A REPORT OF MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT - SPDMspdm.ac.in/SCGORANE-MONOGRAPH.pdf · artificial recharge areas in dhule district (m. s.) a report of minor research project file no. no. 23-360/07

INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDWATER AND

ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE AREAS IN DHULE

DISTRICT (M. S.)

A REPORT OF

MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT

File No. No. 23-360/07

Date: - 15/04/2008

SUBMITTED TO

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION,

WESTERN REGIONAL OFFICE,

GANESHKHIND, PUNE - 411007.

BY

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

MR. SUNIL C. GORANE

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

P.G. DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

S. P. D. M. ARTS, S. B. B. & S. H. D. COMMERCE AND S. M. A. COLLEGE, SHIRPUR, DIST. DHULE (M. S.) PIN-425405

2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my great pleasure to express sincere thanks to The Deputy Secretary,

University Grants Commission, Western Regional Office, Pune and the University

Grants Commission, New Delhi for giving me an opportunity to work on Minor

Research Project. I am highly obliged to Hon’ble. Tusharji Randhe, President, Kisan

Vidya Prasarak Sanstha, Shirpur and Dr. S. N. Patel, Principal, S.P.D.M. Arts, S. B. B.

and S. H. D. Commerce and S. M. A. Science College, Shirpur, Dist. Dhule for

providing facilities and reliving me time to time to complete this work. I am highly

indebted to Prin. Dr. Y. V. Patil, Head, Department of Geography, Kisan College,

Parola Dist. Jalgaon for his inspiring and persistent guidance.

I am thankful to Librarians of S.P.D.M. College, Shirpur, Kisan Arts,

Commerce and Science College, Parola, Z. B. Patil College Dhule, Jaikar Library,

University of Pune; Water and Land Management Institute, Aurangabad, Ground

Water survey and Development Agency Pune, Rajasthan University, Jaipur,

S.S.V.P.S.’s Late Dr. P. R. Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, and College of

Agriculture, Dhule who have permitted to use their valuable libraries.

I express my thanks to the Senior Geologist, Yogesh Pacchapurkar (Jr.

Geologist) Ground Water survey and Development Agency, Dhule and Director,

Ground Water survey and Development Agency, Pune for allowing me to study books,

maps, data etc. related to the study region. I must remember various officers of

Departments of Irrigation, Departments of Agriculture, M. S. E. D. Co. and Zilla

Parishd, Dhule who have provided me data regarding medium and minor irrigation

projects with valuable guidance.

I am thankful to Hon’ble. Suresh Khanapurkar (Retd. Sr. Geologist),

Hon’ble. Chaitram Pawar and Hon’ble. Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar has shown me

different approaches towards water conservation.

I am grateful to Vikram Agone and Yogesh Mahajan who have prepared the

maps using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Prof. Shrikant Mahajan and Prof. B. P.

Patil have helped me to complete tedious job of typing and setting. I express my

gratitude to Prof. Manisha Patil, , Dr. B. D. Patil, Dr. Shivaji Patil, Dr. R. J. Borase,

Dr. Mrs. P. P. Jangale, Prof. R. M. Wadile, Dr. P. Y. Magare and Prof. B. N. Girase

for their kind cooperation at various stages of the research. I am thankful to Prof. M. B.

Chavan (Chairman, BOS NMU, Jalgaon) for his expert advice.

I am also thankful to Prof. S. N. Shelar and Prof. V. M. Patil for careful proof

reading of manuscript. Prof. Dinesh B. Patil co-operated me to analyze data with the

help of statistical techniques. I am grateful to Mr. Prakash Pawar and his family for

their moral support in Dhule city.

My special thanks to Daksha Printers and Mr. Dhanraj Jamadar, Mumbai for

printing colorful maps.

I am highly indebted to my father Late C. D. Gorane and mother Smt.

Latabai C. Gorane for their kind blessings. I must mention here my special thanks to my

wife Archana, lovely daughters Shreya and Janhavi, son Madhav who stood with me in

my times of need and in the absence of whose co-operation this work could never have

been possible.

Place: Shirpur

Date:

Sunil Chunilal Gorane

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I-II

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IV-V

LIST OF TABLES VI-VII

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS VIII-IX

LIST OF APPENDICES X

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION XI

1 INTRODUCTION 1 – 17

2 ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

18 – 37

3 SURFACE AND GROUND WATER RESOURCES 38 – 62

4 IMPACT OF GEOMORPHIC FACTERS ON WATER RESOURCES IN DHULE DISTRICT

63 – 98

5 POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES 99 – 107

6 QUALITY, PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

108 – 136

7 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 137 – 152

PHOTOGRAPHS 153 – 166

BIBLIOGRAPHY 167 – 187

APPENDICES 188 – 213

* * * * * * * *

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS / MAPS

Sr. No. Fig. No. Illustration /Map Page No.

1 2.1 Dhule District : Location 19

2 2.2 Dhule District : Physiography 21

3 2.3 Dhule District : Geology 23

4 2.4 Dhule District : Drainage 29

5 2.5 Dhule District : Soil Types 32

6 2.6 Dhule District : Land Use/ Land Cover 35

7 3.1 Dhule District : Medium Irrigation Projects 43

8 3.2 Dhule District : Tehsil wise Well Density 56

9 3.3 Flow Chart for Groundwater Potential Zone Map 59

10 3.4 Dhule District : Groundwater Potential Zones 60

11 4.1 Dhule District : Slope 66

12 4.2 Dhule District : Lineaments 67

13 4.3 Dhule District : Lineament Density 68

14 4.4 Dhule District : Geomorphology 73

15 4.5 Dhule District : Location of Observation Wells 76

16 4.6 Hydrogeomorphic Section-I Part 1/4 78




20 4.10 Hydrogeomorphic Section-II Part 1/4 83




24 4.14 Hydrogeomorphic Section-III Part 1/5 88





29 4.19 Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV Part 1/2 95

30 4.20 Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV Part 2/2 96

31 4.21 Hydrogeomorphic Section-V 97

32 4.22 Hydrogeomorphic Section-VI 98

33 5.1 Dhule District : Morphological Classification 102

34 5.2 Flow Chart For Artificial Recharge Zones 104

35 5.3 Dhule District : Artificial Recharge Zones 107

36 6.1 Dhule District : PH 110

37 6.2 Dhule District : Electric Conductivity 111

38 6.3 Dhule District : Total Hardness 113

39 6.4 Dhule District : Fluoride 115

40 6.5 Dhule District : Sodium Absorption Ratio 117

41 6.6 Dhule District : Water Quality Index 120

42 6.7 Dhule District : Problems of Water Resources 125

43 6.8 Tehsil wise Frequency Curve of Annual Rainfall 128

44 6.9 River Linking No. 1 135

45 6.10 River Linking No. 2 135

LIST OF TABLES

Sr. No.

Table No.

Title of the Table Page No.

3 2.1 Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature at Dhule

25

4 2.2 Tehsil wise Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm) 26

5 2.3 Statistical Constants of Annual Rainfall 27

6 2.4 Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) at Dhule 28

7 2.5 Land use / Land Cover Pattern of Dhule District 35

8 3.1 Rivers at a glance – Dhule District 39

9 3.2 Salient Features of Medium Irrigation Projects in Dhule District

42

10 3.3 Tehsil wise distribution of Minor Irrigation Projects in Dhule District

45

11 3.4 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall 48

12 3.5 Yield and Utilization of Water Resources 49

13 3.6 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule District

51

14 3.7 Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule District

51

15 3.8 Agricultural water Requirement in Dhule District 52

16 3.9 Tehsil wise Live stock Water requirement in Dhule District

54

17 3.10 Tehsil wise Distribution of wells 56

18 3.11 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps 58

19 3.12 Groundwater Potential Zones of Dhule District 61

20 3.13 Tehsil wise Groundwater Assessment 62

21 4.1 Area Under Slope in Dhule District 66

22 4.2 Hydrological Properties of Rocks and Sediments 71

23 4.3 Hydrogeomorphic Units of Dhule District 74

24 5.1 Area Under Morphological Zones in Dhule District 101

25 5.2 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps 105

26 5.3 Area Under Recharge Zones in Dhule District 106

27 6.1 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. S. I., I. C. M. R. and W. H. O.

109

28 6.2 Ground water classification based on Electric Conductivity (EC)

111

29 6.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids 112

30 6.4 Distribution of Total Hardness 112

31 6.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate 113

32 6.6 Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride-bearing Water

115

33 6.7 SAR Hazard of irrigation water 116

34 6.8 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO Standards and Assigned Unit Weights

119

34 6.9 Number of Villages in Different Water Quality Index Classes

120

35 6.10 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water 122

36 6.11 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in Maharashtra

122

37 6.12 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years 127

38 6.13 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

131

39 6.14 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District 136

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photo No.

Titles of the Photographs Page No.

1 Partially developed columnar joints near Louki, Shirpur Tehsil 153

2 Deeply weathered hill along NH3 in Shirpur Tehsil 153

3 Deeply weathered hill with angular fragmentation near Sangvi village

153

4 Physical weathering through spheroidal exfoliation 154

5 Weathered parent rock along with sediment deposition. 154

6 Deposition of sand and yellow silt layers near Karvand village in Shirpur tehsil.

154

7 Granular disintegration of Deccan basalt 155

8 Layers of Black cotton soil, deposition of fine sand and yellow silt exposed during excavation for water conservation

155

9 Red bole layer exposed due to conversion of NH-3 into four lane highway in Shirpur tehsil.

155

10 Very pale Red bole layer exposed in the bed of Panzara river near Kudashi in Sakri tehsil.

156

11 Two tire Red bole layer in Satpura ranges along Bijasan ghat. 156

12 A thin layer of weathered rock with parent rock in dug well near Kodid village in Shirpur tehsil.

156

13 A lined well with weathered rock material. 157

14 Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river. 157

15 Board showing command and area under Submergence of Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river

157

16 Lower Panzara medium irrigation project near Akkalpada village in Dhule tehsil on the verge of completion.

158

17 Aner medium irrigation project near Mahadeo Dondwada village in Shirpur tehsil.

158

18 Kolhapur Type bund across Panzara river near Betavad 158

19 Loose boulder structure at Lamkani in Dhule tehsil 159

20 Cement bund constructed in Sakri tehsil. 159

21 Field pond constructed by Agriculture department in Dhule tehsil

159

22 Field pond at Kundane village in Dhule tehsil 160

23 Continuous contour trenches constructed by Forest department in Shirpur tehsil

160

24 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani cotton mill in Shirpur tehsil.

160

25 Well recharge at Bhatpura village under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

161

26 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

162

27

A cement bund constructed across a stream under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

162

28 Gabion structure constructed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

163

29 Dissected agricultural land reclaimed during deepening and widening of streams in Shirpur tehsil

163

30 Lift irrigation from water conservation project constructed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

163

31 Joint forest management through Cooperative Society in Lamkani village, Dhule tehsil.

164

32 Deeping and widening of stream near Warul village in Shindkheda tehsil.

164

33 A Sign board showing details of water conservation work completed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

164

34 Continuous contour trenches for water conservation and consequent vegetative growth in Lamkani, Dhule tehsil

165

35 Rich forest growth due to soil and water conservation by efforts of local people near Baripada, Sakri tehsil.

165

36 Earthen bund and sediment deposition reclaimed for agriculture in Baripada village, Sakri tehsil.

165

37 A flex board displays details of conservation work and success story of Baripada village, Sakri tehsil.

166

38 Age old lined dug well dried up due to decreased water table near Kurkhali village, Shirpur tehsil.

166

39 A lined dug well became dry due to decreased water table in Shirpur tehsil.

166

40 Percolation Tank , at Baripada. village, Sakri tehsil 167

41 A cement bund constructed at Baripada, Sakri tehsil. 167

LIST OF APPENDICES

Sr. No.

Appendix No. Title of the Appendix Page No.

1 I Questionnaire (Hydrogeomorphic Section of wells)

188

2 II Hydrogeomorphic Section-I 189

3 III Hydrogeomorphic Section-II 191

4 IV Hydrogeomorphic Section-III 193

5 V Hydrogeomorphic Section-IV 195

6 VI Hydrogeomorphic Section-V 196

7 VII Hydrogeomorphic Section-VI 197

8 VIII Results of Water Quality Analysis of Dhule Tehsil 198

9 IX Results of Water Quality Analysis of Sakri Tehsil 200

10 X Results of Water Quality Analysis of Shindkheda Tehsil

205

11 XI Results of Water Quality Analysis of Shirpur Tehsil

208

12 XII Yield calculations for Dhule Tehsil 210

13 XIII Yield calculations for Sakri Tehsil 211

14 XIV Yield calculations for Shindkheda Tehsil 212

15 XV Yield calculations for Shirpur Tehsil 213

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1. µohm/cm Micron Ohm per Centimeter 2. b.g.l. Below Ground Level 3. BIS Bureau of Indian Standards 4. CCT Continuous Contour Trench 5. CGWB Central Ground Water Board 6. cum/day Cubic Meter per Day 7. DEM Digital Elevation Model 8. DRM District Resource Map 9. EC Electric Conductivity 10. GIS Geographical Information System 11. GPS Global Positioning System 12. GSDA Groundwater Survey Development Agency 13. GSI Geological Survey of Indian 14. ha. hector 15. ham. hector meter 16. ICMR Indian Council of Medical Research 17. IMD India Meteorological Department 18. JFM Joint Forest Management 19. K. T. Weir Kolhapur Type Weir 20. Km. Kilometer 21. km/km2 Kilometer per square Kilometer 22. Km2 Square Kilometer 23. Km3 Cubic Kilometer 24. lit/hr Liter per Hour 25. lps. Liter per Second 26. m meter 27. M.C. ft. Million Cubic Feet 28. M. Cu. M. Million Cubic Meter 29. mg/l milligrams per liter 30. msl Mean Sea Level 31. oC Degree Centigrade 32. SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio 33. SOI Survey of India 34. sq. km. Square Kilometer 35. TCM Thousand Cubic Meter 36. TDS Total Dissolved Solids 37. TH Total Hardness 38. WALMI Water And Land Management Institute 39. WHO World Health Organization 40. WQI Water Quality Index

CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Water is overriding need of living beings of our planet. It also determines the socio-

economic development of the society. Air and water are the most vital components of life and

are the supportive systems of the world. There are several disciplines that deal with various

aspects of water. Hydrology is one of them. ‘Hydrology is the branch of scientific and

engineering discipline that deals with occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of

water on the earth (Han, Davei, 2010). According to P. Nag (2003), the science dealing with

the waters of the earth, their distribution on the surface and underground and the cycle

involving evaporation, precipitation, flow to the seas etc. is known as Hydrology. In the

broad sense, it is the study of water in all phases and includes hydraulics, the physics and the

chemistry of the water, meteorology and various other allied sciences. Another discipline

Hydrogeomorphology has been defined as, ‘An interdisciplinary science that focuses on the

interaction and linkage of hydrologic processes with landforms or earth materials and the

interaction of geomorphic processes with surface and subsurface water in temporal and

spatial dimensions (Sidle and Onda, 2004).’ Hydrogeology is one of the branches of the earth

science dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media.

Due to the increased trend of specialization by the end of 20th century, the branch like

‘Water Resource Geography’ has come up along with many other branches and sub branches.

As a result of technical development, increased use of water in different forms has led to

quantitative and qualitative deterioration of water resources (Gurjar and Jat, 2008). Keeping

this in view, ‘Association of American Geographers’ (AAG) has included Water Resource

Geography as an independent branch of Geography. Water Resource Geography is the study

of nature, spatial distribution, utilization and conservation of water on the earth. It consists of

all the phenomenon of hydrological cycle that passes through all the sphere hydrosphere,

atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere on the earth (Gurjar and Jat, 2008). H. J. De Blij and

Peter Muller (1993) considered Water Resource Geography as developed from Hydrology

and Physical Geography. Many Indian scholars such as Dakshinamoorti (1972), Nag and

Kathpalia (1972), K. L.Rao (1968), Suraj Bhan, Lakshmi Shukla and D. P. Nag have

contributed for the development of this branch. Due to the rapid changes and expansion of the

branches, it has included new fields such as quantitative and qualitative aspects of water,

water-borne problems, water management in flood and drought prone areas, study of

watershed, water conservation and artificial recharge (Gurjar and Jat, 2008).

Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due

to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure or surface tension. Water potential has proved useful

especially in understanding water movement within aquifers, soil, plants and animals.

Utilization of an aquifer implies the removal of sizable volumes of groundwater and it

changes the aquifer's natural recharge and discharge patterns. Water resources are sources of

water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial,

household, recreational, power generation, transportation and environmental activities.

Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water. Surface water is that which is available

in rivers, lakes or fresh water wetlands. Surface water is naturally replenished by

precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation,

evapotranspiration and sub-surface seepage. Hence the total quantity of water available at any

given time and space is an important consideration.

Water is an essential and vital component of biosphere. Usage of surface and

groundwater resources is being increased for drinking, irrigation and industrial purposes due

to rapid growth of population, urbanization, industrialization and agriculture activities. Hence

groundwater resources are under stress. India possesses diversity in its topography, geology

and climate which forms the varied geo-hydrological settings. The depth and type of the

aquifers determines the chemical composition of the groundwater. Quality of groundwater is

also influenced by anthropogenic factors (CGWB, 2010). There is a growing concern on the

deterioration of groundwater quality due to geogenic (natural) and anthropogenic activities.

Quality of water refers to the characteristics of water that will influence its suitability for a

specific use. Quality is defined by certain physical, chemical and biological characteristics of

water.

Drought is temporary, recurring natural disaster, which arises due to the lack of

precipitation and can bring significant economic losses. Droughts are observed in all the

climatic zones with different characteristics. It differs from aridity. Though, Maharashtra is

one of India's most prosperous states, recurring drought has maimed the state's economy,

agricultural, livelihoods of millions and death of livestock. Droughts have been a part of our

environment since the beginning of recorded history and survival of humanity may be

testimony only to its capacity to endure this climatic phenomenon.

The earth is often referred as the "blue planet" because water is widely distributed on

this planet as freshwater and salty water in the oceans and lithosphere. Hydrosphere includes

the total amount of water present in lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. About

1,384,120,000 km3. water is found in different forms in the hydrosphere of which, 97.39 %

found in the oceans and 2.61 % is as fresh water. The fresh water on the planet is also

distributed unevenly. Nearly 77.23 % fresh water on the earth’s surface is locked in the snow

caps and glaciers, 0.353% in rivers and lakes and 0.4 % of it occurs in the atmosphere

Groundwater up to depth 0 to 0.8 km. accounts 9.86 % freshwater and 12.35 % below 0.8

km. Soil moisture, aquatic minerals, atmosphere and living being account 1.67 %, 0.001, 0.04

and 0.003% of fresh water respectively.

1.2 SELECTION OF STUDY AREA:

Dhule district is selected as a study area on the basis of following unique features.

� Dhule district is located to the south of the Satpura ranges and north of Dhanora –

Galna hills, the offshoots of the Sahyadri ranges.

� Dhule district is the part of Deccan Trap and Tapi Valley which is filled with recent

alluvium.

� The district receives 592 mm of average annual rainfall. Hence the district belongs to

the drought prone area of Maharashtra.

� It has non-perennial rivers with discharge only during monsoon season.

� Depth of weathering varies from north to south and south to north i. e. from the crest of

mountain ranges to the river basins.

� The study area is characterized by numerous dykes and lineaments, which act as

carrier or barriers for groundwater.

� Agriculture is main occupation of the people and near about 70% of working

population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT:

The present project work deals with occurrence, potential, quality and problems of

water resources in Dhule district. Objectives of the project work are as follows:

� To assess the potential of groundwater.

� To assess the quality of groundwater.

� To study the problems of scarcity of drinking water.

� To find out the relationship between geological and geomorphological processes and

availability of groundwater.

� To aware the people regarding methods of artificial recharge.

� To suggest the potential areas for artificial recharge in the study area.

� To suggest different methods of artificial recharge.

1.4 SOURCES OF DATA:

Any kind of research work requires numerical data from various origins, from which

one may calculate, correlate various factors and draw conclusions. It is, therefore, essential to

collect the data related to the study area on which the research work is to be carried out.

Study of water resources in Dhule district requires two kinds of data i.e. primary and

secondary. Primary data includes information regarding water tables in the different seasons,

depth of wells, sources of drinking water, thickness of soil, alluvium, weathered profile and

hard rock. Photographs related to the alluvial deposition, depth of weathering, irrigation

projects, various measures of water conservation, tube wells and dug wells are taken to

support the primary data. Samples of water from various places were collected for chemical

analysis.

Topographic maps of Survey of India (SOI) forms the base for study any region from

geographic point of view. Most of the maps are prepared with the help of Topographic maps

e.g. location, relief, drainage, vegetation etc. Geological map of the study area published by

Geological Survey of India (GSI) is very useful for understanding geological formations,

lineaments, dykes etc. Groundwater Survey and Development Agency (GSDA), Dhule also

has provided valuable information and data regarding groundwater table, fluctuations of

water table, location of observation wells, quality of groundwater. The salient features of

medium, minor projects within the district were made available from various agencies such as

Zilla Parishad, Department of Irrigation and GSDA Dhule etc.

Intensive field work was carried out by the researcher in number of visits in the

months of May and June 2009. During this field work 114 dug wells and tube wells were

observed in six cross profile covering 493.3 km. distance. The research scholar has visited the

sites of Artificial Recharge to collect data for the research work. These sites are Priydarshiini

Sahkari Cotton Industry, Tande in Shirpur tehsil, Lamkani in Dhule tehsil and Baripada in

Sakri tehsil.

1.5 METHODOLOGY:

In order to attain the desired aims and objectives of the project works following methods

were adopted.

1.5.1 Literature Review:

It is necessary to take an overview of the research work related to the topic. The

investigator visited Jaykar Library University of Pune, Water and Land Management Institute

Aurangabad, Library of North Maharashtra University Jalgaon, Groundwater Survey and

Development Agency Dhule, Library of Z. B. Patil College Dhule. The literature regarding

irrigation and groundwater is made available in the libraries of Agriculture College, Dhule

and Directorate, Groundwater Survey and Development Agency, Pune. The investigator has

also gone through research journals, books, magazines, news papers and web sites for the

study of project work. It also proves useful as the recent development in the concerned topic.

While scanning the literature, the investigator has collected various kinds of

secondary data regarding population, area under crops, and area under irrigation number of

wells and tube wells, live stock population, salient features of various irrigation projects,

water conservation structures and climatic data as follows:

i. District Statistical Abstract

ii. Census Handbook

iii. Journals of well reputed research institutions

iv. Standard reference books

v. Reports published by Central and State Government Authorities

vi. Websites related to the research topic

vii. G.S.D.A., Dhule and Pune

viii. Department of Forest, Govt. of Maharashtra

ix. Dhule District Gazetteer

x. Irrigation Department, Zilha Parishad, Dhule

xi. Department of Agricultural, Govt. of Maharashtra

xii. S.O.I. Toposheet, Land Sat Imageries

xiii. India Meteorological Department, Pune

xiv. Water and Land Management Institute (WALMI), Aurangabad.

1.5.2 Field Work:

The pilot survey of the study area was performed in the month of October 2008 by the

investigator. In order to get detailed information regarding water tables during pre-monsoon

and post-monsoon season as well as depth of weathering, alluvial deposition, depths of wells,

intensive field work was carried out in number of visits. Total six cross profiles

(Hydrogeomorphic Section) in the north south direction were selected from the ranges of the

Satpura to the ranges of Dhanora and Galna across Tapi and Panzara rivers. In all 114 wells

were observed in May 2007. The total length of these six sections is 493.3 km. The details of

the cross profiles are given below as:

I. Hydrogeomorphic Section I : Nandale - Borkund – Junavane – Borvihir – Velhane –

Anchale – Chinchkheda – Kalkheda – Ajang – Ambode – Navari – Mohadi – Kauthal –

Kancharpur – Walkheda – Betavad – Padhavad – Manjrod – Holnanthe – Babhalaj –

Taradi – Hisale – Mahadev Dondvade – Bhoiti – Khamkheda.

II. Hydrogeomorphic Section II : Purmepada – Arvi – Avdhan – Dhule 1- Dhule 2 –

Dhule 3 – Dhule 4- Dhule 5 – Nagaon – Dhandhane – Devbhane – Songir – Jamfal Lake

– Pimparkhed – Nardana – Pimprad – Gavane – Varshi – Dabhashi – Savalda – Kurkhali

– Shirpur 1- Shirpur 2 - Shirpur 3 - Dahivad 1- Dahivad 2 - Dahivad Suger Factory –

Sule – Hadakhed – Sangavi – Panakhed – Palasaner 1 – Palasaner -2.

III. Hydrogeomorphic Section III : Chougaon – Kusumba 1 – Kusumba 2 – Mehergaon –

Chinchawar – Lamkani 1 – Lamkani 2 – Shewade – Degaon – Anjan vihire – Mandal –

Dondaicha 1 – Dondaicha 2 – Dhawade – Vikharan – Jogshelu – Dalwade – Virdel –

Amalthe – Varpade – Chandpuri – Arthe – Kuwa – Wadi 1 – Wadi 2 – Boradi – Budki –

Waghpada - Gadhaddev.

IV. Hydrogeomorphic Section IV : Chhadwel 1 –Chhadwel 2 - Nijampur 1 – Nijampur 2 -

Jaitane – Raipur - Shewali fata – Shewali – Dhamnar – Behed – Vitai.

V. Hydrogeomorphic Section V : Shelbari - Deshshirvade - Pimpalner – Samode –

Ghodade 1 – Ghodade 2 – Dahivel 1 – Dahivel 2 – Bardipada.

VI. Hydrogeomorphic Section VI : Shiwarimal – Jamkheli – Tembe – Kalikhet – Kudashi

- Bopkhel.

In addition to the field work, photographs of the weathering, alluvial deposition,

various sites of artificial groundwater recharge and conservation of water have been taken

into consideration. Several field visits to villages involving eco-developmental activities

such as Baripada Sakri tehsil, Lamkani Dhule tehsil, Bharwade, Ahilyapur, Bhorkheda

Shirpur tehsil helped me to understand various techniques used for artificial recharge and

conservation of water and their quantitative aspect.

1.5.3 Laboratory Work :

Laboratory work involves preparation of various maps. Various base maps are

prepared from the Survey of India Toposheets such as location, physiography, drainage etc.

The soil map is based on district planning map, while geology of the district collected from

District Resource Map made available by Geological Survey of India (2001). The water

samples were analyzed in the college laboratory and some results were available from GSDA.

Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated using the data obtained from water quality

analysis. The calculation of Water Quality Index was made using Weighed Arithmetic Index

Method (Brown et al, 1972). In order to measure surface runoff Ingliss Formula (1930) is

adopted. For Land use/Land cover map IRS-P3 FCC satellite image was used to collect the

signatures as the input raster file. The Maximum Likelihood Parametric Rule Method was

used to classify the pixel groups. It was performed by means of supervised classification with

ERDAS Imagine 9.2. Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2,3,4 false color image and regenerated map

data has been used for preparation of various thematic maps like base map, geology map,

drainage map, geomorphology map, slope map, soil map, lineament, lineament density and

land use/ land cover map of the study area. These thematic maps were integrated using

weighted overlays extension in Arc GIS software to generate Groundwater Potential Zone

map. Vector data of channel network, watershed boundary vector data, digital elevation

model (DEM) and slope raster data were used in ARC-GIS raster calculator to separate the

study area in runoff, recharge and storage zones. Lineaments were extracted from the District

Resource map prepared by Geological Survey of India (2001). Kernel Density calculates the

density of linear features in the neighborhood of each output raster cell. Artificial recharge

zones in the study area ware delineated using various thematic maps such as base map,

geology, geomorphology, soil, land use/land cover, lineament, drainage, slope and contour

maps. They were generated through conventional field methods using the Survey of India

(SOI) toposheets and IRS LISS-III imagery digital data. The thematic maps were converted

into the vector format using digitization in Arc GIS and ERDAS software. The appropriate

weightage and ranks were assigned to the themes and units depending upon their influence

over recharge. Then these maps were integrated to delineate potential zones for artificial

recharge using overlay technique in Geographic information system (GIS).

The investigator has used the data of annual rainfall of four tehsils for rainfall analysis

for 106 years (1901 TO 2006). Statistical constants were calculated using online Eassyfit

Software. To procure Drought Probability, first of all, total data was classified into nine

classes at the interval of 150 mm. Then Gamma distribution is applied to calculate

probabilities and estimated frequencies of drought, normal, moderate and high rainfall years.

The data collected during fieldwork was calculated and analysed, interpreted and

represented in the form of tables, diagrams, maps with the help of various cartographic

techniques. At the end, writing of the detailed reports was performed in the laboratory.

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW:

The study of water resources in the present and future context is of great importance

because of changes in the population, land-use and cropping pattern. Awareness amongst the

geographers, planners and water resources scientists to study the potentiality, availability,

development and management of water resources has been increasing in last two decades.

Countless studies related to the different aspects of the water resources have been carried

out in the country and abroad.

There are several references in the ancient, medieval and modern literature regarding

occurrence, quantity, quality, utilization, management and conservation of water resources.

From last two decades of the previous century, issues related to water resources have been

attracted economist, planners, hydrologist, geologist, geographers, Environmentalist and

journalists too. Numbers of branches of knowledge are engaged in the study and research of

various aspects of water. It is because the study of water resource is interdisciplinary in

nature. The significant contribution of scholars from various branches is summarized under

as follows: Such as Groundwater Potential, Remote Sensing and Water Resources,

Geomorphic Factors, Geology and Water Resources, Water Quality, Water Quality Index,

Utilization and Management of Water Resources, Water Conservation, Artificial Recharge,

Problems of Water Resources.

1.6.1 Groundwater Potential:

In order to search out water resources various techniques have been adopted by the

scholars. Initially groundwater investigation depended on facts and figures collected during

field survey, geomorphology, geology, geophysics and morphometric analysis of watershed.

