AABANDONMENTA. is an important characteristic of a trueyogin, he who practises karma-yoga or “Yogaof action”; according to the Bhagavad-gœtå, A.is distinguished from pure and simple accep-tance of non-action (sa& nyåsa). A. is de -scribed as renunciation of, which presuppos-es ascetic detachment (vairågya) from thefruits that an action inevitably brings. Theaction must be accomplished but, at the sametime, understood as an act of sacrifice; its aimshould be the well being of all creatures andit must be performed as an offering to LordK£ß¿a. In fact, the Bhagavad-gœtå considerssuch renunciation of any fruits from actionssuperior even to contemplation. [SP]See also tyåga.

ABHÅVA-YOGA“Yoga of absence”. The first of two types ofYoga mentioned in the closing chapter of the¢çvara-gœtå (The Song of Lord ‰iva), in whichit is defined as follows: “When the object ofattention is one’s own form as a void, devoidof any appearance, this is known as A., throughwhich åtman can be seen”. [SP]

ABHAYA“Absence of fear”, “security”. It is the last ofthe twelve yama-s or “abstensions” (the firstof the eight elements that constitute classicalYoga) according to the Uddhava-gœtå (The[divine] song adressed to Uddhava), it indi-cates the condition of perfect peace whichcomes from the knowledge of truth. A. isalso an important gift of the divinity, thatguarantees this perfect state devoid of anyagitation to his devotee. [SP]See also abhaya-mudrå. K£ß¿a in abhaya-mudrå (~900 A.D.).

ABHAYA-MUDRÅ“Gesture of the absence of fear”. The nameof one of the most important mudrå-s, ges-tures or poses represented in the divineimages and also used by worshippers (forexample, in the cult of ‰iva). A. consists inkeeping the hand lifted with its palm facingtowards the front. In divine images (m¥rti)this gesture often accompanies the so calledvarada-mudrå, the pose by which the divin-ity bestows grace and favours; similar to theabove but with fingers pointing down-wards. [SP]

ABHIDHARMA“Supreme dharma” that is “supreme truth”,or “metaphysics”. Illustrated in the mostdoctrinal and theoretical part of Buddhist

ABHINAVAGUPTA 10

teachings, regarding prajñå or “wisdom”, towhich the third part of the Påli Canon (Abhi -dhamma-pi†aka) and numerous other worksin Sanskrit are dedicated. According toVasubandhu, the renowned Buddhist phi -losopher of the 5th century A.D., knowledgeof A. gives the same results as those guaran-teed by the practice of Yoga. [PC]

ABHINAVAGUPTAImportant master of Tantrism and in partic-ular, of Kashmirian ‰aivism, who livedbetween the 10th and 11th century, and whois considered one of the greatest Indianthinkers. His works include: a comment onthe Bhagavad-g¤tå entitled Bhagavadg¤tårtha-sa&graha (A summary of the meaning of theBhagavad-gœtå); the Paråtri&çikåvivara¿a (acomment on Paråtri&çikå, which is part of animportant Tantra of the Trika school) and avoluminous treatise, Tantråloka (The light ofTantra-s), which sets out to explain “thetruth about the Tantra-s, following logic andtradition”, so that the faithful guided by this“light” can orientate themselves in the com-plex ritual of Tantrism. [SP]

ABHINIVE‰ADetermined devotion to a particular intent.It is one of the five kleça-s or “afflictions”described in the Yoga-s¥tra: attachment tolife, or an innate fear of death formed atbirth, which is in the nature of every livingbeing and is as deeply rooted in the fool’smind as in that of the wise man. Given thatit is impossible to fear something of whichone has no experience, A., according to thecommentary of Vyåsa on the Yoga-s¥tra, isthe fruit of latent impressions derived fromthe experience of death in past lives. [PC]

ABHIfiEKAA purification ritual, a consecration by bath -ing, sprinkling or unction. Two ceremonies aredesignated by this term: the complex ceremo-ny, by which kings (and ministers) were onceconsecrated, which included a ritual bath andunction; and the ritual still used today, inwhich water, milk and perfumes are pouredon to sacred statues, especially on liæga-s. In a

particular form of ‰åkta Tantric Yoga, prac-tised by the followers of the Hind¥ currentthat venerates the supreme Divinity principallyin the form of ‰akti, the Divine Mother of theUniverse, the eight forms of A. mark the eightstages along the yogin’s spiritual path. In thefirst step, the disciple purifies himself from anybad tendencies and dedicates himself to therepetition of the mantra received from his guruat his initiation. In the second step he beginsthe true practice of Yoga which will be per-fected at the sixth A. The yogin worships‰akti, initially under the terrifying aspect ofKålœ, then under the redemptive of Tårå, thenunder the luminous aspect of Tripurasundar¤,lastly under the androgynous aspect of Ardha -narœçvara. By the seventh and eighth A. theyogin becomes a j¤vanmukta, a “living re -leased” reaching the supreme state of pa rama-ha&sa. [PC]

ABHYÅSA“Exercise”, “practice”. According to theYoga-s¥tra, the effort to attain peace of mind,must be made daily, constantly, and cultivatedin every place and in every circumstance.According to Vyåsa A. must be accompaniedby ascetic penitence, chastity, science andfaith. The Ha†hayoga-prad¤ pikå expressly statesthat success in Yoga is attained only by itspractice, not by means of discourse or by meretheoretical knowledge. [PC]

ABSOLUTEThe ultimate Reality in the principal spir it ualtraditions of India and in particular in theYoga of the Bhagavad-gœtå. Conceived as thesupreme Spirit, it is devoid of any qualitiesor attributes and is beyond both the physicaland psychic world and also individual con-science. [SP]See also Brahman.

ABSTENTIONSSee yama.

ÅCAMANAIn Tantrism, a symbolic act of purification ofthe body, by which water is sipped from thepalm of the hand, with the lips held near the

11 ACCOMPLISHED POSTURE

tee”, in which the sådhaka attains total con-sciousness of Brahman, and sa&såra defini-tively ends. The first three Å. refer to thedevotee’s condition as a “domestic animal”(paçu-bhåva), the fourth and fifth to the con-dition of a hero (v¤ra-bhåva) and the last twoto the divine condition (divya-bhåva). [SP]

ÅCÅRYAMaster able to show the devotee and in par-ticular the yogin the correct behaviour (åcåra)to attain realization (sådhana). The genericmeaning of the word is “master”. [SP]

‰iva as a divine master (Dakßi¿åm¥rti).

ÅCÅRYA-SEVANA / ÅCÅRYA -UPÅSANA“Service to the master”. Listed in the Ud -dhavag¤tå (the [divine] song addressed toUddhava) among the ten niyama-s or “ob -ser vances” of Yoga; it consists in an attitude,not only of true devotion (sevå), but also ofveneration (upåsana) of the master (guru,åcårya), a figure of great importance in allschools of Yoga. [SP]

ACCOMPLISHEDSee siddha.

ACCOMPLISHED POSTURESee siddha-åsana.

wrist and fingers pointing upwards, and issprinkled on some limbs. This purificationregards not only the “gross” or physical body(sth¥la-çar¤ra) but also both the “subtle”body (s¥kßma- or liæga-çar¤ra) and the causalbody ([mahå]-kåra¿a-çar¤ra). [SP]

ÅCÅRAIn Tantrism this word indicates a path, abehaviour, a particular rule of conduct, thatrepresents the level of perfection attained bya certain type of sådhaka or initiate. TheKulår¿ava-tantra lists seven, in an increasingorder of importance and perfection: 1) ve då -cåra, “the path of the Veda”, which requiresphysical and mental purity, aimed atstrength ening dharma. It consists in theaccomplishment of daily rites known asvaidika because they are inspired by tradi-tional ritual practice. It is also indicated asthe path of ritual action, kriyå-mårga;2) vaiß¿avåcåra, the “path of the devotee ofViß¿u”, a devotional path (bhakti-mårga)founded on a deeper consciousness of ab -solute reality (Brahman); 3) çaivåcåra, the“path of the devotee of ‰iva”, which marksthe beginning of the path of awareness (jñå-na-mårga); 4) dakßi¿åcåra, the “favour ablepath” to realization (sådhana) as well as toworldly activity (prav£tti). It concludes thefirst cycle of Å., globally known as dakßi¿a(which is commonly, even though perhapsmistakenly, called the “path of the righthand”). It requires the ability to contemplateand concentrate on the triple ‰akti (kriyå-,icchå- and jñåna-çakti, identifiable with the‰akti of Brahmå, Viß¿u and ‰iva as far asworship is concerned); 5) våmåcåra the “pathopposite” to active life (prav£tti). It is the“path of renunciation” or “of return” (ni -v£tti) (tendentiously named “the path of theleft hand”, våma, or “the path that can becovered together with a woman”, våmå),which also indicates the last three Å.-s;6) siddhåntåcåra (or Aghoråcåra or Yogå -cåra), “the path of the accomplished end” (or“of the Aghora-s” or “of Yoga”), in whichthe sådhaka, who masters the eightfold Yoga,realizes further detachment from the world;7) kaulåcåra, “the path of the noble devo-

ACCOMPLISHMENTS 12

ACCOMPLISHMENTSSee påramitå, siddhi.

ACTIONThe Indian religious tradition considers A. asan obstacle to the accomplishment of thefinal emancipation from suffering deter-mined by the continual return of the spirit inthe transitory world of exteriority (sa&såra).Therefore it has privileged niv£tti, whichessentially consists of the renunciation ofaction in order to avoid forming new tieswith transitory forms of existence, ratherthan prav£tti which requires active involve-ment. This bond is known as karman (lit.“action”), which is the intrinsic conditioningfactor in human acti vi ty. From this point ofview it does not much matter whether A. is“good” or “bad” in itself, as both have aneffect and determine the presuppositions forrebirth in another life in which pleasure andpain will exist in the same measure as thepositive and negative fruits produced. Theonly acceptable, unconditioning A. is there-fore sacrifice (also known as karman), throughwhich, from ancient times, the needs ofworldly life were legitimized by consideringthem as gifts of the gods or “leftovers” fromtheir meals. The Brah manic doctrine of dhar-ma has singled out characteristic actions ofevery category of individuals, based on thefunction of each of them in human society,reserving for Brahmins alone – at least inprinciple or in a first formulation of the doc-trine – the privilege of passing through thefour åçrama-s or “stages of life”, the entirepath of human experience, before reaching,in the fourth and last stage, complete renun-ciation (sa&nyåsa), which permits entry intothat perfect condition of total liberty indi -cated as mokßa or nirvå¿a.In the Bhagavad-g¤tå, the use of the term kar-ma-yoga (the union with the Lord by action)instead of karma-mårga, affirms the possi -bility of acting in a way which does not cre-ate bonds, because it is “disinterested”: thisis the nißkåma-karman, “A. without desire”,accomplished for the good of all creaturesand offered to God, the “glorious Lord”K£ß¿a, personal divinity who establishes an

exclusive relationship of love and participa-tion with his devotees. [SP] See also karman, kriyå.

ADAMANTINE POSTURESee vajra-åsana.

ADAR‰ANA“Non-vision”, antonym of darçana “vision”,which is understood as the capacity of thesoul (purußa) to know nature (prak£ti), whilerecognising itself as pure consciousness andtherefore separate from nature. According tothe Yoga-darçana, A. is therefore a synonymof ignorance, which causes the bond be -tween purußa and prak£ti. Therefore, libera-tion is attained by the destruction of A.,ignorance. [PC]

ÅDHÅRA“Support”, “prop”, “base”. Gorakßanåtha(11th-12th century), the renowned master ofha†ha-yoga, numbers sixteen Å. in variousparts of the human body, from the tip of thebig toe to the top of the head, as follows:toes, ankles, knees, thighs, perineum, sexualorgan, navel, heart, neck, throat, tongue,nose, the space between the eyebrows, fore-head, head and the so called “opening ofBrahmå” (brahma-randhra). Concentrationon these principal points, given a series ofprecise connections, allows the yogin toacquire an absolute control over his mostimportant vital and psychic functions. TheHa†hayoga-prad¤pikå adds that the Å. arecontrolled by viçuddha-cakra or “centre ofpurity”, which is located at the throat. [SP]

ADHARMA“Disorder”, “injustice”. Antonym of dharma,its growth accompanies the progressive deca-dence of moral law in the four cosmic ages(yuga). The man-god K£ß¿a states in the Bha -gavad-g¤tå that every time there is a decline indharma and a growth of A., he generateshimself in the world (this is the doctrine ofthe “descents of the divine” or avatåra-s), toprotect the good and destroy the wicked,thereby restoring the right “order” withinthe universe. [SP]

13 ADHOMUKHAVÍKfiA-ÅSANA

ADHIKÅRAIn Tantric Yoga, these are the rights andduties or “qualifications” acquired by thedisciple (çißya) of mantra-yoga (Yoga ofsacred “magical” words) as he progressesalong the path of realization (sådhana) underhis guru’s guidance. Traditionally there areseven: 1) d¤kså or initiation, by which themaster teaches the disciple the mantra orsecret formula of prayer; 2) mahå d¤kßå orgreat initiation, by which the master intro-duces the disciple to the practical aspects(kriyå) of Yoga, for which he takes vows;3) puraçcara¿a, which requires the completecontrol of the mantra (mantra-siddhi) by thepracticant (så dha ka); 4) mahå puraçcara¿a, asthe above 3 but performed with a particularritual; 5)abhi ßeka or consecration, by whichthe master guides the disciple’s learning ofthe secret procedures of realization (så dhana);6) mahåbhißeka or great consecration, alsoknown by the name of p¥r¿åbhißeka, com-plete consecration, by which the disciple isassimilated to the master; 7) tadbhåva, “tobecome him”, by which the sådhaka attainsthe union with his chosen divinity (i߆a -

Adhomukhav£kßa-åsana: a) basic posture; b) variation 1; c) variation 2 (with legs in padma-åsana).

devatå), thereby opening the doors to therealisation of mahåbhåva or “great state”,that is samådhi. [SP]

ADHIKÅRINSaid of a person “qualified” to practiseYoga. Self control and perseverance are twoof his main qualities and, apart from unshak-able faith in the science of Yoga and in theadvantages deriving from it, the conditionsof his success are: respect for the guru, equa-nimity, control of the senses and moderationin the consumption of food. [SP]

ADHOMUKHAVÍKfiA-ÅSANA“Posture of the upside-down tree”, or hand-stand: an åsana of ha†ha-yoga belonging tothe category of inverted poses. Also knownas hasta-åsana (posture on the hands).Practice. Stand with legs straight, arms abovethe head, bend the body forwards untilhands touch the floor with a distance ofabout 40 cms between them. Bend the kneesenough to give a good push upwards whileexhaling. It is advisable for beginners to startby practising against a wall until they have

a b c

ADHYÅTMA-UPANIfiAD 14

found their balance. The posture is usuallyheld for 10-20 seconds. Release the posturewhile exhaling, returning to the initial posi-tion.Variations. 1) Rather than keeping the bodyas vertical as possible, the spine and legs areflexed backwards: the legs also slightly bentat the knees. Only the arms are completelyextended. 2) In this second variation, thelegs are folded in the posture of the lotus(padma-åsana).Benefits. Strengthens arms and shouldersand improves sense of balance. It also has allthe benefits of the inverted postures: im -proving circulation in the brain and stimulat-ing the thyroid. Variation 1 vigorously mas-sages the spine helping it become more sup-ple and flexible.

ADHYÅTMA-UPANIfiAD“The Upanißad regarding the supreme Spirit”.See Yoga-çåstra.

