THE PREFIX RE-:

A STUDY ON ITS MORPHOLOGY AND MEANINGS

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

HOMPURAJA FRANS SUSESCO SARAGIH

Student Number: 044214053

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

THE PREFIX RE-:

A STUDY ON ITS MORPHOLOGY AND MEANINGS

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

HOMPURAJA FRANS SUSESCO SARAGIH

Student Number: 044214053

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2008

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(Yoshiki Hayashi)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I am indebted gratitude to Jesus Christ for His invaluable and

uncountable blessings given to me despite my continuous sins. I will never forget His

greatest and most invaluable blessing and how I obtained that.

I thank my parents for always supporting and guiding me every time, especially

when the going gets tough. Thanks also for your prayers, attention, and love given to me

since the day I was still in my mother’s womb.

I would like to express my thanks to J. Harris Hermansyah S., S.S., M.Hum. for

the suggestion, correction, and patience in guiding me during my thesis writing. I am

grateful to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. for the time, correction, and advice so that I was

able to write my thesis better. I would like to thank all my lecturers who have taught me

during my study in English Letters Department, especially Prof. Soepomo who made me

interested in linguistics, Ms. Dewi who made me interested in translation, and Ms. Anna

for the idea of using etymology dictionaries as the source of data for this thesis topic

which I have planned since the Seminar on Language class.

I would like to express my gratitude to all my comrades in English Letters

Department and those who befriend me in Yogyakarta. You all are important and friendly

to me. I thank for all your support, care, and companionship.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ......................................................................................................... i APPROVAL PAGE ................................................................................................ ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ........................................................................................... iii MOTTO PAGE ....................................................................................................... iv DEDICATION PAGE ............................................................................................. v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS .............................. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ viii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. x ABSTRAK ................................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

A. Background of the Study .......................................................................... 1 B. Problem Formulation ................................................................................ 4 C. Objectives of the Study ............................................................................. 4 D. Definition of Terms .................................................................................. 5

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ......................................................... 6 A. Review of Related Studies ....................................................................... 6 B. Review of Related Theories ..................................................................... 8 C. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 12 D. Research Framework ................................................................................ 14

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 16 A. Object of the Study .................................................................................. 16 B. Method of the Study ................................................................................ 17 C. Research Procedure .................................................................................. 17 1. Data Collection .................................................................................... 17 2. Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS .................................................................................. 19 A. The Origins of the Verbs with the Prefix Re- ......................................... 19

i. Roots of English Origin ...................................................................... 20 ii. Roots of Latin Origin ........................................................................ 22 iii. Roots of French Origin .................................................................... 27 iv. Roots of Norse Origin ...................................................................... 32 v. Roots of Greek Origin ....................................................................... 36

B. The Affixation Processes of the Prefix Re- ............................................ 38 i. The Affixation Processes of the Roots of English Origin .................. 39 ii. The Affixation Processes of the Verbs of Latin Origin .................... 41 iii. The Affixation Processes of the Verbs of French Origin ................. 42 iv. The Affixation Processes of the Roots of Norse and Greek Origins . 44

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C. The Identification of Similarities and Changes of Meanings .................. 47 i. The Similarities of the Meanings in the Prefixed Verbs ..................... 48 ii. The Meaning Shifts of the Prefixed Verbs from the Roots ................ 52 iii. The Extra Meanings of the Prefix Re- in the Prefixed Verbs ............ 55

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 62 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................... 64 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 65

Appendix 1 ................................................................................................... 65 Appendix 2 ................................................................................................... 66 Appendix 3 ................................................................................................... 69 Appendix 4 ................................................................................................... 71 Appendix 5 .................................................................................................... 72 Appendix 6 .................................................................................................... 72

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ABSTRACT

HOMPURAJA FRANS SUSESCO SARAGIH. The Prefix Re-: A Study on Its Morphology and Meanings. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2008.

The processes of forming English words do not always occur in English for the reason that English may borrow words, morphological, and syntactic elements from other languages. One of English words borrowings is the borrowing of English verbs from many donor languages. English can borrow the roots or the loan words that have undergone morphological processes in donor languages. The borrowed verbs are then adapted to match the English phonological rules. In English, the borrowed verbs can undergo affixation processes with other morphemes, including the prefix re-. The affixation processes of the prefix re- usually result in the meanings of repetition; with some variations in the detail meanings of repetition. However, the affixation processes can result in meaning shifts as well; not to mention that there are some English verbs with the prefix re- which have similar meanings to the meanings of the roots. Following this linguistic phenomenon, this thesis studies the origins of the English verbs with the prefix re-, the affixation processes, and the meanings of the prefix re-.

Therefore, this thesis has three objectives. The first objective is to identify the origins of the English verbs with the prefix re-. The second objective is to illustrate the morphological processes of the prefix re-. The third objective is to identify the meanings of the prefix re- by revealing the similarities and changes of meanings.

In order to accomplish the three objectives, this thesis applies the method of empirical research. This thesis uses the documentation of the origins and meanings of the English verbs with the prefix re- from two etymology dictionaries: The New Oxford American Dictionary and The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. The two etymology dictionaries are used to collect the data too. The documentation and the collected data are then analyzed. This thesis also employs linguistic theories to help finish the analysis and achieve the three objectives.

From the analysis, it can be concluded that the origins of the English verbs with the prefix re- are English, Latin, French, Norse, and Greek. In the affixation processes of the prefix re- which occur in English, the prefix re- can only be attached to English roots or the loan roots which English has borrowed and modified before. On the other hand, in the affixation processes of the prefix re- that have occurred in donor languages, it is identified that English borrowed the results of the affixation. The prefix re- has six meanings; they are: (1) ‘again’, (2) ‘redo (something) differently in order to change’, (3) ‘again or redo (something) differently in order to change,’ (4) ‘back or again’, (5) ‘back against’, and (6) ‘back or away’. Other than those six extra meanings, the prefix re- can also function to emphasize or shift the meaning of a root.

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ABSTRAK

HOMPURAJA FRANS SUSESCO SARAGIH. The Prefix Re-: A Study on Its Morphology and Meanings. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2008.

Proses pembentukan kata dalam bahasa Inggris tidak selalu terjadi dalam bahasa tersebut. Hal ini dikarenakan bahasa Inggris dapat mengambil kata pinjaman, elemen morfem, dan elemen sintaks dari bahasa lain. Salah satu peminjaman kata yang dilakukan bahasa Inggris adalah peminjaman kata kerja dari berbagai bahasa asal. Bahasa Inggris dapat meminjam kata dasar ataupun kata kerja yang telah mengalami proses penggabungan di bahasa asalnya. Kata kerja yang dipinjam kemudian disesuaikan dengan struktur kata bahasa Inggris. Dalam bahasa Inggris, kata kerja pinjaman dapat digabung dengan morfem-morfem lainnya, diantaranya dengan awalan re-. Proses pembentukan kata dengan awalan re- biasanya berarti pengulangan; dengan berbagai variasi pada arti tepatnya. Akan tetapi, proses tersebut juga dapat mengakibatkan perubahan makna. Bahkan beberapa kata kerja bahasa Inggris berawalan re- memiliki arti yang mirip dengan arti kata dasarnya. Berdasarkan fenomena linguistik tersebut, studi ini mempelajari bahasa asal dari kata kerja bahasa Inggris berawalan re-, beserta proses penggabungan dan arti dari awalan re-.

Oleh sebab itu, studi ini mempunyai tiga tujuan. Pertama, mengidentifikasi bahasa asal dari kata kerja bahasa Inggris berawalan re-. Kedua, menggambarkan proses penggabungan awalan re-. Ketiga, memaparkan arti awalan re- yang dapat dilihat dari perubahan dan kemiripan arti kata kerjanya.

Untuk mencapai tiga tujuan tersebut, studi ini menggunakan metode studi empiris. Studi ini juga menggunakan dokumentasi bahasa asal dan arti kata kerja berawalan re- yang terdapat di dua kamus etimologi: The New Oxford American Dictionary dan The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Dua kamus tersebut juga dipakai untuk mengumpulkan data. Studi ini menerapkan teori-teori linguistik untuk membantu menganalisis data dan mencapai ketiga tujuan diatas.

Dari hasil analisis, dapat disimpulkan bahwa bahasa asal dari kata kerja berawalan re- adalah bahasa Inggris, Latin, Prancis, Norwegia, dan Yunani. Untuk proses pembentukan kata kerja berawalan re- yang terjadi dalam bahasa Inggris, awalan re- hanya dapat digabungkan dengan kata dasar yang juga berasal dari bahasa Inggris, atau kata dasar yang telah dipinjam dari bahasa lain dan telah diadaptasi oleh bahasa Inggris. Sedangkan untuk proses pembentukan kata kerja berawalan re- yang terjadi di bahasa asal, bahasa Inggris hanya meminjam hasil dari pembentukan kata. Awalan re- mempunyai enam makna berbeda. Selain itu, awalan re- dapat berfungsi untuk mengubah atau menekankan arti kata dasar.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Since the early days when the first human was created, people require communication.

Communication among people exists because people need to socialize, express feelings,

convey information, transfer ideas, etc. There are various means of communication that people

usually use, such as hand waving, hand clapping, head shaking, and crying. However,

language is used more often to perform communication. Language, according to Wardhaugh

(1979), is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for communication. Language has also

been an object of a scientific study that scientists like Ferdinand de Saussure, Noam Chomsky,

and Bloomfield had studied on and made some contributions to. The scientific study of

language is called linguistics.

The field of linguistic theory about language may be said to include at least four major

subfields (Matthews, 1990: 2). The first subfield is phonology which is concerned with the

study of human speech sounds, especially in the functioning of sound-units within the systems

of individual languages.

The second major subfield is semantics which studies word meaning, where it

generally aims its study at the meanings of idioms or special phrases. The field of semantics,

traditionally, also covers pragmatics; the study of the meanings of words and sentences in

specific situations.

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The third major subfield is that of syntax which traditionally covers both the

constructions of phrases and sentences and also the features of meaning which are

associated with them.

The last major subfield is morphology which is concerned with the form of words

in different uses and constructions. One of the scopes of morphology is word-formation,

in which it includes affixation; the attachment of affixes to a root to produce a derivative

word or an inflected form. Affixes are the plural form of affix; a word element that can

only be attached to a root (Matthews, 1990: 2-3).

There are three kinds of affixes: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. A prefix is an affix

put in the initial position of a word. For example, dis- + believe = disbelieve, un- + happy

= unhappy. An infix is an affix put in the medial position of a word. In English, it only

occurs in non-formal expressions, such as al-bloody-mighty, kanga-bloody-roo, and air

con-bloody-ditioner (Szymanek, 1989: 65). While a suffix is an affix put in the final

position of a word. For example, honor + able = honorable, major + ity = majority.

The process of affixation does not always occur in English. It may have already

occurred in donor languages, and the results of the affixation were then borrowed and

some of them might become new roots in English. The words which were acquired or

were the results of the process of affixation from other languages may also undergo

meaning shifts, even though the general idea of the meaning is related. For example, the

English root incamera (adv) was derived from prefix in- + Latin camerā. It also

undergoes meaning shift in that the English word incamera means in secret, private while

the Latin camerā means chamber (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English

Language: 1992, 911).

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The same condition, which is similar to the example in the previous paragraph,

also occurs with the prefix re-, which is the main topic of this thesis. The prefix re- can

be attached to English roots that were derived from other languages too, and the

attachment of the prefix re- to a verb usually adds an extra meaning which indicates the

repetition of the action. For instance, remarry means marry again, and marry was derived

from French marier (McKean, 2005: 1039, 1432). However, there are English verbs

which underwent affixation of the prefix re- that results in meaning shifts. For example,

to cycle means to pass through a cycle, and cycle was borrowed from Latin cyclus

(McKean, 2005: 420). The meaning shifts when the verb is attached to the prefix re-; to

recycle means convert (waste) into reusable material (McKean, 2005: 1417).

In other cases, there are English prefixed verbs which underwent morphological

processes of the prefix re- from donor languages that do not either produce meaning

shifts or add extra meanings; the meanings of the verbs do not necessarily change. For

example, both avengier and its prefixed word revencher were the French loan words for

English avenge and revenge. The borrowed root to avenge means inflict harm in return

for (an injury or wrong done to oneself or another) (McKean, 2005: 109), while the

borrowed prefixed verb to revenge means inflict hurt or harm on someone for an injury

or wrong done to oneself (McKean, 2005: 1449). The phenomenon that the prefix re- can

take English roots which were derived from other languages, its affixation processes can

either result in meaning shifts or retain the meanings of the roots, and that the

morphological processes might have occurred in donor languages is interesting to study.

The above phenomenon is worth studying since it can identify the origins of

English prefixed verbs whose roots undergo affixation of the prefix re-, analyze the

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morphological processes to know whether the prefix re- can take English verbs which

were derived from various origins, and identify the changes and similarities of meanings

which become the results of the affixation processes with the prefix re-.

B. Problem Formulation

In order to be more focused and systematic in analyzing the issue, I have

formulated the problems as follows:

1. What are the origins of verbs attached to the prefix re-?

2. What morphological processes have taken place in verbs with the prefix re-?

3. What are the similarities and changes of meanings in the prefixed verbs?

C. Objectives of the Study

Related to the problem formulation above, there are three objectives in this study.

First, this study aims to identify the origins of the verbs attached to the prefix re-, as well

as the meanings of the prefixed verbs. To do this first objective, morphological processes

are needed to prove that there are loan and borrowed verbs which can be attached to the

prefix re-.

The second objective of this study is to find out whether morphology can

illustrate the morphological processes of the prefix re-, both which occur in English and

other languages.

Third, this study is going to identify the similarities and changes of meanings of

the prefixed verbs from their roots, as well as the extra meanings that the prefix re-

carries in the affixation processes.

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D. Definition of Terms

An affix, according to Traugott and Pratt, is any morpheme that can be attached to

a root (1980: 400). While a prefix is a word or syllable, eg pre-, co-, placed in front of a

word to add or to change its meaning (Hornby, 1974: 656).

According to Hornby, morphology is the study of the morphemes of a language

and of how they are combined to make words (1974: 549). While an affixation process is

the attachment of affixes to a root to produce a derivative word or an inflected form

(Matthews, 1990: 3).

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter consists of four parts namely review of related study, review of

related theories, theoretical framework, and research framework. The review of related

study discusses about another study concerning the English prefixes done by a thesis

writer. The review of related theories provides the theories related to the present study.

The theoretical framework would explain the significance and application of the review

of related study and the review of related theory. The research framework would illustrate

the main steps of accomplishing this study in the form of a diagram.

A. Review of Related Study

Soenantho’s thesis titled “A Morphological Study of English Prefixes Mega-,

Macro-, Poly-, Multi-” discusses a similar topic to my study of the prefix re-. Soenantho

analyzed the word classes of the stems, the derived words, and the meanings of the

English prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, and multi-. Soenantho concluded that the prefixes

mega-, macro-, poly-, multi- can only occur with nouns and adjectives, for instance,

megabar (N) and megacephalous (Adj), macroeconomy (N) and macroeconomic (Adj),

polyclinic (N) and polyatomic (Adj), multiform (N) and multicentral (Adj). The affixation

of the prefixes to the stems does not change the category of the derived words. It means

that the word classes of the derived words are the same as the word classes of the stems.