Such techniques were used by Deolankar(1980), Singhal (1997) , Panda and Ray (2000), Al-

Daghastani (2003), Subhash Chandra et al (2006), Mishra (2006), Mishra and Kumra (2007),

Foster et al (2007) , Ballukraya and Kalimuthu (2010). Vincent (1979) studied the

occurrence of groundwater in the Satpura hill region of Central India and he concluded that

topographical location and fractures are the predominant factors affecting well yields in all

the rocks types. Joshi (1979) studied alluvium as natural store of water and he is of the

opinion that alluvium is like a bank vault and water is stored up like money. According to

Deolankar (1980) the Deccan traps are hydrogeologicaly anisotropic and heterogeneous in

nature and the aquifers of limited extend suggest the localized the accumulation of

groundwater. Singhal (1997) emphasized geophysical investigation; lithological mapping of

different flow units, fractures trace and lineament mapping helped considerably in the success

of water and well drilling in Deccan traps. Panda and Ray (2000) mentioned that since

groundwater occurrence is a subsurface phenomenon, its assessment can be inferred from the

hydrogeomorphological units. Al-Daghastani (2003) studied water harvesting using

morphometric analysis and GIS techniques and reported that one of the purposes of fluvial

morphometric analysis is to derive information in quantitative form about to Geometry of the

fluvial system that can be co-related with hydrological information. Zade Mohan et al (2005)

remarked that runoff is an indication of availability of water. Thus, in situ measurement of

runoff is useful, however, in most cases such measurement is not possible at the desired time

and location as conventional techniques of runoff measurement are expensive, time

consuming and difficult. Therefore, runoff rainfall models are commonly used for computing

runoff. Ravi Shankar and Mohan (2005) assessed groundwater potential and quality of Bhatsa

and Kalu river basins of Western Deccan Volcanic Province. Mishra and Kumra (2007)

reported that remote sensing data and aerial photographs are very significant sources for

hydrogeomorphological mapping. Foster et al (2007) observed that there is one part

Maharashtra State which possesses a major alluvial aquifer i. e. the Tapi Gurnial ‘Tectonic

Graben’ which runs approximately west-east in the north eastern part of Maharashtra. He

further adds that the total available storage of groundwater in hard rock aquifers is limited by

their weathering characteristics and water bearing properties. Mondal et al (2008) carried out

the study of complex terrains comprising fluvial, denudational and structural geomorphic

units have intricate relation among the various terrain parameters controlling groundwater

regimes, which is difficult to evaluate. He also reported that geomorphic information system

has engaged as a powerful tool for analyzing and qualifying such multivariate aspects of

groundwater occurrence. It is very helpful in delineation of groundwater prospect and deficit

zones (Carver 1991, Goyal et al 1999) (Sankar, 2002). Mondal et al (2008) mentioned that

presence of lineament acts as a conduit for groundwater movement which results in increased

secondary porosity and therefore can serve as groundwater prospective zone. Similarly

intersection of lineaments can also be probable site of groundwater accumulation.

1.6.2 Remote Sensing and Water Resources:

The studies on water resources and its uses are undergoing significant changes. Use

of Geographic Information System, Satellite Images, Remote Sensing Data and Aerial

Photographs are playing crucial role in groundwater investigation. These techniques are

proved more successful than the previous ones. Jothi Prakash et al (2003) have been

delineated potential zones for artificial recharge using GIS. Bahuguna et al (2003) evaluated

groundwater prospective zones in basaltic terrain using Remote Sensing technique. Mishra

and Kumra (2007) have studied hydrogeomorphological features and their prospectus for

groundwater exploration in Chandraprabha basin (UP) using remote sensing and GIS.

Mondal et al (2008) mentioned that satellite images are increasingly used in groundwater

exploration because their utility in identifying various ground features, which may serve as

either direct or indirect indicators of presence of groundwater (Bahuguna et al 2003, Das et al

1997). Sargaonkar et al (2011) have been identified potential sites for artificial groundwater

recharge using G.I.S. Pradeep Kumar et al (2010) delineated groundwater potential zones

using remote sensing and GIS in Andhra Pradesh.

1.6.3 Geomorphic Factors, Geology and Water Resources:

Initially morphometric analysis and geomorphic factors were used to target

groundwater but now a days; the modern techniques like Remote Sensing, GIS and

interpretation of aerial photographs are being used. Some of the scholars have examined and

correlated various geomorphic factors to target groundwater resources. According to

Deolankar S. B. (1980) the basaltic flow contains variable quantities of groundwater in

vesicles, joints and weathered capping. On the basis of their structural and hydrological

properties the Deccan basalt can be grouped in to five classes namely vesicular basalt,

amygdaloidal basalt, fractured jointed basalt, compact basalts and weathered basalts. Larkin

and Sharp (Jr.) (1992) studied relationship between river basin geomorphology, aquifer

hydraulics and groundwater flow direction in alluvial aquifers. Pakhmode et al (2003)

accounted that groundwater storage; its movement and recharge absolutely depend on

hydrological characteristics of hard rock. Subhash Chandra (2006) stated that

geomorphological expression alone cannot reveal the groundwater potential associated with

lineament. He also studied characterization of lineament used to locate groundwater potential

zones in hard rock region of Karnataka. Mishra (2006) observed regional geomorphic

features and their significance in groundwater resources inventory using remote sensing and

revealed that remote sensing data can be used as a powerful data base with co-junction of

ground data and selective field checks for regional geomorphological investigation. Mishra

and Kurma (2007) concluded that study of geomorphic features may provide better clues for

groundwater exploration and as such it may be quite beneficial for the people of any region.

Thapa et al (2008) has used study of morphotectonics and hydrology for groundwater

prospecting using Remote Sensing and GIS Himachal Pradesh. Mondal et al (2008) evaluated

groundwater prospectus based on hydrogeomorphological mapping using high Resolution

Images in Uttarakhand. Ballukraya and Kalimuthu (2010) have been quantitatively correlated

hydrogeomorphological and geomorphological parameters with groundwater availability.

Nagarale (2010) demarcated groundwater potential zones using geomorphology.

1.6.4 Water Quality:

Pattern of utilization is controlled by the quality of water resources. Numerous

scholars have carried out studies in connection with water quality. According to Sinha (1998)

water is being vulnerable to organic, toxic, bacteriological contamination in the developing

societies such as ours. Water quality surveillance and monitoring have become highly

imperative to prevent water borne diseases to control pollution. Domestic sewage, waste

water disposal sites of industry, application of fertilizers and pesticides are chiefly

responsible for groundwater pollution. It has been observed that properly treated industrial

waste water and domestic sewage when applied rates over a long period is harmful to soil and

crops. As per the news in ‘Statesman’ (23rd November 2002) the Union Minister for Rural

Development stated that 200000 villages have safe drinking water supply and though 217000

villages have supply of water but that is not fit for drinking in India . Palanisamy et al (2007)

revealed that the quality of groundwater depends on various chemical constituents and their

concentration, which are mostly derived from the geological data of the particular region.

Subba Rao et al (2010) reported that in India only 12% of people get facility of good drinking

water. Chidambaram et al (2010) accounted the impact of land-use pattern on the

groundwater quality in and around Madurai.

1.6.5 Water Quality Index (WQI ):

Water Quality Index is the modern means and in brief way, it can express water

quality. Sisodiya and Moundiotiya (2006) remarked that water quality indexes are among

those affective ways to communicate the information on water quality trends to the general

public or to the policy makers and water quality management. Garg and Hassan (2007)

reported that water quality situation may be much warm from the point of view of the

deteriorating ground and surface water. Asadi et al (2007) co-related water quality and the

existing land use type to identify the problematic zones. According to Ashwini Kumar and

Dua (2009), there are some limitations of water quality index, but there are more advantages

of Water Quality Index than disadvantages. Yogendra and Puttaiah (2008) suggested that an

application of water quality index techniques for the overall assessment of the water quality

of a water body is useful tool. According to Kumar and Dua (2009) the objective of water

quality index is to turn complex water quality data into information i.e. understandable and

usable by the public. Subba Rao et al (2010) opined that water quality index indicates the

quality of in terms of index number which represents overall quality of water. He defined it

as the composite influence of different water quality parameters which were taken into

consideration for the calculation of water quality index. He appealed that application of water

quality index is a useful method in assessing the suitability of water for various beneficial

uses.

1.6.6 Utilization of Water Resources:

Consumption of considerable quantity of groundwater or surface water is referred as

utilization. India receives 117 cm of rainfall annually. Though monsoon rainfall is uneven,

uncertain and unreliable; water resources are available profusely in many areas. If aquifers

are over exploited that leads to the realization that we must change our pattern of

consumption. Panda and Ray (2000) reported that monsoon is non-uniform in both time and

space. As a result of which in one part protective irrigation is necessary for the growth of

agricultural during monsoon. Foster et al (2007) accounted that the drought prone interior of

Maharashtra state is especially dependent on groundwater resources for both rural drinking

supply and for subsistence as well as commercial irrigated agriculture. Garg and Hassan

(2007) have reviewed and analyzed various studies on utilizable water flow from surface to

groundwater.

1.6.7 Management of Water Resources:

Water Resource Management aims at optimizing the available natural water flows,

including surface water and groundwater to satisfy these competing needs. In many parts of

the world the margin between water supply and demand is narrowing day by day. Scarcity

and miss-use of fresh water are posing real threats for sustainable development and protection

of environment. Hence, study of management of water resources is of utmost importance.

Kamraju et al (1996) concluded that GIS with its capabilities of map overlying,

reclassification, proximity analysis and other mathematical operations can help to carry out

criteria based analysis and groundwater resources of an area can be more efficiently managed

utilizing GIS techniques. Singhal (1997) suggested that the dug-cum-bore wells are more

successful as they tap the deeper aquifers and therefore it can be a source of assured water

supply in drought periods. Hanumanta Rao (2002) remarked that technology, public policy

and institutions concerning water use hold key to raising water productivity by bridging the

vast gap that now exists between knowledge and applications. Sreedevi et al (2005) is of view

that watershed development and management plans are more important for harvesting surface

water and groundwater resources in arid and semiarid regions. According to Sawant and

Gaonkar (2007) the participation of people in the watershed development programme has no

doubt, brought environmental awareness amongst community but also increased economic

status of people. Chaudhary et al (2008) have prepared integrated water resource

development plan for sustainable management using Remote Sensing and GIS. Saxena and

Prasad (2008) have studied integrated land and water resources conservation and

management development plan using Remote sensing and GIS of Chevella basin, Ranga

Reddy district(AP). They stated water resource development plan has been prepared on the

basis of integration of information on hydrogeomorphological characteristics, surface water

availability, land use/ land cover, drainage, present status of groundwater utilization and

needs of water in the study area. Subba Rao et al (2010) opined that inadequate management

of water resources as directly or indirectly resulted in the degradation of hydrological

environment (Karanth, 1989).

1.6.8 Water Conservation:

Uneven distribution of ground and surface water, increasing demands, overuse,

misuse and pollution has stimulated a serious problem of water scarcity. Water conservation

is only solution of all problems of water resources. Water conservation is beneficial

reduction in water loss, use or waste as well as the preservation of water quality. According

to Joshi (1979) the scenario in our country looks pretty grim and Herculean efforts are needed

on the part of individuals, society and government to tackle the problem. Singhal (1997)

observed that recharge by percolation (infiltration) tanks is an ancient practice of water

conservation in the hard rock formation of Central and South India. Pakhmode et al (2003)

says that increasing groundwater recharge constitutes one of the principle objectives of water

shed development programme because many parts of India face acute shortage of

groundwater resources on which rural livelihood depends. Shankar et al (2004) with evidence

from palaeo-climatology, archeological and historical records shows that man responds to

scarcity of water in a variety of ways. This includes strategies of water conservation,

rainwater harvesting and inevitable migration. Garg and Hassan (2007) have emphasized the

necessity of an urgent shift in existing groundwater policy from further exploitation to

augmentation. Das et al (2010) has discussed techniques of groundwater recharge for Deccan

trap aquifer formation.

1.6.9 Artificial Recharge:

The method which is particularly useful in augmenting drinking water availability is

artificial recharge, especially in the rural areas. Brown and Signor (1974) stated that the

objective of artificial recharge is to get the maximum quality of liquids injected with

minimum expense and minimum impact on the environment. Ram Bilas (1980) has

mentioned that precipitation is the main source of groundwater recharge in the area and

occurs almost wholly during the rainy season when evapotranspiration losses are

comparatively small and soil moisture is maintain more or less at field capacity. Singhal

(1997) has studied artificial recharge of groundwater in hard rock’s with special reference to

India. He added that the purpose of sub-surface dam is to check the overflow of groundwater

from sub-basin there by raising the groundwater storage on the upstream sides. Saraf and

Chaudhary (1998) have explored groundwater and identified artificial recharge sites.

According to Pakhmode et al (2003) sites for recharge and runoff harvesting in watershed

development programmes in India are selected on an ‘adhoc’ basis or based solely on

topographic consideration. Recharge sites are particularly poorly sited either because the rock

surface permeability of the substrate is not considered or because sites are often located in

natural groundwater discharge areas. From his viewpoint drainage analysis values form

useful tool in selecting such sites because they provided comparative indices of the rock

surface in various part of drainage basin. Ravi Shankar and Mohan (2005) have identified

sites specific artificial recharge techniques in the Deccan volcanic province based on hydro-

geomorphology. Garg and Hassan (2007) suggested that water supplies must augment with

traditional approaches of water conservation locally, in addition to big projects. Saxena and

Prasad (2008) recommended that water harvesting should be given importance to avoid the

wastage of runoff water. It will also increase the groundwater recharge bridge providing

supplementary irrigation during rabbi. Bhalchandar et al (2010) observed that groundwater

condition in hard rock terrain is multivariate due to the heterogeneous nature of aquifer owing

to the varying composition. He also added that identification of artificial recharge sites is

interdependent on various parameters like geomorphology, lithology, lineaments, density,

slope, soil etc.

1.6.10 Problems Related to Water Resources:

There are several problems which whip up due to seasonal availability, over

withdrawal, flooding, quality of water, limited measures for conservation of available water

and limited space in the aquifers within study area. Limaye and Limaye (1994) reported that

the future risk to groundwater resources in the basalt of western India is likely to occur in

sub-basin in which groundwater pumpage for irrigation use has increased considerably in the

past two decades. Pakhmode et al (2003) concluded that land use intensification and

population growth in India have resulted in increasing use of groundwater for various

activities. Increase in water use has affected both surface and groundwater supplies with

many areas of the countries clearly showing sign acute water crises. Shankar at el (2004)

stated that issues related to water attracts considerable attention in all of spheres of life in

India. He further stated that the problem of water resources is more acute today owing to the

manifold increases in need for water over the last five decades. The green revolution in the

1960s led to another major increase in the use of water in growing the new hybrid crops.

Bharat et al (2007) reported that water resources are extremely sensitive and once degraded

would take hundreds and even thousands of years to revive. Foster et al (2007) stated that

despite generally very limited potential, these recourses are very intensively exploited, but

such development has encountered significant problem. Garg and Hassan (2007) concluded

that almost all basins will become water deficit and it rises may be question upon the

availability of water through inter-basin transfers. According to Limaye (2010) recently due

to ever increasing number of dug wells and bore wells, the water table has been falling in

several watersheds, especially in those lying in the semi-arid region of the Deccan traps, so

that now the emphasis has shifted from development to management.

1.7 ARRANGEMENT OF TEXT:

The entire project work has been divided into six chapters. The First chapter

contains the introduction, the importance of water resources, selection of the study area, aims

and objectives, hypothesis, methodology adopted, sources of data, review of the literature and

arrangement of the text. The environmental profile of the study area influencing the

hydrological regions, their effects on the run-off behavior and development of water

resources have been taken into account in the Second chapter. The Third chapter depicts

surface and groundwater resources within the study area. It also includes calculation of the

yield of rainfall, utilization of water and groundwater abstract. In the Fourth chapter the

investigator has worked out the impact of geomorphic factors on water resources of the Dhule

district. In the Fifth chapter an efforts have been made to delineate Potential Zones for

Artificial Recharge and Morphological classification of the study area. Quality of water,

Problems and Management of Water Resources has been analyzed in Sixth chapter.

Findings of the project work, discussions, conclusions and suggestions have been arranged in

the concluding Seventh chapter. Bibliography, appendices, questionnaire, photographs and

published research paper are appended at the end.

CHAPTER: - 2

ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

2.1 INTRODUCTION:

The known ancient name of this region was Rasika. Later it came to be called as

Seunadesa after King Seunchandra of the Early Yadava dynasty, who ruled over it. This

province became the part of the Mughal Empire in 1601, during the regime of Akbar. Its

name was changed to Khandesh to suit the title Khan, which was given to the Faruqi Kings

by Ahmad-I of Gujarat. In the 18th century Dhule came under the Maratha regime and finally

in 1818, taken over by the British. Subsequently, in 1906 the region was divided in to East

and West Khandesh.

After Independence, in 1956 the Indian provinces were recognized, the district of

West Khandesh became part of bilingual state of Bombay. Subsequently on 21st October

1960 the West Khandesh district was renamed as Dhulia district with Dhulia as it’s

headquarter. Thereafter, on 15th August 1998 Dhulia district was divided into Dhule and

Nandurbar districts respectively.

2.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT:

Dhule district is located in the north-western corner of the Maharashtra State.

(Fig. No. 2.1) It extends between 20038’ to 21038’ north latitude and 74052’ to 75011’ east

longitude. Dhule district covers an area of 8063.11 sq. km., which is 2.62% of the

geographical area of the Maharashtra state. It stretches 108 km. from west to east and 112

km. from south to north direction. The area of the district is represented in Survey of India

degree sheets No. 46K, 46L, 46O, 46G and 46H on the scale of 1:2,50,000. The study area is

bordered by Barwani district of the Madhya Pradesh to the north, Jalgaon district to east,

Nasik district to the south, Nandurbar district to west and Dang district of Gujarat state

touches the south-western corner. According to the 2001 census, Dhule district had 678

inhabited villages and 17, 07,947 souls were residing within the district. Percentage of the

rural population was 73.89 % while 26.11% people were living in the urban areas.

2.3 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

Physiographically the study area is the part of the Deccan Plateau. It is located in the

middle of Tapi basin. The study region represents unique topographical features and

landforms. This region is characterized by mountain chain, hill ranges, valleys, dykes,

lineaments, a belt of fertile alluvial deposits, pediment plain, eroded river banks etc. The

highest point within the district is spot height 1291 m. from msl. (200 50’ 45” N latitude and

740 4’ 7” E longitude) west of Mangi Tungi peaks. While the lowest elevation is 109 m. from

msl. (21025’26”N latitude, 74031’51”E longitude) along Tapi river near village Takarkheda in

Shindkheda tehsil. The physical features of the district can be grouped under four broad

divisions as follows:

2.3.1 Satpura Ranges:

The Satpura is a broad belt of mountain land stretching in a wall-like manner on the

northern side of river Tapi. North and north-eastern part of the Shirpur tehsil is covered by

the Satpura Ranges. Satpura hills are regarded as structural uplift or horst. They have flat tops

and composed partly of Deccan lava and partly of granite (Mamoria, 1975). The Satpura is a

chain of mountains with an average height of 600 m and width of 35 to 45 km within the

study area. Babakuvar (811 m.) (21035’34”N latitude, 74054’48”E longitude) is the highest

peak in Satpura ranges within the study area. Southern slopes of the Satpura ranges are

characterized by the presence of pediment belt at the foothills, which is the result of

denudational processes and subsequent recession of the outer range. Countless streams flow

down to the Tapi river system and deposits fine and coarse material.

2.3.2 Alluvial Plain of Tapi River:

In the past Satpura hills were experienced much faulting and given rise to deep gorges

or structural troughs like that of Tapi (Mamoria, 1975). This is a rift valley filled with the

sediments brought by Tapi river and her tributaries. It has a narrow river valley with width

about 12 to 16 km. and a length of 60 km. in the district. Spot height of 140 m. has learnt

where Tapi river enters Dhule District and minimum height is 109 m. along the western

boundary. Tapi valley accounts about 15% area of the district. The banks of Tapi river and its

tributaries are severely eroded and so highly dissected. Hence it had lost its agricultural

importance previously but now a days it is being reclaimed for agricultural purposes due to

population pressure. On the other hand outer zone of alluvial belt is less eroded and therefore

much intensively cultivated.

2.3.3 Dhanora and Galna Hills:

Sahyadri hills bound the district from south-west without any outstanding peak. Galna

Hills are offshoots of the Sahyadri. They reach their maximum height of

1291m. and 1290 m. to the south of village Shenvad in Sakri tehsil. The height of these hills

gradually decreases eastwards up to just 600 m. south of Dhule city. Here they are relatively

more barren with flat plateau tops, which increase in extent eastwards. North to the Galna

hills there are several minor spurs of the Sahyadri and these along with innumerable dykes

which separate the valleys of different tributary streams of the Tapi.

2.3.4 Deccan Plateau / Upland Region:

Major part of the study area in Sakri, Shindkheda, Dhule and Shirpur tehsils is occupied by

the Deccan plateau. This region is composed of several lava flows during Late Cretaceous to

Lower Eocene Period. It exhibits rugged and undulating topography. Several dykes are

observed running mostly in the east-west direction. Elevation of this zone varies from 250 m.

to 650 m. in Shindkheda, Dhule and Sakri tehsils. North and north-eastern part of Shirpur

tehsil is also composed of Deccan plateau with an altitude of 200 to 400 m.

2.4 GEOLOGY:

Two different geological formations have been discovered in the study area. Major

part of the district is occupied by the ‘Deccan Basalt/Traps’ of the Late Cretaceous to Lower

Eocene Period. (Fig. No. 2.3) W. H. Sykes used the term ‘Deccan Traps’ (Trappa means stair

in Swedish) in 1833 to designate step-like topography of the volcanic terrain of the Deccan

Region (Kale and Gupta, 2002). And ‘Deccan’ or a sanskrit word ‘Dakshin’ means south or

southern. It is the result of the voluminous outpouring of the lava flow over vast areas. The

basaltic lava flows are ‘Pahoehoe’ and ‘aa’ types. Pahoehoe type of flow comprises vesicular

part with pipe Amygdaloidal, middle massive part and top vesicular part with spherical

vesicles. While ‘aa’ flows are massive with fragmentary top and impersistent clinkary base.

The Basaltic lava flow in the study area to south and north of Tapi river is grouped under

Sahyadri Group and Satpura Group. The Sahyadri Group consists of Salher, Lower

Ratangarh and Upper Ratangarh formations. Salher formation is exposed around Sakri and

Pimpalner along with Panzara river over distance of about 50 km. Satpura Group within

district comprises 18 to 21 lava flows. The thickness of this lava flow ranges from15 to 40 m.

The district is characterized by numerous dykes as a result of large scale intrusive activities

(Geological Survey of India, 2001). Deccan Basalt formed of main minerals like plagioclase,

feldspar, Labradorite, Pyroxene and Augite.

The Deccan volcanic province is associated with several continent-scale and smaller

rift zones, namely, the west coast belt, the E–W-trending Narmada–Satpura–Tapi graben–

horst–graben system, the Cambay and Kutch rifts. These rift basins run along major

Precambrian tectonic trends in the ancient Indian shield and formed at different times during

the Mesozoic period and are thus important Mesozoic marginal-marine basins (Seth, 1999).

According to some geologist the two zones of thermal springs – one in Konkan and the other

at the foot of the Satpura ranges are manifestation of tectonic activities in these areas (Kale

and Gupta, 2002).

Second geological unit is the ‘Recent Alluvium’ which occurs along the course of

Tapi river. The Tapi-Purna valley, an east-west furrow in the Deccan table land, extends over

a distance of more than 300 km. It is filled with the sediments such as clay, silt, sand, pebbles

brought by Tapi and its tributaries. (Photo Nos. 6 and 8) Height of this plain ranges between

150 m. to 300 m. from msl. This valley is asymmetrical in cross-profile and is filled with

alluvium. In Tapi-Purna Valley the deposits are about 400 m. thick (Kale and Gupta, 2002).

The thickness of alluvium at places is found to be more than 350 m. (Khanapurkar, 2010). It

stands in sharp contrast to the barren Deccan plateau in the south and the Satpura hills in the

north. It has narrow river valley with width of about 12 to 16 km. and a length of 60 km.

within the district. The valley and large plains associated with it are drained by a number of

parallel tributaries, which join the main river at right angles, though in a few cases a

downstream bend close to the Tapi is observed. It shows structural control on drainage

pattern.

Lineaments: Lineaments are linear, curvilinear or rectilinear feature of tectonic origin

(Balachandar, 2010). The lineament map of Dhule district is based on District Resource Map

of Geological Survey of India, 2001. Presence of numerous lineaments, faults, dykes and

alluvial fills shows that the district is tectonically disturbed. It is observed that in the district

lineaments have NE-SW trend which is major, followed by NW-SE. A few lineaments have

N-S and E-W trend. The Tapi lineaments define the northern boundary of the Purna alluvium

and cuts across the Deccan trap lava flows in the west. This lineament marks a pronounced

fault that defines the southern margin of the Satpura Horst. These lineaments represent

fractures in lava flow.

Red Bole: Red Bole is the most common layer and discovered in the Deccan trap formation.

This layer is reddish brown in colour, consists of hydrothermally baked angular fragmented

of weathered basalts. It separates two basaltic flows. Thickness of this layer ranges from 0.5

to 3 m. (Geological Survey of India, 1976). In the study area Red Boles are observed along

the foot hills of Satpura ranges in Shirpur tehsil (Photo Nos. 9 and 11). and in Panzara river

basin near village Kudashi of Sakri tehsil (Photo No. 10).

Dykes: The dykes are very common in Deccan Volcanic Province. West (1959), after wide

survey of these dyke rocks, has come to the conclusions that they are found mainly to the

western outcrops of Deccan Basalts and along the faulted Tapi and Narmada Valleys as well

as in the Gondwana basins. Dyke is a fissure eruption of the cretaceous age. The Dykes are

doleritic, basaltic and gabbroic in composition in the study area. The Dyke stands for a

narrow elongated and linear ridges or sometimes valleys. Occurrence of the chain of the

dykes is interesting feature within the district. These dykes are running WSW to ENE, N to S

and NE to SW direction to the south of Tapi river. The dykes are very long in Dhule and

Sakri tehsils. A very long dyke near about 80 km. in length runs parallel to the southern

course of the Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsils.

2.5 CLIMATE:

Being a part of Indian Sub-continent, Dhule district experiences monsoon type of

climate. The district as a whole remains dry except south-west monsoon season. As far as the

study area is concerned, the year can be divided into four seasons as following:

1) March to May – The Hot Season

2) June to September – Monsoon Season

3) October to January– Winter Season

4) February to May – Summer Season

Due to absence of meteorological observatory in the district, the climatic data is

made available from Agricultural College, Dhule and other sources. Temperature, rainfall,

humidity, evaporation and wind speed are important elements of the climate.

2.5.1 Temperature: The table No. 2.1 exhibits the mean monthly maximum and minimum

temperature at Dhule station. October and November act as transitional period between

monsoon and winter season. Due to October heat mean monthly maximum temperature

touches the figure of 34.2oC. Again it begins to decrease

Table No.2.1 Mean Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperature at Dhule

Sr. No. Month Temperature (oC)

Maximum Minimum Mean

1 January 30.1 11.8 21.0 2 February 32.4 13.4 22.9 3 March 37.1 18.4 27.4 4 April 40.5 22.7 31.6 5 May 41.6 26.0 33.8 6 June 37.2 25.4 31.3 7 July 32.8 24.1 28.5 8 August 31.2 23.3 27.3 9 September 32.7 22.5 27.6 10 October 34.2 19.9 27.1 11 November 32.2 15.2 23.7 12 December 30.1 12.1 21.1

Annual 34.3 19.6 27.0

Source: Agriculture College, Dhule.

towards winter season. During winter season, January is the coldest month, with the mean

daily minimum temperature of 11.8 oC and the mean daily maximum temperature of 30.1oC.

The minimum temperature may drop as low as 8.9oC, when cold wave affects the northern

part of India. Thereafter, temperature begins to rise from third week of February, till the end

of May. The month of May is the hottest period of the year.

Mean daily maximum temperature of May is 40.7oC. Sometimes temperature may rise up to

46oC in the same month. Again with the advent of June, temperature commences to decrease

and it decreases steadily with the onset of monsoon up to month of August. When mean daily

maximum temperature reaches 31.2oC.

2.5.2 Rainfall: Most of the rainfall is received by study region from south-west monsoon

winds, from June to September. The average annual rainfall within the district is 592 mm.

Hence, this district comes under Drought Prone Zone of the state. The average annual rainfall

shows high variation from year to year. According to P. K. Das, 7th June is the onset of the

south-west monsoon in the study area.

Table No.2.2 Tehsil wise Mean Monthly Rainfall (mm)

Sr. No.

Month Dhule Sakri Shirpur Shindkheda District

Amount Percent

1 January 5.0 4.6 3.4 3.7 4.2 0.7

2 February 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 0.2

3 March 2.7 3.0 1.9 1.4 2.3 0.4

4 April 1.5 3.0 1.5 1.3 1.8 0.3

5 May 10.5 10.8 9.6 6.0 9.2 1.6

6 June 128.1 110.0 121.9 122.7 120.7 20.7

7 July 147.7 127.7 206.2 156.2 159.5 27.3

8 August 114.7 83.7 141.5 114.9 113.7 19.5

9 September

127.6 103.6 121.2 98.6 112.8 19.3

10 October 41.2 40.9 34.7 33.5 37.6 6.4

11 November

19.9 20.1 12.2 15.6 16.9 2.9

12 December

4.7 5.4 3.1 3.1 4.1 0.7

Annual 605.1 514.1 658.3 558.3 583.9 100.0


On an average July receives 160 mm of rainfall, which is the highest among rainy months.

Numbers of rainy days are less than 45 days. Shirpur tehsil records highest rainfall with an

average of 665.12 mm per annum. Dhule tehsil stands second which record 605.1 mm and

558.3 mm annual rainfall recorded in Shindkheda tehsil. Although Sakri tehsil occupies

western position within district, receives the lowest amount of rainfall i. e. 525.78 mm per

annum. Amount of annual rainfall reaches the figure of 1000 mm in the regions of Western

ghat and Satpura ranges.

South-West monsoon winds gives up to 88% of annual rainfall, while thunder storms

during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon period deliver remaining part of it. Department of

Agriculture, Govt. of Maharashtra has divided the state into nine zones on the basis of

rainfall, soils and vegetation. According to it the district falls in the Scarcity Zone. Hence

droughts are common within the district.