ADHYÅTMA-YOGAExpression meaning “union with the su -preme Self”, or “Yoga regarding the ab -solute Self”; found initially in the Ka†ha-upanißad and used in the Yogavåsi߆ha (Theteachings by Vasi߆ha on Yoga) to denote anon dualistic form of Yoga (advaita), whoseobjective is the attainment of spiritual ex -perience with the One who embraces andincludes all. Referred to in the teachings ofcontemporary masters such as Hari PrasadShastri. [SP]

ÅDI-MUDRÅ“Gesture of the universal principle”. Per -formed seated in vajra-åsana (adamantineposture), with eyes closed: fingers enclosethumbs to form fists, which are then placedat the groin. This mudrå is used to utter thesound „, the nasal resonance of the sacredsyllable O„, which represents the totality ofbeing in its unrevealed-causal form. [RR]

ÅDINÅTHA“The primeval Lord”. An epithet by whichthe god ‰iva is venerated by the adepts inha†ha-yoga, in particular by the so called

nåtha-yogin-s, known also as kånpha†a-yogin-s,who follow the teachings of Gorakßanåtha.‰iva, as Å., is considered the foremost of allyogin-s, and is portrayed immersed in pro-found meditation at the top of Mount Kai -låsa, his usual dwelling. [SP]

ADORATIONPractised towards a personal divinity, A. isone of the niyama-s or “observances” ofYoga. See arcå, ¤çvara-pra¿idhåna, p¥jå.

ADVAITA“Non-duality”. A word which alludes to thefinal unity of the Being and of reality, used inthe various schools of Yoga as a synonym ofsamådhi, the perfect recollection (called “en-stasy” by M. Eliade) that is the end and theultimate aim of every yogic discipline. [SP]

ADVAITA-VEDÅNTADenomination comprising a number ofschools. The literal meaning is “the conclu-sion towards which the sacred word tends”(vedånta), according to those who refuseduality (a-dvaita). A. comprehends at leastthree orientations largely divergent fromeach other. All three, however, are solidly incontrast to other two trends: the first ofwhich accepts both duality and non-duality;the second of which is markedly dualist. Thenon-duality with which it is concerned,according to the antagonistic schools, op -poses the subject (purußa) and the object(prak£ti); the conscious individual principle(j¤va) and universal principle (åtman); devo-tee (paçu) and divinity (pati) etc. A. princi-pally denies the supposed duality between acosmic foundation of being (Brahman) and apersonal foundation (åtman). The threeabove-mentioned orientations can be brieflyidentified as follows: the first and most rad -ical one is known as “Absolute non-dualism”;the second, in which the theistic currentmoves the centre of interest from an imper-sonal Absolute to a personal divinity, takingthe name of “qualified non-dualism”; thethird allows more space to devotion (bhakti)and defines itself as “pure non-dualism”.

15 AGHOR¢

The principal masters are respectively ‰aæ -kara (788-822?), Råmånuja (1017-1137) andVallabha (1473-1531). The form of non-duality which gives its name to the systemand the orientation under ‰aækara, is princi-pally that which flows between the divinity(¢çvara) and the individual conscious prin -ciple (j¤va). The two remain distinct for Rå -månuja, who also proposes the existence of athird fundamental entity, an entity “devoidof consciousness”. [AP]

ADVAYA“Non-dual”. In Tantrism it indicates the lib-erated state (mokßa) in which every opposi-tion and distinction (between ‰iva and ‰akti,between the conscious principle and the body,between subject and object, etc.) is nullified.This state is reached through the guru’steachings. [AP]

ADVAYATÅRAKA-UPANIfiAD“The Upanißad by which non-duality isreached”. This brief Yoga Upanißad, of twen-ty verses, affirms that the only existent entityis Brahman, in the form of sat (being), cit(consciousness) and ånanda (beatitude). Inorder to grasp the whole meaning of thework, which is linked to tåraka-yoga, it isimportant to examine the double meaning oftåraka: a) enabling someone to pass, to cross(in particular flowing water); b) rescueing.Therefore, knowledge of the uniqueness ofone being allows to cross the cycles of exist -ences and reach ultimate liberation (mokßa).After describing particular visualisations, ableto grant definitive salvation (for example con-centration on Ku¿øalin¤, the sleeping Powerin the body portrayed as a serpent coiled inthree and half coils), tåraka-yoga is analysed.In its inferior form it still depends on shapes(m¥rti), while its higher form is above andbeyond the latter and any type of mental per-ception: the yogin thereby attains supernatu -ral powers or perfections (siddhi). [GS]

ÅGAMA1. “Authoritative witness” or “verbal percep-tion”. Together with perception (pra tyakßa)and inference (anumåna), one of the three

types of “valid knowledge” or “real percep-tion” (pramå¿a), which, according to theYoga-s¥tra, constitute the first of the five“mental functions” (citta-v£tti). An object,either perceived or deduced by an expert per-son is described by words with the aim oftransferring the knowledge of the object itselfto somebody else. Mental change, which hasas its sphere the meaning of words, is the ver-bal perception of the listener. When thespeaker has neither perceived nor deducedand speaks of things that are unacceptable,the authority of verbal perception is lacking. 2. “That which has come down to us(through tradition)”. In the threefold repar-tition of the Tantric texts, the Å. are thosemost directly linked to ‰aivism (they are infact also known as ‰iva-tantra). There aretwenty-eight main Å., ten of which known asçaiva and eighteen as raudra; there are alsonumerous secondary ones, or upågama. It isimpossible to determine precisely the dateof their compilation, which has con tinueduninterrupted until today. However themost ancient probably go back to the firstcenturies A.D. The central theme of Å. analy-ses ritual in all its complexity; they also con-tain detailed rules for the religious practiceand the building of temples and sacredimages, as well as doctrinal commentaries,mythological narratives and descriptions ofyogic practices. There are also Buddhist andJaina Å. [PC]

ÅGAMA-VIJÑÅNAAccording to the Yoga-s¥tra this compound-word indicates knowledge based on the tes-timony of the Vedic sacred texts.

AGES OF THE WORLDSee kalpa, yuga.

AGHOR¢A class of çaiva ascetics also known as agho-rapanthin-s. Aghora means “not terrible”and is an euphemistic epithet for ‰iva and anaghorapanthin is he who follows the path of‰iva in this form. The A., are descendents ofthe kåpålika-s (so called because they carry askull to accept alms). They eat from human

ÅGNEYA-SNÅNA 16

skulls, frequent cemeteries, feed on rubbishand every sort of meat, apart from horse-meat; until the end of the 19th century theypractised cannibalism. [MR]

ÅGNEYA-SNÅNA“Bath of flames”. Tantric practice to purifythe body, consisting in covering and rub-bing one’s body with sacrificial ashes. [AC] See also kåya-çuddhi, snåna.

AGNEY¢-DHÅRA˚Å“Concentration on fire”. Concentration (dhå -ra¿å) on fire (agni) as a cosmic element (tat -tva) is the third phase of the “fivefold concen-tration” (pañca-dhåra¿å) which is described insome traditional texts of Yoga, such as theGhera¿øa-sa&hitå and the Yogatattva-upa -nißad. In mystic Tan tric physiology, the ele-ment Fire is connected with the “centre”(cakra) ma¿i p¥ra, situated at the level of thenavel, and with the part of the body com-prised between the anus and the heart; itssymbols are a red triangle and the syllable (orb¤ja-mantra) RA; the appointed divinity isRudra. This form of realization is attained byvisualising and holding the vital spirit (prå¿a)for two hours. The Yogatattva-upanißad pointsout that such practices must be done in rela-tion to the part of the body associated withfire, thereby rendering the yogin completelyimmune to burns. [SF]

AGNI“Fire”. In the Tantric sphere it indicates oneof the five mahåbh¥ta or gross elements.Associated with the colour red, the syllableRA, the triangle and Rudra, it is found in theeye, in the shoulders and in ma¿ip¥ra-cakra,the circle of energy situated at the level ofthe navel. The taste (rasa) that denotes it, isof sharpness. As for the other bh¥ta-s, thecomplex simbology associated with it sup-ports a series of very elaborate meditativepractices. A. flows in the higher part of thenostrils. [AP]

AGNI-MA˚flALA“Orb of fire”. A technical term from Tan -trism. The triangular seat of fire is found at

the centre of the human body (two finger-widths above the anus and two below themembrum virile), we find the triangle-shapedseat of Fire, shining like molten gold. Inquadrupeds this seat is square in form, inbirds circular, in reptiles hexagonal and ininsects octagonal. In the human body it takesthe form of stem nine finger widths long,glowing like a lantern, four finger widthshigh and deep. In birds and qua drupeds thisstem is oval in form with the centre in thenavel. Within this there is a circle of energy(cakra) in the shape of a wheel with twelvespokes, containing images of Viß¿u and othergods. [AP]

AGNISÅRA-DHAUTI“Purification by fire”. Technique of ha†ha-yoga described by the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå,belonging to the category of dhauti (hygienicpractices that constitute one of the ßa†kar-man-s, the six “acts” used to cleanse the bodyof every impurity): it is in fact one of the“internal purifications” (antar-dhauti).Practice. Standing, with legs apart, kneesslightly bent, hands resting on knees. Whileexhaling fully, emptying the lungs completely,the abdomen is repeatedly contracted at thelevel of the navel towards the spine. The

Agnisåra-dhauti

17 AHI¯SÅ

Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå states that the abdomenmust be contracted a hundred times but it isadvisable for beginners to limit the practiceto 10 to 30 contractions. Note that the move-ment of the abdomen is isolated: thereforeone should avoid both lifting the ribs andexpanding the thorax.Benefits. This practice strengthens the abdo -minal muscles; invigorates the vital organs;cures stomach problems (whether acid, alka-line, muscular or nervous dyspepsia); alsoaugments the “gastric fire” meaning digestivecapacity. When accompanied by an appropri-ate diet, it cures constipation. It is not, how-ever, free from contra-indications: it shouldbe avoided in the case of acute inflam mationof the digestive system, ulcers or excessiveenlargement of the spleen.

AHAM BRAHMÅSMI“I am the Absolute (Brahman)”. One of the“great sayings” of the Upanißad-s, found inthe B£hadåra¿yaka-upanißad. Of the four col-lections of texts that make up the sacredWord (Veda) it is linked to that of the blackYajur-veda, it is also linked to the spiritualorder founded by ‰aækara at ‰£ægeri. Thedevotee who tries to penetrate the truth ofthis saying through meditation contemplatesas a model the divine sage Våmadeva. It isthought that he who knows how to under-stand perfectly and make his own the notionof identity between his own Self and Brah -man, escapes from the dominion that thegods have over man. [AP]

AHA¯KÅRAThe sense of ego (aham = “ego”) or principleof individuation; the phase in which matter(prak£ti) finds itself when touched by evolu-tion’s impulse, thereby passing from a stateof mahat (a mass of energy) to that of an uni-tary mass, devoid of perceptions, still with-out personal experience, but already with theobscure consciousness of being an ego.Depending on which of the three qualities ofprak£ti is predominant, A. can transformitself qualitatively. If sattva (lightness) is pre-dominant, the five cognitive senses appearand the interior sense which connects the

perceptive activity with that of the biologicalmotor; if rajas (mobility) is predominant thefive organs of activity manifest themselves; iftamas (inertia) is predominant the five tan-måtra-s appear which are the genetic nucleiof the physical world. [MR]

AHA¯KÅRA-DOfiAThe six bad inclinations belonging to aha& -kåra (sense of ego) in Tantric Yoga: lust(kåma), anger (krodha), greed (lobha), in fat -ua tion (moha), pride (mada) and envy (måt-sarya). They are destroyed by contemplationof svådhi߆håna-cakra, situated in the sacralplexus. [PC]

ÅHÅRA“Food”, “diet”. An important component ofthe practice of Yoga, as it is believed that ahealthy and “pure” diet constitutes the basisof inner purity. In this regard the Bhagavad-g¤tå classifies food in three categories, refer-ring to the “intrinsic qualities” of Nature(sattva, rajas and tamas). Defined as sattvic is“food that lengthens life and gives steadfast-ness, strength, health, joy, satisfaction and istasty, sweet, substantial, agreeable”; definedas råjasic is food that is “bitter, acid, salty,spicy, sharp, sour, that burns or creates suf-ferance, pains or illness”, and lastly fooddefined as tåmasic is “old, bland, rank, stale,left over and unsuitable for sacrificial pur-poses”. The Bhagavad-g¤tå points out thatfood classified as above is desired by peoplewhen one of the three qualities (gu¿a) pre-vails. [SP] See also mitåhåra and pathya.

AHI¯SÅWord derived from the Sanskrit root hims-which means “to hit”, “to insult”, by addingthe privative a-. It takes the meaning of“innocence”, “non-violence”, forgoing hit-ting or injuring any living being and re -quires, therefore, respect for every form oflife. Remembered together with mortifica-tion, charity, rectitude and truthfulness inthe Chåndogya-upanißad (3, 17, 4) and cele-brated as the “supreme dharma”, that is, theforemost ethical rule, in the Mahå bhårata

AI‰VARYA 18

(14, 43, 21), A. is also one of the five funda-mental rules of ethical behaviour for Bud -dhists and Jainists; especially those whobelong to the strictest ascetic current (that ofDigambara-s), interpret it in a particularlyrigorous fashion. For those who follow thepath of Yoga A. is one of the yama-s or pre-scriptions that should be first observed inorder to proceed along the path of personalrealisation. [SP]

AI‰VARYA“Lordship”. Superhuman faculty (siddhi) ofthe yogin, able to give him sovereignty overthe laws of nature in a way similar to that ofthe supreme Lord (¢çvara). [SP]

AJAPAHA¯SA-VIDYÅ“Knowledge of the meditative formula (man -tra) ha&saª not recited”. The mantra inquestion is known as “not recited (con-sciously)” but rather spontaneously, becauseit is believed that it is a mere alternation ofinhalation and exhalation. This is a technicalTantric term. [AP] See also ajapa-kriyå.

AJAPA-KRIYÅ“Practice of the unrecited mantra”. It is theunconscious recitation (japa) of the mantraha&saª, which when repeated transformsitself for phonetic reasons into ha&so ha&soha&so…, so that it can also be read “so’ham” (the euphonic result of saª aham). Acelebrated mantra from the Upanißad-s thatmeans “I am That” and expresses thereforethe identity of the individual spirit (åtman)with the Absolute (Brahman). Some Yoga-upani ßad-s attest that this mantra is recitedunconsciously by the simple act of breath-ing in and out, and therefore, it is repeatedabout twenty-one thousand times duringtwenty-four hours. According to the Laya -yoga-sa&hitå, when the mind is completelyabsorbed in the recitation of the mantra “so’ham” it blends with the vital breath (prå¿a)permitting the attainment of consciousnessof the Self: for this reason the ha&sa, a wildwhite goose common in India, has becomea symbol of the liberated soul. [SP]

AJAPA-MANTRAIt is the mantra “ha&saª” considered “notrecited” (ajapa) as it is believed that it coin-cides with the simple act of breathing.See ajapa-kriyå.