Soenantho also identified that not all stems of the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi-

can be separated, as they are Greek and Latin borrowings. Most of the stems, either nouns

or adjectives, taken by prefixes mega-, macro-, and poly- are rooted from Greek words. It

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can be seen from the following examples of derived words: megacephalous, macrology,

and polyandry. However, the Latin-originated prefix multi- takes stems which also have

Latin origin such as multiple which comes from multidentate (Soenantho, 2006: 28).

From the discussion on the derived words that are the results of the affixation of

the prefixes mega-, macro-, poly-, multi-, Soenantho found out that those prefixes do not

have any allomorph since there is no shift in the phonetic transcription of the prefixes

both before and after the affixation. The shift is only in the stress of the prefixes when

they are attached to monosyllabic and polysyllabic words. However, the rule for the

stress shift is not definite (Soenantho, 2006: 51, 52).

From the analysis of the meanings, Soenantho stated that the general meaning of

prefixes mega- and macro- is ‘large’ while the general meaning of prefixes poly- and

multi- is ‘many’. Other than the general meaning of ‘large’ and ‘many’, each of the

prefixes also carries some specific meanings. The prefix mega- has three specific

meanings: (1) ‘great or large and having (specified) part of large size’; (2) ‘million or

multiplied by million’; and (3) ‘very great or excellent’. The prefix macro- carries two

specific meanings: (1) ‘long (in extent or duration)’; and (2) ‘large, enlarged or elongated

(in specified unit)’. The prefix poly- has three specific meanings: (1) ‘many, much, more

than one’; (2) ‘more than usual, excessive’; and (3) ‘in or of many kinds or parts’. The

prefix multi- also carries three specific meanings: (1) ‘having, consisting of, affecting

many’; (2) ‘more than two (sometimes one)’; and (3) ‘many times more than’

(Soenantho, 2006: 51 - 52).

The present study of the prefix re- is similar to the thesis written by Soenantho.

This study of the prefix re- is also analyzing meaning shift of the roots, the extra

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meanings that the prefix carries, the similarities and changes of meanings, and

morphological processes of affixation of the prefix re-. However, this study is also

different from Soenantho’s study in that this study is about the prefix re-, which generally

means the repetition of the action. Nevertheless, the analysis of this current study is also

more developed than Soenantho’s study because this study of the prefix re- also classifies

the origins of the roots and the prefixed verbs.

B. Review of Related Theories

1. Theory on Affixation

Szymanek mentions that affixation is probably the most frequent and wide-spread

method of producing morphologically complex words in human language (1989: 62). In

general, it may be defined as the combination of a bound (derivational or inflectional)

morpheme with a stem or root. One type of affixation is prefixation; a method of

attaching a bound morpheme (prefix) in front of the base-form. Szymanek also argues

that the attachment of a prefix does not normally affect the category of the base, yet there

are sporadic exceptions, i.e. [en [throne]N]V (1989: 64).

2. Theory on Derivational Morphemes

Katamba states that derivational morphemes form words in different ways from

inflectional morphemes for the reason that derivational morphemes take one of three

different types in forming new words (1993: 47). The first type is that derivational

morphemes modify the meaning of the base to which they are attached, without

necessarily changing its grammatical category (kind unkind). The second type is that

derivational morphemes bring about a shift in the grammatical class of a base as well as a

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change in meaning (power powerless). While the last type is that derivational

morphemes may cause a shift in the grammatical sub-class of a word without moving it

into a new word-class (friend friendship) (1993: 47, 50).

3. Theory on Linguistic Borrowing

According to Fasold and Connor-Linton, linguistic borrowing is the adoption of

elements from another language or dialect (2006: 294). The borrowed elements are

usually lexical items, known as loan words, but morphological and syntactic patterns can

also be borrowed. Fasold and Connor-Linton further explain that borrowed items are

often changed to conform to native linguistic rules, a process known as adaptation in

which foreign sounds occurring in loan words are replaced by their nearest phonetic

equivalents in the borrowing language. For instance, English loan words touring, team,

tube, and tank have been adapted in Japanese as tsuringu, tiimu, tyuubu, and tanku

respectively (2006: 294).

4. Theory on Word

According to Katamba, a root is the irreducible core of a word, with absolutely

nothing else attached to it. A root is the part that always exists, possibly with some

modification, in the manifestation of a lexeme (a dictionary word) (1993: 41). For

example, produce is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms such as produces,

produced, and producing.

Katamba further explains that arbitrariness may occur when suppletion takes

place. In this case, word-forms that represent the same morpheme do not share a common

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root morpheme. For example, the words bad and worse share the same lexeme BAD, but

only bad is phonetically similar to BAD (1993: 41).

5. Theory on the Nature of Words

Spencer mentions that the meaning of a phrase tends to be determined

compositionally from the meaning of its component words although the meaning of

words is not always determined compositionally (1991: 44). It means that the word as a

whole which reveals the meaning, while the meanings of the parts and the whole word

may be unrelated. For instance, the word blue and the word print have their own

meanings. However, those meanings would not simply determine the meanings of

blueprint since there is nothing in the meanings of blue and print that shows the precise

meanings of blueprint. Blueprint does not mean to print something blue or something

blue in a printed form. Blueprint means a design plan or other technical drawing

(McKean, 2005: 183). Hence, the meaning of blueprint is not simply determined from

blue and print even though those three words may be related etymologically.

Spencer then argues that words whose meaning is not determined compositionally

have a lexicalized meaning, that is, their meaning has to be listed in the dictionary as a

whole expression (1991: 44).

6. Theory on the Repetitive Prefix

According to Szymanek, English has a productive mechanism of forming verbs

with the meaning of ‘V again or anew’, or more precisely, ‘achieve a certain result again’

(1989: 301). Verbs of this sort, to be referred to as repetitive, are coined by means of just

one formative, the prefix re- (1989: 301). Szymanek also mentions that the semantics of

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re- derivatives is not completely uniform because the concept of repetition can hardly be

subsumed under a single semantic formula (1989: 302). One may speak of three distinct

uses of the prefix re-, they are: (1) ‘repetition with a view to changing or improving the

previous inadequate result’, (2) ‘reversal the previous state’, and (3) ‘indication of

achieving a result again’ (1989: 302, 303). Szymanek gives additional information that

intransitive verbs do not allow for re- prefixation, for instance: *recome, *relie, *rerest,

and *restand (1989: 304).

Carstairs-McCharty (2002) shares another similar theory on the prefix re-.

Carstairs-McCharty explains that the prefix re- can be added to verbs quite freely,

contributing the meaning ‘again’ or ‘backward movement’, as in rewrite, reread, repaint,

restore, return, and revisit. In addition, Carstairs-McCharty argues that the English prefix

re- has been borrowed from Latin via French (2002: 23-24).

7. Theory on Semantic Feature

Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer state that a proposal which

many linguists have found attractive over the years is that the meaning of a lexeme

should be decomposable into a set of semantic features (1999: 200). Radford, Atkinson,

Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer then give examples of the semantic features of: a. ram,

ewe, lamb; b. bull, cow, calf; and c. stallion, mare, foal.

The first two words in each triple are opposites. The oppositeness lies in the

distinction of gender that can be grouped by a two-valued gender feature with values

[male] and [female]. Therefore, ram differs in meaning from ewe in the same way as bull

from cow and stallion from mare do (1999: 200).

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Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer then propose another two-

valued ‘maturity’ feature with values [adult] and [non-adult], with [adult] becomes the

part of the meaning of ram, ewe, bull, cow, stallion, and mare. The [non-adult] value then

becomes the part of the meaning of lamb, calf, and foal (1999: 201).

According to Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer, the two features

can be seen as providing a definition of the meaning of a word with the values providing

necessary and sufficient conditions for the word being analyzed. For instance, if anything

is a ram, then it must be male and also adult (1999: 204). However, it does not mean that

something male and also adult must be a ram.

C. Theoretical Framework

In the light that the study of the prefix re- is presenting the origins of the English

verbs attached to the prefix re-, the morphological processes, the extra meanings that the

prefix re- carries, and the similarities and changes of meanings in the prefixed verbs, it is

necessary to review another study which presents similar analysis. Olivia Soenantho’s

thesis titled “A Morphological Study of English Prefixes Mega-, Macro-, Poly-, Multi-”

will be useful for my study in that both studies discuss similar analysis of origins,

morphological processes, and meanings although the prefix which is currently analyzed is

different. More importantly, Soenantho’s thesis will help this current thesis in analyzing

the meanings that the prefix re- carries in the affixation processes.

In order to help to answer the questions in the Problem Formulation, the theory on

affixation, derivational morphemes, linguistic borrowing, word, the nature of words, the

repetitive prefix, and semantic feature are all importantly required. The theory on

affixation by Szymanek (1989) will be applied to check whether the affixation of the

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prefix re- affects the category of the base, or whether there are sporadic exceptions. In

order to apply this theory, the category of each root will be examined whether it is similar

to the category of each prefixed verb.

By applying Katamba’s theory on the derivational morphemes, the results of the

affixation of the prefix re- will be examined whether it can be identified that the

derivational prefix re- is included in one of the three types of derivational morphemes

explained by Katamba (1993). In order to apply this theory, the meaning and the category

of each root will be checked whether they affect one or both of the meaning and the

category of each prefixed verb.

The theory on linguistic borrowing by Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006), which

discusses about borrowing and phonetic equivalents adaptation, will be applied to

identify the loan words of the donor languages that English has borrowed. One way to do

the identification is by analyzing whether the basic meanings of the English verbs and the

loan words from the donor languages are related and similar. This theory will also be

used to check whether the phonetic adaptation is equivalent. By applying this theory, the

origins of the English verbs can also be identified.

Katamba’s theory on word (1993) will be useful to analyze the morphological

processes of the prefix re-. In the analysis, the roots will be checked whether they still

exist after being attached to the prefix re- in the affixation processes. The application of

this theory also aims to reveal whether English only borrowed the roots from other

languages, in which they were later attached to the prefix re-, or the whole word

instantly. This goal can be done by comparing and contrasting the English roots with the

roots from the donor languages.

14

By applying Spencer’s theory that the meaning of words is not always established

compositionally, it will be easier to find out what makes the meaning of a prefixed verb

different from the meaning of its root. This theory will help reveal the meaning shifts and

the extra meanings that the prefix re- carries. When the meaning of a word can not be

compositionally determined from its morphemes, then the meaning of the whole word

has to be observed (Spencer, 1991: 44). Hence, the reason why the meaning of a word

differs from the meaning of its root will be identified.

Szymanek’s theory on the repetitive prefix (1989) will be applied to examine

whether there are three uses of the prefix re- like what he has mentioned or whether there

are variations of meanings from the three uses of the prefix re-. This present study also

tries to prove the Carstairs-McCharty’s statement that the English prefix re- has been

borrowed from Latin via French by analyzing the morphological processes of English

prefixed verbs which have occurred in other languages.

The theory on semantic feature by Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and

Spencer (1999) will be applied to identify the similarities and changes of meanings in the

prefixed verbs. The semantic values of the prefixed verbs will be compared and

contrasted with the semantic values of the roots. When the comparison shows differences

in the semantic values between roots and verbs, then it means the roots undergo changes

of meanings when they are attached to the prefix re-.

D. Research Framework

The research framework for this study of the prefix re- is illustrated in the

diagram in the next page.

15

II. Data Analysis Analyzing the data by applying the theories.

I. Preparing Data Collecting data from two etymology dictionaries.

Analysis 1 Identifying the loan words, the donor languages, the meanings of the roots and the prefixed verbs, and the extra meanings and meaning shifts.

Analysis 2 Analyzing the morphological processes.

Analysis 3 Identifying the similarities and changes of meanings by semantic values.

III. Summary 1. Classifying the origins of the verbs with the prefix re-. 2. Concluding the morphological processes. 3. Summarizing the extra meanings that prefix re- carries, meaning shifts and similarities.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

A. Object of the Study

Based on the problem formulation stated in Chapter I, this thesis focuses on the

origins of the English verbs which are attached to the prefix re-. This current study also

explains the morphological processes of the affixation of the prefix re-. Moreover, this

study also identifies the changes of the meanings of the prefixed verbs from their roots.

For the data, I list all verbs which have the prefix re- as the primary data. The

collected primary data are taken from two different dictionaries which have more

complete word entries than other dictionaries: The New Oxford American Dictionary and

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. The two dictionaries are

used to consult the meanings and the origins of the roots and the prefixed verbs in order

to analyze the morphological processes and the changes of meanings. Besides, the two

dictionaries make the data easier to analyze since they list the meanings in the simple

phrases or sentences. One of the dictionaries is used as a back-up dictionary when the

other one does not have the list of some verbs or meanings. Therefore, it is better to

consult two dictionaries rather than one dictionary. Moreover, the two etymology

dictionaries are important since they also provide the meanings of the loan roots that

English borrowed from other languages.

16

17

B. Method of the Study

The method of this study of the prefix re- is empirical research because it uses the

collected data as the primary data for accomplishing the analysis. This study also applies

the theory on affixation by Szymanek (1989), the theory on derivational morphemes by

Katamba (1993), the theory on linguistic borrowing by Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006),

the theory on word by Katamba (1993), the theory on the nature of words by Spencer

(1991), the theory on the repetitive prefix by Szymanek (1989) and Carstairs-McCharty

(2002), and the theory on semantic feature by Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and

Spencer (1999). This study also identifies the similarities and changes of meanings, and

the extra meanings that prefix re- carries in the affixation processes.

C. Research Procedure

1. Data Collection

In order to collect the complete data, I went to the library to find dictionaries

which supply the most complete verbs and readable meanings. I checked all English

dictionaries which were available in the library one by one and then chose the two

etymology dictionaries that I preferred to collect the data from: The New Oxford

American Dictionary and The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. I

then copied the pages which listed all verbs that begin with re-. Afterwards, I read and

listed down in alphabetical order all the verbs which had the prefix re- from the copy of

the dictionaries pages. Next, I read the meanings of the collected prefixed verbs and

checked the origin of each verb. I then separated the English prefixed verbs from the

prefixed verbs which were borrowed from donor languages by typing all the verbs in

different columns. I also provided the loan words that English borrowed in the column

18

for the prefixed verbs which came from other languages than English. In total, I found

301 prefixed verbs, and the 301 verbs were the primary data for the analysis.

2. Data Analysis

In order to answer the three questions in the Problem Formulation, I took eight

steps in analyzing the collected data. The first step was to analyze the meanings of the

prefixed verbs. The second step was to study the meanings and the origins of the roots.

This step aimed to check whether the roots were really the parts of their prefixed verbs.