Table No. 2.3 Statistical Constants of Annual Rainfall

Statistic Values

Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District Sample Size 106 106 106 106 106

Range 1197.4 910.3 811.9 952.5 681.7

Mean 597.07 665.12 560.03 525.78 586.14

Std. Deviation 191.25 202.94 170.04 156.99 145.97 Coefficient of Variation

0.32 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.25

Std. Error 18.576 19.711 16.516 15.249 14.178

Skewness 1.1907 0.53488 0.40392 0.66981 0.44961 Excess Kurtosis

3.6959 0.02899 0.04863 1.8353 -0.0927

Percentile Values

Minimum 199.1 268.2 197.1 74.5 237.5

10% 370.23 429.29 358.67 358.65 416.85

25% (Q1) 466.4 518.32 442.82 427.57 497.55 50% (Q2) (Median)

580.2 639.55 552.7 514.1 553.15

75% (Q3) 700.4 772.72 643.2 613.85 676.72

90% 806.89 949.51 791.09 719.56 825.72

Maximum 1396.5 1178.5 1009 1127 919.2

Source: Data I. M. D., Constants Computed by Researcher.

Statistical constants of annual average rainfall for 106 years of four tehsils have been

signified in Table No. 2.3. Average annual rainfall of Sakri tehsil is very low i. e. 525.78 mm

and that of in Shirpur tehsil is 665.12 mm which is the highest within district. Range of

rainfall of Dhule tehsil is high. It is 1197.4, while remaining tehsils show in between 811.9 to

952.5. Coefficient of variation exhibits the variation of annual rainfall in four tehsils.

Coefficient of variation of Dhule tehsil is 32% which is slightly high in all the tehsils.

Coefficient of skewness of all tehsils is + ve. It indicates that the distribution of rainfall is +

vely skewed means number of years of high rainfall are relatively more. Values of rainfall are

more scattered towards right side of mean rainfall. According to coefficient of kurtosis, the

peakness of Dhule and Sakri is higher than that of Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils.

2.5.3 Humidity:

The study area possesses continental location; therefore air remains dry from October

to May. During this lap of the year, winter month records 40 to 45% relative humidity. While

it is low up to 30 to 40% in summer season due to very high temperature within study area.

Rainy months are the wettest months in the year with relative humidity of above 70%. Table

No. 2.4 shoes mean monthly relative humidity at Dhule station.

Table No.2.4 Mean Monthly Relative Humidity (%) at Dhule

Sr. No. Month Morning

(08:30 am) Evening

(05:30 pm) Mean

1) January 71 31 51.0

2) February 59 24 41.5

3) March 48 20 34.0

4) April 46 19 32.5

5) May 56 24 40.0

6) June 53 43 63.0

7) July 83 59 71.0

8) August 86 65 75.5

9) September 85 56 70.5

10) October 77 36 56.5

11) November 72 31 51.5

12) December 73 31 52.0

Annual 69 37 53.0


2.6 DRAINAGE:

The complete territory of the Dhule district is drained by the Tapi and her tributaries. As per

Indian mythology Tapi is the daughter of the God Sun. Ptolemy named it Nanagouna. The

Tapi has its name derived from ‘tapa’ means ‘heat’ and according to local brahminas, it was

created by the god Sun to protect himself from his own warmth (NIH). It is believed that Tapi

rises from the sacred tank of Multai. The word ‘Multai’ is derived from ‘Mul Tapi’ means the

source of Tapi. River Tapi is the second largest westward-draining inter-state river in India,

after the mighty Narmada river. It covers approximately 51,504 km2 (79%) of Maharashtra

state, 9804 km2 (15%) of Madhya Pradesh and 3837 km2 (5%) of Gujarat state. The basin

finds its outlet in the Arabian Sea and is bounded on three sides by ranges of hills. River Tapi

takes its source from the sacred tank of Multai in Baitul district of Madhya Pradesh at the

height of 752 m. After completing the course of 724 km., it merges into the Gulf of Cambay

around 20 km. west of Surat in Gujarat state. About 61.1 km course of it lies within the

boundary of Dhule district. The most important tributary of the Tapi is the Panzara which

originates from the Western Ghats. Other tributaries include the

Burai, the Bori, the Arunavati, the Aner, the Amravati and the Kan. The tributaries of the

Tapi within the study area are broadly divided in to two groups: a) The Northern tributaries

and b) The Southern tributaries.

2.6.1 The Northern Tributaries:

In general the northern tributaries drain the southern slopes of Satpura. Most of them

are non-perennial. They are short, swift and show a typical parallel drainage pattern

particularly in the areas of Satpura ranges.

Aner: Aner is the major right bank tributary of the Tapi river within the district. It rises at an

elevation of 800 m. near village Gajria Khera in Sendhava tehsil of Barwani district (M.P.).

After its taking cource in the slopes of Satpura, it has long westerly course and turns to the

south to form boundary between Jalgaon and Dhule districts. Length of this stream is 88 km.

It joins Tapi river near village Piloda in Shirpur tehsil at an altitude of 136 m.

Arunavati: The fount of the Arunavati lies near Kanjya Falya in Khargone district (M.P.), at

an elevation of 640 m. above msl from Satpura ranges. In general it flows in south-west

direction. It drains for the total distance of 69 km. Arunavati meets Tapi river near village

Vanaval of Shirpur tehsil about 127 m above msl. Jirbhavi, Ambad, Chondi, Chul, Kunjal etc.

are tributaries of the Arunavati. With this Koradi nadi, Lendi Nala, Ambad Nala are being

received by Tapi river from the north within the district.

2.6.2 The Southern Tributaries:

Eastern face of Sahyadri and southern slopes of its spurs are drained by streams of

long easterly courses. In Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil one finds numerous dykes dominating

local topography and guiding the local drainage lines.

Panzara: This is the paramount tributary of Tapi river that joins from the south of the study

area. It arises at an altitude of 1058 m. near village Shenvad in Sakri tehsil from the offshoots

of Sahyadri. Initially this river follows a very long path towards east due to the presence of

long dykes. Thereafter, about 8 km. below Dhule city, it turns abruptly northward through the

major gap in the dyke. Panzara merges into Tapi river near village Mudavad at an altitude of

131 m. Kan is the major left bank tributary of the Panzara. Kan is the tributary of Panzara in

Sakri tehsil. Its course stretches for the distance of 136 km.

Burai: Burai river takes its source from Pinjarzadi village of Sakri Tehsil, north of

Kondaibari at an altitude of 705 m. above msl. It joins the Tapi river from left side near

village Sulvade in Shindkheda tehsil at an altitude of 129 m. The total length of this stream is

77 km. Pan is the major tributary of Burai river.

Amaravati: Amaravati river has its source near Thanepada in Nandurbar District at an

altitude of 480 m. Initially it follows north-easterly course and before merging on to the Tapi,

flows northward. It has a short course of only 55 km. Bhogavati river, Kanori river and

Madari nala are the tributaries of Amaravati river. It joins Tapi river near village Tavkhede

old at an altitude of 114 m.

Bori: Source of Bori river occurs west of Chirai Bari near Chirai village at an altitude of 680

m from the southern slopes of the Galana Hills. Very small catchment of this river

incorporated in the study region. Bori river follows eastward path in Dhule district. Total

length of Bori river is 138 km. It merges in Tapi river near Bohara village in Amalner tehsil.

2.7 SOILS:

Black soil is the predominant soil type in the study area. Black soil is also known as

Regur or Vertisols or Black cotton soil. It is mainly derived from basalt rock. The clay

content of the black soil ranges 30 to 60 %. This soil swells when saturated and develops

cracks in summer. Swelling index of this soil is 50 %. It is deficient in organic matter,

nitrogen and phosphorous. On the basis of depth black soils in Dhule district are divided in

three types. They are as follows:

2.7.1 Shallow Black Soil:

Shallow black soil (depth < 50 cm.) is also known as coarse soil. It occurs at the foot

hills of Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galana Hills and occupies about 60% area of the

district. It encompasses northern portion of Shirpur tehsil as well as western part of Dhule

and Sakri tehsils. Shallow Coarse soils are derived from the weathered material of Deccan

Basalt. Soils are light loams to clay loams in texture with sub-angular blocky to angular

blocky in structure in the lower zone. In general these are low in fertility and require

judicious supply of manures and fertilizers. Due to varying degree of weathering, the depth,

color, texture of this soil is dissimilar in different areas. It is coarse and consists of gravels.

Water holding capacity of this soil is poor. Bajara, Kharip Jowar and Ground Nut are suitable

crops for this soil.

2.7.2 Medium Black Soil:

Medium Black soil (depth 50 to 150 cm.) occupies considerable part and admeasuring

25% area of the district. The boundaries of the medium black soil are restricted to Tapi basin

and its tributaries in the form of extensive patches in Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsil. It is

granular to sub-granular and loamy to clayey in structure. It is fertile and suitable for

irrigation. The soils in general are deficient in nitrogen, organic matter and phosphate

contents and therefore require adequate doses of the fertilizers for better harvest.

2.7.3 Deep Black Cotton Soil:

Deep black soil (depth > 150 cm.) circumscribes along both the sides of Tapi river. It is about

15% of total study area. Part of Shirpur tehsil along the Tapi river is occupied by the deep

black soil. It is derived from Deccan basalt. Hence, it is deep black in color. It contains high

amount of clay which range from 30% to 60%. Proportion of organic matter, nitrogen and

phosphorus is low in this soil type. Average depth of the soil within district doesn’t exceed 3

m. Deep Black soil has a tendency to develop cracks during summer and tend to be

waterlogged in the rainy season. It has high water holding capacity and it is highly fertile.

This type of soil supports excellent growth of cotton. Therefore it is also called as ‘Black

Cotton Soil’. Sugarcane is also cultivated in Deep Black soil extensively with the help of

irrigation.

2.8 VEGETATION:

Tropical Dry Deciduous is the natural vegetation type is in the study area. It is mainly

controlled by physiography and climate. Hence vegetation type varies with altitude and

rainfall. It ranges from grasses, thorny bushes, trees to deciduous trees. Satpura ranges and

Western Ghat sections are under the forest cover. About 2088.90 sq. km. area of the study

area is under forest, which accounts 25.90% of the geographical area of the district. Large

scale deforestation and grazing practices have destructed the major part of the forest cover in

Satpura ranges as well as Western Ghat section. Now days forests can be observed in the

form of small patches. In fact, only 6.59% area is under forest cover. Out of it 97 sq. km. and

377 sq. km. area is under moderate and open forest respectively. Shirpur and Sakri tehsils

are mainly under forest covers. Teak (Tectona grandis L.) is the predominant species. In

general, the dominating plants from Satpura ranges in Dhule district are Anjan (Hardwickia

binata),Salai (Boswellia serrata), Lal Khair (Acacia chundra), Black Khair (Acacia

catechu), Sadada (Terminalia tomentosa), Beheda ( Terminalia belerica), Arjun

(Terminalia arjuna), Chinch ( Tamarindus indica), Shisam (Dalbergia latifolia), Henkal

(Gymnosporia Montana), Palas (Butea frondosa), Shevari (Salmalia malbaricum),

Nim(Azadirachta indica), Bor (Zizyphus jujube), Dhavari (Woodfordia floribanda), Nirgidi (

Vitex negundo), Mahu (Madhuca indica), Amla (Phyllathus emblica), Bel (Eagle mormelos),

Dhavada (Anogeissus latifolia),Karai (Sterculia urens), Jamum (Eugenia jambolana),

Dahikudi (Holorrhoena antidysenterica, KalaKuda (Wrightia tinctoria), Bambu (Bambusa

bamboo),Tembur (Diospyros melanoxylon), Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), Shirish

(Ablizzia lebbek), Bahava (Cassia fistula), Madbel (Combretum ovulifolium), Dead Umbar

(Ficus heterophylla), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Moin (Lannea coromandelica) etc.

Scrub and grasses covers vast area of south and central parts of the study area,

because it receives fever amount of rainfall. Flood plain of Tapi and valley fills of her

tributaries are principally occupied by the agriculture. Nim, Pimple, Mango, Vad, Chinch,

Hivar, Bor, Acacia are distributed sparsely in the cultivated areas.

2.9 CULTURAL FEATURES:

Paramount cultural features of the study area discussed below are population, land

use/ land cover, agriculture and transportation.

2.9.1 Population:

As per 2001 Census population size of study area was 1707947. Dhule district covers

2.62 % geographical area and 1.8% population of Maharashtra State. The district has

registered 15.93 % population growth during last decade (1991-2001). As district headquarter

includes itself in tehsil, Dhule tehsil constitutes highest 42% of district population, while

Shindkheda tehsil comprises only 17 % of district population. Population density of the

district is 212 per sq. km. as compare to the state average 314 per sq. km. The total

population of the district residing in rural is 74 % where as 26 % is in the urban area. The

schedule caste and schedule tribe population of the district is 1.09 lakh (6.39%) and 4.44 lakh

(25.97%) respectively. The district is having 71.06 % literacy in general, along with 81.4 %

male and 61.4 % female literates. As per the census of 2001 the total working population is

40.01 %. About 70.5 % working population is engaged in agricultural activities. Out of these

2.9 % in trade and 26.6 % are working in secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic

activities. There are 1.84 lakh families below poverty line. Per-capita income of the district is

Rs.18, 560 as compare to Rs.29, 085 of the state.

2.9.2 Land Use/ Land cover:

In the strict sense land cover is used to describe vegetation and manmade features.

Physical, cultural, social and economic factors have their collective repercussions on the land

use/land cover pattern of the Dhule district. Fig. No. 2.6 shows land use/land cover as

appeared in the IRS-P3 FCC satellite image. The land use/land cover of the district is divided

in to eight sections. Table No. 2.5 exhibits Land use categories and the area occupied by them

respectively. About 5258.37 sq. km. of land means 65.22 % of the study area is under

agricultural use. It pervades the settlements lying in the river valleys, plains and foot hill

zones of Satpura, Dhanora and Galna Ranges. In fact, actual forest is standing on only 5.22 %

area. Barren land and rocky surface has been

Table No.2.5 Land Use/ Land Cover Pattern of Dhule District

Sr. No. Land Use /Land Cover Type Area Sq. km. Area %

1 Built up Land 100.67 1.25

2 Agricultural Land 5258.37 65.22

3 Forest Deciduous 420.95 5.22

4 Forest Scrub 1334.06 16.55

5 Barren Land 686.86 8.52

6 Barren Rocky 82.72 1.03

7 Water Bodies Rivers/ Streams/ Canal 130.10 1.61

8 Water Bodies Reservoirs/ Lakes/ Ponds 49.36 0.61

Total Geographical Area 8063.11 100.00

Source: Computed by Researcher.

observed over considerable area i. e. 686.86 and 82.72 sq. km. Water bodies appeared on 2.22

% area of the district.

2.9.3 Agriculture:

Agriculture is main occupation of the people in the district. In year 2008-09 total area

available for cultivation was 4.59 lakh ha. It is 62.59% of total geographical area of the

district but only 80% of cultivable area was under cultivation. The total net sown area in the

district was 3.672 lakh ha. of which about 22984 ha. sown more than once. More than 80%

area of the district exclusively comes under rain fed cropping. The total area under kharip

crop is 356900 ha. while 32900 ha. of land is under rabbi crop. The area under summer crop

is 8100 ha. According to Kharip cropping pattern of the district, the cotton occupies an area

of 84364 ha. , which is 18.38% of total cropped area. Other major crops of the kharip season

are Jowar 21169 ha, Bajara 26742 ha, maize 26211 ha, Cereals 45296 ha, Sugarcane 5747 ha,

oil seeds 18766 ha. An area of 190947 ha has been brought under food grain crops. Rabbi

Jowar, wheat, gram are some of the important crops grown in the rabbi season. The area

under wheat was 11322 ha. followed by ground-nut 10438 ha, gram 4337 ha, rabbi Jowar

3483 ha.

Agriculture in the study area is supported by the various means of irrigation. Dug

wells, tube wells and surface irrigation serve to irrigate total 57372 ha area. In 2009-10 an

area of 53372 ha was irrigated by dug wells and tube wells while 4000 ha by surface

irrigation. Cotton, sugarcane, gram, chilly, vegetables, fruits, onion, groundnut etc. are major

crops that require irrigation facility.

2.9.4 Transportation: -

Various means of transport have been developed within the district to facilitate goods

and passenger movement. It is served by roadways, railways and airways.

Roadways: Roads are the prominent means of transportation in the study area. About 95%

villages are linked by tarred roads up to March 2009. Total length of roads within the district

is 5548 km. up to 31st March 2010. Mumbai-Agra National Highway (NH3) is the most

important road passing through Dhule, Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil. About 107 km. part of

it lies within district. This road is being converted into four lane highway. Surat-Nagpur

National Highway (NH8), runs east-west and passes through Dhule and Sakri Tehsil. It

connects the district with Gujarat state. Dhule, headquarter of the district is located at the

crossing of these two national highways. Another Burhanpur-Ankaleshwar Highway passes

through Shirpur tehsil. Two major state highways serve remaining part of the district. One of

them connects Shirpur with Shahada and Chopada, while other joins Amalner, Betavad,

Shindkheda, Dondaicha and Nandurbar.

Railways: The district has two rail routes. Surat- Bhusawal line of Western Railway passes

through Shindkheda tehsil. Betavad, Nardana, Shindkheda and Dondaicha are important

stations along this route. The electrification of this route is completed but conversion into

double lane is in progress. Dhule - Chalisgaon Railway was started on 15th Aug 1900.

Chalisgaon - Dhule broad gauge railway connects Dhule city with Mumbai-Bhusawal-Delhi

route. It is a single lane about 57 km. long.

Airways: There are two aerodromes available in the district. One is located beside Gondur

village, 5 km. west of Dhule city. It is owned by Maharashtra Government. Another is

constructed by Shirpur Gold Refineries Limited. It is about 10 km. north-west of Shirpur,

near Dahivad village. Both aerodromes are not provided by regular services. Only take off

and landing facilities are available at both places.

Chapter: - 3

SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

3.1 SURFACE WATER RESOURCES:

Generally, treasures of the waters of any natural or administrative domain are divided

into two forms – Surface and Groundwater. Availability of water resources primarily depends

upon the amount of rainfall received by the study area. Secondly, soil type, lithology, slope,

morphometry also specify the amount water through these resources. The surface water is

feasible through rivers, streams, lakes, tanks and reservoirs. Of all the resources of fresh

water, rivers and streams are the most important because their water is very quickly

renewable and they are the most easily accessible largest source of water (Nag, 2003). From

the ancient times, rivers have been the cradles of civilization. Most civilizations have sprung

up in fertile river valleys, which provided freshwater, an essential requisite for the growth of

settlements (Shankar et al, 2004).

3.1.1 Water Available in the River Basins:

India is blessed with boons of many rivers. The Tapi river is second largest west

flowing river of the peninsular India. The river Tapi takes its origin from Multai in Baitul

district of Madhya Pradesh and trespasses into the Dhule district near Piloda village of

Shirpur tehsil. It runs from east to west and apportioned the district into various

physiographic and geohydrological units. About 61.1 km course of it lies within the boundary

of Dhule district. Gradient of Tapi river within district is 1.04 m/km. Evidence of several

floods occurs in the revenue records. Before 1986 Tapi river was perennial, but thereafter it

became non-perennial because of groundwater level is declined and water supply for the

domestic and lifting of water for irrigation purposes has increased tremendously. It becomes

dry after monsoon season every year. The Tapi basin though extensively cultivated is one of

the poorly irrigated tracts of the country (Rao, 1975). At present four barrages namely,

Piloda, Sulawde, Sarangkheda and Prakasha are constructed across the Tapi river. Only

Sulvade barrage lies within the study region while other are located in the downstream and

upstream side. Table No.3.1 bespeaks the major tributaries of the Tapi river within the district

(also refer Fig. No. 2.4). Almost the entire district is criss-crossed by rivers and streams. There

are six main tributary river basins in the district which occupy about 83 % of total area of the

district. Catchment of the Tapi river within study region can be

Table No.3.1 Rivers at a glance – Dhule District

Sr. No. River

Source Height

m.

Source Point

Mouth Height

m.

Total Length

km.

Total Catchment

sq.km.

Gradient m/km.

1 Tapi 752 Multai (M.P.) 00 723 65,145 1.04

2 Bori 680 Chirai 139 138 2580 3.84

3 Aner 800 Gajria Khera (M.P.)

136 88 1702 7.41

4 Panzara 1058 Shenavd 131 136 3257 6.71

5 Burai 705 Pinjarzadi 129 77 1419 7.33

6 Arunavati 640 Jirpan (M.P.) 127 69 738 7.26

7 Amravati 480 Thanepada 114 55 789 4.92

8 Kan 700 Hanvatpada 400 41 650 7.31

Source: - Computed by Author

divided into two parts; tributaries drains from Satpura Ranges and tributaries drains from

Sahyadri and its spurs.

A. Tributaries Draining from Satpura Ranges: This part of the catchment is located to

the north of Tapi river. The catchment and the length of these tributaries are relatively

smaller than the tributaries coming from the south. Aner and Arunavati are only major

streams joining from the north.

a) Aner River: Aner has its fountain head near Gajria Khera village of Barwani district

in Madhya Pradesh on the slopes of Satpura. Initially it flows through Madhya

Pradesh and then enters in Maharashtra forming border of Jalgaon and Dhule district.

It drains for the total distance of 88 km. Gradient of Aner river is 7.41 m/km. The dam

is constructed across the Aner river just inside the border of Maharashtra. It has

proved its importance from the irrigation point of view to Shirpur tehsil. Aner river

merges into Tapi river near village Piloda of Shirpur tehsil.

b) Arunavati River: This is the most important tributary after Aner river from the

northern catchment. Its major catchment part lies in the Shirpur tehsil. Arunavati river

provides water for irrigation and domestic purposes to Shirpur tehsil. It has its source

from the slopes of Satpura ranges at an elevation of 640 m. near Jirapan village in

Barwani district of Madhya Pradesh. It flows for the distance of 69 km. and joins Tapi

river near village Vanaval in Shirpur tehsil. Gradient of Arunavati river is 7.26 m/km.

Ambad, Jirbhavi, Chondi, Chul, Kunjal, Lendi nala etc. are significant tributaries of

the Arunavati river. Beside these Koradi nadi is minor stream that drains from the

slopes of Satpura hills.

B) Tributaries Drains from Sahyadri and Its Spurs: This part of the catchment lies to the

south of Tapi river and covers about 75% area of the district. Dhule, Sakri and

Shindkheda tehsil comprise the southern catchment of the Tapi river in the Dhule district.

The leading tributaries are Panzara, Burai, Amravati and Bori.

a) Panzara: Panzara is the most important left bank tributary of the Tapi river within the

district, with respect to length, catchment area and runoff. It begins from Sahyadri

spurs near village Shenvad at an altitude of 1058 m. above msl. Akkalpada dam is

under construction close to village Akkalpada in Dhule tehsil and will be completed

very soon. Historical and very famous Phud System of Irrigation on the Panzara river

irrigates thousands of acres of land in Sakri, Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils. It travels a

distance of 136 km. before it merges into the Tapi river near Mudavad village in

Shindkheda tehsil at the height of 131 m. above msl. Gradient of Panzara river is 6.71

m/km.

b) Amravati: Amravati river rises in the vicinity of Thanepada village in Nandurbar

district at an altitude of 480 m. It has a short course of only 55 km. and joins Tapi

river near village Daul in Shindkheda tehsil. Gradient of Amaravati river is 4.92

m/km.

c) Burai: Pinjarzadi is the village in Sakri tehsil from where Burai river takes its

fountain at an altitude of 705 m. above msl. It meets Tapi river near Sulvade in

Shindkheda tehsil. The total length of this stream is 77 km. Gradient of Burai river is

7.33 m/km. A medium project is constructed across the river at Phofade village in

Sakri tehsil.

d) Bori: Source of Bori river occurs west of Chirai Bari near Chirai village at an

altitude of 680 m. It takes its source in Nasik district and then it enters in Dhule

district for short length and again in Jalgaon district. Total length of this stream is

138 km. Gradient of Bori river is 3.84 m/km. Finally it joins Tapi river at Bohara

village in Amalner tehsil. A medium project is constructed on this river near

Tamaswadi village of Parola tehsil, Jalgaon district. Near about 30 villages of the

Jalgaon and Dhule district depend on this project for drinking water purpose.

3.1.2 Medium Irrigation Projects:

There is no single major irrigation project within the study area, while 12 medium

irrigation projects have been constructed across Tapi river, its tributaries and other streams

(Fig. No. 3.1). The gross command area under all the irrigation projects is 77149.23 ha. and

net irrigable area is around 57854 ha. Details of these projects have been discussed as below:

a) Kanoli Project: It is located near Nandale village in Dhule tehsil across Kanoli river.

It was completed in year 1927. The height of this dam is 24.5 m. and having total

storage capacity of 11.9 M. Cu. M. The gross command area of this project is 1619.17

ha. with 1363 ha. cultivable area.

b) Panzara Project: This project is constructed near Pimpalner town of Sakri tehsil. It

was completed in 1979 with total expenditure of Rs. 319.06 lakh. Height of the dam is

33.6 m. and canals of 28.20 km. have been completed. The project has storage capacity

of 43.42 M. Cu. M. with gross command area of 6093.12 hectors and about 10708

hectors area is under irrigation.

c) Malangaon Project: It is located near Malangaon village of Sakri tehsil across Kan

river. It was completed in year 1969. Total cost of the project was Rs. 74.21 lakh. The

height of the dam is 23.71 m.. The project is designed for the gross command area of

2877 hectors and serves 1587 hectors for irrigation.

d) Burai Project: Village Phofade is the nearest settlement to Burai project in Sakri

tehsil. It was ready to serve in year 1984 at the cost of Rs.884 lakh. The length and

height of the dam is 888 m. and 30.6 m. respectively. The gross storage of the dam is

14.21 M. Cu. M. It irrigates net area of 2161 hectors. The length of canal is 16.4 km.

e) Jamkhedi Project: This project is constructed across Jamkhedi Nala in Sakri tehsil at

the cost of Rs. 3527.2 lakh. About 19.91 sq. km. area serves as catchment for the

project and 281 hectors of land is occupied by the back water. Gross storage of the

dam is 13.28 M. Cu. M. which irrigates 2750 hectors of land with the help of 18 km.

long canal.

f) Karvand Project: This project is located 9 km. north of Karvand village in Shirpur

tehsil. It was materialized in year 1969 across Arunavati river. At that time the cost of

the project was Rs.169 lakh. Height of the dam is 36.27 m. and length is 1.357 km.

Gross command area is 8266 ha. while net irrigable area is4534 hectors. Total length

of canals is 24.28 km.

Table No. 3.2 Salient Features of Medium Irrigation Projects in Dhule District.

Name of Dam

Catchment Area sq.

km.

Gross Storage M.Cu.

M.

Area under Submergence

ha.

Gross Command Area ha.

Net Irrigable Area ha.

Length of

Canal km.

1) Kanoli (Dhule)

603.96 11.9 178 1619 1363 14.80

2) Panzara (Sakri)

215.14 43.42 558.72 16093 10708 28.20

3) Malangaon (Sakri)

85.54 13.03 207.21 2877 1587 25.60

4) Burai (Sakri)

3140.29 21.33 300.2 4520 2161 16.40

5) Jamkhedi (Sakri)

90.91 13.28 281 7032 2750 18.00

6) Karvand (Shirpur)

158 21.12 563 8266 4534 24.28

7) Aner (Shirpur)

12.39 103.56 793 8813 7180 20.00

8) Sonvad (Shindkheda)

128 17.52 467.3 3542 2147 7.60

9) Sulwade (Shindkheda)

52149 65.06 1260 5833 7560 0.00

10) Shewade (Shindkheda)

465.41 36.93 982.65 9536 7851 31.44

11) Amaravati (Shindkheda)

341.76 27.78 553.4 40.94 32.92 14.50

12) Lower Panzara (Sakri)

777.77 109.31 1406 12519 9980 30.00

Total --- 480.61 --- 77149.23 57854 ---

Source: Irrigation Department and Zilla Parishad, Dhule.

g) Aner Project: This is the unique project located on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon

district near Mahadeo Dondawada village of Shirpur tehsil. It was completed in 1979.

The cost of the project was Rs.1328.22 lakh. The length and height of the dam are

2.125 km. and 49 m.. Gross storage of the dam is 103.45 M. Cu. M. which irrigates

7180 ha. of agricultural land through 20 km. long canal. (Photo No. 17)

h) Sonvad Project: This is one of the recent medium irrigation projects of the district. It

is located in Dhule tehsil near village Dongargaon. The cost of the project was Rs.

2880 lakh. The height and length of the Sonvad dam is 16.5 m. and 512.2 m.

respectively. Gross storage of the dam is 17.52 M. Cu. M. Gross command area is

5833 ha. and net irrigable area is 756 hectors.

i) Sulvade Project: Sulvade project is actually barrages constructed across Tapi river

near Sulvade village of Shindkheda tehsil. It is constructed in 2008 at cost of Rs.

694804 lakh. The height and length of the project is 133 m. and 500 m. respectively.

Gross storage of the project is 6.506 M. Cu. M. It irrigates 20 villages of Shindkheda

tehsil and 11 villages of Shirpur tehsil covering 7560 ha. of agricultural land. ( Photo

Nos. 14 and 15)

j) Shevade Project: It is under construction and likely to completed across Buari river.

Shevade is the nearest settlement to the project in Shindkheda tehsil. Total expenditure

of the project was Rs. 9843.71 lakh. The height of the dam is 28 m.. The length of

proposed canals is 31.44 km. to serve 36.92 M. Cu. M. water to irrigate 7851 ha. of

land. About 5980 ha. of land will be submerged due to the project.

k) Amaravati Project: This dam is located in Shindkheda tehsil and completed in 2007.

Total height of the dam is 17.90 m. and 25.68 M. Cu. M. of water is stored to irrigate

3292 ha. of agricultural land. This project is located in the most drought prone part of

the district.

l) Lower Panzara: Project: This project lies within the boundaries of Sakri tehsil. It

was completed in 2008 at the cost of Rs. 13140.19 lakh. The height of the dam is 31.18

m. and 30 km. long canal to distribute 107.79 M. Cu. M. of water to 9980 hectors of

agricultural land. Near about 6191 ha. of land is occupied by the back water of the

project. (Photo No. 16)

3.1.3 Minor Irrigation Projects:

Origin of Minor irrigation schemes have found in Five-Year Plan after independence

as a part of systematic development. It comprises all groundwater and surface water irrigation

schemes having cultivable command area up to 2000 Ha. Such projects have been

considerably contributed towards the rural development and employment even in hard rock

areas. Sometimes available surface water cannot be used for irrigation through construction

of flow irrigation schemes because of undulating physiography but surface water lift

irrigation schemes providebetter solution. Minor irrigation schemes aim at groundwater

development. In case of surface flow minor irrigation schemes, water reservoirs are created

by constructing bunds across depressions in undulating terrains. These are provided with

spillway for overflowing excessive rain water during rainy season and sluice gates for

releasing controlled quantities of water to canals. The most important things to be considered

before constructing minor irrigation scheme are the catchment area draining into the reservoir

and the amount of rainfall in the catchment area.