ÅJ¢VIKAName of a non-Brahmanic sect of begging-ascetics (çrama¿a) of ancient India foundedby Makkhali Gosåla (in Sanskrit: MaskariGoçåla), who lived in Northern India, prob-ably between the 7th and 6th century B.C.The name Å. indicates a person “who ob -tains the basic necessities of life by begging”.The Å.-s were no longer found in the Northof India around the 5th century A.D. but sur-vived in the South until the 13th-14th cen -tury. They distinguished themselves by theirascetical rigor, vying with yogin-s and jainamonks in the practice of the most terribleforms of penitence. Their system of thoughtis founded on the concept of niyati (estab-lished order of things, destiny, chance) andtherefore, their vision of the world is decid-edly fatalistic and considers human effort astotally ineffective. [SP]

ÅJÑÅ-CAKRA“Circle of unlimited power”, or “of com-mand”: it is one of the six canonical cakra-s.Identified by some as the cavernous plexus,it is situated between the eyebrows, wherethe mystic third eye is to be found and isdepicted as a lotus with two shining whitepetals, which bear the letters HA and KfiA,both completed by candra-bindu (the sign „that indicates nasal resonance). A circularshaped pericarp, adorned with a halfmoonsurmounted by the bindu, it is the seat ofmahat-tattva, to which this cakra is correlatedas seat of buddhi (intellect), and of aha&kåra(the sense of ego), of manas (mind) and ofthe cognitive senses (indriya) in their subtleform. It also relates to Tapar-loka and to theunarticulated sound (nåda), which also actsas a support for the b¤ja-mantra. This cakra’ssiddha is Mahåkåla, the realised being ineternity, or the Great Time (one of the formsof ‰iva). The b¤ja-mantra is pra¿ava, thesacred syllable O„, “the immortal b¤ja simi-

19 ÅKAR˚ADHANUR-ÅSANA

lar to the autumn moon” (‰iva-sa&hitå, 5,97), the mantra par excellence that is identi-fied with Brahman, with the Veda and withall the gods. The b¤ja-mantra sustains theguardian divinities, which are the sacred liæ-ga and the Dev¤ or ‰akti Håkin¤, who iswhite and has six faces with three eyes each,is seated on a white lotus and has four or sixarms. This cakra has no linked element,being above them as it is above all the pre-ceding cakra-s. In this lotus which excels all others, thechannels iøå and piægalå meet for the lasttime and unite, as also the Vara¿å and theAs¤ unite with the Ganges in the sacred cityof Vå rå ¿as¤, where ‰iva Viçva nåtha (Lord ofthe universe) has his abode. According to traditional accounts, the så -dhaka that contemplates this hidden andsecret lotus, completely destroys every kar-man, can penetrate the body of others at will,excels among silent ascetics (muni), becomesomniscient and clear-sighted, ac quires super-human powers and becomes one and thesame with Brahman, creator, keeper and alsodestroyer of the world. [SP]

AJÑÅNASynonym of avidyå.

ÅKAR˚ADHANUR-ÅSANA“Shooting bow posture” or “Archer pos-ture”. Åsana of ha†ha-yoga belonging to thecategory of sitting postures.Practice. Initial position seated on the floor,legs together and straight out in front, clasp-ing big toes. While exhaling bend the leftarm and lift the left leg while bending it andpulling the foot backwards to the left ear.This position is held without moving whilebreathing normally for about 10-20 seconds.Then while exhaling the left leg is straight-ened as much as possible vertically next tothe ear, holding the position for another 10-20 seconds while still breathing normally. Torelease the pose bend the knee while slowlylowering the left leg until the initial positionis reached. After a short relaxation repeatwith the other leg.Variation. Clasp the right big toe with theleft hand and the left big toe with the righthand. Then while exhaling and keeping theleft leg stretched out on the floor, bend theright knee pulling firmly with the left arm inorder to bring the right foot near to the leftear. The pose should be held for about 10-20seconds, breathing normally; it is thenrepeated on the other side.Benefits. Especially effective in toning leg

Traditional image of åjñå-cakra.

ÅKʼnA 20

muscles, which are lengthened and renderedmore supple, and the abdominal muscles.This variation strongly stimulates hip jointsand knees.

ÅKʼnAMostly translated as “ether” or “space”, theterm is found in the Så&khya and indicatesthe first of the five mahå-bh¥ta-s or gross ele-ments (the others being air, water, fire andearth) of which the tanmåtra-s (the subtle ele-ments: sound, touch, colour, taste and smell)are the under-layer. The atom of Å. cor re -sponds to the tanmåtra “sound”. It is linkedto the colour of seawater or transparency, tothe syllable HA or to the point (bindu) inwhich every sound is dissolved, to a dot-

shaped figure; to Sadåçiva (one of the formsof the god ‰iva). It is present in the ears, inthe head and in viçuddha-cakra, the circle ofenergy found in the throat. Bitter ness is thetaste (rasa) that distinguishes it. As for theother bh¥ta-s, its complex simbology acts asa support to a series of very elaborate medi-tative practices. Å. flows nearly imperceptive-ly along the nostrils, and by a spiral motion itconnects the areas of the other bh¥ta-s wheretheir fluxes cross each other; this is theTantric understanding of the term. However,according to the Yoga of Patañjali, Å. is theempty space within which the motion ofthings takes place; it is the recipient in whichobjects are located and move; space and timeare derived from it. [AP]

a b

cd

Åkar¿adhanur-åsana: a-b) dynamic stage; c) basic posture; d) variation.

ÅKʼnA-CAKRASynonym of vyoma-cakra.

ÅKʼnA-GAMANAName of a supernatural faculty, not includedin the canonical list of the eight siddhi-s, whichconsists of the yogin’s power to roam in space(åkåça), to walk on water, to walk on spider-webs and rays of light. According to tradition-al sources, the yogin masters such powers bydominating the relationship between the bodyand åkåça, attaining the state of thought andtransforming things into light. [MR]

ÅKʼn¢-DHÅRA˚Å“Concentration on space”. It is concentration(dhåra¿å) on space (åkåça) as a cosmic ele-ment (tattva) and is the last phase of the “five-fold concentration” (pañca-dhåra¿å) de scribedin the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå and the Yoga-tattva-upanißad. Tantric mystic physiology connectsthis element with viçuddha-cakra, found at thelevel of the throat, with the part of the headabove the eyebrows and with Sadåçiva (one ofthe forms of the god ‰iva). The symbols repre -senting it are a white or light blue circle, oftenenclosed in a downward ponting triangle, andthe b¤ja-mantra HA„. Concen tration onspace is attained by visualising the aforemen-tioned symbols and by holding the “vitalbreath” (prå¿a) for a period of time whichshould be of two hours according to theGhera¿øa-sa&hitå. The perfect realisation ofthis concentration, the texts say, allows theyogin to move freely in the entire universe.[SF]

AKLIfiÏA“Unspoiled”. In the Yoga-s¥tra Patañjaliindicates by this term those mental functions(citta-v£tti) which lead to metaphysical con-sciousness and are unconditioned by the lim-iting action of the so called “afflictions”(kleça); they do not, therefore, stimulate theprocess of karman and can carry man to -wards liberation. [SF]

AKfiY-UPANIfiAD“The secret doctrine revealed by the eye [ofthe heavens] (the Sun)”. In this work, of only

50 verses, Åditya, the Sun, after being hon-oured, explains knowledge of Truth, of whatis (tattva-jñåna). He then lists and describesthe seven stages, which lead to the progres-sive detachment from the world in order toreach final emancipation. It is at the fifthstage in particular that the process of theabandonment of the sense of ego begins: thisstage corresponds to deep dreamless sleep,during which every psychic-physical activityis completely suspended. Lastly, the seventhand highest stage is that of those who livebut are free from the cycle of births anddeaths (sa&såra), having become liberatedwhilst living (j¤van-mukta). At this highestpinnacle of Yoga, which is beyond the limitsof words, of experiences, of the world and ofthe body, only the sacred syllable exists,O„, which, though it transcends all, never-theless encloses all. [GS]

ALABDHA-BHÎMIKATVA“Failure (in reaching samådhi)”. Accordingto Patañjali, it is one of the nine factors ofmental distraction (citta-vikßepa) which ob -struct the practice of Yoga. It consists in theinability to concentrate in such a way as tohave a clear vision of reality and therefore torealise the state of samådhi. [SP]

ÅLASYA“Indolence”. According to Patañjali, it is oneof the nine factors of mental distraction (cit-ta-vikßepa) that obstruct the practice of Yoga.As Vyåsa explains, it is a form of lethargy orsluggishness caused by physical and mentalheaviness. [SF]

ALCHEMYThe attempts by the diverse orientations pre-sent in various schools of Yoga, to create aperfect body (“adamantine body” accordingto what is the called diamond vehicle inBuddhism sphere; “perfect” or “immortalbody” according to ha†ha-yoga), are to agreat extent linked to practices and theoriesof alchemy. The yogin’s body goes through aprocess of dissolution and successive re-com-position, as in an alchemic procedure. Simi -larly, the transformation of humble metals

21 ALCHEMY

ALLIGATOR POSTURE 22

into gold is included in the supernatural fac-ulties (siddhi) that are opened to the initiateduring the course of his ascetic path. The“divine body” or rather “the Gnostic body”of ha†ha-yoga is realised by a true transmuta-tion of flesh. In popular tradition the themesof the elixir of immortality and of the trans-mutation of metals are found in the mytho -logy concerning the figure of the yogin withthe gift of magical powers. Where Patañjali’s“high” tradition distances itself from the useof what we would call propagandist or mi -raculous superhuman faculties, the heritageof popular culture never tires of telling thevarious miraculous feats that the yogin cancarry out. Western travellers, whether of thepast or today, from Marco Polo to FrançoisBernier, describe their amazement at thesight of such practices or the tales aboutthem. Nor do muslim historians ignore thefascination evoked by these mysterious fig-ures. Indian literature is swarming with allu-sions to alchemist yogin-s and in the Ha †ha -yoga-prad¤pikå itself two verses can be foundin which there is a parallelism be tween mer-cury, an unstable element par excellence,and the mind which never tires of directingits attention to various objects without everfinding rest. As the alchemist aims to stabi-lize mercury in order to swallow it (it isbelieved that the ingestion of mercury enableslevitation), so the yogin must strive to blockthe vital force (which in reality is anothermanifestation of the mind) in order to beable to float in the air at will. The fact that alchemy practices are closelybound to those of Yoga is proved by theBuddhist texts which state that the transfor-mation of metals can be carried out by eitheralchemical or magical techniques and by the“force of samådhi”, that is through Yoga.There is no proof of dependence of IndianA. on Arabian. If there has been any relation-ship it was rather between A. and Tan trism,the latter being a pan-Indian and archaic tra-dition. Tantric alche mists are found above allin Nepål or in the extreme Southern India,where the alche mists take the name of sid-dha-s (tamil sittar). It is above all in theTantric texts that the most precise references

to A. can be found. The ‰iva-sa&hitå statesthat the yogin is able to fabricate gold fromany metal, by rubbing it with his own excre-ments and urine. Such teachings werealready present in the Upanißad-s, where,however, A. is considered an obstacle to thepath of spiritual perfection. A Tibetan texttells the story of a siddha who was able tochange copper into silver and silver intogold. All such references implying a solidar-ity between Yoga and A. support a theoryof a fundamental soteriological function ofalchemy. This is not pre-scientific rudimentalchemistry but a technique of spiritual evolu-tion. As the alchemist works on base metalsto transform them into gold, so the yoginworks on his physical and psychic body toextract the spiritual element. This compari-son obviously acquires a higher value giventhat gold is the classic symbol of immortality.Mercury can be used to stabilize gold, inorder to enable it to be ab sorbed by thehuman body thereby assuring immortality.And again: mercury is the seed of ‰iva, asmica is the ovule of the Goddess. The unionbetween the two renders man immortal.Alchemy practices are therefore instrumentsfor the acquisition of an incorruptible body,as this alone can guarantee liberation andspiritual autonomy.All this recalls the speculations on the con-trol of the vital breath, which in turn canbe symbolically identified with mercury.There fore, both the yogin and the alchemistaim, each in his own environment, micro-and macro-cosmic respectively, to exemptthemselves from inevitable decadence toachieve a state of incorruptibility. The corre-spondence between micro- and macro-cos-mos that lies at the base of the archaicIndian vision, therefore fosters interprene-tration between the two doctrines. Lastlythe theory, belonging to ha†ha-yoga, of the“union of the sun and the moon” is singu -larly close to the coniunctio solis et lunae ofWestern A. [AP]See also rasa.

ALLIGATOR POSTURESee makara-åsana.

23 AMÍTA

ALL LIMBS POSTURESee sarvåæga-åsana.

AMARÅ˚¢Synonym of amarol¤.

AMARAUGHA-PRABODHA“The reawakening of the perennial flux”(immortality). The text, of 74 verses, wascomposed by Gorakßanåtha, according tothe colophon. The four types of Yoga andtheir principal characteristics are describedhere. Råja-yoga is the most important of alland is identified with amaraugha, whichalone enables the achievement of bodily per-fection. Among the other components ofYoga, mahå-mudrå (the great seal) and mahå- bandha (the great contraction) are analysed.Then follows the description of how to attainamaraugha-siddhi or superhuman power,thanks to which the initiate defeats time,gains immortality and becomes similar to‰iva: the yogin is then a being definitivelyliberated from the cycle of existences whilestill living (j¤vanmukta). [GS]

AMAROL¢Mudrå, also known as amar忤, which is partof erotic mysticism and constitutes a varia-tion of vajrol¤-mudrå: it enables the spermreleased during maithuna (sexual union) tobe reabsorbed. The ‰iva-sa&hitå states: “Ifby chance sperm is released by sexual excite-ment and the union of moon and sun comesabout, the yogin reabsorbs the sperm throughthe tube: this is amar忤”. The Ha†hayoga-prad¤pikå adds that one must also absorbam£ta (the saliva identified with ambrosia)that is “drunk” by the tongue during the exe-cution of khecar¤-mudrå. [MR]

AMBHAS“Water”. One of the gross elements (mahå-bh¥ta) of the Så&khya-darçana. It is a syn-onym for åpas.

ÅMBHAS¢-DHÅRA˚Å“Concentration on water”. Concentration onthe cosmic element water (ambhas) and thesecond step in the “fivefold concentration”

(pañca-dhåra¿å), described in some Yogictexts, such as the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå and theYogattattva-upanißad. In Tantric mystic phy -siology, water as a cosmic element is con-nected to the “centre” (cakra) svådhi߆håna(“foundation of the self”), located above thesexual organ, and to the part of the bodybetween the knees and the anus; its symbolsare the white half-moon and the syllable (orb¤ja-mantra) VA„; Viß¿u is the associateddivinity. The yogin concentrates on theseimages while holding the vital breath (prå¿a)for two hours, thereby becoming, accordingto the texts, exempt from any adversitiescaused by water. [SF]

AMBROSIASee am£ta, soma.

AMÍTA“Ambrosia”. According to Hind¥ mythol -ogy, A. was produced by the churning of theprimordial ocean of milk, by the gods andthe demons. Later a bitter quarrel beganbecause both of them wanted to possess theprecious liquor. It was only thanks to a trick

The mythical production of am£ta (8th century).