Next, the third step was to identify the loan words and the origins of the prefixed verbs by

checking the phonetic equivalents adaptation. Then, the fourth step was to identify the

extra meanings that the prefix re- carries in the affixation processes. By completing the

first three steps, the first problem could be answered; while the fourth step was used as

one of the sources of the third problem analysis later.

The fifth step was to draw the morphological processes of the affixation of the

prefix re-. In the illustration of the affixation processes, the category and the basic

meanings of the prefixed verbs and the roots would be examined. By completing the fifth

step, the second problem could be answered.

Next, the sixth step was to place the prefixed verbs and the roots in tables, along

with their meanings. Then, the seventh step was to compare and contrast the semantic

values of the basic meanings of the prefixed verbs and the roots in the tables. With the

fourth step providing the extra meanings of the prefix re-, the sixth and seventh steps

were done to answer the third problem. Next, the last step was to draw a conclusion from

the analyses of the three problems.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

With the reference to the three problems, this chapter discusses the origins of the

English verbs with the prefix re-, the morphological processes of the prefix re-, and the

similarities and changes of meanings of the prefixed verbs by applying the seven theories.

A. The Origins of the Verbs with the Prefix Re-

All English verbs did not always originate from one particular language. English

verbs could be derived, in a whole word or only a part, from many donor languages. For

instance, the English verb to surface was derived from French sur and English face

(McKean, 2005: 1700). The same condition also occurs in the morphological processes of

the prefix re-. The prefix re- can be attached to English verbs which were borrowed from

other languages. For example, the English verb recall is the result of the affixation of the

prefix re- which is attached to a Norse loan word kalla.

In order to identify the origins of the verbs with the prefix re-, it is required to

check the basic meanings of the prefixed verbs and the roots, the loan words and their

phonetic adaptation in English, and the origins of the roots. This analysis is the

application of the theory on linguistic borrowing by Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006),

the nature of words by Spencer (1991), the repetitive prefix by Szymanek (1989) and

Carstairs-McCharty (2002), and the theory on word by Katamba (1993). The

classification of the origins of the prefixed verbs results in five groups based on the

languages of origin of the roots, they are: English, Latin, French, Norse, and Greek.

19

20

i. Roots of English Origin

Of all 301 verbs which are attached to the prefix re-, 67 roots are from English.

The table below lists some of the 67 English prefixed verbs and roots.

Table 1.1.

English Roots English Prefixed Verbs 1. book 2. breathe 3. cut 4. mind 5. shape 6. shoot 7. wire 8. word 9. write

rebook rebreathe recut remind reshape reshoot rewire reword rewrite

The explanation below describes the affixation processes and the meanings of

prefixed verbs, from the table above, whose roots are originally from English. The

explanation of the examples below is based on the theory on word by Katamba (1993)

and the nature of words by Spencer (1991).

(1.a) rebook (App.1, no. 5. App.6, pp. 73)

(1.b) rebreathe (App.1, no. 8. App.6, pp. 79)

(1.c) recut (App.1, no. 13. App.6, pp. 74)

(1.d) remind (App.1, no. 38. App.6, pp. 72)

(1.e) reshape (App.1, no. 50. App.6, pp. 79)

(1.f) reshoot (App.1, no. 51. App.6, pp. 79)

(1.g) rewire (App.1, no. 64. App.6, pp. 76)

(1.h) reword (App.1, no. 65. App.6, pp. 77)

(1.i) rewrite (App.1, no. 67. App.6, pp. 77)

For the datum in (1.a), the verb means book the same accommodations, seat,

ticket, etc. (McKean, 2005: 1412). The root book still exists after it is attached to the

prefix re-. Judging from the meaning of the prefixed verb, the prefix re- means again.

21

The English verb in (1.b) means breathe in (exhaled air) (McKean, 2005: 1412).

The root breathe still exists after it is attached to the prefix re-. By looking at the

meaning of the prefixed verb, it can be concluded that the prefix re- means back or again.

The verb in (1.c) means remove further or different material from (a film or

screenplay) (McKean, 2005: 1417). The root cut undergoes affixation with the prefix re-,

but it still exists in the prefixed verb. The prefix re- means again.

For the datum in (1.d), the verb means cause (someone) to remember someone or

something (McKean, 2005: 1412). After undergoing affixation with the prefix re-, the

root mind still exists in the prefixed verb. However, in this case the prefix re- emphasizes

the meaning of the root mind.

The meaning of the verb in (1.e) is to shape, form, or organize again or anew

(The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1535). The root

shape still exists after it is combined with the prefix re-. Judging from the meaning of the

prefixed verb reshape, the prefix re- means again or redo (something) differently in order

to change.

The verb in (1.f) means shoot (a scene of a film) again or differently (McKean,

2005: 1140). The root shoot undergoes affixation with the prefix re-, but it still exists in

the prefixed verb. By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the

prefix re- means again or redo (something) differently in order to change.

The meaning of the verb in (1.g) is to provide with new wiring (The American

Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1546). The root wire still exists after

it is attached to the prefix re-. The meaning of the prefixed verb indicates the repetition of

to wire. Therefore, it can be concluded that the prefix re- means again.

22

The English verb in (1.h) means put (something) into different words (McKean,

2005: 1451). The root word is attached to the prefix re- to produce the verb reword.

Judging from the meaning of the prefixed verb, the prefix re- means redo (something)

differently in order to change.

The meaning of the verb in (1.i) is write (something) again so as to alter or

improve it (McKean, 2005: 1451). The root write undergoes affixation with the prefix re-

which results in the verb rewrite. By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is

clear that the prefix re- means redo (something) differently in order to change.

ii. Roots of Latin Origin

Of all 301 verbs which are attached to the prefix re-, 98 verbs were borrowed

from Latin. The table below lists some of the 98 Latin loan words, English borrowed

verbs and prefixed verbs.

Table 1.2

Latin Loan Words English Borrowed Verbs Prefixed Verbs 1. cappa 2. combinare 3. recommendāre 4. recurvāre 5. cyclus 6. rehabilitāre 7. repressus 8. resurgere 9. transmittere 10. zōna

cap combine recommend recurve cycle rehabilitate repress resurge transmit zone

recap recombine recommend recurve recycle rehabilitate repress resurge retransmit rezone

The following explanation describes the morphological processes and meanings

of the prefixed verbs, from the table above, which were derived from Latin origin. The

explanation of the examples below is based on the theory on linguistic borrowing by

23

Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006), the theory on word by Katamba (1993), and the nature

of words by Spencer (1991).

(2.a) recap (App.2, no. 13. App.6, pp. 76)

(2.b) recombine (App.2, no. 19. App.6, pp. 73)

(2.c) recommend (App.2, no. 20. App.6, pp. 72)

(2.d) recurve (App.2, no. 29. App.6, pp. 72)

(2.e) recycle (App.2, no. 30. App.6, pp. 73)

(2.f) rehabilitate (App.2, no. 50. App.6, pp. 80)

(2.g) repress (App.2, no. 82. App.6, pp. 81)

(2.h) resurge (App.2, no. 90. App.6, pp. 80)

(2.i) retransmit (App.2, no. 93. App.6, pp. 79)

(2.j) rezone (App.2, no. 98. App.6, pp. 77)

For the datum in (2.a), the Latin word cappa was borrowed by English which

turns it out into the root cap. Both the loan and borrowed words are phonetically similar.

The borrowed root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re- to produce the prefixed

verb recap, which means to replace a cap or caplike covering on (The American

Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1507). After undergoing affixation

with the prefix re-, the root cap still exists in the prefixed verb. By looking at the

meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the prefix re- means redo (something)

differently in order to change.

The English verb in (2.b) was derived from the Latin word combinare. English

borrowed and modified the Latin word which then becomes the root combine. Both

combinare and combine are phonetically similar. The borrowed root is then attached to

the prefix re- which results in the prefixed verb recombine. The meaning of recombine is

to combine (things) again (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,

1992: 1510). As seen in the prefixed verb, the root still exists after undergoing affixation

24

with the prefix re-. Judging from the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is identified that the

prefix means again.

The verb in (2.c) came from the Latin word recommendāre. English adopted the

Latin recommendāre in a whole word and it then becomes English recommend. Both the

loan and borrowed words are phonetically similar. The meaning of the verb recommend

is put forward (someone or something) with approval as being suitable for a particular

purpose or role (McKean, 2005: 1415). This borrowing also proves that the prefix re-

originated from Latin because the loan word recommendāre is the result of the

attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the root commendāre (McKean, 2005: 1415). The

prefix does not add an extra meaning, since the meaning of the prefixed verb is similar to

the meaning of the root commend. Thus, it can be concluded that the prefix re-

emphasizes the meanings of the root.

For the datum in (2.d), the Latin word recurvāre was adopted by English which

then turns it out into the verb recurve. Both the loan and borrowed words are phonetically

similar. The meaning of recurve is to curve (something) backward or downward or

become curved backward or downward (The American Heritage Dictionary of the

English Language, 1992: 1512). The meaning is the same as the verb curve. Therefore,

the prefix re- in the verb recurve functions to emphasize the meanings of the root curve.

This borrowing also proves that the prefix re- originated from Latin because the loan

word recurvāre is the result of the attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the root curvāre

(The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1512).

The English verb in (2.e) was obtained from the Latin word cyclus. English

adopted the word cyclus and it turns out into cycle. Both cyclus and cycle are phonetically

25

similar. The root cycle is then attached to the prefix re- that results in another verb

recycle which means convert (waste) into reusable material (McKean, 2005: 1417). In

addition, the root cycle still exists in the prefixed verb after undergoing affixation with

the prefix re-. However, in this case, the prefix re- shifts the meaning of the root cycle.

The English verb in (2.f) was adopted from the Latin word rehabilitāre. English

took the Latin word rehabilitāre in a whole word and it turns out into the verb

rehabilitate. The Latin loan word rehabilitāre and the English borrowed verb rehabilitate

are phonetically similar. The meaning of rehabilitate is to restore the former rank,

privileges, or rights of (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,

1992: 1521). Judging from this meaning, the prefix re- in the prefixed verb rehabilitate

means back or again. This borrowing also proves that the prefix re- originated from Latin

because the loan word rehabilitāre is the result of the attachment of the Latin prefix re- to

the Latin root habilitāre (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,

1992: 1521).

The verb in (2.g) came from the Latin word repressus which is the past participle

form of repriemere (Guralnik, 1975: 1217). English adopted the Latin repressus in a

whole word and it then becomes English repress. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The meaning of the verb repress is subdue (someone or something)

by force; restrain or prevent (the expression of a feeling) (McKean, 2005: 1437). This

borrowing also proves that the prefix re- originated from Latin because the loan word

reprimere is the result of the attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the Latin root premere

(McKean, 2005: 1437). At this point, the prefix re- means back against.

26

For the datum in (2.h), the Latin word resurgere was borrowed by English which

turns it out into the verb resurge. Both the loan and borrowed words are phonetically

similar. The verb resurge means to rise again; experience resurgence; to sweep or surge

back again (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1539).

By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the prefix re- means back

or again. This borrowing also proves that the prefix re- originated from Latin because the

loan word resurgere is the result of the attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the Latin root

surgere (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1539).

The English verb in (2.i) came from the Latin word transmittere. English obtained

the word and it becomes the English root transmit. The Latin loan word and the English

borrowed root are phonetically similar. The affixation process of the prefix re- with the

root results in another verb retransmit which means transmit (data, a radio signal, or a

broadcast program) again or on to another receiver (McKean, 2005: 1447). As seen

from the prefixed verb, it is clear that the root still exists after it is attached to the prefix.

Judging from the meaning of the prefixed verb, it can be concluded that the prefix re-

means again.

The verb in (2.j) was derived from the Latin word zōna. English modified the

word and it becomes zone. Both zōna and zone are phonetically similar. The root zone

then undergoes affixation with the prefix re-. The affixation produces another verb

rezone which means to change the zoning classification of (a neighborhood or property,

for example) (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1546).

As seen from the prefixed verb, it is clear that the root still exists after undergoing

27

affixation with the prefix re-. The prefix re- means redo (something) differently in order

to change.

iii. Roots of French Origin

Of all 301 verbs which are attached to prefix re-, 124 verbs were obtained from

French. The table below lists some of the 124 French loan words, English borrowed verbs

and prefixed verbs.

Table 1.3

French Loan Words English Borrowed Verbs Prefixed Verbs 1. reclamer 2. confermer 3. delivrer 4. développer 5. reformer 6. imposer 7. remov 8. reprover 9. resolver 10. visiter

reclaim confirm deliver develop reform impose remove reprove resolve visit

reclaim reconfirm redeliver redevelop reform reimpose remove reprove resolve revisit

The following explanation describes the morphological processes and meanings

of the prefixed verbs, from the table above, whose roots were derived from French origin.

The explanation of the examples below is based on the theory on linguistic borrowing by

Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006), the theory on word by Katamba (1993), and the nature

of words by Spencer (1991).

(3.a) reclaim (App.3, no. 22. App.6, pp. 81)

(3.b) reconfirm (App.3, no. 29. App.6, pp. 73)

(3.c) redeliver (App.3, no. 36. App.6, pp. 80)

(3.d) redevelop (App.3, no. 39. App.6, pp. 78)

(3.e) reform (App.3, no. 53. App.6, pp. 76)

(3.f) reimpose (App.3, no. 63. App.6, pp. 80)

28

(3.g) remove (App.3, no. 74. App.6, pp. 81)

(3.h) reprove (App.3, no. 87. App.6, pp. 81)

(3.i) resolve (App.3, no. 100. App.6, pp. 72)

(3.j) revisit (App.3, no. 123. App.6, pp. 81)

The English verb in (3.a) was derived from the French word reclamer. English

borrowed the whole word and it turns out into reclaim. Both the loan and borrowed verbs

are phonetically similar. The verb reclaim means retrieve or recover (something

previously lost, given, or paid); obtain the return of (McKean, 2005: 1414). English

borrowed the whole word reclamer, but that French word originated from Latin

reclamare, which means cry out against. The Latin word reclamare is the result of the

attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the Latin root clamare (McKean, 2005: 1414). For

this reason, it is clear that the prefix re- originated from Latin. At this point, the prefix re-

means back against.

However, there is also an ambiguous construction regarding the borrowing

process of reclaim. Another construction in this case is that English only borrowed the

Latin word clamare then adapts it into claim. The borrowed root is then attached to the

prefix re- and it results in reclaim which means bring back (waste land, etc) to a useful

condition, a state of cultivation, etc. (Hornby, 1974: 702). In this case the prefix means

back or again.

The verb in (3.b) was obtained from the French word confermer. English adopted

the word and it then becomes confirm. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The borrowed root is then attached to the prefix re- which produces

another verb reconfirm which means to confirm again, especially to establish or support

more firmly (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1510).

29

After undergoing affixation, the root still exists in the prefixed verb. By looking at the

meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the prefix re- means again.