I. Percolation Tank:

Percolation tanks are generally earthen dams provided with masonry structure for

spillway. These are the most common structures in India in order to augment the groundwater

reservoir both in alluvial as well as hard rock aquifers. It is an artificial water body,

constructed in highly permeable land and fractured and weathered rocks, so that surface

runoff is made to percolate and enrich the groundwater storage. Second to third order streams

are ideal for construction of Percolation tank. Total number of percolation tanks in Dhule

district is 384 having total storage capacity of 15601.45 TCM.

Table No. 3.3 Tehsil wise distribution of Minor Irrigation Projects in Dhule District.

Structure No. and Capacity

Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total

Percolation Tank

No. 129 135 57 63 384

Storage (TCM)

15601.45 19049.49 9793.00 9425.00 39827.94

Irrigation (ha)

4268.21 3780.00 1834.00 2352.00 12234.21

K. T. Weir

No. 8 5 5 4 22

Storage (TCM)

--- --- --- 164 164

Irrigation (ha)

351 93 351 171 966

Storage Tank

No. 200 452 94 67 813

Storage (TCM)

2637.79 6205.37 1499.19 781.5 1123.82

Irrigation (ha)

2080.82 3150.43 787.38 621.2 6639.80

Village Tank

No. 61 72 102 67 302

Storage (TCM)

1782.52 2470.00 2061.43 199.00 6512.95

Irrigation (ha)

400.60 373.00 472.54 414.00 1660.14

Source: Irrigation Department, Zilla Parishad, Dhule.

It irrigates 4268.21 ha agricultural land. Distribution of the percolation tanks is uneven in the

study area. Maximum number of percolation tanks is observed in Shindkheda tehsil i. e. 136.

It serves to irrigate 19049.49 ha land. Dhule district stands on second position with 129

percolation tanks. It is used to irrigate 15601.45 ha land. Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil

consists of 57 and 63 percolation tanks which irrigate 1834 ha and 2352 ha land respectively.

II. Kolhapur Type Weir (K. T. Weir):

The Kolhapur type Weir (K. T. weir) is popular in our country. It is a type of weir

constructed across small streams to store water. It is provided with gates which are open

during the monsoon and closed at the end of the monsoon season. In most cases weirs take

the form of a barrier across the river that causes water to pool behind the structure, but allows

water to flow over the top. Fever numbers of K. T. weirs are constructed in all tehsil of study

area. In all 22 K. T. weirs are found which are useful to irrigate only 164 ha of land in

Shirpur tehsil. (Photo No. 18)

III. Storage and Village Tanks:

Tanks are part of our ancient tradition and culture. After independence government

has ignored the management and repairing to keep them in a good state. Nowadays village

and storage tanks are mainly earthen structures. They are meant for harvesting and preserving

rainfall and surface runoff for later use, mainly for agriculture and drinking water, but also

for sacred bath and ritual. The village tanks are a major source of traditional irrigation for the

poor living in the Deccan Plateau region of India (Ananda et al 2006). Almost all village

tanks in the Deccan Plateau regions are due undulating terrain and the impervious hard rock,

which has limitations for groundwater extraction for irrigation. The village tanks also

maintain the groundwater level. From the economic point of view, the village and storage

tanks contribute significantly in agriculture and inland fishery production. Numerous storage

tank schemes have been completed in Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Both tehsils comprises 200

and 452 storage tanks respectively. Sizable agricultural land has been brought under

irrigation due to these storage tanks, admeasured 208.82 ha in Dhule tehsil and 3150.43 ha in

Sakri tehsil. While Shindkheda tehsil consist of 94 village tanks which is capable to store

1499.19 TMC water and irrigates 787.38 ha land. Shirpur tehsil has only 67 village tanks that

irrigate 621.17 ha land. Total 302 storage tanks have been constructed in the study area with

gross storage capacity of 6512.95 TCM and irrigates 1660.14 ha agricultural land.

Shindkheda tehsil possesses 102 storage tanks, Sakri 72, Shirpur 67 while Dhule tehsil has

only 62 storage tanks.

3.1.4 YIELD AND UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES:

The territory of the Dhule district receives input in the form of rainfall during June to

September from south-west monsoon winds. The yield of rainfall is the total quantity of

surface water available for utilization within given territory. Calculation of yield requires

runoff. It is amount of water leftover after evaporation, infiltration, interception etc. flows

through rivers and streams in the form of runoff. Runoff is defined as the portion of the

rainfall appearing as river or stream flow (Todd, 2003). C. C. Ingliss and A. J. Disouza

(1930) made a critical study of floods and run-off of catchments of the Bombay Deccan

based on records of 25 years of river and rain gauges in the Bombay Presidency. The main

rivers considered were Tapi, Narmada, Bhima, Nira, Godavari, Krishna, Ghatprabha and

Vardha. They obtained two equations in connection with rainfall and run-off to calculate

runoff of these rivers. They are as follows.

i. Ghat formula was derived for the large catchments having rainfall between 200” to 30”.

Run-off = (0.85 x P) – 12”----------------------------------------------------------(1)

ii. While Non-Ghat formula was designed for the catchments which are away from the

hills

Run-off = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------(2)

As most rivers in the Bombay Presidency except Tapi and Narmada rises in Western

ghat, non-ghat formula is employed to calculate run-off and yield of Tapi, Narmada rivers

and their tributaries.

Yield Calculation of the study area is as follows:

Yield of rainfall = R × 2.3232 × Catchment Area --------------------------------------- (3)

Where R = Runoff in inches. It is calculated by using C. C. Inglis’s (1930) non-ghat formula

(Tapi and Narmada Basin) for Bombay Catchment.

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Where P = is average annual rainfall in inches.

Yield for Shirpur Tehsil considering 50% dependable rainfall can be calculated as following

First we will calculate runoff using equation (2)

R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P

P = 633.55/25.4 = 25.18”

R = (25.18 – 7 )/100 x 25.18

R = 4.577”

Now yield is calculated using equation (1)

Yield = 4.577 × 2.3232 × 236453 / 1.61 × 1.61 × 100

Yield = 9699.75 M. C. ft.

Yield = 9699.75/35.314

Yield = 274.692 M. Cu. m.

Similarly considering 50% dependable rainfall of each four tehsils of Dhule district, the yield

of rainfall is calculated as above.

Table No. 3.4 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall.

Sr. No.

Name of Tehsil

Yield in M. Cu. M. (Based on 35 years average

annual Rainfall)

Yield in M. Cu. M. (Based on 100 years

average annual Rainfall)

1 Dhule 182.645 182.031

2 Sakri 179.101 164.328

3 Shindkheda 92.811 106.009

4 Shirpur 289.269 274.692

Total: 743.826 727.060

Source: Computed by Researcher

The pattern of utilization of water is fast changing and the requirements are increasing

due to changing lifestyle of people. (Jog et al, 2003). Since our water supplies are limited,

though recurring from year to year, our income is fixed. It therefore, becomes imperative to

study the present and future demands of water for various uses (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). India’s

growing water shortage despite its being one of the wettest country in the world is worrisome

(Sing, R. B. and Gandhi, N. 1999).

Table No.3.5 Yield and Utilization of Water Resources.

Sr. No.

Particulars Quantity of Water

1 Total Yield Available in Dhule District (Based on 35 years average annual rainfall)

743.826 M. Cu. M.

2 Utilization for Irrigation 2326.155 M. Cu. M.

3 Water Supply (Domestic Use) 34.923 M. Cu. M.

4 Water Required for Livestock 11.240 M. Cu. M.

5 Industrial Use 5 percent of Total Yield 37.191 M. Cu. M.

6 Total Utilization 2409.509 M. Cu. M.

7 Total Yield –Total Utilization = –1665.687M. Cu. M.


Discussion of the water resources of any country conventionally begins with either a

description of the size of population compared with the availability of amounts of land and

water, or a description of population distribution and rainfall /water availability figures or an

inventory of available water resources (Swain, 1998a, 1998b). The study area receives

input in the form of rainfall and excess input flows through streams and main river

channel and further flows out of the district in the form of runoff.

According to above calculation the calculated yield of rainfall for Dhule district is

743.826 M. Cu. M. (based on 35 years average annual rainfall) and 727.060 M. Cu. M.

(based on 106 years average annual rainfall). Total utilization of water under major heads

within the district is 2409.509 M. Cu. M. , which means that 1665.687 M. Cu. M. water is

deficit in the district. Though there is deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water, some of the

water may be received from upstream catchments of the rivers such as Aner, Arunavati and

Tapi. Groundwater also contributes towards domestic and crop water requirement. Therefore

proper management of water resources is necessary to utilize total water available through

rainfall and runoff. Existing medium and small irrigation projects can be used to store excess

flood water. Beside various methods of artificial recharge such as percolation tank, village

pond, field pond, K. T. weir, recharge through dug and tube wells etc. can adopted to

augment water resources.

Utilization under Main Headings:

Water is the primary need of the all living organisms. It is also necessary for various

human activities. The quantity of the water required by a society depends upon the size of

population and their economic activities (Borse, 2006). Amount of water utilized by the

people also varies in accordance with level of economic development and standard of living

of the people. The present and future use of water resources must be known and organize for

better development and management. Hence data regarding the amount of water utilized in

various sectors is collected for further analysis. Water requirements (WR) of the district can

be grouped in following categories.

i. Domestic Water Requirement

ii. Agricultural Water Requirement

iii. Water Required for Livestock

iv. Industrial Water Requirement

i. Domestic Water Requirement:

Water supply to the population for drinking and domestic purposes is of paramount

importance. In general people consume 5% of total volume available water for drinking and

domestic purpose in given area. However demand for water is increasing day by day along

with economic and urban growth. Many scholars and organizations have laid down the norms

for water supply in rural and urban habitats. Water requirement is designated as 70 lit. /

person / day for urban and 40 lit. / person / day for rural areas. Present and projected

population has been used to calculate current and future domestic water requirement of the

study area. In year 2001 total domestic requirement of water was 11.39 M. Cu. M. for 445885

urban populations. The urban population is estimated for the year 2010 is 522228 and

projected annual water requirement will be 13.34 M. Cu. M. While in year 2025 and 2050 the

total urban population will be 662361 and 982680 which will require 16.92 M. Cu. M. and

25.11 M. Cu. M. water respectively (Table No. 3.6).

Water requirement for rural population has been also calculated. In year 2001 the total

rural population was 1262062 and the annual requirement was 18.43 M. Cu. M. The

projected rural population of the district for the year 2010 is 1478151 persons which will

require 21.58 M. Cu. M. of water per year. While the rural population of the district will

reach up to 1874792 and 2781441 will utilize 27.37 M. Cu. M. and 2001. 40.61 M. Cu. M. in

year 2025 and 2050 respectively (Table No. 3.7). Projected population of the

Table No. 3.6 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule District.

Water Requirement = 70 liters / person /day

Population Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total WR

M.Cu.M./yr

2001 61694 42436 0 341755 445885 ----- WR lit./day 4318580 2970520 0 23922850 31211950 11.39 2010 72257 49702 0 400269 522228 ----- WR lit./day 5057990 3479140 0 28018830 36555960 13.34 2025 91646 63038 0 507677 662361 ----- WR lit./day 6415220 4412660 0 35537390 46365270 16.92 2050 135967 93524 0 753189 982680 ----- WR lit./day 9517690 6546680 0 52723230 68787600 25.11

Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher

district for 2010 is 2000379; it needs 34.92 M. Cu. M. of water.As per international criterion

for classification when availability of water is less than 1700 cu. m./capita/year is considered

as water stressed. In India the water availability is 1000 cu. m./capita/year. This indicates that

70% of global area including large part of India will become water stressed by 2025.

Table No. 3.7 Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule District.

Water Requirement = 40 liters / person /day

Population Year

Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total WR

M.Cu.M./yr

2001 275859 245081 363092 378030 1262062 -----

WR lit./day 10314360 9803240 14523680 15121200 49762480 18.43

2010 323091 287043 425260 442757 1478151

WR lit./day 12923640 11481720 17010400 17710280 59126040 21.58

2025 409788 364068 539373 561563 1874792 -----

WR lit./day 16391520 14562720 21574920 22462520 74991680 27.37

2050 607962 540130 800214 833135 2781441 -----

WR lit./day 24318480 21605200 32008560 33325400 111257640 40.61

Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher

ii. Agricultural Water Requirement:

Water is a prime need of mankind and constitutes the very base of agriculture

Table No. 3.8 Agricultural Water Requirement in Dhule District.

W. R. = Water Requirement of crops in Ha/cm.

Crops Area W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total

Rice Ha. 100 0 0 12442 14 12456

WR 000' cu.m. --- 0 0 12442

0 140 124560

Wheat Ha. 45 1456 1370 6164 2331 11321

WR 000' cu.m. --- 6552 6165 27738 10490 50945

Kharip Jawar

Ha. 12 2181 6058 4 12926 21169

WR 000' cu.m. --- 2617 7270 5 15511 25403

Rabi Jawar

Ha. 18 1361 0 2122 0 3483

WR 000' cu.m. --- 2450 0 3820 0 6270

Bajara Ha. 12 3404 18283 1942 3112 26741

WR 000' cu.m. --- 4085 21940 2330 3734 32089

Maize Ha. 12 118 523 22369 3201 26211

WR 000' cu.m. --- 142 628 26843 3841 31453

Pulses Ha. 7 6286 13431 17049 8530 45296

WR 000' cu.m. --- 4400 9402 11934 5971 31707

Sugar- Ha. 149 1729 266 3545 207 5747

cane

WR 000' cu.m. --- 25762 3963 52821 3084 85630

Onion Ha. 45 84 2231 3523 2225 8063

WR 000' cu.m. --- 378 10040 15854 10013 36284

Cotton Ha. 40 31311 45984 349892 40853 468040

WR 000' cu.m. --- 125244 183936 1399568 163412 1872160

Oil Seeds

Ha. 14 2569 6850 6879 2468 18766

WR 000' cu.m. --- 3510 9590 9631 3455 26272

Chili Ha. 37 242 1099 1077 942 3360

WR 000' cu.m. --- 895 4066 3985 3485 12432

Total Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 2326.155


(Nasir, Z. A. 1999). It is the prime impute for agriculture. Agricultural water requirement is

also termed as crop water requirement. Jawar, Bajara, Cotton, Sugarcane, Pulses, Banana, Oil

seeds, Chilly etc. are major crops of the study area. Water requirement of these crops is

determined by crop type and season. Sugarcane and banana consumes highest amount of

water. Water utilized by various crops have been calculated and summarized in Table No.

3.8.

Total area under jawar is 24652 ha. grown in kharip and rabbi requires 31.673 M. Cu.

M. water. About 32.089 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized by Bajara cultivated in 26741 ha. of

land. Agricultural land occupied by Pulses is 45296 ha. which consume 31.707 M. Cu. M.

water. Sugarcane is cultivated over 5747 ha. and requires about 85.630 M. Cu. M. During

last few years area under cotton cultivation has been increased substantially due to illness of

sugar factories. Hence cotton ranks first among cultivated crops in the Dhule district. About

468040 ha. of land is engaged in cotton cultivation. It requires 1872.160 M. Cu. M. of water

which is 80.048% of the total crop water requirement. In all total 2326.155 M. Cu. M. of

water is utilized for all crops during different seasons.

iii. Water Requirement for Livestock:

Table No.3.9 points out tehsil wise livestock population and its water requirement.

Cows, buffalos, Sheeps, goats, horses and poultry are important domestic animals. Total

population of cows is 297914 whose water requirement is 7.42 M. Cu. M. The total number

of buffaloes is 6197 which require 0.156 M. Cu. M. water. The total population of sheeps

and goats within the study area is 562188, which consume 2.79 M. Cu. M. of water. Houses,

poultry and other animals are 10831, 523270 and 53801 which require 0.179 M. Cu. M. ,

0.0592 M. Cu. M. and 0.964 M. Cu. M. In all total animals require 11.240 M. Cu. M. of

water per year.

iv. Industrial Water Requirement:

Almost all industries utilize water. Primarily it is necessary for cooling, washing,

processing and disposal of waste material. It is also consumed by workers and staff for

drinking and washing purpose. About 160 small and medium scale industries are located

within district. Most of the industries are situated in M.I.D.C. Dhule campus. Cotton mill, oil

mill, ginning and pressing mills and textile industries are located in Shirpur tehsil. Only one

sugar factory, one cotton mill and two starch factory are in working condition within district

while others are closed due to various reasons. There are several cold storages located at

Dhule, Shirpur, Dondaicha and Sakri which require voluminous amount of water. All

industries in the study area

Table No. 3.9 Tehsil wise Livestock Water Requirement in Dhule District.

WR=Water Requirement lit/day

Animals W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total

Cows 58334 43214 127240 69126 297914

WR 68.25 3981296 2949356 8684130 4717850 20332630

Buffalos 772 1251 257 3917 6197

WR 69.20 34740 56295 11565 176265 278865

Sheeps 4086 16195 148912 72289 241482

WR 13.60 55570 220252 2025203 983130 3284155

Goats 58300 73908 99780 88718 320706

WR 13.60 792880 1005149 1357008 1206565 4361602

Horses 213 489 3395 6734 10831

WR 45.50 9692 22250 154473 306397 492811

Donkey 57 148 159 168 532

WR 35.50 1995 5180 5565 5880 18620

Poultry 65209 80052 217224 160785 523270

WR 0.31 20215 24816 67340 49843 162214

Other 9466 11404 12856 20075 53801

WR 49.13 465065 560279 631615 986285 2643243

Water Requirement lit./day 31574140

Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 11.240

Livestock Data Source: District Statistical Abstract-2011

consume about 37.191 M. Cu. M. water per year. Therefore, sufficient and casual supply of

water should be borne in mind before erection of industries.

3.2 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES:

Sub-surface or Groundwater occurs in pore spaces of the unconsolidated alluvial

deposits and also in the pores, joints and fractures in the Basalt. Groundwater is commonly

understood to mean water occupying all voids within a geological stratum (Rai, V. K., et al

2003). Groundwater is that water beneath the ground surface contained in void spaces (Han,

Dawei, 2010). Dug and tube wells form the major source of domestic use and irrigation in

Dhule district. Rural and urban population, irrigation, industries depends upon groundwater.

Ecologically groundwater is also important because it sustains rivers, wetlands and lakes.

Usually the significance of groundwater for ecosystems is often overlooked, even by

biologists and ecologists.

Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource on the earth. However

over-use or overdraft of groundwater causes problems to human users and to the environment

also. The most evident problem is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing

wells. The water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive withdrawal of

groundwater and increase in number of wells. The rate of depletion is accelerating day by

day. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater-related

subsidence and saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. Total replenishable groundwater potential

of the district has been estimated by Groundwater Survey and Development Agency as

126147 ham.

3.2.1 Wells:

Water well is an excavation or structure created in the crust by digging, boring or drilling

in order to get groundwater. Wells forms chief source of water for domestic and irrigation

purpose in the study area. There are71407 irrigation wells in the Dhule district and 123 other

wells. The tube and dug wells both are used for irrigation in the study area. Tube wells are the

means of water abstraction in alluvial formation while dug wells are used in areas of hard rocks.

These wells are mostly unlined but also found lined as per the nature of the material. On an

average the diameter of the dug wells varies from 3 to 5 m. Now a days dry and unused dug

wells are reusing after making 125 to 200 mm drill hole at the their bottom. In Deccan Trap

country yield of large dug wells varies from 18.2 to 66.1 cum/day. Dug wells yields even more

which are locate along fracture zones, deeply weathered strata and low lying areas. Such wells

are observed in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. The depth of dug wells range from 6 m. to 16.7

m. in the area under focus. Numerous lined dug wells are found in the alluvial plain along both

banks of Tapi River in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. But these dug wells are dried up due to

lowering of water table hence such wells are abandoned. Some of them are being reused after

bore holes at their bottoms. The depth of such wells range from 25 to 50 m. below ground level.

Table No.3.10 Tehsil wise Distribution of Wells

Sr. No. Tehsil Area in Sq.

Km. No. of Wells Density per sq. km.

1) Dhule 1981.94 23695 11.95

2) Sakri 2416.11 21098 8.73

3) Shindkheda 1300.53 15162 11.66

4) Shirpur 2364.53 11452 4.85

Total 8063.11 71407 8.86

Source: M. S. E. D. Co. Dhule (2011).

Generally tube wells are suitable for alluvial areas. Tube wells are more used in

Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. These wells are located on north and south banks of Tapi

river. It has been learnt that tube wells are successful and high yielding. Yield of these wells

ranges from 45460 to 272460 lit/hr.

For the detail study of utilization of groundwater resources through dug wells and

tube wells, tehsil wise distribution of wells and their density is taken into consideration. Table

No. 3.10 represents area, number of wells and density of wells in the tehsils of study area.

The distribution of wells is highly uneven in the study area. It is consequences of geological

formation, properties of rocks, depth of weathering and availability of water. Dhule tehsil

records 23695 wells and area is 1981.94 sq. km. so density of wells is also high i. e. 11.96

wells per sq. km. Number of wells in Shindkheda tehsil are 15162 hence it also registered

high well density of 11.66 wells per sq. km. Sakri tehsil has medium density of 8.73. Total

number of wells being used for irrigation and drinking water purpose are 21098 and area of

the tehsil is the highest in district i. e. 2416.11 sq. km. At last Shirpur tehsil has lowest

number of wells and subsequently low well density of 4.84. It is because most of north and

north eastern part of the tehsil is hilly and under forest.

3.2.2 Groundwater Potential Zones:

A systematic planning of groundwater development using modern techniques is

essential for the proper utilization and management of this precious but shrinking natural

resource. With the advent of powerful and high speed personal computers, efficient

techniques for water management have evolved, of which Remote Sensing and GIS are of

great significance (Pradeep Kumar et al, 2010). Such techniques were employed by Mondal

et al (20028), Dibi, B. et al (2010), Pradeep Kumar et al (2010), Nag. S. K. and Lahiri,

Anindita (2011), Sitender and Rajeshwari (2011). Potential of groundwater resources in

Dhule district has been evaluated using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques. With the help of

Survey of India toposheets and Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2,3,4 false color image, various

thematic maps such as base map, geology map, drainage map, geomorphology map, slope

map, soil map, drainage density map, lineament, lineament density and land use/ land cover

map of the study area have been prepared using Arc GIS software. These thematic maps have

been integrated and appropriate weightage have been assigned according to its importance to

various factors controlling occurrence of groundwater (Fig. No. 3.3). The potential of

groundwater is demonstrated in five categories ranging from Very High to Very Low (Fig.

No. 3.4).

Table No.3.11 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps

Thematic Layer Class Groundwater Prospect

Weight Assigned

Geology River Alluvium Very Good 7 Deccan Trap Moderate 3

Drainage Density

0 – 1 Good 5 1 – 2 Good 4 2 – 3 Moderate 2 3 - 4 Poor 1

Soil Deep Black Soil Poor 1 Medium Black Soil Poor 2 Shallow Black Soil Good 3

Slope Level to Nearly Level (0–1%) Very good 6 Very Gently Sloping (1–3%) Good 5

Gently Sloping (3–5%) Moderate 3 Moderately Sloping (5–10%) Poor 2 Moderate Steeply Sloping (10–30%) Poor 1

Surface Water Body

< 75 m. Good 4 > 75 m. Poor 2

Geomorphology

Valley fill Very good 7 Alluvial Plain Good 6 Eroded Land Good 5 Highly Dissected Plateau Moderate 4 Medium Dissected Plateau Moderate 4 Un-dissected Plateau Poor 2 Western Ghat (Rocky Outcrop) Poor 1

Lineament Present Good 5 Absent Moderate 3

Land Use/ Land Cover

Agriculture Good 5 Scrub Land Good 4 Forest Very good 6 Water Body Good 3 Settlement Moderate 2 Bare land Poor 1

Lineament Density

0 – 0.40 – Low Poor 1 0.40 – 0.80 – Medium Moderate 3 0.80 – 1.36 – High Good 5

Source: Compiled by researcher.

I. Very High Water Potential Zone: From Table No. 3.12 is clear that about 1430.77 sq.

km. (17.74%) area of Dhule district has very high groundwater potential. Most portion of

very high groundwater potential zone discovered along course of the Tapi river and lower

reaches of its tributaries such as Aner, Arunavati, Burai, Panzara and Amaravati rivers.

While remaining part of it occurs in the form of small patches in Sakri, Dhule and

Shindkheda tehsils. Very high groundwater potential zones are coincides with alluvial

plain and areas of valley fills which is composed of relatively younger alluvium. It

consists of clay, silt, sand and boulders. This material of varying size increases the

porosity of the region. This is the most fertile tract of the study area yielding ample water,

hence intensively cultivated. Average yield of tube wells in this zone varies from 0.5 to

31.5 lps. (G.S.D.A.)/ 1600 to 2100 cum/day (Borse, 2006).

II. High Water Potential Zone: This zone constitutes about 28.76% area of the district.

Leading part of this zone appears along the Panzara river and its tributary Kan river in

Dhule and Sakri tehsils. Shirpur tehsil is also covered by the extensive patches of High

potential zones. It is piedmont zone of Satpura ranges covered by the eroded material.

This colluvial material is coarse, highly permeable and has high water potentiality. It is

also observed along courses of rivers such as Arunavati, Amaravati, Bori and Panzara in

Shirpur, Shindkheda, Dhule and Sakri tehsils respectively.

III. Moderate Water Potential Zone: Almost all tehsils exhibit moderate potential zones.

This zone comprehensively accounts for about 34.72% part of the study area. South

eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, south western part of Shindkheda tehsil and north eastern

as well as south western part of Sakri tehsil possesse moderate groundwater potential.

Moderate water potential zone can be observed in Shirpur tehsil in north and north eastern

hilly area. Yield of the wells range from 60 to 125 cum/day.

IV. Low Water Potential Zone: Groundwater potential along the southern part of Sakri

and Dhule tehsil is found to be low, which occupies 833.76 sq. km. area. Dhanora and

Galna hills in Sakri and Dhule tehsils have low groundwater potential. Small

patches of low water potential zones are scattered in Shindkheda tehsil. This is because

of elevated area with steep slopes and a veneer of weathered profile. In this zone basaltic

rocks are not subjected to erosion and weathering due to fever joints and cracks. Dug

wells of this zone yield 75 -95 cum/day (C. G. W. B.).

Table No. 3.12 Groundwater Potential Zones of Dhule District.

Sr. No. Category Area in sq. km. Area in percent

1 Very High Water Potential Zone 1430.77 17.74

2 High Water Potential Zone 2318.83 28.76

3 Moderate Water Potential Zone 2799.75 34.72

4 Low Water Potential Zone 833.76 10.34

5 Very Low Water Potential Zone 680.00 8.43

Total: - 8063.11 100.00

Source: Computed by Author.

V. Very Low Water Potential Zone: Western Ghat section in Sakri tehsil possesses very

low groundwater potential. This is because Western Ghat section is the most elevated, the

least weathered and highly dissected part of the study area. The hard basaltic rocks are

exposed at many places, which adversely affect porosity and provide very limited space

for groundwater. It is only 8.43% in areal extent of the district. Predominantly massive

Basalt of the Western Ghat yields 60 – 75 cum/day and dry up after rainy season.

3.2.3 Groundwater Resources Abstract:

Assessment of groundwater resources of the district has been gathered from GSDA

(Table No. 3.13). It provides tehsil wise data regarding groundwater recharge, draft,

discharge, development, development status, allocation etc. It has been observed that Sakri

tehsil has maximum About 196767 ha. area of suitable for groundwater recharge which is the

highest among all four tehsils. It is followed by Dhule 192626 ha, Shindkheda 131960 ha and

Shirpur 131960 ha. Total annual groundwater recharge of the district was 126147 ham. Sakri

and Dhule tehsils were contributed 39125 ham. and 38658 ham. of water to recharge aquifer.

The district as a whole discharge is 7546 ham. water annually. It is only 6 % of recharge.

Hence net 118601 ham. groundwater is available for various uses. Out of net balance 57821

ham. is being utilized for agriculture, domestic, industrial and other purposes. It means that

60780 ham. groundwater is balance. Therefore, stage of groundwater development within

district is 47 %. It is fortunate that the all four tehsils fall in the ‘safe’ category form

groundwater development point of view. Overall trend of groundwater table during pre-

monsoon period is falling while it is rising in post-monsoon time. As per GSDA 3575 ham.

groundwater is allocated for industries and domestic purposes while 57203 ham. is proposed

for the agricultural use.

Table No. 3.13 Tehsil-wise Groundwater Assessment (2008-09)

Sr. No.

Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District

1 Area Suitable for GW Recharge (ha)

182626 196767 131960 130779 642132

2 Total Annual GW Recharge (ham.) 38658 39125 20710 27654 126147

3 Natural Discharge (ham.) 2089 2698 1156 1003 7546

4 Net Annual GW Availability (ham.)

36569 36427 19554 26051 118601

5 Gross Draft 22799 18924 8293 7805 57821

6 Net GW Balance 13770 17503 11261 18246 60780

7 Stage of Development % 62 52 42 30 47

8

Water Table Trend

Pre-monsoon Falling Falling Falling Falling Falling

Post-monsoon Rising Rising Rising Rising Rising

9 Category of Tehsil Safe Safe Safe Safe Safe

10

For Year 2025 Domestic +Industrial

Allocation 836 1031 823 858 3575

Requirements 836 1031 823 858 3575

11 Net GW available for Irrigation (ham.) 12923 16387 10533 17360 57203

Source: - G. S. D. A.

Chapter: - 4

IMPACT OF GEOMORPHIC FACTORS ON WATER RESOURCES

Physiography, climate, geology and geomorphology play a key role in the evaluation

of the potential of water resources. In order to get veracious knowledge about the availability

of water resources, it is immense important to study the impact of these factors. Large part of

the study area is encompassed by Deccan basalt, while alluvium formation occupies the

central position. Nature of the aquifers is controlled by process of weathering, fracture, faults

and lineaments. Surface and sub-surface hydrological features such as geological structures,

lineaments, rock types, drainage density, water bodies and thickness of overburden weathered

material play an important role in groundwater occurrence in different geological formation

or aquifers. Following geomorphic factors are considered to perceive water resources within

the district:

4.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY:

Potential of water resources are restrained by physical features. Physiography refers to

the arrangement or portrait of the landforms of given area in a broad sense. Dhule district

exhibits varied physiographical features ranging from mountain ranges, hills, valleys, flood

plain, plateau etc. The area which is under focus can be divided into following physiographic

units:

4.1.1 Satpura, Dhanora and Galna Ranges:

Dhule district is bounded by Satpura ranges from the north while Danora and

Galna hills from south. Aner, Arunavati, Ambad, Kordi rivers have their fountain-head from

southern slopes of Satpura ranges and flows southward to join Tapi river. While Dhanora and

Galna hills forms the source regions of Panzara, Burai, Amaravati, Kan, Bori etc. Hence

these ranges are assumed as donor zone, these areas are poor in groundwater, because of

steep slope, thin layer of weathered material, absence of soil cover and degraded vegetation.