AMÍTABINDU-UPANIfiAD 24

by Viß¿u (who took on the appearance of abeautiful young girl, Mohin¤, thus disturbingand distracting the demons) that the godswere able to take possession of the beverageof immortality. A. is frequently used as a syn-onym for soma in ha†hayogic literature, asacred liquid produced by crushing and thenfiltering herbs, the species and powers ofwhich are still the object of study andresearch: the offering of this drink is the cen-tral moment in the Vedic sacrifice. The re -ceptacle for the A. as for the soma, is theMoon, called Candra or Soma, as queen ofthe plants from which the nectar of the samename is derived. According to the nåtha-yogins, within the micro-cosmos which is thehuman body, A. is produced by the Moonwhich is found in the “lotus of a thousandpetals”, the sahasråra-padma, located at thetop of the head; from here it oozes incessantlydripping through a curved channel (vaæka- nala) crossing the head and collecting in theregion of the palate, from where it continuesits downwards fall to the navel, to the fire inma¿i p¥ra-cakra which consumes and des -troys it. Thanks to khecar¤-mudrå (a particu-lar “seal” that consists in inserting the tongue,after resecting the fraenum, into the spacewithin the nasal cavities) the yogin reachesthe double aim of impeding the harmful flowand of ab sorb ing the A. in order to acquirethe physical and mental benefits it can bestowonce it is preserved and possessed. Identicalin its substance but different in its form,which is concrete, “material” (sth¥la), is binduor sperm, also known as candra-am£ta, theambrosia produced by the Moon. As well asthe arrest of A. in the subtle body (liæga-çar¤ra), the blocking of the sperm in the coarseor material body (sth¥la-çar¤ra) is anotherdirect consequence of the practice of khecar¤-mudrå. [GS]

AMÍTABINDU-UPANIfiAD“Upanißad of the drop of ambrosia”. Thisbrief text, which has 24 lines, can be definedas an abridgement, Vaiß¿ava in character, ofthe doctrine of råja-yoga. It states that onecan know Brahman, the absolute Reality,only after passing the stage of reasoning,

which is the mental phase: the practice ofYoga and the repetition of the sacred mono-syllable O„, achieve this. Brahman is thepure unarticulated sound; the nasal reso-nance of the syllable O„. The individualSelf, åtman, is also unique and eternal butseems multiple as it is incarnated in variousliving beings. Therefore the acquisition ofconsciousness of the identity of these twotranscendent essences is fundamental, inorder to make one’s own the affirmation“I am Brahman” (aha& brahmåsmi), one ofthe mahåvåkya-s (great, sacred sayings) ofthe Upanißad-s. The devotee must be con-scious that Brahman is none other thanVåsudeva (Viß¿u): in this particular vision,the last end of the yogic path is the consub-stantiation with Viß¿u himself. [GS]

AMÍTANÅDA-UPANIfiAD“Upanißad of the immortal sound”. Thedescription of the immortal or uncausedsound (anåhata-nåda: sound not producedfrom the beating or the knocking of anything)which is experimented thanks to the practiceof Yoga, is central to this work of 38 verses.Brahman himself is the sacred monosyllableO„: the secret power of this syllable is in thenasal resonance „, which is neither vowel norconsonant; inexpressible, it is pure vibration,perfect and immortal. The Upanißad alsoanalyses the control of the vital breath (prå¿å -yåma) in its three phases: inhaling, exhalingand retention and describes the five vitalbreaths that, once unified, flow along thesußumnå to sahasråra-cakra (the “centre of athousand petals” at the top of the head),bringing about the definitive liberation fromthe cycle of births and deaths. [GS]

ANÅHATA-CAKRA“Circle of the uncaused sound”: it is one ofthe six canonical cakra-s, so called becausethe silent ascetics (muni) perceive soundwithout there being any impact between twoobjects (anåhata-çabda). It is also known ash£daya-cakra (cakra of the heart), because itis found in the cardiac area. It is also identi-fied by some with the cardiac plexus and isconsidered by the ‰iva-sa&hitå as the seat of

25 ANÅHATA-NÅDA

prå¿a (the vital breath) and of j¤våtman (theindividual soul). It is depicted as a brilliantred lotus of twelve petals, with the lettersKA, KHA, GA, GHA, ÆA, CA, CHA, JA,JHA, ÑA, ÏA, ÏHA, each completed by thenasal resonance represented by candra-bindu.Within the circular ma¿ øala which consti-tutes the pericarp is found the world of Våyu(the wind), represented by a yantra made upof two superimposed equilateral triangles(one pointed downwards and the other up -wards) so as to form a hexagon, each side ofwhich is surmounted by an equilateral trian-gle. The b¤ja-mantra is YA„, called våyu-b¤jaor pavana-b¤ja (seed of the wind), which isplaced above the black antelope, mount ofVåyu or wind, the element associated withthis cakra, as is touch, Mahar-loka (“world oflight”) and the circulatory system. Withinthe b¤ja-mantra, ‰akti is represented by a tri-angle pointing upwards within which thebå¿aliæga is represented in the form of fire.The divinity-siddha protector of this cakra,represented within the b¤ja-mantra, is Pi nå -kin (a form of ‰iva, or ¢çåna, or Rudra armedwith a trident) and the Dev¤ or ‰akti is Kå -kin¤, portrayed with four heads, seated on ared lotus flower, with four hands, two ofwhich holding a noose and a skull, while the

other two are held in a gesture of concedingfavours (varada-mudrå) and of removing fear(abhaya-mudrå). The goddess is dressed inyellow and is adorned with jewels and a gar-land of bones.The ‰iva-sa&hitå affirms that he who medi-tates on this cakra is not only desired bydivine women, but also has the incomparableknowledge of the past, of the present and ofthe future, clearvoyance, clear-hearing andthe extraordinary ability to float freely in theair. The fia†cakra-nir¥pa¿a also describes theextraordinary fruits of the meditative con-centration on this cakra: ex celling amongyogin-s, control of the senses, the love ofbeautiful women, inimitable eloquence; sim-ilarity to Viß¿u, Lakßm¤’s be loved, and theability to enter another’s body. [SP]

ANÅHATA-NÅDA“Sound not produced by percussion”. Alsoknown as anåhata-çabda, it indicates a series ofinner sounds perceived by the yogin whopractises yoni-mudrå (described in the Ghe -ra¿øa-sa&hitå, for example) which consists insealing ears, eyes, nostrils and upper and low-er lips respectively with thumbs, forefingers,middle-fingers, ring fingers and little fingers.At this point in the consciousness of the med-itator different sounds are heard, which aredivided into four stages (initial, of unification,of consciousness, of completion) which aredescribed accurately in the Ha†hayoga-pra -d¤pikå. In the first, a tinkling sound like thatof trinkets is heard; in the second, the soundof a kettledrum; in the third that of a drum; inthe fourth that of a flute. The aim of the prac-tice is to concentrate one’s attention on thesounds as they become more and more subtle,ignoring the coarser ones, fixing the mind onsound alone ignoring any other sensorial mes-sages. Various images are used to illustratethis type of mental control: the bee that whilesucking the flower’s nectar ignores its per-fume; the elephant controlled by goading; thebird with clipped wings; the en trapped deer;the fettered horse. The comment by Kål¤ -cara¿a regarding the fia†cakra-nir¥pa¿a linksthe perception of the four inner sounds,localised in the same number of cakra-s, to theAnåhata-cakra.

ÅNANDA 26

four stages of the word (våc), which are con-ceived according to a common classificationof the ‰aiva schools, above all those inKaçmœr. The four stages are (in descendingorder) the supreme, the seer, the middle stage,the articulated stage. [AP]

ÅNANDA“Beatitude”, “joy”. Rather than to pleasuresof the senses, it refers to a form of pure hap-piness, exempt from any involvement withworldly objects; that very same happiness thatis one of the three principal characteristics ofthe Self, while the other two are the fact ofbeing (sat) and consciousness (cit). One of thesheaths that envelop the Self, is constitutedby pure bliss (ånandamaya-koça), by which itis meant to express the estrangement of theconscious principle from this very refinedexperience, as it still remains anchored to thephenomenal world, not being identifiablewith the pure subject that is the Self. [AP]

ÅNANDAMAYA-KO‰A“Bliss-made sheath”. It is the innermost ofthe five koça-s or sheaths that must be re -moved by meditation in order to reach åtman.Given that, for the Vedånta, the very åtmanconsists of being, consciousness and bliss(sat-cit-ånanda), infinite and eternal joy mustbe distinguished from the transient bliss per-taining to the sheath: only the latter, is “ex -perienced” in the true sense of the word, andarises when one no longer identifies oneselfwith the body, breath or mental functions.[AC]

ANANTA“The Infinite”. An immense mythologicalserpent that represents continuity. It is de -picted cradled in its own coils above thewaters of primitive chaos. The god Viß¿ulies abandoned upon it sleeping deeply,while resting absorbed during the time thatruns between two successive manifestationsof the world. The cosmic waters representthe ocean of unconsciousness that charac-terises both the divinity and the universe inthis period of the cycle. A. is known by oth-er names such as Våsuki, which serves as a

Viß¿u lying on the serpent Ananta (Anantaçåyin).

rope pulling the churn in the myth of thechurning of the ocean of milk; and of ‰eßa,“rest”, intending “that which remains of theworld after its dissolution”. In some textsVåsuki, is however, considered a figure dis-tinct from A. [AP]

ANANTA-ÅSANA“Posture of Ananta”. An åsana of ha†ha-yogabelonging to the category of lying postures.Ananta means infinite, eternal: the mythicalserpent ‰eßa, on which Viß¿u lies (on his sidein a posture that recalls this åsana), is alsoknown by this name, floating on the cosmicwaters at the end of a dissolution of theworld. Practice. Lying on the left side, bend the leftarm so that upper arm is on the floor whilethe forearm supports the head. The legs arekept together and extended with the rightarm relaxed along the right side. In thedynamic phase bend the right knee whileinhaling, clasping the big toe with the righthand and then extending the leg, whileexhaling in a slow and graceful movementuntil it is as vertical as possible. The postureis held from 15 seconds to a minute, breath -ing normally and concentrating on the mus-cles at the back of the leg, which must bekept relaxed during the exercise. Release theposture by slowly bending the knee whileinhaling and returning to the initial position.

27 ANAVASTHITATVA

After a brief relaxation the posture is re peat edon the other side.Easy variation. If it is too difficult to extendthe leg while clasping the big toe the positioncan be made easier by holding the lower leg.Benefits. Protects against rheumatism in theshoulders and rib pain. The lengthening ofthe leg muscles prevents sciatica and is veryhelpful for those who practise sports whichput pressure on the legs, protecting againstmuscle tearing caused by lack of elasticity.

ANAVASTHITATVA“Fickleness”, “instability”. One of the ninefactors of distraction of the mind (citta-vikßepa), which, according to Patañjali’sYogas¥tra, are an obstacle to the practice ofYoga. The prin cipal commentators on theYoga-s¥tra des cribe A. as a lack of fixationof the mind in the state of consciousnessreached, its inability to maintain itself in thestate of “enstasy” (samå dhi) after this hasbeen reached. [SP]

Ananta-åsana: a) starting position; b) dynamic stage; c) final posture.

a

b

c

AÆGA 28

AÆGA“Limb”, “part”, “stage”. Patañjali numbersthe eight limbs of Yoga; abstentions (yama),observances (niyama), postures (åsana), con-trol of breathing (prå¿åyåma), withdrawing ofthe senses (pratyåhåra), concentration (dhå -ra¿å), meditation (dhyåna) and “enstasy”(samådhi). These limbs are in turn subdividedinto external (bahir-aæga) and internal (antar-aæga): the first regulate behaviour towards theoutside world in which one’s own body, theother living creatures and all inanimate thingsare comprised; the second discipline thought.The terms “external” and “internal” are inany case relative, because according to Patañ -jali the distinction between the outer andinner limbs does not correspond to the dis-tinction between the physical and psycholo -gical sphere: the nirb¤ja-samådhi is an an tar-aæga compared to the previous stages. Ab -strac tion, which consists in withdrawing thesenses from objects, is already a mental oper-ation and, on the other hand, the first limbs,the abstentions etc. should not be understoodin a physical sense only. Therefore the outerlimbs constitute a prepa ratory level, and theinner ones, the operative level. [AC]

AÆGAMEJAYATVAInstability due to factors of disturbance inthe tonic systems of the body. The funda-mental aim of the postures (åsana) in Yoga isto overcome A.: for example by eliminatingtrembling caused by emotional conflicts,stress, tensions, etc.

ANGERSee krodha.

A˚IMAN“Smallness”. It is one of the eight siddhi-s(superhuman powers that can be obtainedby the yogin) described in the Yoga-s¥tra: itconsists in the faculty of voluntarily reducingthe body dimensions until they becomemicroscopic. Patañjali states that the yogincan attain A. thanks to a complete dominionover the elements. This is reached by apply-ing together the last three limbs of eightfoldYoga, sa&yama, which consist of dhåra¿å

(concentration), dhyåna (meditation) and sa -må dhi (perfect recollection or “enstasy”), tothe five forms that constitute these elements.[GS]

AÑJALI-MUDRÅThe gesture by which charity is received oroffered. It consists in bringing the handstogether in front of the body, holding thepalms upward and slightly concave, so as to form a cup, and then lifting them untilthey reach the forehead. The variation ofthis mudrå where the hands are held againstthe chest with palms together with straightor slightly bent fingers, expresses venera-tion and it is used particularly in the Tan -tric cult, symbolising the total offering ofoneself. It is a common gesture in Indiandaily life, as it is also the traditional form ofgreeting. [SP]

ÅÑJANEYA-ÅSANA“Posture of the son of Añjanå”, that is “ofHanumat”. Åsana of ha†ha-yoga commonlyknown as “splits posture”.Practice. On the knees, bring hands to theground in parallel about 50 cm apart. Whileinhaling, bring the body weight onto thehands and toes; rise by straightening the

Gesture of añjali in a sculpture of the 2nd century A.D.

29 ÅÑJANEYA-ÅSANA

knees. While exhaling stretch the right legforwards resting the heel on the floor andbringing the left foot backwards using theinner side of the foot to maintain stability.Keep the lower body raised and gently bouncethe body up and downwards. Slowly releasethe weight from the hands, until the lowerbody touches the floor, then push on bothheels creating an intense traction of the backtendons in order to completely stetch bothlegs, so that the back of the knees, the thighsand ischia touch the floor. The hands areheld in a prayer-like gesture in front of thechest, or arms are extended above the headwith hands together. The posture should beheld from 15 seconds to a minute. Breathingis slow and regular. To relax the posture,while inhaling bring the body weight back

on to the hands, and while exhaling returnto the initial position with bent knees. Repeaton the other side keeping the posture for thesame time. Rigorous daily exercise is neededin order to correctly perform this difficultposture.Variation. The “frontal” splits: starting fromthe standing position, legs opened to the sidesas far as possible keeping feet parallel; whileexhaling bring the upper-body forward sothat the hands come to the ground. Slowly letthe heels slip until the lower body is seated onthe ground with legs open, stretched out sym-metrically on the ground from the ankles tothe groin. The hands are held together at thechest in a gesture of prayer and the posture isheld for a few seconds, breathing slowly. Torelease the åsana place the hands on the floor

Åñjaneya-åsana: a) initial position; b) basic posture; c) variation.

a

b

c

ANNAMAYA-KO‰A 30

bringing the body weight on to them andslowly bringing the legs together, keeping thefeet parallel with the soles on the floor untilthe legs are together. This posture is muchmore difficult than the lateral splits and needsconstant practice.Benefits. This åsana lengthens the tendons inthe back of the legs, toning and stretching theadducent muscles of the thighs; it im provescirculation in the legs and gives a pleasantsensation of bodily balance and symmetry.The variation exercises the hip joints, render-ing them more supple, and improves the cir-culation in the pelvic area. [CV]

ANNAMAYA-KO‰A“Food-made sheath”. According to the Ve -dånta it is the first of the five koça-s orsheaths that must be transcended in order toreach the åtman. It is the gross body, formedfrom the elements, or mahå-bh¥ta, and itsidentification with åtman is eliminated bymeditating on all that differentiates the latterfrom the earth, from water, from fire, fromair and from space. [AC]

ANTA·-KARA˚AThe inner organ, consisting of two sheaths(koça), which are called mental sheath (mano-maya-koça) and consciousness-made sheath(vijñånamaya-koça). It is fourfold, comprisingthe following aspects of mental life: 1) manas,which registers and coordinates sensorialdata and offers a first comprehension; 2) bud-dhi, which discriminates between the dataoffered by manas, thus producing an articu-lated image of the object perceived andresolving any possible doubts about it; 3)aha&kåra, the sense of self through which theperceived object opposes itself to the perceiv-ing subject which appropriates it; 4) citta,which represents the mind’s capacity to con-sciously contemplate the object. This subdivi-sion is of Vedåntic inspiration: according tothe Så& khya, citta is practically a synonym ofbuddhi. [AP]

ANTA·-‰UDDHI“Inner purification”. According to the Man -tra-yoga-sa&hitå, purification is attained by

cultivating a series of positive attitudes, suchas courage, charity, self-control, self-confi-dence, study of the Veda, mystical practice,non-violence, detachment, abandonment ofall egoism, etc. Such virtues constitute the“divine gifts”, as opposed to “demoniacalgifts” (pride, arrogance, attachment, etc.).He who privileges the demoniacal gifts isdestined to become a slave to them, whereasthe yogin who, through clear discernmentturns to the divine gifts, is purified andattains liberation.

