, globally commercially important marineinvertebratefisheries range from sponges to squid and include such diverse groups as sea cucumbers, barnacles, krill,octopuses,cuttlefish, sea anemones, ascidians, polychaetes, sea urchins, gastropods and jellyfish. An obvious feature ofmany


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of these invertebrates is that the adult (i.e. commercial) stage of the life cycle is sessile (e.g. barnacles,sponges,ascidians) or of very limited mobility (e.g. sea anemones, sea urchins, bivalves, gastropods), with the resultthatthe dispersive phase of the life cycle is the larva. Other groups (e.g. krill, jellyfish) are planktonic or nektonicandmay cover very large distances, but, unlike fish, have little control over the distance or direction of travel,whilstsome of the open ocean pelagic squid are more mobile than most fish and may migrate thousands orkilometres tospawning grounds. The very low mobility of both larva and adult in some invertebrates indicates thatdispersal, andhence stock size, is likely to be low and that, therefore, stocks are far more vulnerable to overfishing than inmostfish species. An additional difficulty is that genetic studies to date indicate a remarkably high incidence ofcrypticspeciation in marine invertebrates, sometimes even in comparatively well studied commercially importantspecies.Thus, although to date marine invertebrate fisheries have not received the same level of attention fromgeneticist as

finfish fisheries, it is clear that for invertebrate fisheries genetic data are relatively far more important if afishery isto be exploited without being endangered.

FAO SPECIES IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR FISHERY PURPOSESTHE LIVING MARINE RESOURCES OF THEWESTERN CENTRAL PACIFIC

Feeding aquaculture growth through globalization: Exploitation ofmarine ecosystems for fishmeal

AbstractLike other animal production systems, aquaculture has developed into a highly globalized trade-dependent industry. A major part of

aquaculture technology requires fishmeal to produce the feed for farmed species. By tracing andmapping patterns of trade flows globallyfor fishmeal we show the aquaculture industrys increasing use of marine ecosystems worldwide.We provide an in-depth analysis of thegrowth decades (19802000) of salmon farming in Norway and shrimp farming in Thailand. Bothcountries, initially net exporters offishmeal, increased the number of import source nations of fishmeal, peaking in the mid-1990s.Thailand started locally and expandedinto sources from all over the globe, including stocks from the North Sea through imports fromDenmark, while Norway predominantlyrelied on northern region source nations to feed farmed salmon. In 2000, both have twogeographically alternate sources of fishmealsupply: the combination of Chile and Peru in South America, and a regional complement. We findthat fishmeal trade for aquaculture is

not an issue of using ecosystems of the South for production in the North, but of trade betweennations with industrialized fisherieslinked to productive marine ecosystems. We discuss the expansion of marine ecosystemappropriation for the global aquaculture industryand observed shifts in the trade of fishmeal between marine areas over time. Globalization, throughinformation technology andtransport systems, has made it possible to rapidly switch between marine areas for fishmeal supplyin economically connected food


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producing systems. But the stretching of the production chain from local to global and the ability toswitch between marine areasworldwide seem to undermine the industrys incentives to respond to changes in the capacity ofecosystems to supply fish. For example,trade information does not reveal the species of fish that the fishmeal is made of much less itsorigins and there is lack of feedbackbetween economic performance and impacts on marine ecosystem services. Responding toenvironmental feedback is essential to avoidthe trap of mining the marine resources on which the aquaculture industry depends. There aregrounds to suggest the need for someglobal rules and institutions that create incentives for seafood markets to account for ecosystemsupport and capacity.r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Fisheries forensics: the use of DNA tools for improvingcompliance, traceability and enforcement in the fishingindustryIntroductionFisheries management ideally aims to balance theoptimization of yield with the sustainability of

natural resources. Within this broad objective, thescience of fisheries biology has traditionally focusedon developing our understanding of the environmentaland biological parameters that influence

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