4.1.2 Flood Plain:

Flood plain occupies southern part of Shirpur tehsil and northern part of

Shindkheda tehsil. This formation is composed of the material deposited by Tapi and her

tributaries. It comprises clay, silt, sand, pebbles etc. This zone is nothing but a thick layer of

alluvium. Flood plain receives water from piedmont zone. So Tapi flood plain possesses a

good deal of groundwater resources. In general flood plain is suitable for percolation of

water. But impervious layer of yellow soil and hard pan of calcareous concretions are

prevalent at many places which affect vertical infiltration (Khanapurkar, 2010).

4.1.3 The Piedmont Zone / Talus and Scree Deposits:

Satpura Mountain consists of talus and scree. Locally it is also known as Bazada.

Thickness of this zones reaches up to 50 m. at many places. This formation comprises mainly

boulders, pebbles, coarse and fine sand as well as clay, which is poorly sorted and

unconsolidated. Hence it is highly porous and normally yields copious groundwater. At

present the dug wells and shallow tube wells are dry up (Khanapurkar, 2010).

4.1.4 The Deccan Plateau or Upland Region:

Considerable part of the Dhule district that lies to the south of Tapi river is

suffused by Deccan plateau. It is the part of Maharashtra plateau covered by lava flows. It is

rugged and undulating in nature. Deccan basalt is exposed at many places. This region is

traversed by streams and rivers such as Panzara, Burai, Amaravati, Bori, Kan etc. Numerous

dykes are learnt in this region. Upland region holds low to moderate groundwater depending

upon depth of weathering. Residual Hills are basically the hard rock left behind after erosion

has occurred. Subba Rao (2001) has also opined that residual hills are not suitable for

groundwater exploration because of their poor water storage capacity.

4.2 WEATHERING:

Weathering is decay and disintegration of solid rocks in situ. According to C.

D. Olliver (1969) weathering is the breakdown and alteration of minerals near the earth’s

surface to produce that are more in equilibrium with newly imposed physico-chemical

conditions (Savindra Sing, 1999). The process of weathering is of three types: (1) Physical or

Mechanical Weathering, (2) Chemical Weathering and (3) Biological Weathering. Whenever

hard rock such as Deccan Basalt matters, weathering processes have immense impact over

water resources. Large scale groundwater storage is provided by weathered rock volume, the

network of joints on accounts of cooling process, fractures and fissures that develop due to

earth movements that occurred from time to time as well those due to denudational processes

(Jagtap, 1984). The weathered and fractured zones forms groundwater potential zones

(Pradeep Kumar, 2010).

In order to get detailed information regarding water tables during pre-monsoon and

post-monsoon season as well as depth of weathering, alluvial deposition, depths of wells,

intensive field work was carried out comprising 114 observation wells. From present research

work it is revealed that Deccan basalt is subjected to weathering at various degrees. The

thickness of weathered material varies from 0.5 m. to 12.6 m. within study area. Weathered

profile is almost not found in Tapi valley because of excessive alluvial deposition. A thin

veneer of weathered material is learnt in hilly area, but as distance from the mountain crest

increases the depth of weathering increases. Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12m.),

Chinchwar (10.25 m.), Deshshirvade (12.6 m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.) are the prominent

examples of deep weathering. Weathered profile of near about half of observation wells is

less than 3 m. (Photo Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7)

4.3 SLOPE:

Slope is the degree or amount of inclination of ground surface. Slope is one of the

indicators for groundwater prospects. It controls the infiltration of water into subsurface. In

the gentle slope area, the surface runoff is slow allowing more time for rainwater to percolate,

whereas steep slope facilitates high runoff allowing less residence time for rainwater and

hence comparatively less infiltration (Pradeep Kumar et al, 2010).

Slopes which are convex tends to spread the over land and thus favors infiltration where as

slope which are concave promotes concentration of flow and linear runoff (Kirby, 1978). The

high potential zones correspond to the fracture valleys, valley fills, pediments and

denudational slope, which coincide with the low slope and high lineaments density areas. In

other words it is a measure of change in elevation. Topography determines the speed with

which the runoff will reach to the river. Rain that falls over steep mountainous areas will

certainly reach the river faster than the flat or gentle sloping areas.

In the present study, the area under focus is grouped into five classes according to the

degree of slope (Fig. 4.1). The areas having slope less than 50 are designated as nearly level

ground or very gentle slope. About 86.86% surface of the district is characterized by very

gentle slope which favors groundwater infiltration (Table No. 4.1). While 6.5% area lies in

between 50 to 100 which is known as moderate slope. Moderate steep and steep slope are very

small in areal extent in the study area. It is confined to the Satpura ranges in the north and

north eastern part and Dhanora, Galna Hills to the south. The degree of the slope also plays

an important role in the infiltration. As far as groundwater is concerned, flat areas are capable

of holding surface runoff, which in turn facilitates recharge. Whereas in the elevated areas,

where the slope amount is high, there is be high run-off and low infiltration.

Table No. 4.1 Area Under Slope in Dhule District.

Sr. No. Category of Slope Area sq. km. Area Percent

1 00-50 Very Gentle Slope 7003.640 86.860

2 50-100 Gentle Slope 527.165 6.538

3 100-150 Moderate Slope 235.190 2.917

4 150-200 Moderate Steep Slope 160.993 1.997

5 > 200 Steep Slope 136.122 1.688

Total 8063.110 100.000

Source: Computed by the researcher.

Hence, due to flat or rolling topography there are better chances of groundwater percolation

in the study area.

4.4 LINEAMENTS:

A lineament may be a fault, fracture; master joint, a long and linear geological

formation, the straight course of streams, vegetation alignment or topographic linearity. It is a

straight or gently curved, lengthy topographic feature expressed as depressions or lines of

depressions (O’Leary et al., 1976). It is itself an expression of the underlying structural

features. Lineaments are fractures and faults that play an important role in groundwater

studies particularly in hard rock regions. They are linear or curvilinear features can play a

major role in identifying suitable sites for groundwater abstraction because they reflect rock

structures fractures and faults through which water can travel up to several kilometers. They

are the area of zones of

increased porosity and permeability in hard rock areas. Many groundwater potential zones are

located along fracture zones hence identification of lineament is important in groundwater

studies. Lineaments provide the pathway for groundwater movement and are

hydrogeologically very important. The lineament intersection areas are considered as the

groundwater potential zones. At last their presence should be confirmed with ground truth

verification (Borse, 2006).

Although lineaments have been identified throughout the area, the lineaments in the

pediplain or valley fill area are considering significant from groundwater occurrences point of

view (Pradeep Kumar, 2010). Lineaments like joints, fractures etc. are developed generally

due to tectonic stress and tension provide important clues on surface feature and are

responsible for infiltration surface runoff in to the surface and also for development and

storage groundwater (Subba Rao el at, 2001).

Remote sensing data provides useful information to identify structural features and

lineaments. Lineaments are the linear features of tectonic origin that are identified as long,

narrow and relatively straight total alignments visible in satellite image. District Resource

Map of Dhule District (GSI, 2001) and the satellite image have been visually interpreted to

identify the lineaments of the study area. The data has been checked by field visits and study.

Identified lineaments are of varying dimension with different orientation.

The prominent directions of lineaments are NE-SW, E-W and N-S as shown in

lineament map (Fig. 4.2). Lineaments with considerable length are observed in south and

south-eastern part of the study area which extends for 80 to 100 km. They are parallel to the

Dhanora and Galna Hills. Few N-S trending lineaments are marked in the same region. Some

of the lineaments present in north which are varied in directions. The mapped structural

lineaments are analyzed using the lineament density param.s. The lineament density map of

the study area (Fig. 4.3) shows that lineament density, range from 0.0 to 1.36 km/sq. km. The

high lineament density areas are found in patches all over the district except north eastern and

central part of eastern territory. It indicates the areas of high groundwater potential.

Lineament density of 0.8 to 1.36 km/sq. km. is discovered in east and central Shirpur tehsil,

central part of Sakri tehsil from north to south and central part of Dhule tehsil from east to

west. The region of medium density (0.4 to 0.8 km/sq. km.) can be noticed around areas of

high density. Areas of medium density take up more space in Sakri and Dhule tehsil along

Panzara river. A large part of the Panzara basin is occupied by low density indicating a poor

groundwater potential. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest density. Based on the lineament density it

is inferred that the groundwater prospects are poor in a large part of the study area.

4.5 ROCK PROPERTIES:

Precipitation is the primary source of groundwater. Precipitated water must percolate

down through the vadose zone or soil to reach the zone of saturation. The rate of infiltration

is a function of soil type, rock type, antecedent water and time. Movement of groundwater

depends on rock and sediment properties and the groundwater’s flow potential. Porosity,

permeability, specific yield and specific retention are important properties of groundwater

flow.

4.5.1 Aquifer:

In Latin language ‘Aqua’ means ‘water’ and ‘ferre’ means ‘produce’ or ‘bear’. Thus

Aquifer is composed of these two words. An aquifer may be defined as a formation that

contains sufficient saturated material to yield significant quantity of water to wells and

springs (Todd, 1980). These are unconsolidated rocks composed of sand and gravel with an

ability to store and transmit water. Aquifers should be permeable and porous in nature. An

impermeable layer of rock is present beneath the permeable strata so as to store water. An

aquifer may extend over an extensive area in horizontal as well as vertical direction.

Two types of aquifers have been noticed in Dhule district, namely Basaltic and

Alluvial aquifers. About 85% part of the district is suffused by Deccan Basalt. Deccan traps

of India are comparatively older in age, and less permeable. This is due to the fact that the

primary porosity in Deccan traps is much less and also because the vesicles are filled with

secondary minerals. Secondary porosity is developed due to jointing and weathering

(Singhal, 1997). In highly weathered rock as well as contact between two flows embedded

with gravel or exfoliated pebbles, boulder and gravel is the most favorable area for huge

storage of groundwater (Sarbhukan, 2001). Groundwater occurs in semi-confined and

confined conditions in most of the Deccan trap areas.

Alluvial is another aquifer of the study area. It is formed due to the accumulation of

sediments in Tapi rift valley by Tapi her tributaries. It is composed of unconsolidated

material like pebbles, gravel, sand and silt hence highly porous. Alluvial aquifer possesses

ample quantity of water. Groundwater in Tapi and Purna alluvial area occurs under water

table and unconfined conditions. Alluvium acts as natural store of water (Joshi, 1979).

4.5.2 Porosity:

Diversity in the material results in the spaces during the rock formation. These spaces

are called as pore spaces, voids or interstices. They are filled with groundwater. Groundwater

dwells in these pore spaces. The porosity of soil or a geologic material is the ratio of the

volume of pore space in a unit of material to the total volume of material. Porosity is often

expressed as a percentage. The shape and arrangement of soil particles help to determine

porosity. Infiltration, groundwater movement and storage occur in these void spaces.

Therefore pore spaces are noteworthy in the study of groundwater. The interstices come into

existence during geological processes. Particles exist in many shapes and these shapes pack

in a variety of ways that may increase or decrease porosity. Generally, a mixture of grain

sizes and shapes, results in lower porosity.

Primary porosity is the space that remains between solid grains or crystals

immediately after sediments accumulation or rock formation. The primary porosity of the

Deccan traps is due to cooling cracks, joints, fissures and open flow junctions, fractures and

occasionally due to porous lava flows. Deccan traps of India are comparatively older in age,

and less permeable. This is due to the fact that the primary porosity in Deccan traps is much

less and also because the vesicles are filled with secondary minerals (Singhal, 1997).

Because of dissolution or stress the interstices that appear in a rock formation, after it

has formed, is known as Secondary porosity. The secondary porosity is developed due to

jointing and weathering. The various flow units have also been

Table No. 4.2 Hydrological Properties of Rocks and Sediments

Sr. No. Material Porosity Permeability

(m3/day)

Hydraulic Conductivity (m3/day)

1 Soils 0.3-0.5 ---- ----

2 Weathered Rock 0.01-0.5 ---- ----

3 Clay 0.45-0.55 <0.01 0.0002

4 Silt 0.4-0.50 0.0001-1.0 0.08

5 Fine Sand 0.30-0.52 0.01-10.0 2.5

6 Medium Sand 0.30-0.40 10-3000 12

7 Coarse Sand 0.30-0.40 10-3000 45

8 Sandy Gravel 0.20-0.30 0.3-10.0 150

9 Gravel 0.25-0.40 1000-10000 450

10 Conglomerate 0.50-0.25 0.3-3.0 0.2

11 Tuff 0.10-0.80 0.0003-3.0 0.2

12 Lavas (Basalt) 0.01-0.30 0.0003-3.0 0.01

13 Weathered Rocks

0.01-0.10 >0.0003 0.1-1.4

Source: Dunne and Leopold, 1978.

weathered to varying extent giving rise to murum, a lateritic type of soil which represents a

potential aquifer horizon tapped by dug wells (Singhal, 1997). Near the ground surface, the

porosity is further accentuated by weathered rock, river or stream alluvium or the lateritic cap

over hard basalt; usually contain the phreatic water body. In the fissures, fractures and flow

junctions within the underlying hard basalt, groundwater occurs under semi-confined state.

Circulation of water is most confined to about 100 m depth below ground surface (Limaye,

1994). Porosity of deep black soil is 0.60 %. Porosity and Permeability of different

formations are given in the Table No. 4.2.

4.5.3 Permeability:

Permeability is a measure of a soil's or rock's ability to transmit a fluid, usually

water. It is an expression of the connectedness of the pores. The size of pore space and

interconnectivity of the spaces help to determine permeability, so shape and arrangement of

grains play a key role. Water can permeate between granular void or pore space and fractures

between rocks. Larger the pore space, more permeable the material. However the more

poorly sorted a sample or mixed grain sizes lower the permeability because the smaller grains

fill the openings created by the larger grains. Water and air move more rapidly in strongly

aggregated soils. On the other hand, clay and silt has low permeability due to small grain

sizes with large surface areas, which results in increased friction. These pore spaces are also

not well connected. Deep black soil consists of high clay and silt, therefore they are poorly

permeable. Infiltration rates are low with massive loss of soil via erosion (Krishna, 2010).

Permeability of this soil is 10-10 cm/sec. Constant infiltration rate of deep black soil is 1.2

cm/hr. and 1.6 cm/hr. in compact and ploughed conditions. Fractures in the hard rock also

help to determine permeability.

4.6 HYDROGEOMORPHOLOGY:

Hydrogeomorphology has been defined as an interdisciplinary science that focuses on

the interaction and linkage of hydrologic processes with landforms or earth materials and the

interaction of geomorphic processes with surface and subsurface water in temporal and

spatial dimensions (Sidle and Onda, 2004). The concept of Hydrogeomorphology is useful to

describe the link between water and geomorphic conditions. Hydrogeomorphological

mapping is an integrated, applied geo-scientific approach for groundwater prospecting

zonation. The location of groundwater potential and infiltration areas becomes perceptible by

using this type of hydrogeomorphological zoning.

The hydrogeomorphological map of Dhule district (Fig. No. 4.4) represents the result

of combination of geological, hydrogeological and geomorphological factors. In the present

study hydrogeomorphological map has been prepared using visual interpretation of satellite

image and hydrogeomorphological map provided by GSDA, Dhule. The area under the study

is classified in different hydrogeomorphological zones such as alluvial plain, valley fills,

eroded land, un-dissected plateau, medium dissected plateau, highly dissected plateau and

Western Ghat section.

4.6.1 Alluvial Plain: Alluvial plain and flood plain constitute the main landforms of fluvial

origin. Gently sloping plains on the banks of Tapi river and lower reaches of Panzara, Burai

and Arunavati rivers are clearly marked in the study area. The contour of 150 m. clearly

demarcates the alluvium plan both to the sides of Tapi river. Alluvial deposition occurs along

both banks of Tapi river and its tributaries in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. This formation

accounts 384.47 sq. km. area means 4.77% territory of the district. The alluvium comprises

clay, silt, sand, gravel, pebbles and

occasionally boulders. The study reveals that paleo-channels and alluvial plain are the

geomorphological features with excellent potential for groundwater occurrence. The

groundwater can be tapped through shallow and deep tube wells in alluvial plains and flood

plains. The wells tapping the flood plains generally give high yield with good quality of

water.

4.6.2 Valley Fill: It is described as the deposition of unconsolidated materials in the narrow

fluvial valley. These are the features formed by depositional processes. They are composed of

loose sediments such as pebbles, gravel, sand and silt. Valley fills are located along the

Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsil and along Burai river in Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil.

Valley fill captures very limited area in Shirpur tehsil. Due to coarser materials it has high

permeability. They have covered an area of 506.8 sq. km. which is about 6.28 % of the

district. The groundwater prospect of this area is expected to be good depending upon the

thickness of the fill material (Pradeep Kumar, 2010).

Table No. 4.3 Hydrogeomorphic Units of Dhule District.

Sr. No. Hydrogeomorphic Unit Area in Sq. Km. Area in Percent 1 Valley Fill 506.80 6.28

2 Alluvial Plain 384.47 4.77

3 Eroded Land 692.41 8.58

4 Highly Dissected Plateau 535.04 6.65

5 Medium Dissected Plateau 3061.01 37.96

6 Un-Dissected Plateau 2609.70 32.37

7 Western Ghat Section 273.59 3.29

Total 8063.11 100.00

Source: Computed by Researcher.

4.6.3 Eroded Land: The eroded land is the outcome of erosional processes. The small

streams have cut the land and it is converted in to eroded land. Such features are located

mainly along Tapi river in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsil, while strips of land are eroded

along Panzara and Aner rivers in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils respectively. About 692.41

sq. km. area is eroded which comprises 8.59% of the total area of the district.

4.6.4 Un-dissected Plateau: Most of the Southern part of the district along Panzara and Bori

rivers is covered by un-dissected plateau. It also extends up to lower reaches of Panzara and

Burai rivers. It occurs almost in all tehsils of the study area. South and south-western part of

Shirpur tehsil has also un-dissected plateau. It exactly coincides with the High Water

Potential Zone (Fig No. 4.4). Un-dissected plateau has good weathered profile and hence high

potential of groundwater is found. Un-dissected plateau is spread over 2609.7 sq. km. It is

32.37 % of the study area.

4.6.5 Medium Dissected Plateau: Major part of the study area is subjected to erosion

process and weathering, so it is called medium dissected plateau. Most of the northeastern

and eastern part of Sakri tehsil is occupied by medium dissected plateau. Near about half of

Shindkheda tehsil is formed of medium dissected plateau. This feature is also spread over

more than half of Shirpur tehsil. It occupies 3061.1 sq. km. area of Dhule district which is

37.97% of the study area. Medium Dissected Plateau nearly corresponds with area of

Moderate Water Potential Zone. Here, prospectus of groundwater occurrence is moderate.

4.6.6 Highly dissected plateau: It is located in the most southern part of Sakri tehsil. A very

small patch of highly dissected plateau is observed in middle-east part of Shirpur tehsil. It

covers an area of 535.4 sq. km. and comprises 6.65% of the study area. It has low potential of

groundwater.

4.6.7 Western Ghat Section: A small area of Sakri tehsil in the west is covered by Western

Ghat section. It occupies 273.59 sq. km. and 3.39% of the total area of the district. It is also

poor with respect of groundwater potential.

4.7 HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTIONS:

Delineation of groundwater resources is of paramount importance. In the view of

present day’s vast and ever increasing demand of water in various sectors, it is crucial to

know the potentials of groundwater to planners, administrator and researchers. Since the

assessment of groundwater resources is related to mainly indirect evidences, it is difficult

task.

In order to study groundwater resources of Dhule district a simple and conventional

approach is adopted. Study of occurrence of groundwater is multivariate in nature. The wells

are the important tools or means which gives us an important information regarding

occurrence of water, nature of aquifers, properties of material, water table levels and water

quality aspects. Therefore major thrust has been given on well inventory data (Borse, 2006).

A questionnaire was formulated including major aspects of dug and tube wells to collect data

regarding the occurrence of groundwater. Whole district is divided into six cross sections.

These cross sections are framed from Satpura ranges in the north to Dhanora and Galna hills

in the south across physiographic divisions and major rivers. Total 114 dug and tube wells are

selected as a sample for present study. This was supplemented by the oral information from

the farmers. The observation wells are selected along motorable road at an interval of near

about 5 km. It is because the preference was given to cover major geomorphic units and

geological formations. These north south running cross sections of the

study area gives an idea about subsurface geological formation, depth of weathering,

occurrence of red and green bole. They also help us to understand the depth, width of alluvial

deposition in Tapi rift valley at various places. Hydrogeomorphic sections of the study area

are as following:

4.7.1 Hydrogeomorphic Section -I: Nandale – Borvihir – Ambode – Betavad – Manjrod

– Hisale – Khamkheda:

The section that passes through villages Nandale - Borvihir – Ambode – Betavad –

Manjrod – Hisale – Khamkheda, lies close and parallel to the eastern boundary of Dhule

district with Jalgaon district. It covers a total distance of 132 km. Total 25 dug wells and tube

wells were selected for the detailed research study (Fig. 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9). Village Nandale is

the first point of the section located in the south-western corner of the district. The village is

situated 396 m. above mean sea level. Two dug wells were observed within the boundaries of

the village with the same depth of 6.75 m. Soil layer is very thin. Weathered zone is found

just below the soil. Thickness of this layer is 3 m. and hard layer of 3.5 m. encountered.

Lithology of the dug wells from Nandale to Mohadi (W1 to W12) is more or less the same.

Development of the soil layer increases gradually from Nandale to Mohadi. Alluvium is

absent in this part of the section. Productive weathered profile ranges from 3 to 3.5 m.

Panzara river flows between Mohadi and Kauthal. This region shows higher alluvium

deposition and absence of weathered profile as well as parent rock. Water table of this part

increases from south.

Second lap of section lies between villages Padhavad (W17) to Taradi (W21). Tapi

river flows between Padhavad and Manjrod. Maximum thickness of the soil is observed 7m.

at Betavad. This part also shows maximum deposition of alluvium because it is the part of

Tapi valley. Here the depth of tube wells ranges from 20 m. to 92 m. A tube well located near

Taradi shows maximum thickness of alluvium i. e. 91.5 m. Here murum and hard rock is

completely absent. Fluctuation of water table on the both banks of Tapi river is low as

compared to other parts of the section. Remaining five dug wells are located in the foothills

of Satpura Ranges. Taradi, Hisale, Mahadev, Bhoiti and Khamkheda villages show thin layer

of soil and absence of alluvium. These wells show average thickness of 5 m. of weathered

profile. Here depth of wells is restricted to 10 m. with higher fluctuation of pre-monsoon and

post-monsoon water table.

10 20 300150

200

40 50

250

60 70 80 90 100

300

350

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R

D I S T A N C E I N K I L O M E T E R

Source - Data Collected During Fieldwork May-2007

HYDROGEOMORPHIC SECTION

SECTION I, Part 1/4

5 10 15 20 25 300 35 40

km

400

110 120 130km.W

-2

W-3

W-4

W-5

W-6

W-7

W-8

W-9

W-1

0

W-1

1

W-1

2

W-1

3

W-1

4

W-1

5

W-1

6

W-1

7

W-1

8

W-1

9

W-2

0

W-2

1

W-2

3

W-2

4

W-2

5

1/4 2/4 3/4 4/4

280

284

288

296

292

300

304

308

312

316

320

324

328

336

332

340

344

348

352

356

360

364

368

376

372

380

384

388

392

396W

-1

W-2

W-3

W-4

W-5

W-6

W-7

W-8

Ground Level

Water Table - Summer

Water Table - Winter

Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

INDEX

NAN

DALE-I

NAN

DALE-I

I

JU

NAVAN

E

BO

RVIH

IR

VELH

AN

E

AN

CH

ALE

CH

INCH

KH

ED

A

KALKH

ED

A

W-1


H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R

6.8

6.8

7.9

9.5

7.0

8.0

8.0

7.7

Fig. No. 4.6

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




SECTION I, Part 2/4

65 70 7540 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

166

170

218

222

226

230

234

238

246

242

250

254

258

174

178

182

186

190

194

202

198

206

210

214

270

272

276

280

262

266W

-9

INDEX

AJA

NG

AM

BO

DE

MO

HAD

I

KAU

TH

AL-I

KAU

TH

AL-I

I

WALKH

ED

A

NAVARI

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

W-1

0 W-1

1

W-1

2

W-1

3

W-1

4

W-1

5

11.0

12.3

10.3

9.0

15.6

11.8

11.0

Fig. No. 4.7

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




SECTION I, Part 3/4

80 85 90 95 100 105 110 120 125

94

98

102

106

114

110

118

122

130

126

134

138

142

146

150

158

154

162

166

170

174

178

182

186

190

194

202

198

206

210

INDEX

BETAW

AD

PAD

HAW

AD

MAN

JRO

D

HO

LN

AN

TH

E

BABH

ALAJ

TARAD

I

HIS

ALE

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

W-1

6

W-1

7

W-1

8

W-1

9

W-2

0 W-2

1

W-2

2

19.5

44.7

44.7

68.0

62.0

92.0

60.5

Fig. No. 4.8

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R



HYDRO GEO M O RPHIC SECTION

SECTION I, Part 4/4

120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160

218

222

226

230

234

238

246

242

250

254

258

178

182

186

190

194

202

198

206

210

214

270

272

276

280

284

288

292

262

266

INDEX

Ground Level

W ater Table - Summ er

W ater Table - Winter

Soil

Alluvium

W eathred Profile

Hard Rock

W-2

3

W-2

4

W-2

5

MAH

DEO

DO

ND

WAD

E

BH

OIT

I-I

BH

OIT

I-II

6.0

10.0

10.0

Fig. No. 4.9

4.7.2 Hydrogeomorphic Section - II: Palasaner – Shirpur – Nardana – Songir – Dhule –

Arvi – Purmepada:

National Highway No.3 was selected for Cross Profile No. II. Major Villages and

towns along with this profile are Palasaner - Shirpur – Nardana – Songir – Dhule – Arvi –

Purmepada. Total length of this profile is 104 km. It includes 35 observations of wells.

Lithologs of these wells are represented in Fig. 4.10, 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13. The salient features

of this profile are as following-

According to geology and field survey observations, the observation wells can be

divided in groups. First lap of the profile from Palasaner to Dahivad shows that soil layer

varies from 0 to 1 m. and alluvium is absent. Due to exposed rock surface, weathered profile

in this lap is thicker. Maximum thickness of weathered profile observed is 10 m. near village

Hadakhed. This in turn registers high fluctuation of water table. In this part of the profile the

wells are shallow and their depth is restricted to maximum 13 m.

Second segment of the profile is the Tapi valley proper. It comprises Shirpur, Kharde,

Kurkhali, Savalde and Dabhashi. This leg of the profile exhibits maximum thickness of soil i.

e. 2 to 3 m. Being a part of Tapi valley, it indicates great deposition of alluvium. Excessive

deposition occurs near Shirpur. It is measured to 70 m. in thickness. Changes in pre-monsoon

and post-monsoon water table of this leg are low and are 3 m. Here layers of weathered

profile and hard rock are absent.

The last lap of this profile begins from Varshi (W40) up to village Purmepada (W55).

This portion is underlined by Deccan basalt; hence it exhibits thin layer of soil and general

absence of alluvium. Only one well is located in Dhule city (W53) in the vicinity of Panzara

river which shows a layer of alluvium with the depth of 13 m. This segment shows varied

profile of weathered material, which ranges from 1.5 to 12 m. Many dug wells represent

weathered profile more than 5 m. in thickness. This area represents moderate to high

weathered profile and hence have moderate to good potential of water.

H E

I G

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SECTION II, Part 1/4

5 10 15 20 25 300 35 40

km

218

222

226

230

234

238

246

242

250

254

258

174

178

182

186

190

194

202

198

206

210

214

270

272

276

280

284

288

262

266

13010 20 300

150

200

40 50

250

60 70 80 90 100km.

300

350

W-2

6W

-27

W-2

8 W-2

9

W-3

1

W-3

2W

-33

W-3

4W

-35

W-3

6W

-37

W-3

8W

-39

W-4

0W

-41

W-4

2W

-43

W-4

4W

-45

W-4

6

W-4

7

W-4

8

W-4

9

W-5

0

W-5

1W

-52

W-5

3W

-54

W-5

5W

-56

W-5

7

W-5

8

W-5

9

W-6

0

W-3

0

1/4 2/4 3/4 4/4400


H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R

PALASAN

ER-I

W-3

3W

-32

W-3

1

W-2

9

W-2

8

W-2

7W

-26

W-3

0

PAN

KH

ED

SAN

GAVI

HAD

AKH

ED

SU

LE

SU

GER

FAC

TO

RY

DAH

IVAD

-I

PALASAN

ER-I

I

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

INDEX

7.0

8.0

10.0

11.0

12.0

11.0

13.5

13.0

Fig. No. 4.10

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





25 30 3525 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

km

82

90

86

94

98

102

106

114

110

118

122

130

126

134

138

142

146

150

158

154

162

166

170

174

178

182

186

78

74

70

W-3

5

W-3

6

W-3

7

W-3

8

W-3

9

W-4

0

W-4

1 W-4

2

W-4

3 W-4

4

W-3

4D

AH

IVAD

-II

SH

IRPU

R-I

SH

IRPU

R-I

I

KH

ARD

E

KU

RKH

ALI

SAVALD

E

DABH

ASH

I

VARSH

I

GAVAN

E PIM

PRAD

NARD

AN

A-I

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

INDEX

80.5

71.5

56.5

71.0

79.1

80.9

67.0

12.0

12.0

8.0 16.5

Fig. No. 4.11

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





65 70 7555 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

218

222

226

230

234

238

246

242

250

254

258

174

178

182

186

190

194

202

198

206

210

214

270

272

276

280

284

288

262

266

W-4

5

W-4

6

W-4

7

W-4

8

W-4

9

W-5

0

W-5

1

W-5

2 W-5

3W

-54

W-5

5W

-56

NARD

AN

A-I

I

PIM

PARKH

ED

JAM

FAL L

AKE

SO

NG

IR-I

SO

NG

IR-I

I

DEO

BH

AN

E

NAG

AO

N

DH

ULE-I

DH

ULE-I

I

DH

ULE-I

II DH

ULE-I

V

DH

ULE-V

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

INDEX

8.0

8.7

21.5

15.9

15.0

12.0

6.7

14.0

11.0

15.0

8.0

Fig. No. 4.12

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





85 90 95 100 105 110 120 125

288

296

292

300

304

308

312

316

320

324

328

336

332

340

344

348

352

356

360

364

368

376

372

380

384

388

392

396

W-5

7W

-58

W-5

9

W-6

0

130

km

AVAD

HAN

LALIN

G

ARVI

PU

RM

EPAD

A

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

INDEX

6.5

6.0

11.3

10.1

400

404

Fig. No. 4.13

4.7.3 Hydrogeomorphic Section -III: Chougaon – Kusumba – Lamkani – Shewade -

Dondaicha – Virdel – Arthe – Boradi – Gadhaddev:

Total 29 dug wells and tube wells (W61 to W89) are considered along with this cross

section as an observation wells on an average interval of 5 km. This profile passes through

nearly center of the district. Total length of this profile is 138.7 km. This is the longest

profile (Fig. No. 4.14, 4.15, 4.16, 4.17 and 4.18). This profile crosses Panzara, Burai,

Amravati and Tapi rivers.