ANTARA-KUMBHAKASee kumbhaka.

ANTAR-AÆGA“Inner limbs”. Name including the last threeaæga-s or “limbs” of classical Yoga: dhyåna(meditation), dhåra¿å (concentration) andsamådhi (perfect recollection or “enstasy”). Se also aæga, a߆åæga-yoga.

ANTARÅYA“Obstacle”. In the Yoga-s¥tra, Patañjali usesthis word to describe the impediments thatthe yogin meets along the path of spiritualprogress and that consist in the nine “sourcesof distraction of the mind” (citta-vikßepa).[SP]

ANTAR-DHAUTI“Inner purification”. A number of tech-niques of ha†ha-yoga, belonging to the ßa†kar-man-s (the “six practices” or “acts” of ha†ha-yoga, aimed at cleansing the body from anyimpurity described in the Ghera¿øa-sa& -hitå). It consists of four purifications, calledvåtasåra-dhauti (pu ri fication by air), vårisåra-dhauti (purification by water), agni såra-dhauti (purification by fire) and bahis k£ta-dhauti (outer purifi cation).

ANUG¢TÅ“The song that follows”. Title of an impor-tant section of the Mahåbhårata (14, 16-51),at the end of the terrible war described inthe poem; it repeats the teachings of K£ß¿ato Arjuna in the Bhagavad-g¤tå, stressing theprincipal concepts. [SP]

31 ÅPAS

ANULOMA-VILOMAA variation of prå¿åyåma during whichbreath ing alternates from one nostril to theother.Practice. A complete cycle of A. is as follows:first, inhale (p¥raka) through the left nostril,while the right one is closed by pressurefrom the right thumb. Then retain the breath(kumbhaka), and lastly exhale (recaka)through the right nostril (the left one isclosed by the pressure from the ring and lit-tle finger of the right hand). Then invert theorder: inhale through the right nostril, retainthe breath, then exhale through the left nos-tril. In a complete cycle of A. each of the threephases is carried out twice through a singlenostril: this technique is thus unlike all otherexercices of prå¿åyåma where each is com-pleted once through both nostrils.Benefits. This variation of prå¿åyåma is alsoknown as nåø¤-çodhana or nåø¤-çuddhi, inother words “purification of the channels”,as it frees the air passages from impurities,while, at a deeper level, it purifies the arter-ies of the subtle body, helping circulationand the absorption of prå¿a.See also samanu.

ANUMÅNA“Inference”. Numbered by Patañjali amongthe means of knowledge (pramå¿a), togetherwith direct perception (pratyakßa) and au -tho ritative testimony (ågama), A. is a mentalprocess that has the function of attribut inga certain quality to a determined object,founded on the presence or not within thisobject of a characteristic element of thatquality. As we know, for example, that thecharacteristic of objects in motion is theirpresence in different places, we can deducethat the stars are in motion, as they have sucha characteristic. [SF]

APÅNA“Expulsive” or “descending” breath men-tioned in the Ghera¿øa-sa& hitå as one of theten “breaths” and one of the two principalbreaths, the other being prå¿a. According toVyåsa it is that particular type of vital energythat cleanses the body of impurities and acts

in the lower body down to the soles of thefeet. In ha†ha-yoga it represents alternativelyexhalation or breaths that flow from the anus. The Ha†hayoga-prad¤pikå affirms that theyogin must invert the descending course of A.,forcing it to flow upwards by contracting theperineum (m¥la-bandha) until it reaches thearea of fire (that is manip¥ra-cakra, at the levelof the navel) thereby joining prå¿a and pro-voking the awakening of Ku¿øalin¤. Accord ing to the ‰iva-sa&hitå A. presidesover excretion, ejaculation and expulsion ofthe foetus, and is found in the anal area. Theterm became important in both ha†ha-yogaand Tantrism but was already cited in theBha gavad-g¤tå: “Others then, who are dedicat-ed to the control of the vital force, sacrificeprå¿a in åpana and åpana in prå¿a”. [AP]

APARIGRAHAThe term, in its literal meaning (“non pos-session”), indicates the renunciation of mar-riage, and also refers to rejection of avarice,abstention from material goods, voluntarypoverty that consists in abstaining fromaccumulating in any way objects of delight,whether deriving from language, touch,taste or smell. Together with abstentionfrom violence, from untruthfulness, fromstealing and from lust, it completes the listof the five yama-s or “abstentions” that con-stitute the first limb (aæga) of classical Yoga.[MR]

ÅPAS“Water”. In the sphere of Tantrism andSå&khya-Yoga, it indicates one of the fivemahå-bh¥ta-s, or “gross” elements, (space,air, fire, water and earth). It is linked to: thecolour white; to the syllable VA or KA; to thecircle or half-moon; to Viß¿u; it has its centrein the organ of taste, in the feet and in svå -dhißthåna, the circle of energy (cakra) locatedabove the sexual organ. It is associ ated withsourness as a taste (rasa). As for the other bh¥ta-s, the complex sim-bology associated with it acts as a support toa series of very elaborate meditative prac-tices. Å. flows in the lower part of the nos-trils. [AP]

APAVARGA 32

APAVARGA“Liberation”. According to the Så&khya-darçana, it is the ultimate aim of man and con-sists in the complete end of the three forms ofsuffering: 1) ådhyåtmika (inner), that includesboth physical and psychological suffering; 2) ådhibhautika (originating from bh¥ta-s,“beings”, “creatures”), which in cludes suf fer -ing caused by external agents belonging tothe human or animal world; 3) ådhidaivika(originating from superhuman forces), whichincludes the inauspicious influences of planets, spirits and demons. [SP]See also mokßa.

APHORISMS See s¥tra.

APHORISMS OF YOGASee Yoga-s¥tra.

APRAKʼnA-MUDRÅ“Gesture of the non-manifested”. Thismudrå has the function of retaining prå¿awithin the body after contracting the throat(jå lan dhara-bandha). It is carried out byholding the breath after inhaling, then exhal-ing slowly, beginning from the ab domen,then from the chest and the clavicle area.[RR]

ÅRÅDHANASynonym of arcå/arcana.

ÅRAMBHA-AVASTHÅ“Initial stage”. One of the four stages in thepractice of Yoga, according to the Ha†ha -yoga-prad¤pikå, that of prå¿åyåma in particu-lar; the other three stages are gha†a, paricayaand nißpatti (stages of unification, of knowl-edge and of crowning). One can speak of A.both in relation to breathing control and inrelation to the perception of a sound in thearea of the heart. The yogin that begins topractise prå¿åyåma causes abundant transpi-ration: in this initial stage the body needs tobe rubbed down carefully, so that it is notweakened. Another “initial stage” occurswhen one manages, by controlling the breath,to perforate the knot of Brahmå in anåhata-

cakra (the “centre of uncaused sound”, locat-ed in the heart area): in this case beatitude isfelt in the heart cavity, tinkling similar tothat of bracelets and other ornaments isheard, and the sound “uncaused” (anåhata)is heard in the body. The yogin who reachesthis state acquires a divine, splendid, healthyand perfumed body, and his heart brimswith happiness. [AC]

ARA˚IThe name of two pieces of wood, one ofwhich is taken from the çam¤ tree (Prosopisspicigera): it is bar-shaped with a cavity, andforms the base; the other is of a small stickof açvattha or pippala (Ficus religiosa), thepointed ex tremity of which is placed in thecavity of the horizontal bar. Used in Indiasince the Vedic age for rituals; by making analternated rotation (called manthana) of thevertical part with the hands, a flame issparked by which the sacred fire is lighted.The rotary friction of A. is used as an imageof pra¿ava-dhyåna, a particular meditativepractice mentioned in some Upa nißad-s. [SP]

ÅRA˚YAKA“Forest texts”. These are the concludingbooks of the Vedic Sa&hitå-s, considered anintegral part of the Veda, intended for foresthermits. As in the Bråhma¿a-s, to which theyare closely linked, sacrificial exegesis is a cen-tral theme. However, while the former con-sider the more liturgical aspect, the latterprivilege a symbolic interpretation of sacri-fice, its mystic and secret meanings. Giventheir speculative and esoteric character, theirascetic spirit and the themes covered (such asthe identity of Brahman and åt man), they arevery similar to the Upa nißad-s, of which theprincipal ones are included in the Å. [PC]

ARCÅ /ARCANA“Adoration” practised for a personal divi -nity. A. is considered as one of the twelveniyama-s (observances) by the Uddhava-g¤tå(The [Divine] Song addressed to Uddhava),an important section of the Bhågavata-purå¿a(Ancient recitation of the Bhågavata-s). [SP] See also ¤çvara-pra¿idhåna, p¥jå.

33 ARREST OF MENTAL FUNCTIONS

ARCHER POSTURESee åkar¿adhanur-åsana.

ARDHA“Half”. In ha†ha-yoga this term, used beforethe name of an åsana, indicates an easiervariation or a partial execution of the pos-ture, as opposed to parip¥r¿a, which indi-cates a complete and consequently more dif-ficult execution of the åsana.

ARDHACANDRA-ÅSANA“Half moon posture”. A ha†ha-yoga åsana be -longing to the category of standing postures.Practice. Standing straight with arms by thesides. While inhaling, take a side step with onefoot of about the same length of the leg. Atthe same time open both arms sideways atshoulder height. While exhaling, turn theright leg outwards bending the right knee andthe body towards the right, lowering the rightarm until it touches the ground, palm down,

so that the arm pit is just above the knee. Liftthe left leg to a horizontal position whilestraightening the right leg, which carries thebody weight with the right hand helping bal-ance. The left arm lies along the left side. Theposture is held for about 15 to 30 secondsbreathing gently. It is released while exhalingby lowering the left leg, straightening the bodyand bringing both arms back to shoulderheight. It is then repeated on the other side.Benefits. Strengthens the leg muscles in partic-ular, as well as those of the glutei and lumbarregion; it also tones the abdominal organs.

ARDHA-HALA-ÅSANASee hala-åsana.

ARDHA-MATSYENDRA-ÅSANASee matsyendra-åsana.

ARDHA-NÅV-ÅSANASee nåv-åsana.

ARDHA-‰ALABHA-ÅSANASee çalabha-åsana

ARJUNAMentioned in the Mahåbhårata as the cham-pion of the five På¿øava brothers, son of thegod Indra (as Yudhi߆hira is of Dharma,Bh¤ma of Våyu, Nakula and Sahadeva of thetwo Açvin-s). He incarnates the ideal of thewarrior prince (kßatriya). In the Bhagavad-g¤tå, K£ß¿a, avatåra of Viß¿u, a faithful ally ofIndra in the Veda, reveals the supreme Yogato him, which brings about the union withBhagavat, the glorious Lord. [SP]

ÅROGYA“Health”. One of the most important re sultsand signs of success in the practice of ha†ha-yoga. According to the Ha†hayoga-pra d¤pikå,“following a purification of the nåø¤-s, theability to retain one’s breath at will is bornand the gastric fire is revived; the innersound (nåda) manifests itself; health is ob -tained”. [SP]

ARREST OF MENTAL FUNCTIONSSee nirodha.Ardhacandra-åsana: a) intermediate posture; b) final posture.

a

b

ARUNDHAT¢ 34

ARUNDHAT¢Another name for Ku¿øalin¤.

ASAKTA“Free”, “independent”. The yogin is A. oncehe has renounced not only material well-being, but also desires and passions, reachinga state of indifference that allows him to dedi-cate himself to inner research. [MR]

ASA¯CAYA“Absence of provisions”. Listed as one of thetwelve yama-s or “abstentions” by the Uddha -va g¤tå (The [divine] Song addressed to Ud -dhava), an important section of the Bhå ga -vata-pu rå¿a (Ancient Recitation of the Bhå -gavata-s). [SP]

ASAMPRAJÑÅTA-SAMÅDHI“Unconscious samådhi”. Perfect meditationand concentration in which only the karmicimpulses (sa&skåra) remain, reached afterhaving eliminated all mental functions (citta-v£tti). The best way to realise this samådhi is topractise absolute detachment (vairågya): apractice (abhyåsa) with a support, as were allthose that produced conscious enstasy, isunable to realise the unconscious enstasy.Therefore the support must be something thatstops citta-vrtti-s and does not use real objects.This samådhi is completely devoid of anobject. Given that after this practice the mind(citta) has no support and is as though inexis-tent, this state “without seeds” (nirb¤ja) iscalled unconscious “en-stasy”. [AC]

ASA¯SAKTICondition of “unconnecting” or of “detach-ment”. It is that of the yogin who has reachedasamprajñåta-samådhi (unconscious samådhi),given that it is a condition in which every tiewith the phenomenal world is broken. [PC]

ASA¯SKÍTAThe contrary of sa&sk£ta (confectioned, elab-orated) meaning therefore the perfection ofthe indescribable and indivisible reality that isnot “composed” nor conditioned in any way:such is mokßa or nirvå¿a. [SP]

ÅSANATerm literally meaning “seated posture”,from the root ås- (to seat oneself, be seated)or simply “posture”. Etymologically speakingthe term appears to refer to seated postures,especially suitable for meditation. The exten-sion of its use to comprise other practices inwhich the body is held in other positionscould be attributed to a later understanding,in which the meaning is that of a bodily pos-ture that contributes to mental and physicalstability, generating a sense of well-being.The Ha†hayoga-prad¤pikå expressly states thatÅ. constitute the first limb of ha†ha-yoga,while in the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå they constitutethe second of seven “accomplishments” (såd-hana) after the practices of purification (ßa† -karman). In the Yoga of Patañjali, dividedinto eight “limbs” (a߆åæga), Å. occupy thirdplace after abstentions (yama) and ob ser -vances (niyama).There are various ways of translating theterm Å. The most common is “posture”, butthis word does not entirely explain the mean-ing of Å. In fact, in a common positionwhich is held effortlessly there is no consid-eration of mental attitude; thought is notallowed during the practice of Å.: on thecontrary a particular kind of consciousness isadvised while the Å. is held (for example,consciousness of breathing) in such a waythat there be no interference from mentalactivity. Sometimes the term Å. is translatedas “pose”. However, this word is not suitableto explain Å., as a pose is not a natural posi-tion of the body. It could be the expressionof an emotion or a thought. An Å. has noth-ing to “express”, there is no facial “ex -pression” during its execution. Another termreferring to Å. is “exercise” which is alsoinaccurate: the practice of Å. is not simplyphysical exercise. Tiredness due to musculareffort follows physical exercise. The expres-sion “physical exercise” gives the idea ofrepeated forced and rapid movements of allor a part of the body. Å., on the contrary, aremostly static: they are usually not repeated,nor is there tension or muscular fatigue.Therefore Å. can only be defined as posturalmodels.