The English verb in (3.c) was derived from the French word delivrer. English

modified the word and it then becomes the English root deliver. Both the French loan

word and English borrowed root are phonetically similar. The root then undergoes

affixation with the prefix re- which produces another verb redeliver. The meaning of

redeliver is to deliver again; to deliver in return; give back (The American Heritage

Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1513). As seen from the prefixed verb, it is

clear that the root still exists after being attached to the prefix re-. Judging from the

meaning of the prefixed verb, the prefix re- means back or again.

The English verb in (3.d) was acquired from the French word développer. English

then turns the French word out into the verb develop. Both développer and develop are

phonetically similar. The borrowed root is then attached to the prefix re- which results in

the verb redevelop. The English verb redevelop means to develop (something) again or

differently (McKean, 2005: 1419). After undergoing affixation with the prefix re-, the

root still exists in the prefixed verb. In addition, by looking at the meaning of the prefixed

verb, it can be concluded that the prefix re- means again or redo (something) differently

in order to change.

English created the verb in (3.e) from the French word reformer. Both reform and

reformer are phonetically similar. The verb reform means make changes in (something,

typically a social, political, or economical institution or practice) in order to improve it

(McKean, 2005: 1424). The prefix re- in reform means redo (something) differently in

order to change. English acquired the French word reformer, but that word originated

30

from Latin reformare. The Latin word reformare is the result of the attachment of the

Latin prefix re- to the Latin root formare (McKean, 2005: 1424). For this reason, it is

clear that this borrowing proves that the prefix re- originated from Latin.

However, there is also an ambiguous construction regarding the borrowing

process of reform. Another construction in this case is that English only borrowed the

French word former then adapts it into form. The borrowed root is then attached to the

prefix re- and it results in reform which means form or cause to form again (McKean,

2005: 1424). In this case the prefix means again.

The English verb in (3.f) came from the French word imposer. English borrowed

the word and it then becomes impose. Both the loan and borrowed words are phonetically

similar. The root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re-. The affixation produces

another verb reimpose which means impose (something, esp. a law or regulation) again

after a lapse (McKean, 2005: 1428). As seen from the prefixed verb, it is clear that the

root still exists after being attached to the prefix re-. Judging from the meaning of the

prefixed verb, it is identified that the prefix re- means back or again.

The English verb in (3.g) was adopted from the French stem remov. The French

stem is phonetically similar to the borrowed verb remove. The meaning of remove is take

away (something unwanted or unnecessary) from the position it occupies (McKean,

2005: 1433). However, the French stem remov originated from Latin removere. The Latin

word removere is the result of the attachment of the Latin prefix re- to the Latin root

movere (McKean, 2005: 1433). For this reason, it is clear that the prefix re- originated

from Latin. The prefix re- means back or away.

31

The English verb in (3.h) was derived from the French word reprover. The

English borrowed verb is phonetically similar to the French loan word. Thus, English

borrowed the whole word and it then turns out into reprove. The English verb reprove

means to voice or convey disapproval of; rebuke; to find fault with (The American

Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1532). However, that French loan

word originated from the Latin word reprobāre. The Latin loan word reprobāre is the

result of the attachment of prefix re- to the root probāre (The American Heritage

Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1532). Therefore, it can be concluded that the

prefix re- originated from Latin. The prefix re- means back against.

For the datum in (3.i), the French word resolver was acquired by English which

then turns it out into the verb resolve. The French loan word resolver is similar to the

English borrowed verb resolve. The meaning of resolve is settle or find a solution to (a

problem, dispute, or contentious matter) (McKean, 2005: 1441). Therefore, the prefix re-

in the verb resolve functions to emphasize the meanings of the roots. However, the

French word resolver originated from Latin resolvere. The Latin loan word resolvere is

the result of the affixation of the Latin prefix re- which is attached to the Latin root

solvere (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1536). Thus,

it is clear that the prefix re- originated from Latin.

The verb in (3.j) was obtained from the French word visiter. English borrowed the

word and it then becomes visit. Both visiter and visit are phonetically similar. The

borrowed root is then attached to the prefix re- to form another verb revisit. The meaning

of revisit is come back to or visit again (McKean, 2005: 1450). As seen from the prefixed

32

verb, the root still exists after undergoing affixation with the prefix re-. The prefix re- in

the prefixed verb revisit means back or again.

iv. Roots of Norse Origin

From the Norse origin, English only borrowed 11 verbs out of 301 verbs. Below

is the table for the English prefixed verbs, English borrowed roots, and Norse loan words.

Table 1.4

Norse Loan Words English Borrowed Roots English Prefixed Verbs 1. kalla 2. kasta 3. kross 4. gipt 5. hanga 6. kynda 7. rinna 8. sæti 9. skinn 10. suner 11. taka

call cast cross gift hang kindle run seat skin sound take

recall recast recross regift rehang rekindle rerun reseat reskin resound retake

The following explanation describes the affixation processes and meanings of the

11 prefixed verbs whose roots were derived from Norse origin. The explanation of the

examples below is based on the theory on linguistic borrowing by Fasold and Connor-

Linton (2006), the theory on word by Katamba (1993), and the nature of words by

Spencer (1991).

(4.a) recall (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

(4.b) recast (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 76)

(4.c) recross (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 74)

(4.d) regift (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 74)

(4.e) rehang (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 78)

(4.f) rekindle (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 80)

(4.g) rerun (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

33

(4.h) reseat (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 77)

(4.i) reskin (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 77)

(4.j) resound (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 72)

(4.k) retake (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 80)

The English verb in (4.a) originated from the Norse word kalla. English borrowed

the word and it turns out into call. The loan word kalla is phonetically similar to the

borrowed root call. The root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re- and produces

the prefixed verb recall. The English root still exists after it is attached to the prefix re-.

The verb recall means officially order (someone) to return to a place (McKean, 2005:

1412). By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it can be concluded that the prefix

re- shifts the meaning of the root call.

The verb in (4.b) was adopted from the Norse word kasta. English borrowed the

word and it then becomes cast. Kasta and cast are phonetically similar. The root cast is

then attached to the prefix re- and its attachment results in the prefixed verb recast. As

seen from the prefixed verb, the root still exists after undergoing affixation with the

prefix re-. The meaning of recast is to change the cast of (a theatrical production) (The

American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1507). Judging from the

meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the prefix re- means redo (something)

differently in order to change.

The English verb in (4.c) was derived from the Norse word kross. English

modified the word and it then becomes cross. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The borrowed root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re-

which results in another verb recross. After being attached to the prefix re-, the root cross

34

still exists in the prefixed verb. The meaning of the English verb recross is cross or pass

over again (McKean, 2005: 1417). At this point, the prefix re- means again.

The verb in (4.d) came from the Norse word gipt. English borrowed and modified

the word which results in the root gift. The borrowed root is phonetically similar to the

loan word. The root is then attached to the prefix re- to produce the verb regift. As seen

from the prefixed verb, it is clear that the root still exists after undergoing affixation with

the prefix re-. The meaning of the verb regift is give (a gift one has received) to someone

else (McKean, 2005: 1426). By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear

that the prefix re- means again.

In (4.e), the verb originated from the Norse word hanga. English borrowed the

word and it then becomes the English verb hang. The Norse loan word is phonetically

similar to the English borrowed root. The prefix re- is the attached to the English root to

form another verb rehang. After undergoing affixation with the prefix re-, the borrowed

root still exists in the prefixed verb. The meaning of the verb rehang is hang (something)

again or differently (McKean, 2005: 1427). The meaning of the prefixed verb indicates

that the prefix re- means again or redo (something) differently in order to change.

The English verb in (4.f) was derived from the Norse word kynda. English

modified the word and it becomes kindle. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The English borrowed root then undergoes affixation with the prefix

re- which results in another verb rekindle. After being attached to the prefix re-, the root

still exists in the prefixed verb. The meaning of rekindle is relight (a fire); revive

(something that has been lost) (McKean, 2005: 1429). Judging from the meaning of the

prefixed verb, it can be concluded that the prefix re- means back or again.

35

The verb in (4.g) came from the Norse word rinna. English borrowed and

modified the word which results in the verb run. Run and rinna are phonetically similar.

The borrowed root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re- to produce another verb

rerun. After being attached to the prefix re-, the root still exists in the prefixed verb. The

meaning of rerun is show or perform (something, esp. a television program) again

(McKean, 2005: 1439). By looking at the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the

prefix re- shifts the meaning of the root run.

English created the verb in (4.h) from the Norse word sæti. English acquired the

word and it then becomes the verb seat. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The borrowed root is then attached to the prefix re- and its

affixation creates the prefixed verb reseat. After undergoing the affixation process with

the prefix re-, the root still exists in the prefixed verb. The verb reseat means to provide

with a new or different seat (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,

1992: 1534). At this point, the prefix re- adds the root an extra meaning redo (something)

differently in order to change.

The English verb in (4.i) was derived from the Norse word skinn. English

modified the word and it becomes skin. Skinn and skin are phonetically similar. The

borrowed root then undergoes affixation with the prefix re- which results in another verb

reskin. After it is attached to the prefix re-, the root still exists in the prefixed verb. The

meaning of reskin is replace or repair the skin of (an aircraft or motor vehicle) (McKean,

2005: 1441). Judging from the meaning of the prefixed verb, it is clear that the prefix re-

means redo (something) differently in order to change.

36

The verb in (4.j) came from the Norse word suner. English modified the word and

it becomes sound. Both the loan word and borrowed roots are phonetically similar. The

root is then attached to the prefix re- to create the verb resound. After undergoing

affixation with the prefix re-, the root still exists in the prefixed verb. The meaning of

resound is fill a place with sound; be loud enough to echo (McKean, 2005: 1442). The

prefix re- functions to emphasize the meaning of the root.

The English verb in (4.k) originated from the Norse word taka. English borrowed

the word and it then becomes the verb take. Both the loan and borrowed words are

phonetically similar. The root then undergoes an affixation process with the prefix re-

which results in another verb retake. After being attached to the prefix re-, the root still

exists in the prefixed verb. The meaning of retake is to take back or again (The American

Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1539). By looking at the meaning of

the prefixed verb, it can be concluded that the prefix re- means back or again.

v. Roots of Greek Origin

Of all 301 verbs which are attached to prefix re-, there is only 1 English verb

whose root was borrowed from Greek origin. Below is the table for the English prefixed

verb, English borrowed verb, and Greek loan word.

Table 1.5

Greek Loan Word English Borrowed Root English Prefixed Verb 1. ēkhō echo reecho

The following is the explanation for the prefixed verb whose root was borrowed

from Greek:

(5.a) reecho (App.5, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 74)

37

The English verb in (5.a) was adopted from the Greek word ēkhō. English

borrowed the word and it turns out into echo. Both ēkhō and echo are phonetically

similar. The borrowed root is then attached to the prefix re- to produce another verb

reecho. After undergoing affixation with the prefix, the root still exists in the prefixed

verb. The English verb reecho means echo again or repeatedly (McKean, 2005: 1421).

Thus, it is clear that the prefix re- means again.

To summarize, the prefix re- takes English roots which were mostly derived from

English, Latin, and French. The prefix re- also takes some English roots which were

borrowed from Norse. In addition, for the loan words which already underwent affixation

processes in other languages, it is identified that English adopted not only the roots but

the whole words as well. On the other hand, for the roots which undergo affixation

processes in English, it is identified that English only borrowed the roots from donor

languages. All the loan and borrowed words are phonetically similar. After undergoing

the attachment to the prefix re-, the borrowed roots also still exist in the prefixed verbs.

In addition, the extra meanings that the prefix re- carries in the affixation processes are:

(1) ‘again’, (2) ‘redo (something) differently in order to change’, (3) ‘again or redo

(something) differently in order to change’, (4) ‘back or again’, (5) ‘back against’, and

(6) ‘back or away’. The prefix re- which does not change the meanings in the affixation

processes is the prefix that functions to emphasize the meaning of the roots. In addition,

prefix re- can also shift the meaning of a root which is beyond the meanings that prefix

re- carries in the affixation processes. The number of the prefixed verbs, their origins,

and their meanings is provided in the table in the next page.

38

Table 1.7

Meanings English Latin French Norse Greek 1. again 26 44 42 2 1 2. redo something differently

in order to change 12 20 19 3 0

3. again or redo something differently in order to change

17 14 29 1 0

4. back or again 9 14 21 2 0 5. back against 0 2 3 0 0 6. back or away 0 0 1 0 0 7. Meaning Shift 1 1 0 2 0 8. Emphasis 1 3 9 1 0 Total of the Prefixed Verbs 67 98 124 11 1

67 + 98 +124 + 11 + 1 = 301

B. The Affixation Processes of the Prefix Re-

From the summary of the previous analysis, it can be concluded that there are two

types of morphological processes of the prefix re-. The first type is the affixation

processes that occur in English. In this first type, the prefix re- is attached to English

roots or the borrowed words which have been modified before. The second type is the

morphological processes that have occurred in donor languages. In this second type,

English borrowed and modified the results of the affixation processes.

The next analysis is to draw the morphological processes of the prefix re-. The

morphological processes of the prefix re- are required to illustrate the explanation in the

previous part of analysis in the form of affixation process. In order to do this analysis, it

is required to recheck the basic meanings of the roots and the prefixed verbs, the loan

words and their origins, the phonetic adaptation, and the extra meanings that the prefix

39

re- carries. In this way, it is easier to identify the affixation processes of the attachment of

the prefix re-. This analysis is based on Katamba’s theory on word (1993), Fasold and

Connor-Linton’s theory on linguistic borrowing, and Spencer’s theory on the nature of

words (1991). This analysis is also the application of the theory on affixation by

Szymanek (1989) and the theory on derivational morphemes by Katamba (1993).

The drawing of the affixation processes is fashioned to be easily understood. The

arrow in each morphological process can be read as ‘becomes’.

i. The Affixation Processes of the Roots of English Origin

In the analysis of data (1.a), (1.b), (1.c), (1.d), (1.e), (1.f), (1.g), (1.h), and (1.i), it

is known that the roots are all from English. Therefore, all the affixation processes of the

English roots and the prefix re- occur in English. The following morphological processes

describe the attachment of the prefix re- to the roots of English origin.