From Chougaon (W61) to Dondaicha (W72) soil layer is almost absent. Thick

alluvium deposition is displayed in valleys of major streams such as Panzara (Kusumba- W-

62), Burai (Lamkani- W- 67), Amravati (Dondaicha-W-72) and Tapi (Virdel-W-78 to Wadi-

I- 84). While some wells points out medium accumulation of sediments. This part of the

section demonstrates deep weathered profile that ranges from 2.75 to 10.25 m. Hence dug

wells of this lap denote low fluctuation of groundwater, which is less than 3 m.. Due to the

considerable thickness of weathered profile, the layer of hard rock encountered is thin which

ranges from 1.1 to 5 m. Average depth of dug wells is around 10 m.

After village Mandal (W-71) soil layer is discovered in all the dug and tube wells.

Soil layer is thin at Dondaicha – 0.5 m., Dhavade-0.25 m. and Vikharan-0.5 m. Deposition of

alluvium at Dondaicha is 5.5 m. It is due to the sediments brought by Amravati River. This

part displays moderate weathering that ranges from 6 m. to 9 m. Parent rock found in these

dug wells varies from 0 m. to 2.75 m. in thickness. In this region average fluctuation of

groundwater level is 4 m. As we move towards Tapi river, the thickness of soil is increases

up to 3 m. at Amalthe and 2 m. at other places. Soil of this part is Deep Black Cotton soil.

Beneath soil, thickness of alluvium increases towards Tapi river. It is 28 m. at Virdel (W-78)

and 68 m. at Wadi (W-84). It is, therefore, weathered profile and hard rock not be traced. The

depth of tube wells was also increases towards Tapi valley. The depth of tube well at Virdel

(W-78) is 30 m. and maximum depth is found near village Wadi (W-84). This part of the

section shows moderate fluctuation in water table. The last lap of the section is the part of

foothills of Satpura ranges. Here the layer of the soil is restricted to only 0.5 m. Except Budki

all villages show alluvium with the thickness of 1 m. To 2 m. Depth of weathering is

moderate and recorded up to 3 to 4 m. Hard rock layer is found in this region of 2 m. to 3 m.

Dug wells show high groundwater fluctuation in spite of low depth.

288

292

300

296

304

308

312

316

320

324

328

332

340

336

344

348

352

356

360

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




Section III, Part 1/5

5 10 15 20 25 300 355 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

13010 20 300

150

200

40 50

250

60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 km.

300

350 W-6

1


H E

I G

H T

I

N M

E T

E R

W-6

2W

-63

W-6

4

W-6

5

W-6

6

W-6

7

W-6

8

W-6

9

W-7

0

W-7

1

W-7

2

W-7

3

W-7

4 W-7

5

W-7

6

W-7

7

W-7

8

W-7

9W

-80

W-8

1 W-8

2W

-83 W-8

4

W-8

5

W-8

6

W-8

7 W-8

8

W-8

9

1/5 2/5 3/5 4/5 5/5

W-6

1

W-6

2

W-6

3

W-6

4

W-6

5

W-6

6

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

CH

UAG

AO

N

KU

SU

MBA-I

KU

SU

SM

BA-I

I

MEH

ERG

AO

N

CH

INCH

WAR-I

CH

INC

HW

AR-I

I

11.0

15.2

10.0

8.4

13.0

8.5

Fig. No. 4.14

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

222

226

230

234

238

242

250

246

254

258

262

198

206

202

210

214

218

272

276

280

284

288

292

300

296

304

308

312

266

270

W-6

7

W-6

8

W-6

9

W-7

0

W-7

1

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard RockLAM

KAN

I

SH

EVAD

E

DEG

AO

N AN

JAN

VIH

IRE

MAN

DAL

11.1

9.5

9.4

9.5

6.5

Fig. No. 4.15

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





65 70 7555 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

86

94

90

98

102

106

110

118

114

122

126

134

130

138

142

146

150

154

162

158

166

170

174

178

182

186

190

194

198

206

202

W-7

2

W-7

3

W-7

4

W-7

5

W-7

6

W-7

7

W-7

8

W-7

9

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

DO

ND

AIC

HA-I

MO

DO

ND

AIC

HA-I

I

DAH

VAD

E

VIK

HARAN

JOG

SH

EKU

VIR

DEL-I

VIR

DEL-I

I

AM

ALTH

E

15.3

13.5 10.4

10.9

15.0

11.5

30.0

30.0

Fig. No. 4.16

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





100 105 110 120 125 130 135 140 145100 105 110 120 125 130 135 140

86

94

90

98

102

106

110

118

114

122

126

134

130

138

142

146

150

154

162

158

166

170

174

178

182

186

190

194

198

206

202

W-8

1

W-8

2

W-8

3W

-84

W-8

5

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

CH

AN

DPU

RI

ARH

TE K

HU

RD

KU

WE

WAD

I-I

WAD

I-II

W-8

1VARPAD

E

32.5

54.0

54.0

51.5

69.0

13.5

Fig. No. 4.17

272

276

280

284

288

292

300

296

304

308

312

266

270

316

320

324

328

332

340

336

344

348

352

356

360

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R





120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160125 130 135 140 145125 130 135 140120 125 130 135 140 145

364

368

372

376

380

386

W-8

6

W-8

7

W-8

8

W-8

9

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

BO

RAD

I

BU

DAKI

GAD

HAD

DEV

WAG

HPAD

A

18.0

5.5

8.5

10.5

Fig. No. 4.18

4.7.4 Hydrogeomorphic Section -IV: Chhadvel – Nijampur – Jaitane – Shevali -

Dhamnar –Behed – Vitai:

Fourth cross profile of the study area was planned across the Middle West part of the

district. It is located in the offshoots of the Western ghat at considerable elevation. The

observation wells located between 412 to 540 m. from msl. The length of the profile is 52

km. Total 11 sample wells (W-90 to W-100) were considered for the present study (Fig. No.

4.19 and 4.20). Lithology of these wells is represented in fig. no. 4.19 and 4.20. Four

observation wells out of 11 shows soil layer of 0.5 to 1 m. in depth. While it is absent in

remaining 7 wells. It means that development of the soil is poor or soil erosion exceeds

process of soil formation. Except two (W-92 and W-98), all observation wells show moderate

deposition of alluvium that varies from 1.3 to 8.5 m. The process of weathering seems to be

slow in this area. Jaitane (W-92) and Raipur (W-95) have considerable weathered profile of

5.5 m. and 5.6 m. in depth. Other wells show a thin layer of weathering. Hence large part of

hard rock has been encountered in most of wells. Thickness of hard rock in this section found

between 2.5 m. to 10 m. Depth of wells is more and the variation in pre-monsoon and post-

monsoon water table is also high. All the dug wells in this section bespeak 6.3 m. average

changes in water table. High variation in water table indicates the low potential of aquifers

and the area experiences scarcity of water.

4.7.5 Hydrogeomorphic Section -V: Shelbari – Pimpalner – Samode – Ghodade -

Dahivel – Bardipada:

This section is short and measured only to 38.1 km. in length. The Wells considered

for observation lie within boundaries of Shelbari, Pimpalner, Samode, Ghodade, Dahivel and

Bardipada villages. It begins from Shelbari and runs northward up to Ghodade then it goes

along with Nagpur-Surat Highway up to Bardipada. Total 8 wells are included in this section

(Fig. No. 4.21). First dug well (W-101) located near Shelbari at the foot of Galna Hills.

Thickness of soil is 1 m. and alluvium is absent at Shelbari. Weathered profile of this well is

4.5 m. in thickness and hard rock is just of 0.5 m. Fluctuation in water table is 5.5 m. In case

of second dug well soil layer is 1.2 m. and alluvium deposition is absent. This well shows

maximum thickness of weathered profile that is 12.6 m. Here hard rock encountered is 4 m.

in thickness. Present dug well displays the highest variation in water table of 10 m. remaining

wells of the profile represent a thin layer of soil that ranges between 0.25 m. to 2 m. Except

Shelbari (W-101), Deshshirvade (W-102) and Samode (W – 104) dugwells show deposition

of alluvium. Pimpalner, Ghodade and Dahivel show considerable amount of alluvium

deposition. Depth of weathering is more where alluvium is thin and vice versa. A layer of

hard rock found is very thick at Samode (W-104) and measured to 10.9 m. dug wells at

Dahivel, Bardipada and Deshshirvade also exhibit considerable layer of hard rock. Average

change in per-monsoon and post-monsoon groundwater table in this part is 6 m. Dug well at

Deshshirvade points out the highest fluctuation in water table. It proves that the area under

observation experiences shortage of water in post-monsoon period.

4.7.6 Hydrogeomorphic Section -VI: Shivarimal – Jamkheli – Tembhe – Kalikhet -

Kudashi – Bopkhel:

This is the shortest cross profile of the district and extends for 28.7 km. It is located in

south west corner of Dhule district. Total 8 dug wells are treated as observation wells (Fig.

No. 4.22). This is the most elevated part of the district which ranges between 590 to 640 m.

from msl. Total 8 observation wells of this section show moderate to thin layer of soil. It

ranges from 0.3 m. to 1.5 m. Deposition of alluvium is not seen in first seven wells but last

dug well shows alluvial material of 6 m. thickness. The thickness of weathered profile is

medium except one well. In spite of high elevation dug well at Shivarimal (W-109) displays

weathering up depth of 10.5 m. Parent rock is observed in all dug wells. Depth of wells

ranges from 5.5 m. to 15.4 m. Here almost all dug wells show high variation in groundwater.

Well at Shivarimal (W-109) has highest variation of 10.6 m. Other wells show average

fluctuation in groundwater of about 4 m.

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




SECTION IV, Part 1/2

412

5 10 15 20 25 300 35

420

424

428

432

436

440

444

448

452

456

460

464

468

472

476

480

484

488

492

496

500

504

508

512

416

408

404

400

40

410

5 10 15 20 25 300 35

430

420

440

450

460

470

490

480

500

510

40 45 50 55 km

530

520

540

5501/2 2/2

W-9

0

516

W-9

1

W-9

2

W-9

3

W-9

4

W-9

5

W-9

6

W-9

7

W-9

8

W-9

9

W-1

00

W-9

0

W-9

1

W-9

2 W-9

3

W-9

4

W-9

5

W-9

6

W-9

7

CH

AD

WEL-I

CH

AD

WEL-I

I

NIJ

AM

PU

R-I

NIJ

AM

PU

R-I

I

JAIT

AN

E

RAIP

UR

SH

EVALI-

I

SH

EVALI-

II

10.2

12.0

12.3

16.7

14.0

15.5

11.3

8.1

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

H E

I G

H T

I

N M

E T

E R

Fig. No. 4.19

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




SECTION IV, Part 2/2

45 50 55 60 km40

456

460

464

468

472

476

480

484

488

492

496

500

504

508

512

516

520

524

528

532

536

540

544

548

552

556

560

564

568

572

410

5 10 15 20 25 300 35

430

420

440

450

460

470

490

480

500

510

40 45 50 55 km

530

520

540

550 1 2

W-9

8

W-9

9

W-1

00

DH

AM

NAR

BEH

ED

VIT

AI

9.1

12.5

13.7

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

Fig. No. 4.20

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R




SECTION V

472

5 10 15 20 25 300 35

480

484

488

492

496

500

504

508

512

516

520

524

528

532

536

540

544

548

552

556

560

564

568

572

576

580

584

588

592

476

480

5 10 15 20 25 300 35 km

520

500

540

560

580

590

9.5

10.5


H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R

INDEX

Ground Level



Soil

Alluvium

Weathred Profile

Hard Rock

W-1

01

W-1

02

W-1

03

W-1

04

W-1

05

W-1

06

W-1

07

W-1

08

SH

ELBARI

DESH

HSIR

WAD

E

PIM

PALN

ER

SAM

OD

E

GH

OD

AD

E-I

GH

OD

AD

E-I

I

DAH

IVEL

BARD

IPAD

A

W-1

01

W-1

02

W-1

03

W-1

04

W-1

05

W-1

06

W-1

07

W-1

08

6.0

10.1

13.9

5.3

10.5

17.8

Fig. No. 4.21

576

580

584

588

592

596

600

604

608

612

616

624

628

632

636

640

644

H E

I G

H T

I

N

M E

T E

R


SOURCE - DATA COLLECTED DURING FIELDWORK MAY-2007


SECTION VI

590

600

610

620

630

640

5 10 15 20 25 300

SH

IVA

RIM

AL

W-1

09

JAM

KH

ELI

W-1

10

TE

MB

EW

-111

KA

LIK

HE

T W

-112

KU

DA

SH

I W-1

13

BO

PK

HE

L W

-114

5 10 15 20 25 300

572

Ground LevelWater Table - SummerWater Table - WinterSoilAlluviumWeathred ProfileHard Rock

SH

IVA

RIM

AL

W-1

09

JAM

KH

ELI

W-1

10

TE

MB

EW

-111

KA

LIK

HE

TW

-112

KU

DA

SH

I W-1

13

BO

PK

HE

L W

-114

INDEX

35 km

35

13.5

6

7.4

7.2

15.4

5.5

Fig. No. 4.22

Chapter: - 5

POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES

Water has become a scarce source all over the world. Groundwater forms the main

source for the domestic and irrigation purposes in India. Overexploitation of groundwater

resources and as a consequence decline in water table are the causes of serious concern in

some parts of Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and

Punjab (Kaledhonkar, 2003). Ever increasing population and variety of anthropogenic

activities has led to the mining of groundwater and extensive depletion of groundwater in the

study area. The groundwater conditions in hard rock terrain are multivariate due to the

heterogeneous nature of the aquifer owing to the varying composition, compaction and

density of weathering (Balachander, 2010).

Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from

uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts of the district experiences dry spells of

2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due to delayed onset and early withdrawal of

monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district has been known for the droughts. Droughts of

various intensities occur once in 4 to 6 years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce

and the economy of the district as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001). Hence artificial recharge of

groundwater has become pressing need as growing population requires more water and as

more stores is needed to save water in times of surplus for use in time of shortage. Water

conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the country's water

resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. In order to make artificial recharge

successful in the hard rock areas, it is of utmost important to identify suitability of the terrain

for artificial recharge.

5.1 MAJOR GROUNDWATER PROVINCES OF DHULE DISTRICT:

Groundwater Province is an area characterized by a general similarity in the mode of

occurrence of groundwater (Sarbhukan, 2001). Two groundwater provinces are noticed in

the study area. They are as follows:

5.1.1 Deccan Trap Groundwater Province:

The Deccan Trap comprises several flows of Basalt which are supposed to have

extruded from fissure eruptions. It occupies 85 % of total area of Dhule district, which is a

major groundwater province. The flows have been intruded by large number of dykes of

doleritic composition. The dykes are trends in an ENE-WSW direction and a few are N-S or

WNE-ESE trends. Basalt flows are of the “pahoehoe” and the “aa” types. The groundwater

learnt in the surface layers down to the depth of 20 m. under unconfined conditions in the

weathered zone, vesicular or amygdaloidal basalt, jointed and fractured massive basalt. The

water bearing strata occurring below 30 m. depth, beneath the redbole and dense massive

basalt, exhibit semi-confined to confined conditions. On the elevated plateau tops having

good areal extent, local water table develops in top most layers and the well in such areas

show rapid decline of water levels in post-monsoon season and becomes dry during summer.

At the foot hill zone the water table is relatively shallow near the water courses and deep

away from it and near the water divides. In the valleys and plains of river basin, the water

table aquifer occurs at the shallow depth and the wells in such areas do not go dry and sustain

perennial yield except in extreme summer or drought conditions.

The depth, water table and yield of wells hinges on the permeability of the lava flows.

The average depth of wells in the study area ranges from 6 to 21.5 m. and depth of water

table ranges between 1.25 to 13.5 m. The yield of the dug wells varies from 60 to 125

cu.m/day, whereas that of bore wells varies from 2 to > 20 cu.m /hr, however in most of the

bore wells it ranges between 2 to 10 cu. m./hr. Thus geological and geomorphological

formation of the Trap territory is accountable for the low availability of groundwater.

Structure, jointing pattern and depth of weathering determines water holding capacity and the

movement of groundwater within different lave flows.

5.1.2 Alluvial Groundwater Province:

Alluvial deposits of Tapi river valley occur in long narrow basin, which are probably

caused by faulting. About 15% of the district is occupied by the alluvium. It consists of clay,

silt, sand, gravels and boulders etc. The beds of sand and gravels are discontinuous and

lenticular and pinch out laterally within short distance. They are mixed with large proportions

of clayey material rendering delimiting of individuals granular horizons. As per groundwater

exploration data alluvium is encountered down to 100 m. depth. Groundwater occurs under

water table, semi-confined and confined conditions in inter granular pore spaces of gravel and

sand. The average depths of tube wells in this part of study area are ranges from 30 to 90 m.

and depth of water table ranges between 12.5 to 56.5 m. The yield of the dug wells varies

between150 and 200 cum /day, whereas that of exploratory wells varies from 1.50 to 6.00

lit./sec. as per exploration data. The yielding of the tube wells drilled by GSDA ranges from

20 to 250 cum / hr.

5.2 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:

Morphology plays a significant role in influencing the hydrological conditions and

behavior of groundwater reservoirs. According to morphological classification, watersheds

have been classified in to three categories on the basis of their locations in river basin and

physiographic consideration of the terrain (Maggirwar, 1990). Similarly the area under study

is divided in to three morphological zones. They are as follows:

5.2.1 Runoff Zone:

Runoff zone refers to the area with minimum or no-infiltration which results in to the

maximum runoff of rainwater. Runoff zone is situated in the upland area near water divide

where rivers takes up their source. This zone is composed of highly dissected morphological

conditions. It possesses steep, very steep slopes and undulating topography. It is

characterized by barren hills, rocky outcrops, poorly weathered mantle and absence of

vegetation. Hence it leads to poor or no infiltration and rapid runoff of rainfall. Hydrological

conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of aquifer. Groundwater in the runoff zone

occurs in limited and perched water table conditions (Maggirwar, 1990). In present research

study area Satpura hills, Dhanora-Galna Hills and Western Ghat section act as runoff zone. It

accounts about 1397.91 sq. km. area which is 17.34% of the study area. Dykes can be also

including in this zone. (Table No. 5.1).

5.2.2 Recharge Zone:

Recharge zone refers to the area which is favorable for infiltration and recharge of

groundwater. Recharge zone is located in the middle course of the basin. Morphologically

the area is moderately dissected and drained by streams of higher order. It possesses

Table No. 5.1 Area Under Morphological Zones in Dhule District.

Source: Computed by researcher.

moderate relief, shallow soil cover. These conditions are favorable for moderate infiltration

and recharge of groundwater. Hence the area has groundwater and is suitable for groundwater

development. This is zone of active weathering. Recharge zone comprises the landforms like

piedmont plain, moderately dissected plateau, un-dissected plateau. Well yield of recharge

zone is seasonal and it can support only kharip and rabbi crops. Recharge zone occupies

3665.62 sq. km. area which is 45.46% of the study area. It is distributed all over the study

area except alluvial plain of Tapi river.

Sr. No. Zone Category Area sq. Km. Area Percent

1 Runoff Zone 1397.91 17.34

2 Recharge Zone 3665.62 45.46

3 Storage Zone 2999.58 37.20

Total 8063.11 100.00

5.2.3 Storage Zone:

In general, storage zone is the area which is able to hold substantial quantity of water.

Low lying areas and lower reaches of the river basins fall in this category. This area

possesses nearly level slope, very gentle slope and gentle slope. It is characterized by poor

drainage conditions. Thick soil cover is observed in storage zone. The obese soil cover of

storage zone is either derived by deep weathering or by alluvial deposition. Due to high

thickness of weathered profile and thick alluvial deposition in the Tapi rift valley, it holds

substantial quantity of water. This zone is benefited by good recharge conditions and getting

recharge by groundwater inflow from upland areas after rainy season. In this zone

groundwater occurs under water table conditions. Hydrologically, storage zone is highly

suitable for groundwater exploration. Storage zone is discovered in the alluvial plain and

eroded land of the Tapi valley. It also covers valley fills of Arunavati, Amravati, Panzara,

Bora, Burai, Aner, Kan rivers and their tributary streams. Storage is zone is admeasured

2999.58 sq. km. in the study area. It is 32.20 % of the district. Dug and tube wells are

characterized by high yield 100 to 150 cu. m./day. Hence they support the crops all round the

year. Storage zones are highly fertile and productive for good yield.

5.3 POTENTIAL ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ZONES:

Rainfall is the major source of groundwater recharge in the study area and occurs

almost wholly during rainy season when evaporation losses are comparatively small. Water

conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the country's water

resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. There are rich traditions of community

based water harvesting and budgeting in India, to meet the specific needs of environment

(Banergee, 2003). The problem of water resources is much more acute today owing to the

manifold increase in our need for water over the last few centuries, beginning with the

Industrial Revolution; the Green Revolution in the 1960s led to another major increase in the

use of water for growing the new hybrid crops. Coupled with the exponential growth in

population, this has put available water resources under severe stress. Evidence from

palaeoclimatology and archaeological and historical records shows that man responds to

scarcity of water in a variety of ways which include strategies for water conservation,

rainwater harvesting and when inevitable, migration (Shankar et al, 2004). It is important to

note that the increase in pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well

digging/drilling, whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community

(Limaye, 1994).

In order to adopt various means of water conservation, it is of prime importance to

know whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments, land use/ land cover etc.

factors are favorable for recharge or not. Artificial recharge zones are delineated by

integration of various thematic maps using GIS technique. Weightage to the each class of

thematic layer is assigned according to its response to percolation or recharge of water (Fig.

No. 5.2). Three artificial recharge zones are discovered in Dhule district namely, High,

Moderate and Low favorable zones (Fig. No.5.3). They are as follows:

5.3.1 High Favorable Zone:

High favorable zone for artificial recharge takes up about 1785.16 sq. km. which is 22.14 %

of the geographical area of Dhule district. Eastern and south-eastern part of the Shirpur tehsil

is highly favorable for artificial recharge of groundwater. Eastern 1/3rd portion of Shirpur

tehsil surprisesingly falls in the High Favorable Zone, in spite of very steep slopes and

undulating topography. It is characterized by hills, rocky outcrops, poorly weathered mantle

and degraded vegetation cover. High favorable zone also occur in the form of patches along

the Tapi river in Shirpur tehsil because it is composed of alluvial aquifer which is highly

porous. Deep black soil is observed

Table No. 5.2 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps.

Thematic Layer Class Weight Assigned

Geology Alluvium 6

Deccan trap 2

Soil Deep black soil 2

Medium black soil 3

Shallow black soil 4

Slope Level to nearly level (0–1%) 7

Very gently sloping (1–3%) 5

Gently sloping (3–5%) 2

Moderately sloping (5–10%) 2

Moderate steeply sloping (10–30%) 1

Stream Present 4

Absent 1

Geomorphology Valley fill 7

Alluvial plain 7

Eroded land 5

Highly Dissected plateau 4

Medium Dissected plateau 3

Un-dissected plateau 2

Western ghat (Rocky outcrop) 1

Lineament Present 7

Absent 2

Land use Agriculture 5

Scrub land 4

Forest 5

Water Body 0

Settlement 2

Bare land 1

Lineament Density

0 – 0.40 2

0.40 – 0.80 3

0.80 – 1.36 5

Source: Compiled by researcher.

along Tapi river. Porosity of deep black soil is only 0.60 %. It consists of high clay and silt,

therefore they are poorly permeable. Infiltration rates are low with massive loss of soil via

erosion (Krishna, 2010). Whole course of Panzara river is also favorable for artificial

recharge. It may be attributed to the fault zone along Panzara river. Area along the Tapi river

and middle course of Burai river in Shindkheda tehsil are favorable for recharge

5.3.2 Moderate Favorable Zone:

This zone is spread all over district. Moderate favorable zone occupies extensive area

admeasuring 5068.77 sq. km. of the district. It is about 62.86 % of the study area.

Geomorphologically the area is moderately dissected. It is drained by streams of higher

. Table No. 5.3 Area Under Recharge Zones in Dhule District.

Sr. No. Recharge Zone Area sq. km. Area %

1 High Favorable zone 1785.16 22.14

2 Moderate Favorable zone 5068.77 62.86

3 Low Favorable zone 1209.18 15.00

Total 8061 100

Source: Computed by researcher.

order. It possesses moderate relief, shallow soil cover. Moderately favorable zone is the zone

of active weathering. The thickness of weathered material is more at various places.

Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12 m.), Chinchwar (10.25 m.), Deshshirvade (12.6

m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.) are the prominent examples of deep weathering. Dhule, Shindkheda

and Sakri tehsils relatively possess more Moderate Favorable zone as compare to Shirpur

tehsil.

5.3.3 Low Favorable Zone:

Low Favorable Zone situated in the upland area near water divide, with highly

dissected morphological conditions, steep slopes, and undulating topography. Upper course

of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil, eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and

southern part of Sakri tehsil, western Shindkheda tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of

groundwater. Very little area of Shirpur tehsil is not favorable for recharge. This zone covers

1209.18 sq. km. means 15% area of the district. These areas are least favorable for

groundwater recharge because they are upper courses of Panzara, Amaravati, Burai, Bori

rivers which are highly dissected, barren, thin soil cover, thin layer of weathered rock

material. It leads to poor infiltration and rapid runoff of rainfall. Therefore, it is necessary to

think well before implanting any scheme or project for groundwater augmentation or

recharge for the same area. Hydrological conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of

aquifer. Groundwater in the Low Favorable Zone occurs in limited and perched water table

conditions (Maggirwar, 1990).

Chapter: - 6

QUALITY, PROBLEMS AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES

6.1 INTRODUCTION:

Quality, utilization, management and problems are important aspects of the study of

water resources. Water quality refers to the physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological

properties of water for any intended use. Water quality is concerned with the status of water

with respect to its requirement for human being and biological species. Water Management of

water resources refers to optimize the use of water in order to minimize its potential impacts

on the environment. It is very difficult and many efforts are required to optimize the use of

water all over the world. Management of water needs detail study of surface and groundwater

potential of the given area, various uses for which it may be put, increasing demands,

participation of people, government policy etc. Scarcity of water, floods, salinity, depletion of

aquifers, waste water etc. are severe problems at local, regional and global level.

6.2 QUALITY OF WATER:

Water resource is a unique in nature and present in different forms. Groundwater is a

main source for water for the domestic and agriculture purpose in Dhule district.

Groundwater has become an essential resource over the past few decades due to the increase

in its usage for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses etc. (Asadi et al, 2007). Hence water

has become a scarce resource all over the world. The availability of potable water in adequate

quantity for consumption has been one of the hot talks in recent past (Jog et al, 2003).

Conceptually, water quality refers to the characteristics of a water supply that will influence

its suitability for a specific use, i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Quality

is defined by certain physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. In an

ecological perspective, it can be defined as the aquatic system which can support life without

breaking the food chain and food web of the system.

The geological nature of the soil determines the chemical composition of the

groundwater. Water is constantly in contact with the ground in which it stagnates or

circulates, so equilibrium develops between the composition of the soil and that of the water:

e.g. water that circulates in a sandy or granitic substratum is acidic and has a few minerals.

Water that circulates in limestone contains bicarbonates alkalinity. The quality of the water

determines its use for various purposes. Thus, if quantity and quality is adequate, water is a

blessing (Kayastha, 2003).

6.2.1 Chemical Analysis of Water: Chemical composition is a result of stage by stage

transformation of chemical composition of water that fell as precipitation. Other

transformations are controlled by climate, relief, lithology, intensity of water exchange,

biological production of the landscape and geo-chemical situation. To ascertain suitability of

water for consumption, it is necessary to undertake examination of quality of water. Physical

properties of water include temperature, color, taste, and odor, turbidity, foam and froth,

conductivity, dissolved solids.

Table No. 6.1 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. I. S., I. C. M. R. and

W. H. O.

Element/ Parameter

B. I. S. I. C. M. R. W. H. O.

Hig

hest

D

esira

ble

Max

imum

P

erm

issi

ble

Hig

hest

D

esira

ble

Max

imum

P

erm

issi

ble

Hig

hest

D

esira

ble

Max

imum

P

erm

issi

ble

Alkalinity 200 600 200 600 200 600

Calcium 75 - 75 200 75 -

Chloride 250 1000 200 1000 200 1000

Colour

(Hazen Unit) 10 - 5 25 - -

Electric Conductivity No Standards Recommended

Fluoride 0.6-1.2 - 1 1.5

0.6-0.9

0.8-1.7

Iron 0.3 - 0.3 1 0.3 -

Magnesium 30 - 50 150 50 -

Nitrates 45

No Relaxation

20 50 10 45

PH 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2

Sodium 200

Sulphate 200 400 200 400 150 200

Total Dissolved Solids

500 1500 500 1500 500 1500

Total Hardness CaCO3

300 - 300 600 500 -

Dissolved oxygen, pH value, oil content, organic and inorganic compounds, total coliform

counts determines chemical quality while biological quality depends on availability of

nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), microbial density and total aquatic life in water as

bacteria, algae, etc. Standard values of various water quality parameters laid down by Indian

Council of Medical Research, Bureau of Indian Standards and World Health Organization are

given in Table No. 6.1. Results of water quality analysis of samples in Dhule district have

been discussed below.

i. PH: The PH of a solution at any given temperature represents the concentration hydrogen

ion. Measurement of PH gives us very quick and easy way to obtain appraisal of acid-base

equilibrium. It is important in environmental engineering in considering water supply, water

softening, dis-infection and corrosion control. Low PH affects corrosion, high PH causes taste,

soapy feel and PH < 8 is preferable for effective disinfection with chlorine (Maiti, 2004).