35 ÅSANA

Characteristics. On the basis of the text ofPatañ jali (Yoga-s¥tra, 2, 46-48) it is possibleto define the characteristics of Å., themethod of practice and the effects which canbe at tained by applying these principles. Å.is above all defined as sthira-sukha, “stableand comfortable”: this definition of Å. char-acterizes it as a practice that influences thepsychic sphere besides the physical one.Å. in fact requires a precise mental and phys-ical condition during practice, thereforerequiring a preparatory stage. During thisstage complete muscular relaxation must bereached, as well as deep and regular breath-ing associated to a normal heart beat similarto that during rest and complete attention ofthe mind, which is still and concentrated onthe body and on breathing. The text of Pa -tañjali contains a precise indication regard-ing the way to realise the condition of stabil-ity and well-being in Å.: relaxation of anyeffort and identification with the infinite.Firstly, one can observe that these are twoaspects which cannot be evaluated by an on-looker but must be the object of consciousperception of the practising person: he alonecan evaluate his experience with these indi-cations. The reduction of effort implies themost relaxed state possible while static, inthe sense of a progressive reduction andelimination of every tension or contractionthat is not needed to maintain the position.The ability to remain static depends on thebalance between elastic forces (extension ofmuscles and ligaments) and action of themuscles. This balance can be brought aboutby using the specific techniques of each Å. toavoid muscular effort. The stability in time ofthis balance depends greatly on systems thatregulate posture through automatic reflexes;this comes about in a subtle and harmoniousfashion the greater the relaxation. Progressin the mastery of Å. therefore implies a grad-ual reduction of voluntary muscular activity(used to maintain the position) which isreplaced by the conscious use of a series ofreflexive mechanisms until the Å. can beheld automatically (as happens for the com-mon positions whether seated or standing).It is in this sense that the suggestion from

Patañjali to concentrate the mind on the infi-nite should be interpreted, that is to reducethe mind’s participation in the Å., orientat-ing it towards an entity devoid of those emo-tional contents that could influence the levelof tension (muscular and neuro-vegetative).If this can be considered the direction inwhich practice should be developed, the pos-sibility of realising this progressive reductionof voluntary activity derives from refinementand practice, at least in the learning stage,from concentration understood as an attitudeof passive listening (remaining attentive andconscious), maintained for the duration ofthe Å., to the sensations and the activity ofthe inner world and from the consequentacquisition of a fuller consciousness of thebody (refinement of the body as a whole).The dynamic phases, when adopting andreleasing an Å. must also adhere as closely aspossible to these indications: the motionshould be slow, gradual, uniform, withoutsudden movements, relaxed, gentle and aseffortless as possible. This allows the recipro-cal action of the muscles and the articula-tions to unfold with the greatest ease andlong enough time for the correction of mus-cle tone and influence on the blood circula-tion within the muscles.During the Å. specific training is needed atboth a physical and mental level. Practice ofthe Å. purifies the body, strengthens it,reduces tensions and conflicts. The slow, wellcontrolled movements together with correctbreathing, encourage the mind to remainattentive, concentrating on the action withoutdispersing itself in distractions. The Å. shouldbe held as effortlessly as possible, keeping themuscles not needed to maintain the Å. asrelaxed as possible, using as few muscularfibres as possible in order to allow the auto-regulation of the muscles to act while static.Execution inspired by a competitive attitudeor by development founded on the principleof ability is of no use and can be counterpro-ductive, an obstacle for the realisation of sta-bility and cause of possible traumas of themuscles and ligaments. During the Å. no formof breathing control is expected. The instruc-tion is to allow the breath to flow sponta-

ÅSANA 36

neously so that the respiratory rhythm regu-lates itself according to the body’s needs, bothin the dynamic and static phases. An exercisefollowing these indications can be easier for abeginner, above all when there is a rigidity ofthe limbs and/or a limited elasticity of themuscles and tendons.General physiological effects. The principalbenefits derived from the practice of the Å.are: 1) strengthening of the body againststress; 2) training of the psychophysiologicalfunctions for higher practices; 3) action onthe visceral muscles; 4) action on the locomo-tive apparatus. Some Å. strengthen the mus-cles while others lengthen them. The bodybecomes stronger, improved muscle tone cor-rects posture. Full muscle activity is closelytied to better cardiac function and circula-tion, and therefore to improved nutrition ofthe tissues, greater oxygenation and use ofthe capillaries, creating a state of general well-being. In the immobility of the Å. there is acontinual coordinated neuro-muscular activi-

ty. The lengthening of the muscles improvesthe mobility of the joints, rendering the bodymore supple. Blood circulation around thejoints increases and the waste products areeliminated more efficiently. This helpsagainst the stiffening and aging of muscle andjoint tissues. Each Å. has a specific action onsome of the internal organs and balances thecentral and vegetative nervous system. Nervesare toned and receive more nutrition. Theincrease of inner pressure and flow of bloodto the vital organs and the massage that someÅ. give to these organs tone and maintain thehealth of the internal organs in the abdomenand pelvis. If the sympathetic nervous systemtoo is balanced and healthy the internalorgans gain the greatest of benefits. The car-dio vascular system is stimulated to drain thetissues, favouring the blood flow to and fromthe organs. In this way the body is detoxifiedand purified. The entire endocrine system isadequately stimulated and rebalanced, thanksto the specific action of some postures on theprincipal glands. The practice of Yoga pro-motes the control and purification of the ner-vous system, rather than aiming at the in -crease in muscular strength and mass.While there are no reliable data to evaluatethe effects and specific mechanisms of everysingle Å. perhaps it is worth considering, onthe base of available knowledge, the effectsof an average progressive programme ofpractice of the Å., which can exert a pro-found action on superficial and deep bodilysensitivity. Particularly considering the spinalnerves and the possible action of the Å. onthe reflexes, given the association betweenskin and visceral reflexes, some re searchersclaim that by repeated stimulation in thatarea, the practice of ha†ha-yoga brings abouta reduction in their reactivity. The ability toperceive the body and its sensations isrefined by the consciousness and attentionduring practice. This, associated with a con-scious and more subtle control over themotor system, allows a greater intensity ofperception which in turn allows a greaterconsciousness of the body as a whole. Another effect is the reduction of muscleactivity, of the heart beat and the respiratory

Yogin in a classic meditation posture (padma-åsana,lotus posture).

37 ÅSANA

volume: the slow process of learning leads toa better control of the various muscularmasses. Further effects are consciousness,attention, slowness, reduction of effort,reduction of contraction in the an tagonisticmuscles, capacity to refine movements.Concentration renders the position less tir-ing and practice renders concentration moreefficient.Action on respiration. Given the particularattention paid to respiration during practice,lung capacity is improved. The muscles in -volved in breathing are used more effectivelyand strengthened. The correct movement ofthe diaphragm favours natural and sponta-neous breathing not only during practice. TheÅ. teach correct breathing which also allowsthe control of the mind removing negativemental states. Once the diaphragm is freefrom tension it prevents anxiety and stresslocalised at the level of the solar plexus. Action on the mind. The execution and main-tenance of a posture requires control, coor-dination and precision. The mind ac tivelyparticipates in this control without distrac-tions in thoughts or images caused by exter-nal factors. The learning path proposed iscomplete: control of the body (the physical),stability of the mind, progressive in ward ori-entation of the mind’s flow, in order to expe-rience non-duality at a spiritual level. Prac -tice of the Å. not only guarantees psycho-physical well-being but also mental balance.The mind is calmed and relaxes thanks to theconstant control it must exert over the bodyand breathing. Furthermore, the mentalcharacteristics are closely linked with pos-ture: for example, dissatisfaction and depres-sion cause a contraction of the body, whereasexcitement causes its extension. There foreevery physical attitude is linked to emotiveand psychological factors contributing to thepersonality: the postural models charac-terised by the Å., when practised correctly,can eliminate some emotive and psychologi-cal problems, resulting in a balanced person-ality thanks to greater self-control and im -proved introspection.Action on the subtle body. The Å. and cor-rect breathing favour and improve the ab -

sorption and distribution of the vital energy(prå¿a) within the body. The nåø¤-s, thechannels through which prå¿a flows, aredrained and purified. For this reason thepractice of Yoga does not cause fatigue buton the contrary revitalises the whole body.The prå¿a is absorbed in a greater quantityand flows more intensely within the body,which becomes more energetic and healthy.Many postures exert a specific action on the“centres of energy” (cakra-s) of the subtlebody, partially corresponding to the plexusesof Western physiology. The more importanttherapeutic effects of the Å. are often linkedto this action upon the cakra-s Classification. Notwithstanding the varietyand length of the lists given by the variousschools, the classification maintained by theauthors puts the Å. in two distinct principalcategories: 1) meditative Å. (variations of theseated posture) which can be maintained fora long time and are indicated for meditationand prå¿åyåma; 2) corrective and educativeÅ., postures aimed at promoting and main-taining a psycho-physical balance by a specif-ic and conscious action on the various organsand systems of the body. Some authors pro-pose further subdivisions within this catego-ry, by grouping the Å. based on: a) the di -verse mechanisms of action and the type ofpsycho-physical response activated; b) theirspecific purposes (stimulation of the spineand spinal nerves, action on the organs etc.);c) the position of the body and muscles in -volved. As regards mucles and joints, somepostures tone and strengthen muscles, with apositive result on the body’s posture, whileothers lengthen the muscles and mobilise thejoints, rendering the body agile and supple.By observing the relationship of the body tospace the Å.-s could be subdivided into dif-ferent categories: 1) lying postures (face upand face down); 2) standing postures (forexample many positions for “warm ing up”);3) postures on the hands and knees (mostlyvariations); 4) head down postures; 5) seatedpostures; 6) postures of balance. Some Å. areheld for only a few seconds and are thereforemore dynamic than others which take longerto execute. Therefore the Å. can be subdivid-

ÅSANA 38

The main åsana-s of ha†ha-yoga according to the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå: a) v¤ra (hero), b) dhanur (bow), c) makara (croc-odile), d) kukku†a (cock), e) gomukha (cow face), f) padma (lotus), g) vajra (diamond), h) matsyendra (of Matsyendra),i) ma¿ø¥ka (frog), j) siddha (perfect yogin), k) si&ha (lion), l) çalabha (locust), m) u߆ra (camel), n) utka†a (unsteady),o) bhujaæga (serpent), p) matsya (fish), q) k¥rma (tortoise), r) çava (corpse), s) paçcimottåna (back stretching), t) svasti-ka (fortunate), u) gorakßa (of Gorakßa), v) may¥ra (peacock), w) uttånak¥rma (extended tortoise), x) garuøa (ofGaruøa the vulture).

a b c d e

f g h i j

p

k l m n o

q r s

t u v w x

ed in: static and dynamic postures. The for-mer are usually held for a few minutes whilethe latter for only 10 seconds at the most.The principal postures can be considered asfollows: adhomukhav£kßa (upside down tree);åkar¿adhanur (shooting bow); ananta (ofAnanta); åñjaneya (son of Añjanå); ardhacan-dra (half moon); baka (crane); bhadra (auspi-cious); bhujaæga (serpent); cakra (wheel);da¿øa (stick); dhanur (bow); dvipådaç¤rßa(two feet to the head); eka påda ç¤rßa (one footto the head); garbha (foetus); garuøa (ofGaruøa); gomukha (cow face); gorakßa (ofGorakßa); gupta (concealed); hala (plough);jånuç¤rßa (head to knee); kanda (bulb);kapo†a (pigeon); k£ß¿a (of K£ß¿a); kruñca(heron); kukku†a (cock); k¥rma (tortoise);makara (crocodile); ma¿ø¥ka (frog); matsya(fish); matsyendra (of Matsyendra); may¥ra(peacock); mukta (free); na†aråja (dancing‰iva); nåv (boat); padahasta (hands to feet);padåægu߆ha (big toe); padma (lotus); parigha(beam/crossbar); pårçva ko¿a (side angle);pårçvottåna (sideways stretching); paçcimottå-na (back stretching); pavanamukta (purify-ing); purvottåna (upward plank); çalabha(locust); saæka†a (contracted); sarvåæga (alllimbs); çava (corpse); setubandha (bridge);siddha (perfect yogin); si&ha (lion); ç¤rsa(headstand); s¥ryanamaskåra (sun saluta-tion); çvåna (dog); svastika (fortunate); tåøa(mountain): titibha (firefly); tolåægula (weigh-ing scales); triko¿a (triangle); triç¥la (the tri-dent); u߆ra (camel); trivikrama (of Tri vi -krama); utka†a (unsteady); vajra (diamond orthunderbolt); vakra (spine twist); våmadeva(of Våmadeva); vasi߆ha (of Vasi߆ha); våtå -yana (horse); vipar¤takara¿¤-mudrå (gestureof turning upside down); v¤ra (hero); v¤ra -bhadra (of Vœrabhadra); v£kßa (tree); v£ßa (bull);v£çcika (scorpion); vyåghra (tiger); yogada¿øa(Yoga stick); yoga mudrå (seal of Yoga). [CP and CR]

ÅSANA-JAYAPerfect mastery of the postures of ha†ha-yogain which the psycho-physical mechanisms arere-programmed. Once mastery is reached theyogin can sit in a meditative åsana for a greatlength of time with no unease.

ASAÆGA“Non attachment”. Listed as one of thetwelve yama-s or “abstentions” in the Ud dha -va -g¤tå (The [divine] Song addressed toUddhava), an important chapter of the Bhå -gavata-purå¿a (Ancient Recitation of the Bhå -gavata-s). [SP]

ASCETICSee bhikkhu, muni, parivråjaka, sa&nyåsin,yogin.

ASCETICISM An important part of the spiritual path of those who practise Yoga; it is the true baseof their ethics, so much so that the termyogin has become a synonym of yati (as cetic).The ascetic penitence (tapas which means“heat”) is considered as a sort of sacrificialinner fire into which the offering of theattachment to the ego is made, in order tofind the un con taminated essence of the Self.[SP]

ASMITÅ“Egotism”. Used in the Yoga-s¥tra in twoways: to define a type of samprajñåta-samå -dhi; and to indicate one of the five “afflic-tions” (kleça) of the buddhi, which renderthe real nature of the Self obscure. In thefirst case, A. characterises a stage of the sam-prajñåta-samådhi, in which buddhi is used asthe object of contemplation. As a conse-quence of this self-reflection, the subject nolonger has the objective world towardswhich he exercised his activity and whichjustified his existence (knowledge and knowerare reciprocally implied). This form of sa -mådhi is the prelude to the highest reali -sation of Yoga, asamprajñåta-samådhi, inwhich the empirical ego, having becomeinactive, disappears and purußa shines in allits purity. In the second case, A. is the senseof ego and of “mine” when the subject iden-tifies itself in mundane objects and experi-ences, which are nothing but the pro duct ofvarious combinations of the three gu¿a-s(constituents or qualities of nature) and whichdo not belong to the nature of the real Self,purußa. [SF]

39 ASMITÅ

40

Yogin in prayer on the bank of the Ganges, in Vårå¿asœ.