(1.a) rebook (App.1, no. 5. App.6, pp. 73)

re- + (English) book (V) ‘to book’ = (English) rebook (V) ‘to book again’

(1.b) rebreathe (App.1, no. 8. App.6, pp. 79)

re- + (English) breathe (V) ‘to breathe’ = (English) rebreathe (V) ‘to breathe

back’

(1.c) recut (App.1, no. 13. App.6, pp. 74)

re- + (English) cut (V) ‘to cut’ = (English) recut (V) ‘to cut again’

(1.d) remind (App.1, no. 38. App.6, pp. 72)

re- + (English) mind (V) ‘to cause to remember’ = (English) remind (V) ‘to cause

to remember’

40

(1.e) reshape (App.1, no. 50. App.6, pp. 79)

re- + (English) shape (V) ‘to shape’ = (English) reshape (V) ‘to shape, form again

or differently’

(1.f) reshoot (App.1, no. 51. App.6, pp. 79)

re- + (English) shoot (V) ‘to shoot a scene’ = (English) reshoot (V) ‘to shoot a

scene again or differently’

(1.g) rewire (App.1, no. 64. App.6, pp. 76)

re- + (English) wire (V) ‘to provide with wire’ = (English) rewire (V) ‘to wire

again’

(1.h) reword (App.1, no. 65. App.6, pp. 77)

re- + (English) word (V) ‘to put into words’ = (English) reword (V) ‘to put into

different words’

(1.i) rewrite (App.1, no. 67. App.6, pp. 77)

re- + (English) write (V) ‘to write’ = (English) rewrite (V) ‘to write differently’

From the drawing of the affixation processes above, it is identified that the prefix

re- is attached in front of the roots. The prefix re- takes the roots book, breathe, cut,

mind, shape, shoot, wire, word, and write to produce the prefixed verbs rebook,

rebreathe, recut, remind, reshape, rewire, reword, and rewrite. Because the category of

the roots is still the same as the category of the prefixed verbs, it is clear that the prefix

re- does not affect the category of the roots. However, it gives additional meanings to the

roots; except for the prefixed verb remind where the prefix re- functions to emphasize the

meaning of the root mind.

41

ii. The Affixation Processes of the Verbs of Latin Origin

In the analysis of data (2.a), (2.b), (2.c), (2.d), (2.e), (2.f), (2.g), (2.h), (2.i), and

(2.j), it is identified that the verbs were derived from Latin origin. The following

morphological processes illustrate the affixation processes of the prefix re-.

(2.a) recap (App.2, no. 13. App.6, pp. 76)

(Latin) cappa (English) cap (V) ‘to protect with a cap’

re- + (English) cap (V) = (English) recap (V) ‘to change the cap’

(2.b) recombine (App.2, no. 19. App.6, pp. 73)

(Latin) combinare (English) combine (V) ‘to combine things’

re- + (English) combine (V) = (English) recombine (V) ‘to combine things again’

(2.c) recommend (App.2, no. 20. App.6, pp. 72)

(Latin) re- + (Latin) commendare ‘commit to the care of’ = (Latin) recommendāre

(Latin) recommendāre (English) recommend (V) ‘to commend’

(2.e) recycle (App.2, no. 30. App.6, pp. 73)

(Latin) cyclus (English) cycle (V) ‘to pass through a cycle’

re- + (English) cycle (V) = (English) recycle (V) ‘to convert to be reusable’

(2.f) rehabilitate (App.2, no. 50. App.6, pp. 80)

(Latin) re- + (Latin) habilitāre ‘to enable’ = (Latin) rehabilitāre

(Latin) rehabilitāre (English) rehabilitate (V) ‘to habilitate back’

(2.g) repress (App.2, no. 82. App.6, pp. 81)

(Latin) re- + (Latin) premere ‘to press’ = (Latin) reprimere

42

(Latin) reprimere (Latin) repressus (past form)

(Latin) repressus (English) repress (V) ‘to subdue, prevent’

From the illustration of the morphological processes above, it is identified that the

prefix re- is attached in front of the roots or loan words. English borrowed the roots cap,

combine, cycle from Latin, and then they are attached to the prefix re- to produce the

prefixed verbs recap, recombine, and recycle. Therefore, the affixation processes for

those three verbs occur in English. Because the category of the borrowed roots is still the

same as the category of the prefixed verbs, it is clear that the prefix re- does not affect the

category of the roots. However, it gives additional meanings to the roots and produces a

meaning shift in the verb recycle. While in the case of recommend, rehabilitate, and

repress, it is identified that English borrowed the results of the affixation processes which

have occurred in Latin.

iii. The Affixation Processes of the Verbs of French Origin

In the analysis of data (3.a), (3.b), (3.c), (3.d), (3.e), (3.f), (3.g), (3.h), (3.i), and

(3.j), it is identified that the verbs were borrowed from French origin. The following

morphological processes describe the affixation processes of the prefix re-.

(3.a) reclaim (App.3, no. 22. App.6, pp. 81)

(Latin) re- ‘back’ + (Latin) clamare ‘to shout’ = (Latin) reclamare ‘to cry out

against’

(Latin) reclamare (French) reclamer

(French) reclamer (English) reclaim (V) ‘to claim back against’

(3.a) reclaim (App.3, no. 22. App.6, pp. 81)

(Latin) clamare (English) claim (V) ‘to claim’

43

re- + (English) claim = (English) reclaim (V) ‘to claim back’

(3.b) reconfirm (App.3, no. 29. App.6, pp. 73)

(French) confermer (English) confirm (V)

re- + (English) confirm (V) = (English) reconfirm (V) ‘to confirm again’

(3.c) redeliver (App.3, no. 36. App.6, pp. 80)

(French) delivrer (English) deliver (V)

re- + (English) deliver (V) = (English) redeliver (V) ‘to deliver again or back’

(3.d) redevelop (App.3, no. 39. App.6, pp. 78)

(French) développer (English) develop (V)

re- + (English) develop (V) = (English) redevelop (V) ‘to develop again or

differently’

(3.e) reform (App.3, no. 53. App.6, pp. 76)

(Latin) re- ‘back’ + (Latin) formare ‘to form, shape’ = (Latin) reformare

(Latin) reformare (French) reformer

(French) reformer (English) reform (V) ‘to change the form’

(3.e) reform (App.3, no. 54. App.6, pp. 74)

French (former) English form (V) ‘to form’

re- + (English) form = (English) reform (V) ‘to form again’

(3.g) remove (App.3, no. 74. App.6, pp. 81)

(Latin) re- ‘back’ + (Latin) movere ‘to move’ = (Latin) removere ‘to move back’

(Latin) removere (French) remov

44

(French) remov (English) remove (V) ‘to take away’

(3.i) resolve (App.3, no. 100. App.6, pp. 72)

(Latin) re- + (Latin) solvere ‘to untie’ = (Latin) resolvere

(Latin) resolvere (French) resolver

(French) resolver (English) resolve (V) ‘to solve’

From the drawing of the affixation processes above, it is identified that the prefix

re- is attached in front of the roots or loan words. English borrowed the roots confirm,

deliver, develop from French, and then they are attached to the prefix re- to produce the

prefixed verbs reconfirm, redeliver, and redevelop. Therefore, the affixation processes for

those three verbs occur in English. Because the category of the borrowed roots is still the

same as the category of the prefixed verbs, it can be concluded that the prefix re- does not

affect the category of the roots. However, it gives additional meanings to the roots. While

in the case of reclaim, reform, remove, and resolve, it is identified that English took the

results of the affixation processes which occurred in Latin via French. In addition, it is

also noted that the morphological construction of reclaim and reform contains ambiguity.

iv. The Affixation Processes of the Roots of Norse and Greek Origins

In the analysis of data (4.a), (4.b), (4.c), (4.d), (4.e), (4.f), (4.g), (4.h), (4.i), (4.j),

(4.k), and (5.a), it is identified that the roots were taken from Norse; except for (5.a)

which was derived from Greek. The following morphological processes describe the

attachment of the prefix re- to the roots of Norse origin and Greek origin.

(4.a) recall (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

(Norse) kalla (English) call (V)

45

re- + (English) call (V) = (English) recall (V) ‘to order to return’

(4.b) recast (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 76)

(Norse) kasta (English) cast (V) ‘to assign (as an actor) to a role’

re- + (English) cast (V) = (English) recast (V) ‘to cast differently’

(4.c) recross (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 74)

(Norse) kross (English) cross (V)

re- + (English) cross (V) = (English) recross (V) ‘to cross again’

(4.e) rehang (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 78)

(Norse) hanga (English) hang (V)

re- + (English) hang (V) = (English) rehang (V) ‘to hang again or differently’

(4.g) rerun (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

(Norse) rinna (English) run (V)

re- + (English) run (V) = (English) rerun (V) ‘to show or perform again’

(4.j) resound (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 72)

(Norse) suner (English) sound (V) ‘to emit sound’

re- + (English) sound (V) = (English) resound (V) ‘to sound’

(4.k) retake (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 80)

(Norse) taka (English) take (V)

re- + (English) take (V) = (English) retake (V) ‘to take back or again’

46

(5.a) reecho (App.5, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 74)

(Greek) ēkhō (English) echo (V)

re- + (English) echo (V) = (English) reecho (V) ‘to echo again’

From the illustration of the affixation processes above, it is identified that the

prefix re- is attached in front of the roots or loan words. English borrowed the roots call,

cast, cross, hang, run, sound, take from Norse, and echo from Greek. The borrowed roots

are then attached to the prefix re- to produce the prefixed verbs recall, recast, recross,

rehang, rerun, resound, retake, and reecho. The affixation processes for the borrowed

verbs from Norse and Greek origins occur in English. For the reason that the category of

the borrowed roots is still the same as the category of the prefixed verbs, it can be

concluded that the prefix re- does not affect the category of the roots. However, it gives

additional meanings to the roots; except for the prefixed verbs recall, rerun, and resound

where the prefix re- shifts the meanings of the roots (call and run) and emphasizes the

meaning of the root sound.

To summarize, for the affixation processes that occur in English, the prefix re-

can only take English roots because the prefix re- cannot be directly attached to the loan

roots to produce English verbs. It means that English borrowed and modified the roots

first before they are attached to the prefix re-. While for the morphological processes that

have occurred in donor languages, it is identified that English borrowed the result of the

affixation processes. However, English did not always take the loan words from the

languages where the words were created. For example, English borrowed French words

which underwent the affixation processes in Latin, like in (3.a), (3.e) (3.g), and (3.i). In

47

addition, the prefix re- is a derivational morpheme which can change the meanings of the

roots without altering the category of the roots. However, the prefix re- can also

emphasize the meanings of the roots. The number of English borrowings, types of the

affixation processes, and meanings is provided in the table below. The column of ‘Roots

Only’ is for the affixation processes that occur in English, while the column of ‘Results

of Affixation’ is for the morphological processes that have occurred in other languages.

Table 2.1

Borrowed Items Meanings Types of Borrowing Roots

Only Results of Affixation

Extra Meanings

Emphasis Meaning Shift

1. Borrowing from Latin

89 9 94 3 1

2. Borrowing from Latin via French

_ 18 11 7 _

3. Borrowing from French

106 _ 104 2 _

4. Borrowing from Norse

11 _ 8 1 2

5. Borrowing from Greek

1 _ 1 _ _

C. The Identification of Similarities and Changes of Meanings

From the morphological analysis of the attachment of the prefix re-, it is revealed

that the prefix re-, as one of derivational bound morphemes, carries six extra meanings in

the affixation processes and it can function to shift the meaning of a root. These extra

meanings and meaning shifts are the changes of meanings. However, the prefix can

emphasize the meaning of a root as well, so that the meaning of the prefixed verb is

similar to the meaning of its root.

48

The next analysis is to compare and contrast the semantic values of the basic

meanings of the roots and the prefixed verbs in order to identify the similarities and

changes of meanings in the prefixed verbs. The theory on semantic features by Radford,

Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer (1999) will be used to accomplish the analysis.

In order to do this analysis, the roots and the prefixed verbs, together with their basic

meanings, will be placed in a table. Hence, it will be easier to compare, contrast, and

analyze the semantic values of the meanings. The analysis will begin with the comparison

of meanings of the prefixed verbs which emphasize the meanings of the roots, then

continue with those which undergo the meaning shift of the roots and those which contain

the extra meanings that the prefix re- carries in the affixation processes.

i. The Similarities of the Meanings in the Prefixed Verbs

In the morphological analysis of data (1.d), (2.c), (2.d), (3.i), and (4.j), it is

identified that the prefix re- in those verbs does not add or shift the meanings of the roots.

The function of the prefix is to emphasize the meanings of the roots. Therefore, there are

no significant changes in the meanings of the prefixed verbs. From the 301 prefixed

verbs, 14 prefixed verbs emphasize the meanings of the roots. The following semantic

values identify the similarities of the meanings of the roots and the prefixed verbs:

(1.d) remind (App.1, no. 38. App.6, pp. 72)

mind remind Meaning used to urge someone to

remember or take care to bring about something (McKean, 2005: 1078)

cause (someone) to remember someone or something (McKean, 2005: 1412)

Semantic values [+ to urge someone to remember or take care]

[+ to cause to remember]

49

There is no significant difference in the basic meanings of the root and the

prefixed verb. Both the root and the prefixed verb share the same basic meaning cause or

urge someone to remember something. Thus, both the root and the prefixed verb share

similar semantic values.

(2.c) recommend (App.2, no. 20. App.6, pp. 72)

commend recommend Meaning present as suitable for

approval or acceptance; recommend (McKean, 2005: 341)

put forward (someone or something) with approval as being suitable for a particular purpose or role (McKean, 2005: 1415)

Semantic values [+ to commend] [+ to recommend] [+ for approval or acceptance]

[+ to commend] [+ to recommend] [+ particular purpose or role]

The only difference in the semantic values above lies on the value of [+ for

approval or acceptance] and [+ particular purpose or role]. However, this difference is not

significant in the basic meanings of the root and the prefixed verb. The semantic value [+

particular purpose or role] is the emphasis of the semantic value [+ for approval or

acceptance].

(2.d) recurve (App.2, no. 29. App.6, pp. 72)

curve recurve Meaning to move in or take the

shape of a curve (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 459)

to curve (something) backward or downward or become curved backward or downward (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1512)

Semantic values [+ to curve] [+ to recurve]

[+ to curve] [+ to recurve]

50

Judging from the basic meanings, there is no significant dissimilarity between the

root and the prefixed verb. In other words, the root and the prefixed share the same

semantic values.

(3.i) resolve (App.3, no. 100. App.6, pp. 72)

solve resolve Meaning to find a solution to (The

American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1716)

settle or find a solution to (a problem, dispute, or contentious matter) (McKean, 2005: 1441)

Semantic values [+ to solve] [+ to find a solution]

[+ to settle or find a solution]

The meaning of the root solve is synonymy with the meaning of the prefixed verb

resolve. Therefore, both the root and the prefixed verb share similar semantic values.

(4.j) resound (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 72)

sound resound Meaning emit sound (McKean,

2005: 1619) fill a place with sound; be loud enough to echo (McKean, 2005: 1442)

Semantic values [+ to emit sound] [+ sound]

[+ to fill with sound] [+ sound] [+ loud enough to echo]

Judging from the semantic values of the root and the prefixed verb, it is obvious

that the prefix re- in the prefixed verb emphasizes the meaning of the root. The semantic

values [+ to fill with sound] and [+ loud enough to echo] in the prefixed verb are the

emphasis of the semantic value [+ to emit sound] in the root.

revenge (App.3, no. 120. App.6, pp. 72)

avenge revenge Meaning inflict harm in return for

(an injury or wrong done to oneself or another) (McKean, 2005: 109)

hurt or harm on someone for an injury or wrong done to oneself (McKean, 2005: 1449)

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Semantic values [+ to harm] [+ injury or wrong done to oneself]

[+ to harm] [+ injury or wrong done to oneself]

There is no significant difference in the basic meanings of the root and the

prefixed verb. Both the root and the prefixed verb share the same basic meaning inflict

harm on someone for an injury or wrong done to oneself. Thus, both the root and the

prefixed verb share the same semantic values.

research (App.3, no. 96. App.6, pp. 72)

search research Meaning try to find something by

looking or otherwise seeking carefully and thoroughly (McKean, 2005: 1528)

investigate systematically; discover the facts by investigation for use in (a book, program, etc) (McKean, 2005: 1439)

Semantic values [+ to find something] [+ looking or seeking carefully and thoroughly]

[+ to investigate] [ + to discover the facts] [+ systematically]

There are actually no significant changes in the basic meanings of the root and the

prefixed verb even though the root has different semantic values from the prefixed verb.