Wetzel (1975) reported that the value of pH ranges from 8 to 9 units in Indian waters (Sisodia

and Moundiotiya, 2006). Average pH of the groundwater in Dhule district is around 8. Out of

166 samples only 12 show high pH. Normally a groundwater of Dhule district is slightly

alkaline (Fig. No. 6.1).

ii. Electric Conductivity: Electric conductivity (EC) is ability of water to carry electric

current. Ions such as Cl-, SO4-, CO3

-, HCO3-, NO3

-, Ca+, Mg+, Na+, and K+ are present in the

water that dominates the electric conductivity. By multiplying conductivity with an empirical

factor (which is obtained from samples of known dissolved solid concentration and

conductivities) the total dissolved solids can be estimated (Abbasi, 1998).

Table No. 6.2 Groundwater classification based on Electric Conductivity (EC)

Sr. No.

Type E.C. S.A.R. Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 Excellent < 250 <10 0 0 0 0 0

2 Good 250-750 10–18 3 6 59 9 77

3 Doubt full

750-2250 18–26 17 29 22 11 79

4 Unsuitable

>2250 > 26 3 6 1 0 10

*E.C. in µmhos/cm** S.A.R. in equivalent per mole. Source: Computed by Researcher

As per EC and SAR water of a single village does not belong to excellent category

(Table No. 6.2). About 2/3rd villages of Sakri tehsil and half of villages in Shirpur tehsil have

good water (Table No. 5.2). Groundwater of most of the villages

in Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil is doubtful and not suitable for drinking purpose.

iii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Uncountable solids are found in natural waters, such as

carbonates, sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium, sulfates, bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates

etc. In other words total dissolved solids is simply sum of the cations and anions

concentration expressed in mg/l. Chlorine is a major inorganic constituent of natural waters

(Maiti, 2004). Chlorine may take its source from soil, rocks, discharge of agricultural,

industrial and domestic waste water. Solubility of gases and utility of water for drinking,

irrigation and industrial purpose may be reduced due to high concentration of dissolved

solids. In general TDS values are average to high in the groundwater of the district (Table

No. 6.3). Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil have more villages with high TDS. Dhamane-I (2870)

and Icchapur (2503) represents the highest TDS in the study area.

Table No. 6.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids

Sr. No.

Range Type Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 < 300 Low 0 1 29 0 30

2 300-600 Average 4 10 38 14 66

3 > 600 High 19 30 15 6 70


iv. Total Hardness (TH): All natural waters consist of dissolved cations and anions. Water

dissolves many ions as it flows through different geological formations. Hardness of water is

defined as the quantity of cations with a +2 or +3 charge. When water containing both

carbonate and a calcium ion is heated, calcium carbonate can precipitate out on to the walls

of pipes, boilers and utensils. It decreases the life of some such items. However, there are

some evidences of beneficial health effects of hard water. Selenium, for example, may help

prevent cancer. Soft water drinking supplies have been associated with an increased heart

attack risk (www.lentech.com/ro/water_hardness). Waters of Dhule district is very hard. Out

of 166, 145 sample villages fall into very hard and 15 in hard class (Table No. 6.4).

Table No. 6.4 Distribution of Total Hardness

Sr. No.

Range

mg/l

Hardness Rating

Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 <60 Soft --- --- --- --- ---

2 61–120 Moderately Hard

--- --- 4 1 5

3 121–180

Hard --- 4 12 --- 16

4 ≥181 Very hard 23 37 66 19 145


Khede (1024), Dhamane-I (1540), Nardana-I (1180), Vikhurle (1000), Bodhgaon (2725) and

Icchapur (1180) are prominent villages with very high TH.

v. Total Hardness as CaCo3: Hardness is the ability of water to precipitate the soap. It is

due to presence of divalent metallic cations like calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous,

manganese ions etc. In general surface waters are softer than groundwater. Hardness of water

bespeaks the geological formation in which it has been in contact. High level of carbonate

hardness leads to scaling in boiler and pipes which causes considerable economic loss.

Hardness of water in terms of CO3 is very to very high all

Table No. 6.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate.

Sr. No.

Range

mg/l

Hardness Rating

Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 < 75 Soft 2 4 0 0 6

2 75-150 Medium hard

12 17 4 1 34

3 150-300 Hard 6 13 12 0 31

4 > 300 Very Hard 3 7 66 19 95


over district (Table No. 5.5). Out of 166 villages, 95 have very hard, 31 and 34 have hard and

medium hard waters respectively. Comparatively waters of Sakri tehsil are very hard. About

2/3rd villages of very hard water belong to this tehsil.

vi. Calcium: Calcium is the common constituent and important contributor to the hardness

of water hence it reduces utility of water for domestic use. Calcium is naturally present in

water and gives water a better taste. It may dissolve from rocks such as limestone, marble,

calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite and apatite. Ordinarily concentration of calcium in

groundwater of the study area is within permissible limits. In Dhule, Shirpur and Sakri tehsils

all villages show that amount of calcium in groundwater is low except seven villages. About

11 villages of Shindkheda have hard water in terms of calcium.

vii. Magnesium: In general it is non-toxic to human beings at the concentration expected in

water. Magnesium salts have a laxative and diuretic effect due to high doses. Magnesium is

the other element that determines hardness of water. It is observed that the amount of

magnesium is low in the premises of Dhule district, except 17 villages in Shindkheda tehsil.

Mean of the magnesium concentration in groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil is 62 mg/l while

it is 55 mg/l, 33 mg/l and 43 mg/l in Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils respectively.

viii. Chlorides: Normally chloride is present at low concentration. Primarily chlorine is used

to destroy harmful microorganisms in water and waste water. Amount of chloride in

groundwater of many villages of the study area is within permissible limit. About 12 samples

from Shindkheda tehsil exhibits very high proportion of chloride. e.g. Nardana (930) and

Dondaicha (1030).

ix. Sulfate: Industries that are making use of sulfuric acid and Iron and Steel industries

release sulfate through effluents. As far as public water supply is concerned it is important

because of its laxative effects upon humans due to excessive amount. High level of sulfate

forms scales in boilers, heat exchangers. For the most of the Dhule district including Dhule,

Sakri and Shirpur tehsils sulfate in groundwater is below highest desirable limit. Eleven

samples from Shindkheda tehsil contain more sulfate than highest desirable limit and seven

samples crosses maximum permissible limit such as Varul (1160), Dhamane-I (1020),

Nardana-II (940) etc.

x. Nitrate: The nitrate ions are the common form of combined nitrogen found in natural

water. Igneous rocks, drainage, plant and animal decay forms the source nitrates to surface

waters. While fertilizers may be significant source of it in rural and suburban areas. It is

important plant nutrient and causes eutrophication in receiving water bodies. High

concentration in drinking water may cause blue-baby disease (Maiti, 2004). Concentration of

nitrate in all samples of the study area is below given limit.

xi. Fluoride: Fluoride is more common in groundwater than surface water (Maiti, 2004). If

the concentration of fluoride is less than or more than the given permissible limit adversely

affects human health. Presence of fluoride in drinking water prevents

Table No. 6.6: Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride-bearing Water.

Sr. No.

Range

mg/l

Health Impact Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District

1 Nil Limited growth and fertility

--- --- --- --- ---

2 < 0.5 Dental caries 13 26 48 18 105

3 0.5–1.5 Promotes dental health

10 15 34 2 61

4 1.5 – 4 Dental fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---

5 4 – 10 Dental, skeletal fluorosis

--- --- --- --- ---

6 >10 Crippling fluorosis

--- --- --- --- ---

Source: Dissanayake (1991).

dental cavities in children and forms hard, strong and decay resistance teeth, while high

concentration of fluoride causes dental damages, bone fluorosis and other skeletal

abnormalities. Table No. 5.6 signifies that amount of fluoride in 105 sample villages is less

than 0.5 mg/l, it may lead to the dental caries. While all the remaining samples are within

standards prescribed by various authorities. It is good for health.

6.2.2 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):

SAR expresses the suitability of water to be used in agriculture for irrigation, as

determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the water. It is a ratio of the sodium -

detrimental element to the combination of calcium and magnesium -beneficial elements in

order to known effects on soil. In other words SAR is proportion of sodium ions with other

anions. High concentration of sodium ions in groundwater adversely affects the infiltration

and permeability of soil. Plants shed their leaves when SAR is >15. Soil becomes hard and

difficult to cultivate. Other problems to the crop caused by high proportion of sodium are

temporary saturation of the surface soil, high pH, weeds, soil erosion, inadequate oxygen and

availability of nutrient. Sometimes recycled water can be a source of surplus Na+ in the soil

as compared with other cations like Ca+, K+ and Mg+. SAR is calculated using following

formula:

SAR = [��]��/([�� ]�[�� ])

Where, sodium, calcium, and magnesium are in mill equivalents/liter.

Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation because

mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively (Appendix No. VIII - XI).

Maximum of SAR in these tehsils are found at Markhedi 4.89 and Boradi 3.32.

Table No.6.7: SAR Hazard of irrigation water.

Water Type SAR Notes

None < 3.0 • No restriction on the use of recycled or groundwater.

Slight to Moderate

3 to 9 • From 3 to 6 cares should be taken to sensitive crops.

• From 6 to 8 gypsum should be used. • Soils should be tested every 1 or 2 years to determine

whether the water is causing a sodium increase.

Acute > 9 • Severe damage. Unsuitable

On other hand Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR. Five

villages of Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane – 9.48,

Darane-II – 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages show moderate

values of SAR. Especially groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil possesses high salinity. The

villages with high salinity in Shindkheda tehsil are located along southern bank of Tapi river.

In this area groundwater cannot be used for irrigation. Table No. 6.7 may guide farmers with

respect to irrigation, SAR, crop and field management.

6.2.3 Water Quality Index (WQI):

Water quality index provides a single number that expresses overall water quality at a

certain location and time based on several water quality parameters. The objective of Water

quality Index is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable

and usable by the public (Yogendra, 2008, Kumar and Dua, 2009). The concept of indices to

represent gradation in water quality was first proposed by Horton (1965). It indicates the

quality by an index number, which represents the overall quality of water for any intended

use. It is defined as a rating reflecting the composite influence of different water quality

parameters on the overall quality of water (Deininger and Maciunas, 1971; Harkins, 1974;

and Tiwari and Manzoor, 1988). The WQI has been calculated from the point of view of the

suitability of lake water for human consumption. (Sisodia and Moundiotiya, 2006).There are

some limitations of WQI. For instance, WQI may not carry enough information about the real

quality situation of the water. Also many uses of water quality data cannot be met with an

index. There are more advantages of WQI than disadvantages (Kumar and Dua, 2009).

WQI Calculation

For calculation of WQI, selection of parameters has great importance. Since selection

of too many parameters might widen the water quality index and the importance of various

parameters depends on the intended use of water. Eleven physicochemical parameters,

namely pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness, Chloride, sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, sodium,

magnesium, Calcium and alkalinity were used to calculate the WQI. The calculation of WQI

was made using a weighted arithmetic index method given below (Brown et al., 1972) in the

following steps.

Calculation of Water Quality Index

WQI is calculated by using following equation

�� = � ��. ��/�

��

�

��

Calculation of sub index of quality rating (qn)

Let there be n water quality parameters where the quality rating or sub index (qn)

corresponding to the nth parameter is a number reflecting the relative value of this parameter

in the polluted water with respect to its standard permissible value. The First of all value of

qn is calculated using the following expression.

qn = 100[(Vn - Vio) / (Sn - Vio)]---------------------------------------------------------------(1)

Where,

qn = quality rating for the nth water quality parameter.

Vn = estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station.

Sn = standard permissible value of nth parameter.

V io = ideal value of nth parameter in pure water.

All the ideal values (Vio) are taken as zero for drinking water except for pH=7.0.

Calculation of quality rating for pH

For pH the ideal value is 7.0 ((for natural water) and a permissible value is

For pH the ideal value is 7.0 (for natural water) and a permissible value is 8.5 (for polluted

water). Therefore, the quality rating for pH is calculated from the following relation:

qpH = 100 [(VpH -7.0)/(8.5 -7.0)]-------------------------------------------------------------(2)

Where, VpH = observed value of pH during the study period.

Table No.6.8 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO Standards and Assigned

Unit Weights.

Sr. No. Parameter Standard (Sn & Si) Unit Weight 1 pH 8.5 0.134118

2 Total Dissolved Solids 1000 0.001140

3 Total Hardness 300 0.003800

4 Calcium 75 0.015200

5 Magnesium 30 0.038000

6 Alkalinity 120 0.009500

7 Chloride 250 0.004560

8 Sodium 200 0.005700

9 Sulphate 250 0.004560

10 Nitrates 50 0.022800

11 Fluoride 1.5 0.760000


Calculation of unit weight (Wn)

Calculation of unit weight (Wn) for various water quality parameters are inversely

proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.

Wn =K/Sn----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3)

Where,

Wn = unit weight for nth parameters.

Sn = standard value for nth parameters.

K = constant for proportionality.

K, Proportionality constant is derived from,

� = [1/(∑ 1/Si)]!!�� ------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)

Where, Sn and Si are the WHO / ICMR standard values of water quality parameters.

Table No.6.9 Number of Villages in Different Water Quality Index Classes.

Sr. No. W.Q.I. Class Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District

1 0-25 Excellent 01 28 5 03 37

2 26-50 Good 13 19 14 13 59

3 51-75 Poor 05 24 16 04 48

4 76-100 Very Poor 04 11 04 ---- 19

5 >100 Unfit for Drinking

---- ---- 02 ---- 02

Total: -

23 82 41 20 166


From Table No. 6.9, it has been proved that water quality of very few villages is

excellent except Sakri tehsil, where people of 28 villages enjoy groundwater of the best

quality. As far as WQI is concerned about 1/3rd villages of the study area fall in good class.

Again on an average 1/3rd sample villages belong to poor category. Four villages each from

Shindkheda and Dhule tehsil and 11 from Sakri tehsil have to adjust with very poor quality of

drinking water. Groundwater of two villages of Shindkheda tehsil is not suitable for drinking

purpose. They are Virdel-I and Virdel-II, situated on the bank of Tapi river. The quality of

groundwater at all levels is generally good and potable with few exceptions.

6.3 PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES:

According to G. N. Pradeep Kumar (2006) water is the most valuable and vital

resource for sustained of life and also for any development activities with the surface water

source dwindling to meet the various demands, groundwater has become the only reliable

resource. The indiscriminate use of the vital natural resource is creating groundwater mining

problems in varies parts of the world (Todd, 2005). India’s growing water shortage despite its

being one of the wettest country in the world is worrisome (Sing and Gandhi, 1999). Area

under study experiences problems of various intensities like scarcity of water, salinity,

droughts, floods and depletion of aquifers.

6.3.1 Scarcity of Drinking Water or Water Stress:

Scarcity is associated with concepts of ‘security’, a much-used term in global policy

circles that not only means the provision of adequate water to households but, in water

resource development and planning discussions, paints the picture of a bleak future that

conveys a sense of urgency to deal with the ‘problem’. Globally, ‘water security’ is

represented as a simplistic linkage between increasing populations, increased environmental

scarcity, decreased economic activity/migration and weakening of states resulting in conflicts

and violence. (Lahiri - Dutt, Kuntala, 2008).

According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it is a situation

where enough water is not available for all uses i. e. agriculture, household, industrial etc. It

is difficult to express the stress of water in terms of per capita availability of water. But it has

been suggested that if annual availability of per capita water is less than 1700 cu. m., the

region begin to experience water stress. And below 1000 cubic meters water scarcity impedes

human health and overall economic development of the region. Table No. 6.11 shows the

total availability, utilization, per head and per hector availability of the major river basins of

Maharashtra. Tapi basin is only basin which experience scarcity of water because per head

and per hector availability of water is the lowest in the state.

Due to low, erratic and poorly distributed rainfall, the availability of water resources

in Dhule district is low. Moreover major part of the district is covered by hard rock like

Deccan basalt. It has low primary porosity. Hence the groundwater potential is dependent on

the thickness of weathering. Deposition of alluvium is

Table No. 6.10 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water.

Sr. No.

Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total

1 Total Inhibited Villages 168 225 141 147 681

Inhibited Pada 13 258 0 100 371

2 Villages with Perennial Water Supply

162 216 141 131 650

Pada with Perennial Water Supply

11 258 0 32 324

3

Villages with Water Supply Scheme

157 216 135 131 639

Pada with Water Supply Scheme

11 214 0 32 257

4 Villages facing Water Scarcity 9 35 36 4 84

Pada facing Water Scarcity 0 1 0 34 35

5 Tanker fed Villages 9 33 32 4 78

Tanker fed Pada 0 1 0 34 35

6 No. of Tankers 4 13 12 4 33

Source: District Statistical Abstract, 2011

Table No. 6.11 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in Maharashtra.

Name of Basin

Natural Average

Availability

Present Utilization

(1996)

Availability per head (1991)

Availability per hectare

Classification For Planning

Godavari Basin

50880 12795 1756 4520 General

(1795) (451) -- --

Tapi Basin

9118 2747 803 2444 Scarcity

(322) (97) -- --

Narmada Basin

580 24 3602 9063 Abundant

(21) (1) -- --

Krishna Basin

34032 6881 1827 6048 General

(1200) (243) -- --

West Flowing Rivers in Konkan

69210 3076 3497 37130 More Than Abundant (2441) (108) -- --

Maharashtra Region

163820 25523 2076 7267 General

(5779) (900) -- --

• Water Availability and Utilization - M. Cu. M. Source: - Sarbhukan, 2001.

restricted to the both banks of Tapi river and the lower reaches of her tributaries. All above

geographical, geological and climatic conditions are unfavorable for availability of surface

and groundwater. Therefore, it is very difficult to fulfill the household, irrigation, industrial

and livestock water needs of the study area. The rivers and streams become dry immediately

after monsoon season. Dug wells hardly yield up to November to January and during summer

season the situation becomes worst.

Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda experiences severe scarcity of drinking

water. Table No. 6.10 depicts the scarcity of drinking water in the study area. 36 villages of

Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and nine villages of Dhule tehsil are facing

acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore, several villages of Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule

tehsils depend on tankers for drinking water (Fig. No. 6.7).

6.3.2 Salinity in Shindkheda Tehsil:

Problem of the salinity is very complex and there is uneven pattern of occurrence of

saline water. Electrical conductivity (EC) measured in microsiemens per centimeter (µS/cm)

with reference to a temperature of 25oC is known as Salinity. Salinity of groundwater can be

a useful indicator for potential severity of land salinisation. It is important to monitor the

groundwater salinity if the water is to be extracted for uses such as irrigation for agriculture,

drinking water supplies etc. Salinisation of water resources is one the most widespread

processes that degrades water-quality and endangers future water exploitation (Gaye, 2001).

Therefore, monitoring and identifying the origin of the salinity are crucial for both water

management and remediation. Especially, in arid and semiarid regions, salinity of water

restricts use of water for household and agricultural purpose. This salinisation is often due to

inflow of saline dense water during heavy withdrawals of fresh water from coastal aquifers

and or mobilization of saline waters by over-exploitation of inland aquifer systems. Now a

days salinity of water in certain places is also growing due to extensive irrigation and use of

fertilizers and other pesticides.

“Salinity” includes hundreds of different ions; however, relatively few make up most

of the dissolved material in water bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, nitrate, magnesium, sodium

and sulfate. Local concentrations of boron, bromide, iron and other trace ions may be

important. A tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in Shindkheda tehsil (Fig.

No. 6.7) is found to be Saline. This part of the study area does not produce irrigated crops

because of saline groundwater. It does not permit well irrigation. From the observation in the

field, it is noticed that the farmers do not use groundwater for irrigation purpose. Rather

farmers cultivate the crops which tolerate saline water such as cotton.

According to the American standards the following limits for the safe use in irrigation

were indicated:

• Chlorides – 100 ppm

• Bi-carbonates – 450 ppm

• Total Solids – 2000 ppm

From the chemical analysis of the groundwater it is proved that above said elements

are present in the groundwater of several villages in excessive quantity, which are not safe

from the irrigation point of view (Appendix-I, II and III). Amount of chlorides in

groundwater crosses the upper limit in several villages such as: Nirgudi - 710, Chimthane –

532, Melane – 470, Nardana I – 462, Nardana II – 930, Dondaicha – 1030, Patan – 618 and

Rami – 589 etc. The concentration of sulfate is also very high in Dhamane – 1020, Varul –

1160, Shindkheda – 760, Nardana – 940, Dondaicha – 600. Likewise Total Solids in the

groundwater of Dhamane - 2870, Melane – 1758, Nardana – 2330, Shindkheda – 1243,

Dondaicha – 2850, Betawad – 1270, Salve – 1015, Chimthane – 1710, Virdel – 1260 and

Bahmane – 1031 villages is beyond permissible limits.

6.3.3 Flood Affected Villages:

Tapi is the second largest west flowing river of India with the catchment area of

65145 sq. km. Dhule district which is located in the middle Tapi basin, where the gradient is

only 0.41 m/km. as compare to the total gradient 1.04 m/km. The river has constructed

several meanders in this section, so it becomes difficult to discharge a large volume of water

during rainy season. Therefore, river Tapi experiences devastating floods submerging

settlements and agricultural land. There were several records of severe floods in the study

area in historical and current past such as 1930, 1944, 1945, 1959, 1968, 1978, 1979, 1989,

1994, 2004 and 2006.

Following are villages which are frequently hit by floods of Tapi and its tributaries (Fig. No.

6.7).

• Shirpur tehsil – Shirpur, Tonde, Holnanthe, Bhaver, Pilode, Japora, Savalde, Gidhade,

Vanaval, Upparpind, Tekwade, Anturli.

• Shindkheda tehsil – Dondaicha, Humbarde, Kamkheda, Sukvad, Sulwadw, Varpade,

Ranjane, Betavad.

• Dhule tehsil – Dhule, War, Kundane, Nakane, Khede, Akalad, Ner, Dhule, Morane,

• Sakri tehsil – Tamaswadi, Datarti, Sakri, Malpur, Kasare, Varkhede, Japi, Shirdhane,

Nyahlod,

6.3.4 Depletion of aquifers:

The study area is well known for the cultivation of crops like cotton and sugarcane.

The fertile alluvial soil, availability of assured irrigation has promoted the cultivation of the

above crops in the district. The northern tehsils, including Shirpur and Shindkheda, are

intensively cultivated by these water intensive crops for last 30 years. The cultivation of these

crops has resulted in the lowering of water table and depletion of aquifer. The tube wells are

going deeper and deeper. Dug wells have replaced by deep tube wells. It is important to note

that the increase in pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well

digging/drilling, whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community

(Limaye, 1994).

Foster et al (2007) observed that despite generally very limited potential, these

recourses are very intensively exploited, but such development has encountered significant

problems. Dhule district has been suffering from depletion of aquifers due to increase in

number of tube wells for irrigation and chronic water shortage for years. Around 1980s the

water table was about 30 m. b.g.l. Thereafter number of tube wells and dug wells increased

tremendously. Thousands of pumps of various capacities are currently extracting

groundwater throughout the district. As many as 71407 dug wells and bore wells are

presently in use within district for irrigation and water supply schemes. Hence this area has

been experienced sinking of water table between 10 to 50 m. mainly in alluvial part of Tapi

basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. Now water table is about 60 m b.g.l. Ever increasing

population and land under agriculture, demand for water has been increasing day by day. It

means that due to human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation water table is sinking.

Future risk to groundwater resources in basalts or Deccan traps of western India is likely to

occur in sub-basins in which groundwater pumpage for irrigational use has increased

considerably in the past two decades. Such sub-basins occur in the high rainfall area as well

as in the low rainfall area. The main threat is the declining yields from dug wells and bore

wells (Limaye, 1994). The depletion of aquifer has become a problem and may increase in

the near future. There is variety of impacts of depletion of aquifer. The first and most

important impact is the loss of base flow. Secondly almost all the lined dug wells of this area

have been dried up and abandoned. (Photos Nos. 38 and 39) The loss of base flow results into

following adverse effects on various components of landscape.

• Increased cost of pumping and maintenance.

• Loss of wetland vegetation.

• Increased intensity and frequency of droughts.

• Loss of wildlife and reduction in biodiversity.

• Changes in channel morphology.

• Accelerated erosion and gully formation.

6.3.5 Frequent Droughts:

Drought is defined as a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period, usually a

season or more, resulting in a water shortage causing adverse impacts on vegetation, animals

and or people. Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from

uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts of the district experiences dry spells of

2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due to delayed onset and early withdrawal of

monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district has been known for the droughts. Droughts of

various intensities occur once in 4 to 6 years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce

and the economy of the district as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001).

Table No: 6.12 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years.

Rainfall

in mm

Tehsil Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District

Climatic Condition

Years (%)

Years (%)

Years

(%)

Years (%)

Years (%)

<150 Acute Drought

0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

150-300 Severe Drought

4 (4) 1 (1) 4 (4) 6 (6) 1 (1)

300-450 Drought 21 (20) 14 (13) 25 (24) 31 (29) 19 (18)

450-600 Normal Rainfall

34 (32) 29 (27) 37 (35) 39 (37) 42 (40)

600-750 Moderate Rainfall

27 (25) 30 (28) 26 (25) 22 (21) 31 (29)

750-900 High Rainfall

14 (13) 19 (18) 10 (9) 7 (7) 11 (10)

900-1050 Very High Rainfall

5 (5) 9 (8) 3 (3) 1 (1) 2 (2)

1050-1200 Excess Rainfall

0 (0) 3 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0)

>1200 Excess Rainfall

1 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)

Years 106 106 106 106 106

Mean 597 665 560 526 586

C. V. 32.03 30.51 30.36 29.86 24.90


Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for four tehsil is used to compute normal rain-

fall and the departure of the yearly rainfall from the normal to study the recurrence of drought

and to demarcate drought-prone area of the district. Gamma distribution is fitted to the

frequency distribution of annual average rainfall. From Gamma probabilities we have

calculated the estimated frequencies of each class and tehsil (Table No. 6.12). This table

clearly indicates that drought and severe droughts will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106

coming years. On the other hand Sakri tehsil have to go through droughts for 37 out of 106

years. It is the highest probability

of droughts within district. Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29 and 25

years of drought condition in forthcoming 106 years. The total probability of normal,

moderate, high and excess rainfall is also in the favour of Shirpur tehsil. As far as rainfall is

concerned, about 91 years will bring prosperity for Shirpur tehsil and these years can be

described as normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall.

6.4 MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES:

Water is the fundamental resource of our planet. All the living organisms require

water for their basic needs and man uses it for other purposes. Like other natural resources,

water is unevenly distributed on the surface of the earth. Only 2.61% of global water is fresh.

Hence it is of utmost important to manage water judiciously. Management of Water

Resources is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use

of water resources. Management of water also includes to solve various problems of water

resources such as scarcity, floods, salinity, droughts, overexploitation of aquifers, intrusion of

saline water, water pollution, water logging etc. It is rarely possible in practice but can be

achieved greatly through the participation of community.

6.4.1 Methods of water conservation:

There are two methods of water conservation. They are as follows:

I. Spreading Methods :

It is the most widely used method for water conservation all over the world. The rate

of infiltration is always slow than rainfall and surface runoff because of texture, structure,

porosity, permeability, swelling index of soils, slope, depth of weathering etc. When

water is allowed to be stagnant for long time, it gets sufficient time to percolate in to

subsurface. Hence spreading methods have been proved successful at appropriate

locations. K. T. Weir, Vanrai Bandhara, Farm Ponds, Continuous Contour Trenches,

Check dams or Cement plugs or Nala Bunds, Gabion Structure, Gully plugging,

Percolation Tank, Ditch and Furrow Method, village tank etc. are the most popular

methods in which recharge takes place through surface spreading. Among these spreading

methods percolation tanks, village or storage tanks, K T weirs and farm ponds are

undertaken by the various government departments such as irrigation, agriculture, forest.

While CCT, Gabion Structure, Nala Bunds, Loose Boulder Structure, Vanrai Bandhara

are preferred by NGOs.

II. Direct Injection Method:

Direct Injection Method is used to augment groundwater resources. There are very few

measures available in Direct Injection Method such as Recharge Shaft, Recharge Pits and

Tube well /Dug well Recharge. Tube well / Dug well Recharge is the easy, cheap and

widely used method of Direct Injection. It is adopted by NGOs and individuals also.

III. ‘Angioplasty Technique’ Model of Shirpur Tehsil:

The mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is

undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur under the supervision and

guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar, retired Senior Geologist. According to Mr.

Khanapurkar due to over exploitation of groundwater resources, the groundwater levels

have declined and all the dug wells in the Tapi alluvium dried up. Semi-pervious alternate

layers of silt and sand transmit very little water. Hence the situation was becoming more

critical day by day. However, the wells which are very close to canals from last 20 years

also dried up. It very clearly shows that there is very little lateral and vertical percolation

through yellow silt. Secondly, 85% area of the district is covered by the hard rock such as

basalt. Heavy rainfall within short duration (36 rainy days) increases runoff while

percolation is very little. Hence the dug and bore wells in basalt area hardly yielding

water at the most up to December. There is scarcity of water for irrigation and only kharip

crops were possible.

The project was initiated over 100 sq. km. non–command area of 16 villages

in 2004 and covered 35 villages till today. To overcome these problems 14 small streams

in the project area were widened up to 20 to 30 m and deepened up to 10 to 15 m from

their origin in basalt and alluvial area. (Photo Nos. 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32 and 33) Total

length of streams widened and deepened are about 30 km. In this way impervious layer of

yellow soil in alluvium and hard massive basalt were removed and 91 cement plugs of

appropriate dimensions without gates and waste ware were constructed. (Photo No. 27)

Hence the Project is named as ‘Angioplasty Technique’ in Water Conservation. Storage

capacity of these bunds range from 10 T.C.M. to 150 T.C.M. Along with this method,

direct inject of surplus water is being carried out. Surplus water of Karwand and Aner

dam is injected in to 59 dry dug wells having depth of 50 m. directly with proper

filtration. (Photo No. 25) About 26 km long canals are constructed for the same. It was

supported by three Field Ponds. Due to this watershed both in alluvium and basalt area

water table has raised to a great extent. In basalt area even dry bore wells of 150 m. in

depth attained water level at a depth of 6 m. below ground level and in alluvium area at a

depth of 20 m. below ground level. Total expenditure of the total conservational work is

around Rs. 15 crore to recharge 1019 crore liters (10.19 M. Cu. M.) of water. Area

brought under irrigation due to this project is 1952 ha. in Shirpur tehsil. (Photo Nos. 34,

35 and 38) Cost benefit ratio of Direct recharge method is 1:71 while 1:15 for Cement

bunds.