ASPAR‰A-YOGAA method of reintegration realised by a sys-tem of “not touching”, that is to keep awayfrom any contact and any ties (in fact, asparçameans lack of contact). It is a well-knownmethod documented in the Upa nißad-s. Theprinciple of being untouchable is diffuseamong Hind¥-s, who retain that the contactwith objects and with some individuals caneither contaminate or purify man. For thisreason they avoid contact with those indi-viduals whose habits or professions are con-sidered cause of contamination and in somecircumstances even with their own familymembers. The yogin who follows reintegra-tion by A. avoids any relationship with liv-ing beings, above all avoiding pleasuresbased on this contact, which are consideredtransient and a source of great suffering.[MR]

ʼnRAMA1. The traditional four stages of the life of aBrahmin, which are: 1) brahmacårin, as astudent who while living chastely learns the

sacred texts under the guide of a teacher;2) g£hastha, as the head of a family; 3) vå na -prastha, as a hermit living in the forest, who,after having fulfilled all his duties towardshis family and society, dedicates himself tomeditation, to mystical practice and rituals;4) sa&nyåsin, as he who renounces, untyingany bonds including those of rituals and reli-gion, then wandering homeless, with oneaim only, that of liberation from rebirthsand identification with Brahman. [PC]See also purußårtha.2. Given that the stage of renunciation consti-tutes an ideal for whoever aims at fulfillingthe ultimate end of human life (mokßa or “lib-eration” from sa&såra), the word Å. is usedto indicate the place suitable for conducting amonastic life; a hermitage where the words ofa wise master can be listened to or where, inpoverty, silence and meditation, one’s per -sonal search for truth can be furthered. ManyÅ.-s have become famous, such as that found-ed by Mahåtmå Gåndh¤ at Såbarmat¤ andSevå gråm; Bel¥r ma†h, near Calcutta, which isone of the organisational centres of the Mis -

41 ʼnRAMA

Inside an åçrama in Rishikesh.

AfiÏÅÆGA-YOGA 42

sion of Ra ma krishna; that founded by Au -robindo at Pondichéry; the five principalmonasteries (ma†ha) in the Advaita-vedåntatradition under ‰aækaråcårya (Dvårakå, Ba -da r¤ nåtha, Pur¤, ‰£ægeri and Kåñc¤); that ofRamana Maharshi at Tiru vannamalai; andlastly a Christian one, ‰åntivanam, foundednear Tiruchirapalli (Tamil- Nåøu) by Frenchpriest Jules Monchanin.The Å.-s dedicated to the study and practiceof Yoga are numerous. They are mostly foundin pleasant areas far from city chaos, such asRishikesh above Haridvår. Others are in the‰ivålik hills, where the Å. of ‰ivånanda islocated, and Lo¿åvlå near P¥ne, which is arenowned centre of ha†ha-yoga attracting dis-ciples from all over the world. [SP]

AfiÏÅÆGA-YOGAThe name of classical Yoga or råja-yoga (de -scribed by Patañjali in the Yoga-s¥tra or“Aphorisms of Yoga”), which alludes to itsbeing constituted of “eight limbs” (a߆ånga):yama (the five “abstentions”); niyama (the five“observances”, or rules of moral discipline);åsana (postures); prå¿åyåma (control overbreathing); pratyåhåra (withdrawal of the senses from their objects); dhåra¿å (concentra-tion); dhyåna (meditation); and samådhi (per-fect recollection). The first five aæga-s are alsoknown as bahir-aæga-s (outer limbs), while thelast three, also known as antar-aæga-s (innerlimbs), as a whole, are called sa&yama. [SP]

AfiÏA-SIDDHISee siddhi.

ASTEYA“Abstention from theft”. One of the fiveyama-s (abstentions) that constitute the firstlimb of Yoga in the Yoga-s¥tra of Patañjali.It consists not only in avoiding the appropri-ation of goods belonging to others, but alsoin the suppression of any desire for suchappropriation. [SP]

ÅSTIKYA“Faith”, opposed to negativism towards spir -it ual reality. A virtue that constitutes one ofthe twelve yama-s or “abstentions” accord ing

to the Uddhava-g¤tå (The [divine] Song ad -dressed to Uddhava), an important chapterof the Bhågavata-purå¿a (Ancient Reci tationof the Bhågavata-s). [SP]

ASURA“Divine spirit”, and later “demon”. Used inthe more ancient parts of the Veda to indi-cate divine beings. In the mythology thatthen follows they become synonymous withthe Daitya-s, rivals of the Åditya-s, and final-ly with the demon-enemies of the sura-s(gods) and antagonists of the deva-s, the“luminous gods”: they are forces of evilagainst those of good. Sometimes the A. winagainst the deva-s, especially thanks to theextraordinary powers attained by asceticpractice, with a temporary dominion of theuniverse, until they are destroyed, usually byan avatåra of Viß¿u, and universal order(dharma) is re-established. [SP]

Birth of an asura (tempera, 18th century).

A‰VIN¢-MUDRÅ“Gesture of the mare”. One of the 25 mudrå-sdescribed in the Ghera¿øa-sa&hitå. It con-sists in repeatedly contracting and dilatingthe anal sphincter. The text states that thispractice cures any illness of the rectum andawakens the sleeping energy of Ku¿øa lin¤giving the yogin strength and vigour.

ATHARVA-VEDA“The Veda (Sacred Science) of the atharvan-s(priests of fire)”. It is the last of the fourbooks (sa&hitå) of the Veda, not included in

43 ATTACHMENT

the tray¤-vidyå or “triple sacred knowledge”.Its most ancient name, Atharvåægiras, “[col-lection] of the atharvan-s and of the aægiras-s”,mentions two categories of priests of fire,dedicated to rituals of white and black magicrespectively. The A. comprises 731 hymns in20 chapters, many of which are magic spellsaimed at helping the devotee, protecting himand freeing him from the obstacles he en -counters during his existence. Particularly insome hymns of the 14th book, we find theevidence of the anxiety for the search for theultimate Reality, which will find its full ex -pression in the Upanißad-s. [GS]

ATITHYA“Hospitality”. An emergent quality of theethical behaviour in the Hind¥ tradition,which constitutes one of the “five daily sacri-fices” that every devout Hind¥ should fulfil,the “sacrifice for men” (n£-yajña). A. is listedamong the twelve niyama-s or “observances”of the Uddhava-g¤tå (The [divine] Song ad -dressed to Uddhava), an important chapterof the Bhågavata-purå¿a (Ancient Reci tationof the Bhågavata-s). [SP]

ÅTMAN“The Self”, “the spiritual substance”, withinevery man. According to some the word Å.derives from the root an- “to breathe”, ac -cording to others from at- “to move oneself”,and it is properly the reflexive pronoun “self”.It then becomes the object of research for theancient Vedic thinkers who sometimes iden-tify it with the vital breath (prå¿a), and some-times as a receptacle of impressions transmit-ted by the senses which flow together to -wards a conscious centre in every person.The concept of Å. is the centre of innerresearch of the sages of the ancient Upa nißad-s,who, like Socrates, taught their disciples self-knowlege above all. Within the thought ofthe Upanißad-s the word Å. indicates the prin-ciple of life that not only flows invisibly in allliving beings, but also within the whole uni-verse: in this case it takes the name ofBrahman, the cosmic principle, the universalspirit, the only Reality, the pure subject ofknowledge and therefore not knowable if not

apophatically. In the doctrine of the non-dualist Vedånta, expounded by the greatphilosopher ‰aækara (7th-8th century) on thebase of the speculation of the Upanißad-s, Å.and Brah man are nothing other than twoterms used to define a same principle: theundifferentiated Absolute, whose fundamen-tal attributes are being (sat); consciousness(cit); and supreme beatitude (ånanda). Thebond that this transcendent Reality seems tohave with the visible manifested world is thefruit of an illusion (måyå) which man mustlearn to go beyond as though it were a veilthat hides the true nature of things. All the schools of Indian thought admit theexistence of Å. except Buddhists and mate -rialists, who maintain that there is no perma-nent foundation of the empirical self, under-stood as a transient succession of states ofconsciousness. [SP]

ATTACHMENTIn every inner practice for the attainment ofsalvation or liberation, A. is indicated as oneof the greatest obstacles, whose removal isindispensable for any real spiritual progress.In the Indian doctrines A., together withignorance which is its cause, is consideredprincipally responsible for rebirths: as theBha gavad-g¤tå clearly states, it is not theactions themselves but the A. that accom -panies them that causes the karmic ties thatenchain beings to the sa&såra. Ignorance andA. are therefore the knot to be undone toattain liberation. The close relationshipwhich binds them can be explained as fol-lows: man in the shadow of ignoranceexchanges his true Self, the eternal light ofConsciousness (åtman or purußa), with themind and with the body, and this false iden-tification generates A. for the psycho-physicalself, which is as transient and illusory as thereality surrounding it. A. manifests itself asegoism, the thirst for pleasure, the aversionfor anything un pleasant or painful, and theobsessive craving for existence: these are thekleça-s (“afflictions”, the five negative factorsin mental life according to the Yoga-darçana),which originate from the first of them, igno-rance or avidyå. [PC]

ATTENTION 44

ATTENTIONThe exercise of A. is of fundamental impor-tance in Yoga (and not only in Yoga but also,in different ways, in all the other contempla-tive disciplines). Yogic concentration consistsprecisely in consciously directing and focus-ing A. on a given object, which can be withinthe body (breathing, the cakra-s, sounds andimages evoked mentally) or without (parts ofthe body, images of divinities, sounds andlights). The exercise of A. cannot be strictlycircumscribed to the moment of yogic prac-tice alone, or rather the yogic practice of A.,but if understood correctly it should be exer-cised continually, until a permanent mentalhabit is generated within, which frees thepractitioner from every form of mental dissi-pation and from that passivity towards theobjects of experience and of the automaticmechanisms of the mind that constitute themental habit of the ordinary man. A with-drawn attitude of constant and vigil con-sciousness characterises the yogin, whose A.is always directed to åtman (Self) and is with-drawn from the tyranny of the senses. It isdescribed well in the sixth chapter of theBhagavad-g¤tå, by the well-known compari-son with the flame that does not flickerwhere there is no wind. In Hind¥ism otherprecise methods have been developed bywhich the A. slowly becomes similar to aconstant and uninterrupted flow, such as thejapa, the repetition of a mantra, and the nå-ma-smara¿a, the constant memory of thename of God, which has a Christian equiva-lent in the hesychastic prayer (the constantmemory of the presence of God or the “cus-tody of the heart” taught by the Fathers ofthe Church). However in no other disciplineis such a great and explicit importance givento the exercise of A. as in the Buddhist prac-tice of sati, a term mostly understood as“consciousness” or “mental presence” indi-cating an attitude of pure A., intense anddetached. In this practice, which singles outbreathing, observed without exercising anycontrol or effort over it, as its privilegedground, A. is applied to every experience inits immediacy, devoid of any form of judge-ment, of interpretation or of logical argu-

ment. The yogin therefore learns to live inthe present, moment by moment. He experi-ences differently, no longer through the filterof his own conceptualisations and mentalconstructs, suggested by latent impressions(våsanå) which surface from the subcon-scious. [PC]See also concentration.

ATYÅHÅRA“Excessive consumption of food”. Accord -ing to the Ha†hayoga-prad¤pikå, it is one ofthe things that render the practice of Yogavoid, together with violent efforts, idle chat-ter, observance of particular religious obliga-tions (such as fasting, cold baths at sunrise,etc.), relationships and fickleness. [SP]See also åhåra, laghvåhåra, mitåhåra, pathya.

AU„See O„.

AUROBINDOAurobindo Ghosh was born in Kolkata in1872. At only seven years of age he was sentto England by his father to study, returningto India when he was twenty. He decided tooppose British rule, taking part in armedresistance. During the years passed in GreatBritain A. developed a secular and prag maticmental attitude. Consequently, once repatri-ated, he refused to have any contact with thespiritual experience of India and thereforewith Yoga, until his brother Barin becamedangerously ill due to a tropical sickness thatno doctor was able to cure. He was healedthanks to the intervention of a yogin, and A.became convinced that Yoga could haveconcrete effects in the physical world. Hethen began to practise Yoga with the aim offinding greater strength to support his polit-ical action. In 1907 he met Lele, the yoginwho taught him how to attain mental silence.In 1910, after being arrested by British offi-cials and imprisoned for a year, A. soughtrefuge in Pondichéry, a small French colonyin the South of India, out of British jurisdic-tion, where he remained until his death in1950. He dedicated himself completely tothat inner adventure which he recognised as

45 AUTOGENIC TRAINING

the true action, the only action really able tochange the ways of the world. “The object ofour Yoga is the perfection of being, not theannulment of being”, he stated. While fol-lowing the path of the perfection of being,A. wrote a magnificent synthesis of the pathsof Yoga. This synthesis, his p¥r¿a-yoga (In -tegral Yoga), revealed the possibility of tak-ing man beyond Yoga itself. Yoga is the con-version of individual consciousness into uni-versal consciousness, the conscious union ofthe being with All, of the human being withthe Divine Being. The exceptional feature ofintegral Yoga, as A. stressed, is the convic-tion that the Divine Conscience must notonly be reached, but brought within matter,making it descend into physical nature. Thespiritual realisation of man is an evolutionof physical nature. The Divine Being, theTrinity: Exist ence-Consciousness-Beatitude(Sat-Cit-Ånanda), manifests Reality. Reality, allthat exists, is Consciousness and Joy.Matter is therefore a form of consciousness.The change in consciousness towards whichYoga tends must be a change of the materialconditions of the world. The world whichman experiences is a mental and individualinterpretation of reality. In this representa-tion of reality, the Divine Nature is transfig-ured into a triple human nature bh¥r-bhuvaª-svaª (body-vitality-mind, according to A.):vitality being understood as the complexity ofhuman desires beginning from the desire ofconservation of one’s own life. Man’s spiritu-al realisation, that is of going beyond individ-ual existence to attain the universality ofbeing, must be an integral transformation ofman, in the sense that human nature mustchange as a whole, on both the vital and men-tal plane, so that transformation means evo-lution of the species.A. therefore, saw the possibility of a changein the human species. Man is not the laststage of nature’s evolution, but is the stage inwhich nature is capable of a conscious evolu-tion. For A. Yoga became the instrument fora voluntary acceleration of evolution. In TheSynthesis of Yoga A. explains the practice ofhis Yoga, p¥r¿a-yoga, which unites the threepaths of Yoga (trimårga): Yoga of knowledge

(jñåna-yoga), of love (bhakti-yoga) and ofgood deeds (karma-yoga), fusing them in asearch for the Divine that comes aboutthrough the effort of “all the parts and forcesof consciousness and of being”. Evolutionis the ascent of nature towards the DivineReality. There are other steps above man inthis ascent. There is an infinite power vasterthan our actual mind: a power that A. de finedas “supermental”. In order to follow the inte-gral path of Yoga, total submission to theSupreme of every exterior and individualmotion is indispensable. “Superman” will beborn from the reversal of present conscious-ness, through which the central being of man,his profound spiritual essence, “the psychicbeing”, will surface, directly guiding life with-in matter. [SC]

AUSPICIOUS POSTURESee bhadra-åsana, svåstika-åsana.