However, the different semantic values still become the proof that the prefix re- in the

prefixed verb emphasizes the meaning of the root. Both semantic values [+ to investigate]

and [+ to discover the facts] are the emphasis of the semantic value [+ to find something],

while the semantic value [+ systematically] is the emphasis of the semantic value [+

looking or seeking carefully and thoroughly].

retrench (App.3, no. 113. App.6, pp. 72)

trench retrench Meaning to make a cut in; carve

(The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1716)

to cut down; reduce, to curtail expenses; economize (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1541)

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Semantic values [+ to carve] [+ to make a cut]

[+ to cut down] [+ to reduce] [+ to economize]

The only difference in the semantic values above lies on the value [+ to

economize] that the prefixed verb has but the root does not have. However, the basic

meanings of the root and the prefixed verb are still similar in that the meanings are about

carving and cutting. The meaning of the prefixed verb develops in the economy field, but

this development is not due to the affixation of prefix re- to the root. The prefix re- still

functions to emphasize the meaning of the root.

From the analysis of semantic values above, it is discovered that the semantic

values of the root and the prefixed verb in each table are similar, although slight

differences arise. It means that the prefix does not change the basic meanings of the roots.

Therefore, the prefixed verbs retain the meanings of the roots, with some sense to force

the action described in the meanings of the roots. This sense of forcing that becomes the

slight differences in the semantic values of the roots and the prefixed verbs. For this

reason, it is clear that in the affixation processes, the prefix re- functions to emphasize the

meanings of the roots.

ii. The Meaning Shifts of the Prefixed Verbs from the Roots

In the morphological analysis of data (2.e), (4.a), and (4.g), it is identified that the

prefix re- in those verbs shifts the meanings of the roots. It is obvious that, in this case,

the function of the prefix re- is not to add an extra meaning or to emphasize the meanings

of the roots, but to develop the meanings of the roots in the prefixed verbs. For this

reason, significant changes occur in the meanings of the prefixed verbs. From the 301

53

prefixed verbs, there are only 4 prefixed verbs which shift the meanings of the roots. The

following semantic values identify the meanings shifts of the roots:

(2.e) recycle (App.2, no. 30. App.6, pp. 73)

cycle recycle Meaning to pass through a cycle

(McKean, 2005: 420) convert (waste) into reusable material (McKean, 2005: 1417)

Semantic values [+ passing through] [+ cycle] [- convert] [- reusable material]

[+ convert] [+ reusable material]

The basic meaning of the root to cycle is to pass through a cycle (McKean, 2005:

420). However, as seen from the semantic values, the basic meaning of the prefixed verb

hints about converting something into reusable materials. For this reason, the meaning of

the root is shifted in the meaning of the prefixed verb.

(4.a) recall (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

call recall Meaning cry out to (someone) in

order to summon them or attract their attention (McKean, 2005: 243)

officially order (someone) to return to a place (McKean, 2005: 1412)

Semantic values [+ to call] [+ to attract] [- official]

[+ to call] [+ official] [+ to return]

From the semantic values, the meaning of the root does not have [+ official], in

which it means that to call is less official. On the other hand, the meaning of the prefixed

verb includes the values [+ official] and [+ to return] which mean that to recall is more

official and it entails the expectation of the return of someone. Hence, it is clear that the

meaning of the root is shifted in the meaning of the prefixed verb.

54

(4.g) rerun (App. 4, pp. 72. App.6, pp. 73)

run rerun Meaning move at a speed faster

than a walk, never having both or all the feet on the ground at the same time (McKean, 2005: 1483)

show or perform (something, esp. a television program) again (McKean, 2005: 1439)

Semantic values [+ to move faster] [- feet on the ground at the same time]

[+ to show or perform] [+ again]

The basic meaning of the root is very different from the basic meaning of the

prefixed verb, as described in the semantic values. The semantic values [+ to move faster]

and [- feet on the ground at the same time] do not have any connection with the semantic

values [+ to show or perform] and [+ again] although the basic meanings are related

etymologically. For this reason, it can be concluded that the prefix re- shifts the meaning

of the root.

reflag (App.1, no. 19. App.6, pp. 73)

flag reflag Meaning mark (an item) for

attention or treatment in a specified way (McKean, 2005: 638)

change the national registry of (a ship) (McKean, 2005: 1423)

Semantic values [+ to mark] [+ attention or treatment in a specified way]

[+ to change] [+ national registry]

The basic meaning of the root to flag is to mark (an item) for attention or

treatment in a specified way (McKean, 2005: 638). However, as seen from the semantic

values, the basic meaning of the prefixed verb hints about changing the national registry

of something, typically a ship. For this reason, the meaning of the root is shifted in the

meaning of the prefixed verb.

55

From the analysis of semantic values of the meaning shift of the roots above, it is

identified that the semantic values of the roots and the prefixed verbs are dissimilar. It

means that the meanings of the roots cannot determine the meanings of the prefixed

verbs. Therefore, the meanings of the prefixed verbs cannot be determined

compositionally. It is clear that in the affixation processes, the prefix re- functions to shift

the meanings of the roots.

iii. The Extra Meanings of the Prefix Re- in the Prefixed Verbs

From the previous analysis on the origins of the prefix re- and its morphological

processes, it is identified that the prefix re- carries an extra meaning when the affixation

occurs. There are six different additional meanings, they are: (1) ‘again’ (115 verbs), (2)

‘redo (something) differently in order to change’ (55 verbs), (3) ‘again or redo

(something) differently in order to change’ (61 verbs), (4) ‘back or again’ (46 verbs), (5)

‘back against’ (5 verbs), and (6) ‘back or away’ (1 verb). The following semantic values

identify each of the six different extra meanings of the prefix re-:

(2.b) recombine (App.2, no. 19. App.6, pp. 73)

combine recombine Meaning To bring into a state of

unity; merge (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 377)

to combine (things) again (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1510)

Semantic values [+ to combine] [+ to combine] [+ again]

In the semantic values above, the prefixed verb differs from the root in the value

[+ again]. For this reason, it is obvious that the prefixed verb has an extra meaning

‘again’ which the prefix re- carries in the affixation process.

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(1.a) rebook (App.1, no. 5. App.6, pp. 73)

book rebook Meaning reserve (accommodations,

a place, etc.); buy (a ticket) in advance (McKean, 2005: 193)

book the same accommodations, seat, ticket, etc. (McKean, 2005: 1412)

Semantic values [+ to reserve or buy] [+ to book] [+ the same thing(s)]

From the semantic values of the prefixed verb, it is already obvious that the prefix

re- adds an extra meaning again in the affixation process since the prefixed verb has a

value which indicates the repetition of the action to book, the value is [+ the same

thing(s)].

(1.i) rewrite (App.1, no. 67. App.6, pp. 77)

write rewrite Meaning mark (letters, words, or

other symbols) on a surface, typically paper, with a pen, pencil, or similar implement (McKean, 2005: 1941)

write (something) again so as to alter or improve it (McKean, 2005: 1451)

Semantic values [+ to mark with tools] [+ to write] [+ again] [+ to alter or improve]

There are two differences in the semantic values of the prefixed verb that the root

does not have, they are [+ again] and [+ to alter or improve]. The meaning of the prefixed

verb indicates the repetition of the action to write, but with the purpose to change the

writing. Hence, it can be concluded that the prefix re- adds an extra meaning ‘redo

(something) differently in order to change’ in the meaning of the prefixed verb. In

addition, the semantic value [+ to mark with tools] is synonymy with the semantic value

[+ to write].

57

(3.e) reform (App.3, no. 53. App.6, pp. 76)

form reform Meaning bring together parts or

combine to create (something) (McKean, 2005: 661)

make changes in (something, typically a social, political, or economical institution or practice) in order to improve it (McKean, 2005: 1424)

Semantic values [+ to combine to create] [+ to make changes] [+ to improve]

Judging from the semantic values, it is clear that the prefixed verb basically

means making changes to improve. Thus, the basic meaning of the root is repeated in the

basic meaning of the prefixed verb, with a purpose to change and improve.

(1.e) reshape (App.1, no. 50. App.6, pp. 79)

shape reshape Meaning to give a particular form;

create (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1659)

to shape, form, or organize again or anew (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1535)

Semantic values [+ to give a particular form] [+ to create]

[+ to shape] [+ again or anew]

The only difference of the basic meanings is shown in the value [+ again or

anew]. Hence, it is clear that the prefixed verb has an extra meaning which is carried by

the prefix re- in the affixation process. The extra meaning is ‘again or redo (something)

differently in order to change’.

(1.f) reshoot (App.1, no. 51. App.6, pp. 79)

shoot reshoot Meaning film or photograph (a

scene, film, etc.) (McKean, 2005: 1567)

shoot (a scene of a film) again or differently (McKean, 2005: 1140)

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Semantic values [+ to film or photograph] [+ a scene, film]

[+ to shoot] [+ a scene, film] [+ again or differently]

With the idea that the value [+ to film or photograph] is synonymy with the value

[+ to shoot], the only semantic value which differentiates the basic meanings is shown in

the value [+ again or differently]. Therefore, it can be concluded that the basic meaning

of the prefixed verb contains the extra meaning ‘again or redo (something) differently in

order to change’.

(2.f) rehabilitate (App.2, no. 50. App.6, pp. 80)

habilitate rehabilitate Meaning to qualify oneself for a

post or office (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 810)

to restore the former rank, privileges, or rights of (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1521)

Semantic values [+ to qualify] [+ for a post or office]

[+ to restore] [+ former rank, privileges, or rights of]

From the semantic values, the meaning of the prefixed verb has [+ to restore],

where it means the action of restoring back or again. With the idea that the semantic

value [+ for a post or office] is related with the semantic value [+ former rank, privileges,

or rights of], it becomes clear that the meaning of the prefixed verb is about ‘qualifying

oneself back or again to the former rank, privileges, rights of, post, or office. Hence, it is

proved that the prefix re- adds an extra meaning ‘back or again’ in the meaning of the

prefixed verb.

(2.h) resurge (App.2, no. 90. App.6, pp. 80)

surge resurge Meaning to move in a billowing or

swelling manner in or as if in waves (The American

to rise again; experience resurgence; to sweep or surge back again (The

59

Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1807)

American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1539)

Semantic values [+ to surge] [+ in or as if in waves]

[+ to surge] [+ again] [+ back again]

By considering the meanings, both the root and the prefixed verb basically mean

to surge. However, the prefixed verb has an extra meaning ‘again’ and ‘back again’.

With the idea that the semantic value [+ in or as if in waves] is actually included in the

meaning of to surge, the different semantic values left are [+ back again] and [+ again].

Thus, it is revealed that the prefixed verb contains the extra meaning ‘back or again’.

(3.a) reclaim (App.3, no. 22. App.6, pp. 81)

claim reclaim Meaning assert that one has gained

or achieved (something) (McKean, 2005: 312)

retrieve or recover (something previously lost, given, or paid); obtain the return of (McKean, 2005: 1414)

Semantic values [+ to assert] [+ gaining or achieving something]

[+ to retrieve or recover] [+ to obtain the return] [+ something previously lost, given, or paid]

Judging from the meanings and the semantic values, it is obvious that the root is

the opposite of the prefixed verb. The root has the semantic values [+ to assert] and [+

gaining or achieving something] which are the opposite of the semantic values of the

prefixed verb [+ to retrieve or recover] and [+ to obtain the return of]. This contrary

verifies that the meaning of the prefixed verb is against the meaning of the root. With the

idea that the semantic value [+ something previously lost, given, or paid] indicates the

action of getting back or restoring, it is identified that the prefixed verb contains the extra

meaning ‘back against’ that is carried by the prefix re- in the affixation process.

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(3.h) reprove (App.3, no. 87. App.6, pp. 81)

prove reprove Meaning to establish the truth or

validity of by presentation of argument or evidence (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1458)

to voice or convey disapproval of; rebuke; to find fault with (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1992: 1532)

Semantic values [+ to establish the truth or validity] [+ presentation of argument or evidence]

[+ to voice or convey disapproval] [+ to find fault]

Judging from the meanings and the semantic values, it is clear that the root is the

opposite of the prefixed verb. The root has the semantic value [+ to establish the truth]

which is the opposite of the semantic values of the prefixed verb [+ to voice or convey

disapproval] and [+ to find fault]. This contrary indicates that the meaning of the prefixed

verb is against the meaning of the root. Therefore, it is proved that the prefixed verb

contains the extra meaning ‘back against’ so that the prefixed verb basically means to

prove back against’.

(3.g) remove (App.3, no. 74. App.6, pp. 81)

move remove Meaning change the place or

position of (McKean, 2005: 1109)

take away (something unwanted or unnecessary) from the position it occupies (McKean, 2005: 1433)

Semantic values [+ to change the place or position]

[+ to take] [+ away from the position the thing occupies]

From the semantic values, it is clear that the meaning of the prefixed verb has [+

away from the position the thing occupies], in which it means the action of putting

something away. The semantic values [+ to take] and [+ to change the place or position]

61

are already the part of the action to move. Thus, the only different semantic value left is

[+ away from the position the thing occupies]. For this reason, it is proved that the prefix

re- adds an extra meaning ‘back or away’ in the meaning of the prefixed verb.

To summarize, the similar semantic values of the roots and the prefixed verbs

reveal the similarities of the meanings of the roots and the prefixed verbs. Those

similarities indicate that the prefix re- does not change the basic meanings of the roots.

The slight differences that occur in the semantic values, however, reveal the sense of

forcing the meanings of the roots. In another case, the semantic values of the roots that

have significant differences from the semantic values of the prefixed verbs reveal the

meaning shifts. It means that the meanings of the roots cannot determine the meanings of

the prefixed verbs. For this reason, the meanings of the prefixed verbs cannot be

determined compositionally from the meanings of the roots or the extra meanings that the

prefix re- carries.