AUTOGENIC TRAININGA relaxation method based on passive con-centration invented by German neuro-psy-chiatrist Johannes Heinrich Schultz. As hetells us, Schultz began to develop the firstconcepts of A. between 1908 and 1912. Theresults of his studies were presented in his

Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950)

AVADHÎTA 46

book Das Autogene Training, which he pub-lished in 1932 and which was soon translatedinto all the major foreign languages. Al -though A. has its origin in hypnosis and inself-hypnosis (Schultz based his A. on obser-vation of the method of hypnosis practisedby O. Vogt), it resembles in many ways cer-tain forms of Yoga, so much so that somewriters have defined it as “Western Yoga”.In particular, lower A. recalls yoga-nidrå,while the exercises of higher A. can be com-pared to certain forms of Yoga meditation.Lower A. consists of two basic exercises andfour complementary ones. These exercisesare performed in a specific lying or seatedposition that fosters relaxation of the mus-cles. First of all, the practitioner quiets theirmind through the internal visualisation of theformula “I am (perfectly) calm”. The twobasic exercises of “heaviness” and “warmth”follow. The experience of physical heavinessis achieved through mental repetition of theformula, “My right arm is heavy”. When thepractitioner physically experiences heavinessin his right arm, the focus moves on to theleft arm, repeating the formula, “My left armis heavy”, then to the right leg and finally tothe left one. Because of the phenomenon of“generalisation”, the feeling of heaviness nat-urally spreads throughout the body. Thiseffect of generalisation is the result of thetransfer of information between neurons inthe cerebral cortex. The therapeutic value ofA. lies precisely in the stimulation of thebrain, which also involves its deeper layers,such as the limbic system. The experience ofwarmth is also created through the mentalvisualisation of the formula, “My right arm iswarm”, allowing the feeling to spreadthroughout the body. Normally a feeling ofheaviness is due to the lack of muscle tonecaused by relaxation. In A. this process isreversed: by inducing the feeling of heavi-ness, A. leads to a deep state of relaxation.The feeling of warmth is aimed at producingvasodilatation, the widening of the blood ves-sels. In reality, it is not simply a matter of asense impression, because after the “warmth”exercise, there is an observable rise in bodytemperature. The two basic exercises are fol-

lowed by the four complementary ones: heartexercise (perception and control of the heartbeat), breathing exercise (perception andcontrol of breathing), ab domen exercise (theexperience of a pleasant feeling of warmthradiating from the solar plexus), and the coolforehead exercise (the experience of a pleas-ant cool feeling on the forehead). Higher A.consists of exercises that are called “psychic”in order to distinguish them from the body-centred exercises of lower A. If training islimited to the body-centred exercises, A.becomes “a cover up therapy” aimed atremoving the symptom. When the “psychic”exercises are used, A. is then “an uncoveringtherapy”, and forms part of an analyticalapproach. [SC]

AVADHÎTA“He who has thrown off (all worldlybonds)”. Term used in a generic sense toindicate an ascetic, but it is also and above allused in a specific sense, in Tantra-yoga, insahaja-yoga and among the sant-s, to desig-nate the yogin who has “rid himself of” everyattachment and has gone beyond duality.Used also to define råmånandin monks (fol-lowers of the sampradåya, that is of the “tra-dition”, of guru-s who follow Råmånanda)and the nåtha-yogin-s. Unlike the term sa& -nyåsin, A. can refer to both monks and toheads of families, as it essentially expressesan interior state. According to the Mahå nir -vå¿a-tantra, there are two types of A.: pari -vråt, he who is still imperfect but while fulfill-ing his duties as head of a family constantlycultivates worldly detachment; and para ma -ha&sa, he who has reached perfection andhas truncated also externally every worldlybond. [PC]

AVADHÎTA-G¢TÅ“The song of the ascetic”. Title of a G¤tåcomposed in imitation of the Bhagavad-g¤tå(The song of the glorious Lord). It is a briefexposition of the principles of the Advaita-vedånta in 271 verses distributed in eightchapters. Its composition is traditionallyattributed to avadh¥ta Dattåtreya, that is tosay the legendary sage, son of Atri and Ana -

47 AVATÅRA

s¥yå, who was in reality a partial avatåra ofthe god Viß¿u, or even a manifestation in asingle person of the triad constituted byBrahmå, Viß¿u and ‰iva. This figure, whosestory is amply narrated in the Mårka¿øeya-purå¿a, is considered the teacher of theanårya peoples of Southern India, who stilladore him today as one of the most completeexpressions of divine reality.The first three chapters of A. are about“knowledge of the Self”, the fourth discussesthe topic of “true nature”, the fifth dealswith “impartiality and equanimity”, the sixthwith “liberation” and the last two again with“knowledge of the Self”, which is the funda-mental theme of the work. [SP]

ÅVÅHANI-MUDRÅIn the Tantric cult, the gesture accompaniesan “invitation” (åvåhana); it is a ritual actthat precedes any form of worship per-formed by means of idols and is therefore theopposite of “dismissal” (visarjana), by whichthe rite is concluded. It serves to invoke andevoke the divine presence in the idol andconsists in joining the hands to form a cavity(as when performing añjali), at the same timetouching the base of the ring fingers with thethumbs. [SP]

AVASTHÅ“State”, “condition”. Each of the four stagesof the practice of Yoga, according to theHa†ha yoga-prad¤pikå, referring par ticularlyto prå¿åyåma, in the order of: 1) årambha(initial stage); 2) gha†a (stage of unifi cation);3) paricaya (stage of knowledge); 4) nißpatti(stage of crowning).

AVASTHÅ-CATUfiÏAYAThe four states of consciousness, or rather ofwaking (jågrat), of dream (svapna), of deepsleep (sußupti) and “the fourth stage” (tur¤ya),which are analysed and interpreted in a sym-bolic way above all in the Må¿ ø¥kya-upa -nißad. The ‰aiva schools of Kashmir add a“trans-fourth” state, attainable by the yogin inthe course of his path of purification, whichin reality is subject to and underlies, thoughunperceived, ordinary daily life. [AP]

AVATÅRADerived from the root ava-t£- (to descend),the term literally means “descent”, particu-larly “descent of a divinity on earth”. Thereare the ten classical A. of Viß¿u: as a fish tosave Manu, progenitor of mankind, from theuniversal flood; as a tortoise to supportMount Mandara, by which the gods madeambrosia; as a boar, to raise the earth whichhad been sunk to the bottom of the sea bythe demon Hira¿yåkßa; as a man-lion to killthe demon Hira¿yakaçipu; as a dwarf tobreak Balis’s dominion over the triple world;as Råma armed with an axe to exterminatethe kßatriya-s oppressors; as Råma, hero of theRåmåya¿a; as K£ß¿a; as Buddha; as Kalkin,an incarnation which will come about at theend of the present era. A.-s of other divinitiesare also known. God takes on mortal formsmanifesting himself in the world in order tore-establish a compromised order or to helphis devotees or to impart teachings; then, hav-ing accomplished his mission he returns to hisparadise.The concept of the A.-s is a synthesis of twofundamental mythical themes in the Indiantradition: that of God, who descends torestore the dharma upset by demons, andthat of the One, who manifests himself as themultiple creation. It summarises a syncretictendency typical of Indian religiosity. This ishow we can interpret the use of the princi-ples of Yoga in the doctrine of the A. an vice-versa. Not only are the great yogin-s ofancient times considered A.-s but yogic ele-ments have been subtly introduced into theten A.-s of Viß¿u, the base of Viß¿uism. Theeighth A. of Viß¿u, K£ß¿a, describes theessence of karma-yoga in the Mahåbhårata.The Bhagavad-g¤tå, in fact, is structured as adialogue between Arjuna, the strongest ofthe På¿øava-s, and his charioteer K£ß¿a.When the time comes to start a fratricidalwar, noticing relations and friends amongthe enemies, Arjuna hesitates, filled withpity, and is tempted to abandon the action.He talks about his doubts to the charioteer,the god K£ß¿a, who exhorts him to fulfil hisduty without worrying about the immediateresult. By following an ideal of good even

AVERSION 48

though foreign to his condition and caste,the hero goes against the principles of thekarma-yoga, but by fulfilling his duty, eventhough difficult and disagreeable, he canaspire to the heavens. The accomplishmentof a good deed as an end unto itself is thepremise to attain, thanks to yogic techniques,supreme calmness of the soul and the recog-nition of K£ß¿a as the universal God. [MR]

AVERSION See dveßa.

AVIDYÅ“Ignorance”. According to the Yoga-s¥tra ofPatañjali A. is the principal of the five kleça-sor “afflictions” of the intellect (buddhi) andconsists in the erroneous conception of thetrue nature of the Self, by attributing thequalities of permanence and purity to physi-cal and psychic phenomena, qualities whichin reality are a prerogative of the soul (pu -rußa): man’s true Self is therefore erroneouslyidentified with the impermanence of thebody and its mental structure. This happensbecause the intellect, which contains the psy-chic individuality of man, consisting mainlyof sattva-gu¿a, is extremely translucent and

reflects the light of the soul, acquiring intel-ligence and consciousness or rather thecapacity to unify and refer to itself the com-plexity of impressions inherited from pastexistences or derived from the actual experi-ence of the external world. However, be -cause of ignorance (A.), it ascribes to itselfthe consciousness which it receives uniquelyfrom the soul and which, in turn, attractedby its illusory similarity to the intellect, imag-ines itself to be the authentic subject of expe-rience, thus becoming involved in the cycleof rebirths, regulated by the laws of karman.A. determines both man’s conscious andsubconscious activity. It is one of the majorobstacles that the yogin meets in the courseof his mystical practice and it is overcome bycompletely interrupting mental activity. Thesoul then reveals itself in its own substantialautonomy.In primitive Buddhism A. has an analogousconnotation, as an original misunderstand-ing, wherein the individual assumes the im -permanent and unsubstantial world to bereal; in later speculations, influenced by Ve -dåntic philosophy, A. becomes a cosmic forcethat veils reality by creating the illusory formsof the world. [SF]

Dattåtreya with other images of avatåra-s. Rock carving in Bådåmœ (Karnå†ak).

49 ÅYURVEDA

AVIRATI“Intemperance”. Numbered by Patañjaliamong the nine “mental distractions” (citta-vikßepa) that impede the practice of Yoga. A.is caused by an excessive attraction for theobjects of the senses, which pushes mantowards mundane occupations. [SF]

AVYAKTA“Indistinct”, “not manifested”: according tothe Så&khya-darçana, such is prak£ti, the“substance” or “nature” in its condition ofperfect balance, before the beginn ing of theevolutionary process that results in the mani-festation of the visible world. [SP]

AWAKENINGIn the Så&khya-darçana and Yoga ontology,the reality each man experiences does notbelong to him but is somehow external to hisreal being, or to his Self, hiding a deeper reali-ty, a spiritual reality which is the consciousprinciple of the individual. In other views,such as that of Vedånta, world is conceived asa sort of mirage or hallucination, a fruit of themysterious illusory power, magic (måyå) ofthe supreme divine Reality. Of the threeknown stages of awareness (wakefulness, sleepand deep sleep), the status we call wakefulnessrather seems like a dream from which we needto “wake up” to reach the awareness of realityin order to realize the full knowledge of thetruth. For these reasons, the Indian tradition(not only Hind¥, but also Buddhist and Jaina)gave the name of A. (bodhi) to that suddenrevelation from which saints and wise menbenefit. They see it as the end of all experienceof the sphere of becoming and the entranceinto an indefinable state of complete freedom,calm and equanimity, achievable already inthis life by the “living-liberated” (j¤van-mukta)which heralds the endless beatitude of the per-fect condition, with no space or time, charac-terizing the liberation (mokßa, nirvå¿a) fromthe eternal cycle of rebirths (sa&såra). [SP]

AWARENESSA., which plays the role of impassive witnessof the events of mental life without everbeing involved in the cognitive process, rep-

resents an extremely important element inthe ancient Indian understanding of theworld. Even before giving life to a series ofconceptual categories, which are given ampleattention in the diverse schools including theYoga-darçana, such as cit, citta, åtman etc., thefundamental intuition of the difference of A.from knowledge (the difference of the roleof witness in a cognitive process from theprocess itself, which comes about blindly untililluminated by the light of awareness) is theturning point for the understanding of a com-pletely different world from the one we areused to. [AP]See also caitanya, states of consciousness.

ÅYURVEDA“Science of life”. The name given to Indianmedicine coded and explained in the texts ofCaraka (2nd cent. A.D.), Suçruta (4th-6th cent.A.D.) and Vågbha†a (7th cent. A.D.). WhileSuçruta mainly deals with surgery, Carakaamply illustrates the principles, which arealso philosophic, of medicine, often using thedoctrines of the Så&khya and of the Vaiçe -ßika. Vågbha†a reorders the teachings of pre-decessors adding much useful information.Even though Å. should be concerned mainlywith causes of disease, symptoms and treat-ment, it depicts an interesting conception ofman and the world. Man is defined by Carakaas mind, åtman and body. While åtman is theconscious eternal and unchangeable principleand is therefore not subject to illness, themind and the body can be altered, patho -logical. The optimal state of the mind consistsin the predominance of sattva-gu¿a, whichbrings clarity and serenity, with a balancewithin the body of three pathogenic elements(doßa): wind, bile and phlegm. As rajas andtamas provoke mental illness, a lack of bal-ance between wind, bile and phlegm pro-duces physical illness. Madness and depres-sion are not considered mental illnesses, butpassions like anger, lust, fear etc., which canbe controlled by Yoga. The Åyur vedic doctorcan heal physical illnesses in particular butalso can alleviate those that we call “mentalillnesses”, such as madness, which is both aphysical and mental disturbance. The three

ÅYURVEDA 50

The human body in a Nepalese painting of the 18th century.

Åyurvedic physician examining a patient.

51 ÅYURVEDA

pathogenic elements can be increased by cer-tain substances and foods, and decreased byothers. Each individual has a certain constitu-tion or prak£ti, in which the doßa-s, separatelyor in various combinations, worsen until theycompromise the physiological functions ofthe body. Illness can be preceded by premon-itory symptoms or can manifest itself sudden-ly. Another source of ailments can be thealteration of the seven principal bodily ele-ments (rasa, blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow,sperm or female blood) each of which pro-duces the next. The doctor’s aim is to bringthe body back to its original balance, pre-scribing for the patient substances whichhave qualities that are antagonistic to those ofthe altered element. Åyurvedic texts de scribenumerous illnesses, among which are varioustypes of fever, haemorrhages, urinary prob-lems, skin problems and leprosy, haemor-rhoids, swellings, broken bones, ophthalmicand otorhinolaryngoiatric illnesses. It is a veryelaborate treatment using drugs containinganimal, vegetable and mineral substances. The general principle stated by Våg bha†a, ac -cording to which similarity breeds similarityand diminishes anything different, is fol-lowed by Åyurvedic doctors who thereforeprescribe meat to an underweight patient,without bothering about religious taboos.Every doßa has determined qualities and isalleviated by substances with opposite char-acteristics. Wind for example, which is cold,light, dry and rough, is cured by warm,heavy, oily and soft substances. Further -more, according to Å. there are six tastes(sweet, sour, salty, sharp, bitter, astringent),which make some doßa-s worse and cure oth-ers. Obviously, there are exceptions to theserules which are noted in detail and linked tothe principle that a substance can have “spe-cial faculties” (prabhåva) that cause particulareffects. Special diets are prescribed for vari-ous types of patients, especially for the obesefor whom heavy foods which are not particu-lar nourishing, physical exercise and non-oily

enemas are advised. One of the most impor-tant treatments is called pañcakarman or“quintuple treatment”, which describes aprocedure which uses vomiting, laxatives,oily and non-oily enemas, and the liberationof the nostrils; often the use of medicines toinduce this purification of the body is pre-ceded by massages with oils. Other parts ofthe Åyur vedic works are dedicated to em -bryo logy and gynaecology, to revitalizing ton-ics (rasåyana) and to aphrodisiacs (våj¤ ka -ra¿a). Suçruta describes the training of a sur-geon using fruit and dead animals, advisingthat autopsies should be carried out on deadbodies which have been left in running waterfor a week. He dictates the rules to be ob -served during major surgical operationsamong which cataract removal and varioustypes of plastic surgery. [AC]