It is also revealed that the prefixed verbs which own the semantic value [+ again],

[+ the same thing(s)], or [+ to repeat] hold the extra meaning ‘again’, [+ again] and [+ to

improve] have the extra meaning ‘redo (something) differently in order to change’, [+

again] and [+ differently] contain the extra meaning ‘again or redo (something)

differently in order to change’, [+ to restore] or [+ back again] own the extra meaning

‘back or again’, [+ away] hold the extra meaning ‘back or away’. While for the prefixed

verbs which have the opposite meanings from the meanings of the roots, it is identified

that the prefixed verbs hold the extra meaning ‘back against’.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

This chapter is the summary for the analysis that has been accomplished in the

previous chapter. As written in the Problem Formulation section, this study is observing

three problems. The second paragraph answers the first problem which is about the

origins of the English verbs attached to the prefix re-. The third paragraph answers the

second problem that concerns on the affixation processes of the prefix re-. The fourth

paragraph answers the third problem which is about the identification of the similarities

and changes of meanings.

The origins of the English verbs attached to the prefix re- are English (67 verbs),

Latin (98 verbs), French (124 verbs), Norse (11 verbs), and Greek (1 verb).

There are two types of morphological processes of the affixation of the prefix re-.

The first type is the affixation processes that occur in English. The second type is the

morphological processes that have occurred in donor languages. For the first type, the

prefix re- can only take roots which have been adapted before because it cannot be

directly attached to the loan roots to produce English verbs. For the second type, English

borrowed the result of the affixation processes that have occurred in donor languages.

English did not always take the loan words from the languages where the words were

created. From the 301 prefixed verbs, there are only 27 prefixed verbs which undergo

morphological processes in donor languages. In addition, all the loan and borrowed

words are phonetically similar. The prefix re-, as a derivational morpheme, changes the

meanings of the roots without altering the category of the roots.

62

63

The changes of meanings occur because the prefix re- adds extra meanings or

shifts the meaning of the roots. The extra meanings that the prefix re- carries in the

affixation processes are: (1) ‘again’ (115 verbs), (2) ‘redo (something) differently in

order to change’ (55 verbs), (3) ‘again or redo (something) differently in order to

change’ (61 verbs), (4) ‘back or again’ (46 verbs), (5) ‘back against’ (5 verbs), and (6)

‘back or away’ (1 verb). The similarities of the meanings in the prefixed verbs occur

because the prefix re- emphasizes the meanings of the roots. There are 14 out of 301

prefixed verbs which emphasize the meanings of the roots. All of the extra meanings,

meaning shifts, and meaning emphasis have their own characteristic semantic values.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carstairs-McCharty, Andrew. An Introduction to English Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd., 2002.

Fasold, Ralph and Jeff Connor-Linton. An Introduction to Language and Linguistics.

New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Guralnik, David B. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English

Language. Oxford: Oxford & IBH, 1975. Hornby, A S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1974. Katamba, Francis. Morphology. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.

Matthews, Peter Hugoe. Morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

McKean, Erin. The New Oxford American Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Radford, Andrew, Martin Atkinson, David Britain, Harald Clahsen, and Andrew Spencer.

Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Soenantho, Olivia. “A Morphological Study of English Prefixes Mega-, Macro-, Poly-,

Multi-.” Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University, 2006. Spencer, Andrew. Morphological Theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1991.

Szymanek, Bogdan. Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1989.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Company, 1992. Traugott, Elizabeth Closs and Mary Louise Pratt. Linguistics for Students of Literature.

New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980. Wardaugh, Ronald. Introduction to Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.

64

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: List of the English Prefixed Verbs, English Roots, and Meanings of the Prefixed Verbs.

English Roots English Prefixed Verbs

Meanings

1. awaken 2. badge 3. bid 4. bind 5. book 6. bore 7. brand 8. breathe 9. broadcast 10. build 11. clothe 12. colonize 13. cut 14. do 15. draft 16. draw 17. enact 18. fill 19. flag 20. focus 21. frame 22. gather 23. glaze 24. hear 25. heat 26. heel 27. hire 28. house 29. insure 30. key 31. lay 32. light 33. live 34. load 35. make 36. man

reawaken rebadge rebid rebind rebook rebore rebrand rebreathe rebroadcast rebuild reclothe recolonize recut redo redraft redraw reenact refill reflag refocus reframe regather reglaze rehear reheat reheel rehire rehouse reinsure rekey relay relight relive reload remake reman

restore (a feeling or state) relaunch (a product) under a new name or logo bid again bind again book again bore out (something) again, esp. to widen change the brand of (a company) breathe in (exhaled air) broadcast or relay again build (something) again after damage dress again, esp. in different clothes colonize (a region or habitat) again remove further or different material from do (something) again or differently draft (something) again in a different way draw or draw up again or differently act out (a past event) fill (a container) again change the national registry of (a ship) focus on something new or different place in a new frame; frame differently collect or gather (something) again glaze ( a window) again hear or listen to again heat (something, esp. cooked food) again fit (a shoe) with a new heel hire (a former employee) again provide (someone) with new housing transfer to another insurer enter (text or data) again using a keyboard lay again or differently light (something) again live through experience or feeling again load (something) again make (something) again or differently equip again with new personnel

65

66

37. mark 38. mind 39. name 40. new 41. open 42. package 43. play 44. pine 45. roof 46. seed 47. sell 48. set 49. settle 50. shape 51. shoot 52. shuffle 53. start 54. stock 55. string 56. surface 57. tell 58. think 59. tread 60. tune 61. upholster 62. wake 63. wind 64. wire 65. word 66. work 67. write

remark remind rename renew reopen repackage replay repine reroof reseed resell reset resettle reshape reshoot reshuffle restart restock restring resurface retell rethink retread retune reupholster rewake rewind rewire reword rework rewrite

mark (something) again cause (someone) to remember give a new name to resume (an activity) after an interruption open or be opened again package again or differently play back (a recording) feel or express discontent provide with a new or repaired roof sow (an area of land) with seed again sell (something bought) to someone else set again or differently settle in a different place shape, form, or organize again or anew shoot (a scene, a film) again or differently reorganize or change the position of (members) start again or anew furnish new stock for; stock again fit new or different strings to put a new coating on or reform (a surface) relate or tell again or in a different form think again, esp. to make changes go back over (a path or one’s steps) tune (something) again or differently upholster with new materials waken again; become awake again wind (a tape or film) back to the beginning provide with new wiring put (something) into different words make changes, esp. to make more up to date write (something) again so as to improve it

Appendix 2: List of the English Prefixed Verbs and Meanings, English Borrowed Verbs, and Latin Loan Words.

Latin Loan Words English

Borrowed Verbs

English Prefixed Verbs

Meanings

1. absorbere 2. actus 3. actīvus 4. addirectus 5. affirmare 6. animare 7. ascendere

absorb act activate address affirm animate ascend

reabsorb react reactivate readdress reaffirm reanimate reascend

absorb again respond or behave in response to restore the ability to function change the address state again as a fact restore to life or consciousness ascend again or to a former position

67

8. assesser 9. assumere 10. basis 11. calculare 12. recantāre 13. cappa 14. capitalis 15. recapitulāre 16. captura 17. christianus 18. codex 19. combinare 20. recommendāre 21. committere 22. configurare 23. connectere 24. consignare 25. constituere 26. construere 27. convenire 28. creare 29. recurvāre 30. cyclus 31. decorare 32. designare 33. diale 34. directus 35. distribuere 36. distringere 37. dividere 38. reduplicāre 39. educare 40. eligere 41. emergere 42. exportare 43. facies 44. forestis 45. formatus 46. fundus 47. regenerāre 48. germinare 49. gradus 50. rehabilitāre 51. ignire 52. importare 53. incarnare

assess assume base calculate recant cap capitalize recapitulatecapture christen code combine recommend commit configure connect consign constitute construct convene create recurve cycle decorate design dial direct distribute district divide reduplicate educate elect emerge export face forest format fund regenerate germinate grade rehabilitate ignite import incarnate

reassess reassume rebase recalculate recant recap recapitalize recapitulate recapture rechristen recode recombine recommend recommit reconfigure reconnect reconsign reconstitute reconstruct reconvene recreate recurve recycle redecorate redesign redial redirect redistribute redistrict redivide reduplicate reeducate reelect reemerge reexport reface reforest reformat refund regenerate regerminate regrade rehabilitate reignite reimport reincarnate

consider or assess again take on or gain (something) again establish a new base level calculate again say that one no longer holds opinions replace a cap or caplike covering on capitalize back or again summarize or state again the points capture (a person or animal back) give a new name to put (something) into a different code combine (things) again commend with approval commit again configure (something) differently connect back together consign again or differently provide with a new structure build or form again after damage convene or cause to convene again create again curve or be curved convert (waste) into reusable material decorate again, typically differently design (something) again differently dial (a telephone number) again direct to a new place or purpose distribute differently or again divide the borders again or differently divide again or differently duplicate again educate or train differently elect (someone) to a further term emerge again export (imported goods) put a new facing on (a building) cover again with forest give or represent in a new format fund (a debt, etc.) again generate again germinate again grade again or differently restore the former rank or rights ignite or cause to ignite again import (exported materials) incarnate again

68

54. incorporare 55. inserere 56. installare 57. integrare 58. introducere 59. invenire 60. investīre 61. invigorare 62. lapsus 63. linea 64. locare 65. magister 66. militaris 67. moneta 68. mixtus 69. modulus 70. negotiari 71. nominare 72. normalis 73. organizāre 74. oriri 75. papyrus 76. partitio(n) 77. phrasis 78. platēa 79. planta 80. populare 81. positio(n) 82. repressus 83. producere 84. programma 85. radiare 86. rata 87. solea 88. strūtūra 89. submittere 90. resurgere 91. testū 92. translatus 93. transmittere 94. unire 95. validare 96. vegetare 97. vitalis 98. zōna

incorporate insert install integrate introduce invent invest invigorate lapse line locate master militarize mint mix mold negotiate nominate normalize organize orient paper partition phrase place plant populate position repress produce program radiate rate sole structure submit resurge test translate transmit unite validate vegetate vitalize zone

reincorporate reinsert reinstall reintegrate reintroduce reinvent reinvest reinvigorate relapse reline relocate remaster remilitarize remint remix remold renegotiate renominate renormalize reorganize reorient repaper repartition rephrase replace replant repopulate reposition repress reproduce reprogram reradiate rerate resole restructure resubmit resurge retest retranslate retransmit reunite revalidate revegetate revitalize rezone

incorporate something once more place (something) back install again (especially of software) restore (disparate elements) to unity bring (something) into effect again change (something) to be new put (the profit) back in the same place give new energy or strength to suffer a deterioration back or again replace the lining of move to a new place make a new master of (a recording) equip again for war make into new coin by reprocessing mix (something) again change the appearance or structure of negotiate again to change the terms nominate again, esp. for later term bring into a normal state once again organize differently change the focus or direction of apply new wallpaper partition or divide (something) again express (an idea) again or differently provide a substitute for plant again to a different pot or site introduce a population into (an area) place in a different position subdue by force; restrain or prevent produce again or differently program again emit (absorbed radiation) anew rate or assess (something) again put a new sole on (a shoe) organize or structure differently submit (something) again rise again; sweep or surge back again test (someone or something) again translate (a translation) back into its original language transmit again or to another receiver bring or come together again declare valid again produce a new growth of vegetation imbue (something) with new life change the zoning classification of

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Appendix 3: List of the English Prefixed Verbs and Meanings, English Borrowed Verbs, and French Loan Words.

French Loan Words

English Borrowed

Verbs

English Prefixed Verbs

Meanings

1. acointier 2. adjuster 3. aligner 4. aplier 5. apointer 6. apportioner 7. aprisier 8. arguer 9. armer 10. arangier 11. asembler 12. asigner 13. assurer 14. atachier 15. balancer 16. bote 17. rebondir 18. certifier 19. charger 20. eschec 21. reciter 22. reclamer 23. classe 24. collecter 25. colourer 26. compiler 27. composer 28. condicionner 29. confermer 30. considerer 31. convertir 32. conveier 33. counter 34. covrir 35. definer 36. delivrer 37. déployer 38. determiner 39. développer 40. desconter

acquaint adjust align apply appoint apportion appraise argue arm arrange assemble assign assure attach balance boot rebound certify charge check recite reclaim classify collect color compile compose condition confirm consider convert convey count cover define deliver deploy determine develop discount

reacquaint readjust realign reapply reappoint reapportion reappraise reargue rearm rearrange reassemble reassign reassure reattach rebalance reboot rebound recertify recharge recheck recite reclaim reclassify recollect recolor recompile recompose recondition reconfirm reconsider reconvert reconvey recount recover redefine redeliver redeploy redetermine redevelop rediscount

make (someone) acquainted again adjust to a changed environment align to a different position or state make another application or request appoint back or again assign or distribute again or differently appraise or assess again or differently argue again or repeatedly provide with new supply of weapons arrange (something) differently put (something) together again appoint (someone) to a different job do something to remove doubts, fears attach (something) in its former position balance again or restore the balance boot (a computer system) again bounce back after hitting something renew the certification of charge again, esp. to reenergize a batterycheck or verify again repeat aloud or declaim (a poem) obtain the return of something assign to a different class or category collect or gather again color again or differently compile (a program) again or differently compose again or differently condition again confirm again consider (something) again convert back to a former state convey to a former owner or place count again put a new cover or covering on define again or differently deliver again or in return; give back assign (troops) to a new place or task determine again or differently develop (something) again or differently discount discounted (something)

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41. descovrir 42. dobler 43. dresser 44. éditer 45. engigneor 46. entrer 47. examiner 48. façon 49. finer 50. fin 51. feniss 52. forger 53. reformer 54. former 55. freis 56. fouaille 57. refunder 58. forbiss 59. furniss 60. gaignier 61. groupe 62. hacher 63. imposer 64. enterrer 65. interpreter 66. eissue 67. joindre 68. launcher 69. relaxer 70. lais 71. marier 72. modelle 73. munter 74. remov 75. nombrer 76. offendre 77. ordre 78. passer 79. payer 80. poeple 81. possesser 82. pot 83. representer 84. presenter 85. preinte 86. proces

discover double dress editor engineer enter examine fashion finance fine finish forge reform form fresh fuel refund furbish furnish gain group hash impose inter interpret issue join launch relax lease marry model mount remove number offend order pass pay people possess pot represent present print process

rediscover redouble redress reedit reengineer reenter reexamine refashion refinance refine refinish reforge reform reform refresh refuel refund refurbish refurnish regain regroup rehash reimpose reinter reinterpret reissue rejoin relaunch relax release remarry remodel remount remove renumber reoffend reorder repass repay repeople repossess repot represent represent reprint reprocess

discover (something forgotten) again make greater, more intense or numerous dress (someone or something) again edit (a text or film) again redesign (a device or machine) come in or enter again examine again or further fashion (something) again or differently finance again, typically with a new loan remove impurities or unwanted elementsapply a new finish to (an object) forge (something) again or differently make changes to improve form again give new strength or energy to supply (a vehicle) with more fuel pay (money) back to a customer renovate or redecorate (something) furnish (something) again or differently obtain possession of (something) back reassemble groups back or again put (old ideas, material) again or anew impose (a law or regulation) back bury (a corpse) again or in a new place interpret (something) differently make a new or different supply join together again; reunite cause to start again with renewed vigor make lax or loose lease again marry again change the structure or form of mount (something) again, in particular take away (something) from its position number again or in a different order commit a further offense request to be made or served again pass again or in an opposite direction pay back (loans, debts, or money) repopulate (a place) retake possession of (something) put (a plant) in another pot state or point out (something) clearly present (something) again print again or in a different form process (something) again or differently

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87. reprover 88. puplier 89. pourchacier 90. porposer 91. record 92. relesser 93. rute 94. escale 95. cedule 96. recherche 97. servir 98. signer 99. sise 100. resolver 101. sorte 102. espeller 103. estat 104. restorer 105. restraindre 106. stile 107. soupleer 108. surveier 109. targuete 110. touchier 111. tracier 112. trahiner 113. retrencher 114. trier 115. retourner 116. unifier 117. user 118. valoir 119. avantpie 120. revengier 121. vestu 122. revue 123. visiter 124. revivifier

reprove publish purchase purpose record release route scale schedule research serve sign size resolve sort spell state restore restrain style supply survey target touch trace train retrench try return unify use value vamp revenge vest review visit revivify

reprove republish repurchase repurpose rerecord rerelease reroute rescale reschedule research reserve resign resize resolve resort respell restate restore restrain restyle resupply resurvey retarget retouch retrace retrain retrench retry return reunify reuse revalue revamp revenge revest review revisit revivify

voice or convey disapproval of publish a (text) again or in a new edition buy (something) back adapt for use in a different purpose record (sound, esp. music) again release (a recording or movie) again send (something) by a different route alter the scale of (something) change the time of (a planned event) investigate systematically serve again sign (a document) again alter the size of (something) settle or find a solution to (a problem) sort (something) again or differently spell (a word) again or differently state (something) again or differently bring back (something) hold back or keep in check; control rearrange in a new shape or layout provide with fresh supplies survey (a district) again direct toward a different target improve (a painting) by alterations go back over (the same route) teach (someone) again or differently cut down, curtail expenses, economize reenter a command again or differently come or go back to a place or person restore political unity to (a place, group) use again or more than once assess the value of (something) again give new or improved (form, structure) avenge on someone in return for (insult) invest again with power or ownership view or inspect visually again come back or to visit again give new life of vigor to

Appendix 4: List of the English Prefixed Verbs and Meanings, English Borrowed Roots, and Norse Loan Words. Norse Loan

Words English

Borrowed Roots

English Prefixed Verbs

Meanings

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1. kalla 2. kasta 3. kross 4. gipt 5. hanga 6. kynda 7. rinna 8. sæti 9. skinn 10. suner 11. taka

call cast cross gift hang kindle run seat skin sound take

recall recast recross regift rehang rekindle rerun reseat reskin resound retake

officially order (someone) to return to a place change the cast of (a theatrical production) cross or pass over again give (a gift one has received) to someone else hang (something) again or differently revive (something that has been lost) show or perform (something) again provide with a new or different seat replace or repair the skin of (something) fill a place with sound; loud enough to echo take back or again

Appendix 5: List of the English Prefixed Verb and Meaning, English Borrowed Root, and Greek Loan Words.

Greek Loan

Words English Borrowed

Roots English Prefixed

Verbs Meanings

1. ēkhō echo reecho echo again or repeatedly Appendix 6: List of the English Prefixed Verbs with the Similarities and

Changes of Meanings. Emphasizing Meaning Meaning react : respond or behave in a particular way in

response to something reassure : say or do something to remove doubts, fears recite : repeat aloud or declaim (a poem or passage) recommend : put forward with approval as being suitable recurve : curve or be curved backward or downward refine : remove impurities or unwanted elements

from (a substance) relax : make lax or loose remind : cause (someone) to remember someone or

something represent : state or point out (something) clearly research : investigate systematically resolve : settle or find a solution to (a problem) resound : fill a place with sound; be loud enough to

echo retrench : cut down, curtail expenses, economize revenge : inflict punishment on someone in return for

(injury or insult)

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Shifting Meaning recall : officially order (someone) to return to a place recycle : convert (waste) into reusable material reflag : change the national registry of (a ship) rerun : show or perform (something, esp. a television

program) again Extra Meanings (1) ‘again’ reabsorb : absorb again reacquaint : make (someone) acquainted with someone or

something again readjust : adjust or adapt to a changed environment or

situation reaffirm : state again as a fact reargue : argue again or repeatedly rearm : provide with new supply of weapons reassemble : put (something) together again reassess : consider or assess again reassume : take on or gain (something) again rebid : bid again rebind : give a new binding to (a book) rebook : book the same accommodations, ticket, seat reboot : boot (a computer system) again rebroadcast : broadcast or relay (a program or signal) again recalculate : calculate again, typically using different data recapitulate : summarize and state again the main points of recertify : renew the certification of recharge : charge again, esp. to reenergize a storage

battery recheck : check or verify again recollect : collect or gather again recolonize : colonize (a region or habitat) again recombine : combine (things) again recommit : commit again recondition : condition again reconfirm : confirm again, esp. to establish or support

more firmly reconsider : consider (something) again reconstitute : provide with a new structure reconvene : convene or cause to convene again recount : count again recreate : create again

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recross : cross or pass over again recut : remove further or different material from redial : dial (a telephone number) again rediscount : discount (something) that has been

discounted redouble : make greater, more intense, more numerous redress : dress (someone or something) again reduplicate : duplicate again reecho : echo again or repeatedly reedit : edit (a text or film) again reelect : elect (someone) to a further term or office reemerge : emerge again reenter : come in or enter again reexamine : examine again or further reexport : export (imported goods) refill : fill (a container) again reforest : replant with trees; cover again with forest reform : form again refuel : supply (a vehicle) with more fuel refund : fund (a debt, etc.) again regather : collect or gather (something) again regenerate : bring into renewed existence; generate again regerminate : germinate again regift : give (a gift one has received) to someone else reglaze : glaze ( a window) again rehear : hear or listen to again reheat : heat (something, esp. cooked food) again reignite : ignite or cause to ignite again reimport : import (goods processed or made from

exported materials) reincarnate : incarnate again reincorporate : make (something) a part of something else

once more reinstall : install again (used especially of software) reinsure : transfer (all or part of a risk) to another

insurer reintroduce : bring (something) into existence or effect

again reinvigorate : give new energy or strength to rejoin : join together again; reunite rekey : enter (text or other data) again using a

keyboard release : lease again relight : light (something) again relive : live through (an experience or feeling) again reload : load (something) again

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reman : equip again with new personnel remark : mark (something) again remarry : marry again remaster : make a new master of (a recording) remilitarize : equip again for war remix : mix (something) again remount : mount (something) again, in particular renominate : nominate again, esp. for subsequent term renormalize : bring into a normal state once again reoffend : commit a further offense reopen : open or be opened again reorder : request something to be made or served again repartition : partition or divide (something) again repeople : repopulate (a place) repine : feel or express discontent repopulate : introduce a population into (an area) represent : present (something) again reprogram : program again republish : publish a (text) again, esp. in a new edition reradiate : emit (absorbed radiation) anew rerate : rate or assess (something) again rerecord : record (sound, esp. music) again rerelease : release (a recording or movie) again reseed : sow (an area of land) with seed again resell : sell (something bought) to someone else reserve : serve again resign : sign (a document) again resole : put a new sole on (a shoe) restock : furnish new stock for; stock again resubmit : submit (something) again resupply : provide with fresh supplies resurface : put a new coating on or reform a surface resurvey : survey (a district) again retest : test (someone or something) again reunite : bring or come together again reuse : use again or more than once revalidate : declare valid again revalue : assess the value of (something) again revamp : give new and improved (form or structure) revegetate : produce a new growth of vegetation on

(disturbed or barren ground) revest : invest (someone) again with power or

ownership revitalize : imbue (something) with new life and vitality revivify : give new life of vigor to rewake : waken again; become awake again

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rewire : provide with new wiring (2) ‘redo (something) differently in order to change’ readdress : change the address realign : change or restore to a different or former

position or state rearrange : move (something) into a more acceptable

position or state reassign : appoint (someone) to a different job or task rebadge : relaunch (a product) under a new name or

logo rebrand : change the corporate image of (a company) recap : replace a cap or caplike covering on recast : change the cast of (a theatrical production) rechristen : give a new name to reclassify : assign to a different class or category recode : put (something) into a different code reconfigure : configure (something) differently redecorate : decorate again, typically differently redeploy : assign (troops) to a new place or task redesign : design (something) again in a different way redirect : direct (something) to a new place or purpose redraft : draft (something) again in a different way reeducate : educate or train (someone) in order to change

their beliefs or behavior reengineer : redesign (a device or machine) reform : make changes in (something) in order to

improve it reheel : fit (a shoe) with a new heel reinterpret : interpret (something) in a new or different

way reinvent : change (something) in order to be entirely

new relaunch : cause to start again with renewed vigor after a

period of inactivity reline : replace the lining of relocate : move to a new place and establish one’s

home or business there remint : make into new coin by melting down and

reprocessing remodel : change the structure or form of (something) remold : change or refashion the appearance, structure,

or character of rename : give a new name to

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renegotiate : negotiate again to change the terms reorganize : change the way (something) is organized reorient : change the focus or direction of reposition : place in a different position repot : put (a plant) in another pot repurpose : adapt for use in a different purpose reroof : provide with a new or repaired roof reroute : send (someone or something) by or along a

different route rescale : alter the scale of (something) reschedule : change the time of (a planned event) reseat : provide with a new or different seat resettle : settle or cause to settle in a different place reshuffle : reorganize or change the position of

(members) resize : alter the size of (something) reskin : replace or repair the skin of (something) restring : fit new or different strings to restructure : organize differently restyle : rearrange or remake in a new shape or layout retarget : direct toward a different target retouch : improve (a painting, a photograph, makeup)

by making slight additions or alterations reupholster : upholster with new materials revamp : give new and improved form, structure to reword : put (something) into different words rework : make changes to something, esp. in order to

make it more up to date rewrite : write (something) again so as to alter or

improve it rezone : change the zoning classification of (3) ‘again or redo (something) differently in order to change’ reapportion : assign or distribute (something) again or in a

different way reapply : make another application or request reappraise : appraise or assess (something) again or in a

different way rebase : establish a new base level for (a tax or price) rebore : bore out (something) again, esp. to widen reclothe : dress again, esp. in different clothes recolor : color again or differently recompile : compile (a program) again or differently recompose : compose again or differently

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reconsign : consign again or differently recover : put a new cover or covering on redefine : define again or differently redetermine : determine (something) again or differently redevelop : develop (something) again or differently redistribute : distribute (something) differently or again redistrict : divide again, esp. to give new boundaries redivide : divide (something) again or differently redo : do (something) again or differently redraw : draw or draw up again or differently reface : put a new facing on (a building) refashion : fashion (something) again or differently refinance : finance something again, typically with a new

loan at a lower rate of interest refinish : apply a new finish to (a surface or object) refocus : focus (attention or resources) on something

new or different reforge : forge (something) again or differently reformat : give a new format to; revise or represent in

another format reframe : place (a picture or photo) in a new frame;

frame or express (words or a plan) differently refresh : give new strength or energy to; reinvigorate;

revise or update (skills or knowledge) refurbish : renovate or redecorate (something) refurnish : furnish (something) again or differently regrade : grade again or differently rehang : hang (something) again or differently rehash : put (old ideas or material) into a new form

without a significant change or improvement rehouse : provide (someone) with new housing reinter : bury (a corpse) again, often in a different

place reissue : make a new supply or different form of (a

product) relay : lay again or differently remake : make (something) again or differently renumber : number again or in a different order repackage : package again or differently repaper : apply new wallpaper (to a room or wall) repass : pass (something) again; cause to pass again in

the opposite direction rephrase : express (an idea or question) in an alternative

way, esp. to change the detail or perspective of the original idea or question

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replace : provide or find a substitute for (someone or something)

replant : plant (something) again to a different pot/site reprint : print again or in a different form reprocess : process (something) again or differently reproduce : create something very similar to (something

else), esp. in a different medium or context reset : set again or differently reshape : shape, form, or organize again or anew reshoot : shoot (a scene of a film) again or differently resort : sort (something) again or differently respell : spell (a word) again or differently restart : start again or anew restate : state (something) again or differently resurface : put a new coating on or reform (a surface) retell : relate or tell again or in a different form rethink : think again about (something), esp. in order

to make changes to it retrain : teach (someone) new skills to do a different

job retransmit : transmit (data, a radio signal, or a broadcast

program) again or on to another receiver retry : reenter a command, esp. differently because

one has made an error the first time retune : tune (something) again or differently (4) ‘back or again’ reactivate : restore the ability to function or the

effectiveness of reanimate : restore to life or consciousness; revive reappoint : appoint (someone) again to a position they

have previously held reascend : ascend again or to a former position reattach : attach (something that has fallen or been

taken of) in its former position reawaken : restore (a feeling or state) rebalance : balance again or restore the correct balance to rebound : bounce back to the air after hitting something rebreathe : breathe in (exhaled air) rebuild : build (something) again after it has been

damaged or destroyed recapitalize : provide (a business) with more capital, esp.

by replacing debt with stock recapture : capture (a person or animal that has escaped)

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reconnect : connect back together reconstruct : build or form (something) again after it has

been damaged reconvert : convert back to a former state reconvey : convey to a former owner or place redeliver : deliver again or in return; give back rediscover : discover (something forgotten) again reenact : act out (a past event) refund : pay back (money), typically to a customer

who is not satisfied with good or service bought

regain : obtain possession or use of (something) again after losing it

regroup : (of troops) reassemble into organized groups, typically after being attacked or defeated

rehabilitate : restore the former rank, privileges, or rights of

rehire : hire (a former employee) again reimpose : impose (a law or regulation) again after a

lapse reinsert : place (something) back into its previous

position reintegrate : restore (disparate elements) to unity reinvest : put (the profit on a previous investment) back

into the same place rekindle : relight (a fire); revive (something that has

been lost) relapse : suffer a deterioration after a period of

improvement renew : resume (an activity) after an interruption repay : pay back (a loan, debt, or sum of money) replay : play back (a recording on tape, video, or film) repossess : retake possession of (something) when a

buyer defaults on payments repurchase : buy (something) back restore : bring back (a previous right, practice, custom,

or situation); reinstate resurge : rise again; sweep or surge back again retake : take back or again retrace : go back over (the same route) retranslate : translate (a translation) back into its original

language retread : go back over (a path or one’s steps) return : come or go back to a place or person reunify : restore political unity to (a place or group) review : view or inspect visually again

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revisit : come back or to visit again rewind : wind (a tape or film) back to the beginning (5) ‘back against’ recant : say that one no longer holds an opinion reclaim : retrieve or obtain the return of something repress : subdue by force; restrain or prevent reprove : voice or convey disapproval of restrain : hold back or keep in check; control (6) ‘back or away’

remove : take away (something) from the position it

occupies