Visible results of the mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda

tehsils which is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur are as

follows:

• Water level in basalt area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 140 m. Now

mean now water level is at 10 m. below ground level.

• Water table in alluvium area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 110m.

Now mean water level is at 40 m. below ground level.

• Streams flow up to the month of March which previously dried in November

• Area under irrigation has been increased and farmers are cultivating two or three

crops in rain fed and non- command area.

• Energy consumption has decreased due to reduction in suction height, means low HP

pumps have been installed.

• Fishery was started in cement plug reservoir in order to increase their income.

• Water table increased up to 100 to 150 feet in two km on both sides and 1 km in

downstream side of cement bund.

6.4.2 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting:

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof

becomes the catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building.

This method is suggested mostly for urban areas where cement concrete houses are

constructed and sufficient roof top is available to catch rainwater.

Table No. 6.13 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting

Rainfall

(mm)

100

200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Roof Top Area sq. m. / Harvested Water from Roof Top (cub. m.)

20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.4

30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4

40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2

50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64

60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8

70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6

80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102

90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 56.6 72 86.4 100.8 115

100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128

150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192

200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256

250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320

300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384

350 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512

400 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640

500 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280

Source: Ministry of water resources, Central ground water board, Faridabad It

can either be stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less

expensive and very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground

water level of the area.

The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days; however, the

concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had been

evolved and developed centuries ago. Ground water resource gets naturally recharged

through percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid urbanization, exposed

surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant reduction in percolation of

rainwater, thereby depleting ground water resource. Rainwater harvesting is the process of

augmenting the natural filtration of rainwater in to the underground formation by some

artificial methods. "Conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of

water, for drinking, domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater Harvesting."

There are several types of systems to harvest rainwater, ranging from very simple home

systems to complex industrial systems. The rate at which water can be collected from either

system is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency, and the intensity of rainfall

(i.e., annual precipitation (mm per annum) x square meter of catchment area = liters per

annum yield) ... a 200 square meter roof catchment catching 1,000 mm per annum yields 200

kilo liters per annum.

6.4.3 River Linking:

Sir Arthur Cotton, the British engineer, has suggested initially the idea of Inter

Linking of Rivers in the 18th century for inland water transport as an alternative to the roads

in India. Thereafter K. L. Rao former Union Minister for Irrigation proposed the same idea

of Inter linking of rivers in 1970. It is necessary for south India where people and crops are

mainly depend on monsoon rainfall. The occurrence and distribution of monsoon rainfall is

uncertain, unreliable, and uneven with limited rainy days. The prolonged dry spells,

fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall posses serious problem of deficit of rainfall and

frequent droughts in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka, Tamilnadu etc. while excess rainfall in Uttar Pardesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, West

Bengal causes devastating floods. The best way to mitigate droughts and floods, to increase

irrigation potential, consequent increase in food production and decrease regional imbalance

in terms of availability of water, it is to transfer water from surplus river basins to deficit

areas. It may also provide additional irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydel

power generation, navigation facility etc.

River linking has a long history and following are the examples of river linking in our

country and abroad:

� Water of Mahi river was diverted in Sabarmati basin in Gujarat.

� Krishna river water carried to Pennar basin through Caddapah canal in Andhra Pradesh.

� Yamuna - Bhakra canal.

� In 1952, drought Gomai river was diverted into Susari river in Shahada tehsil of

Nandurbar district.

� In USA California Water Project 4 cu. km. water carried up to the south central California

through 715 km. long canal.

� In the countries like Russia, China, Srilanka, Iraq, Mexico about sixty river linking

projects are in progress.

River linking has social, economic, political, climatic, environmental benefits to all.

They are as follows:

i. Existing canals and other systems can be utilized to maximum capacity, minimum

modification and expenditure for river linking.

ii. In river linking short links can be constructed to divert higher discharge during monsoon

floods.

iii. Hope to solve the problem of drinking water of numerous villages in Dhule, Sakri and

Shindkheda tehsil.

iv. Increase in area under irrigation.

v. It helps to increase in water table and well recharge.

vi. It proves life saver for standing crops.

vii. Repair of old canals for river linking which further leads to reduce in seepage and other

losses.

viii. It improves economic and social status of farmers.

ix. It decreases out migration of poor people in the search of jobs towards urban areas.

x. This alternative saves the huge expenditure on Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS).

xi. River linking causes no destruction of valuable forest.

xii. River linking has the benefit as no submergence of valuable land, no land acquisition

required hence positive attitude increased among people.

xiii. Water conservation, climate change, percolation of water favorably affects the

vegetation growth, wet lands and aquatic ecosystem.

xiv. River linking has proved that the cost of big projects reduces which in turn reduces

corruption.

xv. Disputes between states, districts or region for share of water are marginalized.

River Linking Project in Dhule district:

Dhule district experiences diverse climate with respect to rainfall and temperature.

District is facing endless cycle of droughts. River linking project on small scale was initiated

in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District Collector, in August 2005. Dhule district

was under drought situation in 2005. Therefore some the elder villagers suggested to divert

water from the Girna canal (Malegaon tehsil of Nasik district) to the drought prone area of

Dhule district during the village meeting on drought. As a result of the district collector

implemented the idea of river linking very seriously and following river links came in

existence.

a) Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link: The left canal of Girna Dam namely Panzan canal

passes from Dhule district boundary for Bhadgaon, Chalisgaon, Pachora and Parola

tehsils of Jalgaon district. The excess water of Girna Dam and flood water is diverted in

Kanoli and Bori rivers for Dhule district (Fig. No. 6.9). Panzan canal was cut off near

Mordad and Khordad villages and it was diverted in Bori river through a small stream.

Then the same Panzan canal was again cut off near Tarwade village and third time it was

cut off near Pinjarpada village. In this way excess flow of Girna Dam diverted to the Bori

river through three small streams. Using the same water, Tamaswadi Dam across Bori

river located on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon districts is filled up and 13 villages

are benefited of drinking water and 12,000 ha. land under irrigation in Rabbi season.

b) Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli river link: With the success of Girana – Bori –

Kanoli river link the people, engineers, administrators and politicians started to search out

other options of river link. Another option Haranbari Project of Malegaon tehsil in Nasik

district always gets full of water which was diverted in Mosam river and then into Girna

river. In between Girna and Mosam rivers have Phud system bund; water accumulated in

this bund diverted in Dahikute small irrigation project and then excess water was

discharged into Kanoli river. A medium irrigation project is constructed across Kanoli

river on the boundary of Dhule and Jalgaon district. About 13 villages benefited of

drinking water and irrigation due to the water diverted in this Kanoli project.

c) Panzara – Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link: The engineers noticed

Malngaon, Latipada and Jamkheli irrigation projects in Sakri tehsil were overflowed

while at the same time Dedargaon, Nakane reservoirs were dried up. A phud system

bund near Sayyadnagar in Sakri tehsil and 25 km long canal used to divert water from

Panzara river to Iras nala, Waghada nala and in Nakane reservoir through Express canal

(Fig. No. 6.10). It only required repairing of existing canal. 255 small ponds were filled

with same diverted water.

Table No. 6.14 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District.

Sr. No.

River Link

Volume of water to be

diverted M.C.Ft.

Cost (lakh Rs.)

1 Panzan Left canal-Bori-Kundane-Anchale joint canal 780 5280

2 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal- First Stage

260 120

3 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal- Second Stage

380 2,437

4 Malangaon-Burai river link canal 780 5,245 5 Burai-Amaravati river link canal 260 763 6 Panzara river – Lendi nala to Varshi joint canal 260 780

7 Amaravati left canal-Chorzira-Dhavade Zirve joint canal

130 580

8 Amaravati-Right canal- Madari nala river link canal 130 170

9 Purmepada left canal- Moghan-Dedargaon joint canal

260 900

10 Panzara to Sonvad canal-Hol-Shindkheda-Burai river link canal

730 1,500

11 Lower Panzara left canal-Ghanegaon joint canal 50 900

12 Lower Panzara left canal-Kothare-Borsule joint canal

20 500

13 Lower Panzara left canal-Kheda joint canal 150 500 14 Lower Panzara left canal-Gondur joint canal 40 130 15 Lower Panzara left canal-Devbhane joint canal 70 270

Source: - Zende, Sanjay (2007) d) Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad Project Link: There is phud system bund on Panzara

river and about 14 km. long canal near Nyahlod village in Dhule tehsil. Water diverted

into Bhat nala through the canal. It merges in to Sonvad Project. Same water is utilized to

irrigate 2000 ha land and standing crops. Pnazara – Bhat nala – Sonavad Project river link

solved the drinking water problem of 116 villages comprising 6, 50,000 population

inclusive Dhule city.

CHAPTER: - 7

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

The present project work deals with management of water resources which is very

valuable for the survival of life. The management of any resource basically deals with the two

aspects such as the availability and requirement of the same. Therefore, it is important to

know the occurrence, quality and utilization of that resource. It is equally important to have a

clear understanding of the factors which govern the availability and utilization of resource.

As water is a finite resource, its overall management and the conservation are of utmost

importance. It can be achieved by minimum utilization, recycling and rain water harvesting.

The declining availability of water resource is a serious problem faced in the several

parts of the country. It is a difficult task to provide pure drinking water to the huge population

of the country. Therefore, only positive way to safeguard the resource for future use is to

undertake soil and water conservation activities for recharge or augmentation. These

activities involve a high degree of community acceptance and participation. It is, therefore,

advisable to involve NGOs or Voluntary Agencies in the planning and execution of these

activities and ensure popular support through them (Limaye, 1994).

The present study essentially deals with the role of geomorphologic factors related to

the availability, potentials and utilization of water resources in the Dhule district of

Maharashtra State. Within the study area, there is a moderate groundwater potential. The

study region is well endowed with the drainage network of the river Tapi and its tributaries

like river Panzara, Burai, Bori, Arunavati, Aner, Amravati and Kan. The district has no single

major irrigation project. There are 12 medium irrigation projects with the total gross storage

capacity of 480.61 M. Cu. M.

6.1 DISCUSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS:

The major findings and observations of the present study are:

6.1.1 Dhule district is situated in the north-western corner of Maharashtra State. It extends

between 20038’ to 21038’ north latitude and 74052’ to 75011’ east longitude. The total

geographical area of the district is 8063.11 sq. km.The district is divided into four

tehsils for the administrative purposes namely Shirpur, Sakri, Dhule and Shindkheda.

There are six towns and 678 inhabited villages. The population of the district was 17,

07,947 while the rural and urban population of the district was 73.89 % and 26.11%

respectively (2001).

6.1.2 The territory of Dhule district exhibits four distinct physiographic divisions such as

Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galna hills, Deccan plateau and Alluvial Plain of Tapi

river. The Tapi river is flows through the central part of the district and through rift

valley. This alluvial plain forms good aquifer which is known as the largest aquifer in

the state. The highest point within the district is spot height 1291 m. from msl. west of

Mangi Tungi peaks in Sakri tehsil. While the lowest elevation is 109 m. from msl.

along Tapi river near village Takarkheda in Shindkheda tehsil.

6.1.3 Two geological formations are found in the district, one is Deccan trap and other is

Recent Alluvium. About 85 % of the district is covered with basaltic terrain which is

hard and massive. Some isolated pockets of deeply weathered basalt are located in the

southern part of study area. The layers of red bole with varying thickness between few

cm to 1.5 m. are observed near the villages Sangavi, Palasaner, Nimzari in Shirpur

tehsil, Kudashi in Sakri tehsil and Songir in Dhule tehsil. A rare two tire layers of red

bole are found near Bijasani Temple in Satpura ranges. Numerous dykes are found

near Dhule, Sakri, Pimpalner, Lamkani, and Dondaicha. Several lineaments have been

discovered in the southern part of the district and at foothills of Satpura ranges. The

thickness of alluvium varies from few cm to 308 m.

6.1.4 Tapi is a major river of the study area with right bank tributaries such as Aner,

Arunavati and left bank tributaries such as Panzara, Kan, Aru, Burai, Bori and

Amaravati. The river Tapi is having its source from the sacred tank of Multai located

Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. River Arunavati and Aner found their sources from

southern slopes of Satpura ranges in Khargone district of Madhya Pradesh. The left

bank tributaries such as Panzara, Burai, Bori and Amaravati take their sources from

Dhanora and Galna Hills. The Tapi river is non-perennial in the study area. All other

tributaries are seasonal. The Tapi river often experience floods.

6.1.5 Dhule district experiences monsoon type of climate. The minimum mean daily

temperature during winter season is 12oC while the maximum temperature during

summer season rises up to 47oC. The average annual rainfall within the district is 592

mm because the district belongs to the rain shadow region. Out of four tehsils Dhule,

Shindkheda and Sakri belong to the drought-prone area. The climate of the study area

is dry except in rainy season. Relative Humidity during winter months is 40 to 45 %,

20 to 25 % in summer and above 70 % in rainy season.

6.1.6 Black soil is the dominant soil type found in the study area. About 15 % area of it is

covered with deep black cotton soil and older alluvium. The part of Shirpur and

Shindkheda tehsils adjoining Tapi river is occupied by the deep black soil. The soil is

very fertile for agriculture and vegetative growth. Medium black soil occupies

admeasuring 25% area in Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsil in the form of extensive

patches. Shallow black soil occurs at the foot hills of Satpura ranges, Dhanora and

Galana hills. It is less fertile and occupies about 60% area of the district.

6.1.7 The land use / land cover of the district is divided in to eight sections. Near about

5258.37 sq. km. of land means 65.22 % of the study area is under agricultural use. It

is observed in the river valleys, plains and foot hill zones of Satpura, Dhanora and

Galna Ranges. Forest scrub and Deciduous Forest permeates 21.77 % area of the

district. In fact, actual forest is standing on only 5.22 % area. The irrigated area is

around 573.72 sq. km. and mostly from groundwater resources. About 8.52 % and

1.03 % land is barren and rocky. All the water bodies cover total 2.22 % land surface

of study area. Settlements pervades on 1.25 % area of the district.

6.1.8 Tropical Dry Deciduous forest is the natural vegetation type in the study area. It

ranges from grasses, thorny bushes, trees to deciduous trees. Satpura ranges and

Western Ghat sections are under the forest cover. About 2088.90 sq. km. area of the

study area is under forest, which accounts 25.90 % of the total geographical area of

the district. Large scale deforestation and grazing practices have destructed the major

part of the forest. In fact, only 6.59 % area is under forest cover in Dhule district.

Teak (Tectona grandis L.) is the predominant species in the study area. In general, the

dominating plants from Satpura ranges are Anjan,Salai, Lal Khair, Black Khair,

Sadada, Beheda, Arjun, Chinch, Shisam, Palas, Nim, Bor, Mahu, Amla, Bel, Jamum

etc. Scrub and grasses covers the vast area of south and central parts of the study

area. Flood plain of Tapi and valley fills of her tributaries are principally occupied by

the agriculture. Nim, Pimple, Mango, Vad, Chinch, Hivar, Bor, Acacia are distributed

sparsely in the cultivated areas.

6.1.9 Dhule district is one of the important agricultural regions of Maharashtra. In the year

2008-09 total area available for cultivation was 4.59 lakh ha. It is 62.59% of total

geographical area of the district but only 80% of cultivable area was under cultivation.

The total net sown area in the district was 3.672 lakh ha. of which about 22984 ha.

sown more than once. The area under summer crops was 8100 ha. According to

kharip cropping pattern of the district, the cotton occupies the area of 84364 ha. ,

which is 18.38% of total cropped area. Other major crops of the kharip season are

jowar 21169 ha., bajara 26742 ha., maize 26211 ha., cereals 45296 ha., sugarcane

5747 ha., oil seeds 18766 ha. The cash crops of the district are cotton, banana,

sugarcane and vegetables. The trend to grow cash crops like cotton, sugarcane and

vegetables is noticeable in the study area.

6.1.10 There are twelve medium irrigation projects and 71530 wells. The net irrigable area is

57372 ha. out of which 4000 ha. (7 %) is from surface water resources and 53372 ha.

(93 %) from groundwater resource. Hence Dhule district is mainly irrigated by

groundwater.

6.1.11 There is no single major project available in the Dhule district. There are 12 medium

irrigation projects in the district. About 525.383 sq. km. area of the district serves as

catchment area for 12 medium irrigation projects. Total storage capacity of all

medium irrigation projects is 480.61 M. Cu. M. The gross commanded area is 771.45

sq. km. and net irrigable area is 578.54 sq. km. Besides 12 medium irrigation projects,

minor irrigation projects such as percolation tanks, K. T. weirs, storage tanks, village

tanks have been proved to be useful for irrigation, percolation and augmenting

groundwater. There are 384 percolation tanks, 22 K. T. weirs, 813 storage tanks and

302 village tanks constructed by the various departments. Total storage capacity of all

the minor irrigation projects is 47628.71 TCM and 21500.15 ha. of land has been

brought under irrigation.

6.1.12 There are 71407 total irrigation wells in the district which play an important role in

agriculture. Dhule tehsil comprises highest number of wells and well density. It is

23695 and 11.95 wells per sq. km. respectively. Sakri tehsil stood second with respect

to total number of wells and third in density of wells. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest

number of wells and density of wells. It is because of north and north eastern portion

of the tehsil is occupied by Satpura hills.

6.1.13 Potential of groundwater resources in Dhule district has been evaluated using Survey

of India toposheets, Land Sat 7 ETM+ Band 2, 3, 4 false color image, remote sensing

and GIS techniques. The potential of groundwater is demonstrated in five categories.

Near about 1430.77 sq. km. (17.74%) area of Dhule district has very high

groundwater potential. Most portion of very high groundwater potential zone is

discovered along the course of Tapi river and lower reaches of its tributaries. High

groundwater potential zone constitutes about 28.76 % area of the district. Leading part

of this zone appears along with the Panzara river and its tributary Kan river in Dhule

and Sakri tehsils. Shirpur tehsil is also covered by the extensive patches of High

potential zones. Moderate groundwater potential zone comprehensively accounts for

about 34.72% part of the study area. South eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, south

western part of Shindkheda tehsil and north eastern as well as south western part of

Sakri tehsil possesses moderate groundwater potential. Groundwater potential along

the southern part of Sakri and Dhule tehsil is found to be low, which occupies 833.76

sq. km. area. Western ghat section in Sakri tehsil possesses very low groundwater

potential. It is only 8.43% in areal extent of the district.

6.1.14 It has been observed that 642132 ha. area is suitable for recharge which allows

126147 ham water to recharge within the district. Natural discharge is only 7546 ham.

Net availability of groundwater is 118601 ham and 57821 ham is utilized hence

60780 ham water is available as balance for the district as a whole. Overall stage of

groundwater development is 47 % hence there is further scope for the development of

groundwater. Trend of water table is falling in pre-monsoon season while rising in

post-monsoon season all over the district. Hence all the tehsils are safe with respect to

groundwater availability. Net 57203 ham groundwater is available for agriculture.

6.1.15 Dhule district exhibits varied physiographical features ranging from mountain ranges,

hills, valleys, flood plain, plateau etc. The area which is under focus can be divided

into four divisions from physiographic point of view. The first physiographic division

is Satpura, Dhanora and Galna hills in Dhule district. These hills are poor in

groundwater because of steep slope, thin layer of weathered material, absence of soil

cover and degraded vegetation. The second is Alluvial Plain of Tapi river which is

suitable for percolation of water. Hence it possesses a good deal of groundwater

resources. The third division is talus and scree. Thickness of this zones reaches up to

50 m. at many places. This formation comprises mainly boulders, pebbles, coarse and

fine sand as well as clay, which is poorly sorted and unconsolidated. Hence it is

highly porous and normally yields copious groundwater. At present the dug wells and

shallow tube wells in this zone have dried up. Fourth physiographic unit is Deccan

plateau or Upland region. It holds low to moderate groundwater depending upon

depth of weathering.

6.1.16 About 85 % portion of the district is occupied by hard rock such as Deccan Basalt

hence weathering processes have immense impact over water resources. The

weathered and fractured zones form groundwater potential zones. The thickness of

weathered material varies from 0.5 m. to 12.6 m. within study area. Weathered profile

is almost absent in Tapi valley because of excessive alluvial deposition. A thin veneer

of weathered material is learnt in hilly area, but as distance from the mountain crest

increases the depth of weathering increases. The prominent examples of deep

weathering are Hadakhed (10 m.), Songir (9 m.), Dhule (12m.), Chinchwar (10.25

m.), Deshshirvade (12.6 m.), Shivarimal (10.5 m.). Weathered profile of near about

half of observation wells is less than 3 m.

6.1.17 In the gentle slope area, the surface runoff is slow allowing more time for rainwater to

percolate whereas steep slope facilitates high runoff. The area under focus is grouped

into five classes according to the degree of slope. The areas having slope less than 50

are designated as very gentle slope. It accounts 86.86% surface of the district which

favors groundwater infiltration. While 6.5% area lies in between 50 to 100 which is

known as moderate slope. Moderate steep and steep slope are very small in areal

extent in the study area. It is confined to the Satpura ranges, Dhanora and Galna hills.

Hence, it is inferred that due to flat or rolling topography there are better chances of

groundwater percolation in the study area.

6.1.18 Lineaments with considerable length are observed in south and south-eastern part of

the study area which extends for 80 to 100 km. They are parallel to the Dhanora and

Galna Hills. Few north south trending lineaments are marked in the same region.

Some of the lineaments present in north are varied in directions. High lineament

density of 0.8 to 1.36 km/sq. km. is discovered in east and central Shirpur tehsil,

central part of Sakri tehsil from north to south and central part of Dhule tehsil from

east to west. Areas of medium lineament density take up more space in Sakri and

Dhule tehsil along Panzara river. A large part of the Panzara basin is occupied by low

density indicating a poor groundwater potential. Shirpur tehsil has the lowest density

of lineaments. Based on the lineament density it is inferred that the groundwater

prospects are poor in a large part of the study area.

6.1.19 Two types of aquifers have been noticed in Dhule district, namely Basaltic and

Alluvial aquifers. About 85% part of the district is suffused by Deccan Basalt. It is

less permeable because the primary porosity is much less and the vesicles are filled

with secondary minerals. Secondary porosity is developed due to joints and

weathering. Highly weathered rock and zones contact between two flows embedded

with gravel, pebbles, boulder and gravel is the most favorable area for huge storage of

groundwater. Groundwater occurs in semi-confined and confined conditions in most

of the Deccan trap areas. Alluvial aquifer is formed due to the accumulation of

sediments in Tapi rift valley. It is composed of unconsolidated material like pebbles,

gravel, sand and silt, hence, it is highly porous. Alluvial aquifer possesses ample

quantity of water. Groundwater in Tapi and Purna alluvial area occurs under water

table and unconfined conditions.

6.1.20 Porosity of deep black soil is 0.60 %. Permeability is 10-10cm/sec. Free Swelling

Index of this soil is > 50 %. It is poorly permeable because of high clay contain in

study area. Due to high clay content and agricultural machinery it has low infiltration

rate which is prone to runoff generation. In compact and ploughed conditions constant

infiltration rate of deep black soil is 1.2 cm/hr. and 1.6 cm/hr.

6.1.21 Hydrogeomorphological map of the study area has been prepared using visual

interpretation of satellite image and hydrogeomorphological map provided by GSDA,

Dhule. The area under the study is classified in different hydrogeomorphological

zones such as alluvial plain, valley fills, eroded land, un-dissected plateau, medium

dissected plateau, highly dissected plateau and Western ghat section. First is Alluvial

plain that occurs along both banks of Tapi river and its tributaries in Shirpur and

Shindkheda tehsils. This formation accounts 384.47 sq. km. area means 4.77%

territory of the district. The study reveals that paleo-channels and alluvial plain are the

geomorphological features with excellent potential for groundwater occurrence.

Second zone is valley fill. It is deposition of unconsolidated materials in the narrow

fluvial valley. They have covered an area of 506.8 sq. km. which is about 6.28 % of

the district. Valley fills are located along the Panzara river in Sakri and Dhule tehsil

and along Burai river in Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil. Valley fill captures very limited

area in Shirpur tehsil. They possesses high quantity of groundwater due to coarser

material and high permeability. Third unit is Eroded land occurred mainly along Tapi

river in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils. It covers 692.41 sq. km. area. Un-dissected

plateau has good weathered profile and hence high potential of groundwater is found.

Un-dissected plateau is spread over 2609.7 sq. km. It is 32.37 % of the study area. It

occurs almost in all tehsils of the study area. Fifth unit is Medium dissected plateau

that occurs over 3061.1 sq. km. area of the district. Groundwater prospectus of this

zone is moderate. Sakri and Shindkheda tehsils constitute medium dissected plateau.

Sixth unit is Highly dissected plateau which covers an area of 535.4 sq. km. It is

located in southern portion of Sakri tehsils and middle-east part of Shirpur tehsil. It

has low potential of groundwater. Western Ghat section occupies 273.59 sq. km. with

poor groundwater potential.

6.1.22 According to morphological classification study area has been classified in to three

categories namely, Runoff zone, Recharge zone and Storage zone. Runoff zone is

situated in the upland area near water divide with steep slopes and undulating

topography. Hydrological conditions of this area indicate poor or absence of aquifer.

It accounts about 1397.91 sq. km. Recharge zone is located in the middle course of

the basin. It is moderately dissected with moderate relief, shallow soil cover. These

conditions are favorable for moderate infiltration and recharge of groundwater. Hence

it is suitable for groundwater development. Well yield of recharge zone is seasonal

and it can support only kharip and rabbi crops. Recharge zone occupies 3665.62 sq.

km. of the study area. It is distributed all over the study area except alluvial plain of

Tapi river. Low lying areas and lower reaches of the river basins fall in the Storage

zone. Thick soil cover of storage zone is either derived by deep weathering or by

alluvial deposition. It holds substantial quantity of water. This zone is benefited by

good recharge conditions and getting recharge by groundwater inflow from upland

areas after rainy season. Hydrologically storage zone is highly suitable for

groundwater exploration. Storage zone is discovered in the alluvial plain and eroded

land of the Tapi valley. Storage zone is admeasured 2999.58 sq. km. in the study area.

6.1.23 The wells are significant tool which gives an important information regarding

occurrence of water, nature of aquifers, properties of material, water table levels and

water quality aspects. Dhule district is divided into six Hydrogeomorphic sections.

These sections of the study area give an idea about depth, width of alluvial deposition

at various places, subsurface geological formation, depth of weathering, occurrence of

red bole etc. From this study it is revealed that the major deposition of alluvium

occurs along Tapi river with the width of about 12 to 16 km. The thickness of the

alluvium reaches up to 68 m., 70 m. and 91.5 m. at village Taradi, Shirpur and village

Wadi respectively. Here the fluctuation of water table is less as compare to plateau

region. It has been discovered that the thickness of weathered profile is maximum in

between hill tops and valley floors such as Chinchkheda – 10.25 m, Kalkheda – 6.2

m, Dhule – 12 m, Hadakhed – 10 m, Hisale – 16 m, Dhavade – 7.4 m, Nardana – 8

m, Deshshirwade – 12.6 m and Shvarimal – 10.5 m. The fluctuation of water table is

high where the thickness of weathered profile is more. The hill tops and steep slopes

show absence of weathered rock layer. Both are characterized by shallow wells and

low potentials of groundwater. These wells dry in summer season.

6.1.24 From the chemical analysis of water sample of the study area it is observed that the

water quality in general is good for agricultural and domestic purposes except in the

northern part of Shindkheda tehsil adjoining Tapi river. Groundwater of this pocket is

saline and not suitable for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes. The pH, EC,

TH, TDS, Ca, Cl, Mg, and SO4 values of the several samples from Shindkheda tehsil

crosses the permissible limits. Nitrate and Fluoride values are within permissible

limits.

6.1.25 Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation because

mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively. On other hand, Dhule

and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR e. g. five villages of

Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane – 9.48, Darane-II

– 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages show moderate

values of SAR. Groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil possesses high SAR particularly

the villages which are located along southern bank of Tapi river. In this area

groundwater cannot be used for irrigation purpose.

6.1.26 Water quality index shows that groundwater out of 166 sample villages only 37

belong to excellent class. Out of 37 sample villages 28 villages are located in Sakri

tehsil. Groundwater of good class has been observed in 59 sample villages of the

study area. About 48 villages have been using groundwater of poor class. Shindkheda

and Sakri tehsils comprise 16 and 24 sample villages of poor class respectively. Very

poor quality of water is discovered in 19 villages and 11 of them are included in the

boundaries of Sakri tehsil. Groundwater of only two villages of Shindkheda tehsil is

unfit for drinking purpose. It can be inferred that groundwater quality in general is

good for agricultural and domestic purposes except in the northern part of Shindkheda

tehsil along the Tapi river.

6.1.28 According to C. C. Ingliss (1930) non-ghat formula (Tapi and Narmada Basin) for

Bombay Catchment runoff of Dhule, Sakri, Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils are

3.631”, 2.921”, 2.812” and 4.820” respectively. The yield of rainfall is 182.645 M.

Cu. M., 179.101 M. Cu. M., 92.811 M. Cu. M. and 289.269 for Dhule, Sakri,

Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils respectively. Total yield of rainfall of Dhule district is

743.826 M. Cu. M.

6.1.29 Agriculture sector is the major consumer of the water resource for irrigation purpose.

It utilizes 2326.155 M. Cu. M. to irrigate land in the study area. Rural and urban

population requires 34.923 M. Cu. M. of water for drinking and domestic purposes

per year. All the domestic animals such as cows, bullocks, buffaloes, sheeps, goats,

horses, donkeys, poultry etc. requires 11.240 M. Cu. M. of water per year. Water

requirement of the industries is considered 5 % of the total yield of the district. It is

37.191 M. Cu. M. Total calculated water requirement of the study area per year is

2409.509 M. Cu. M. while total yield of the rainfall is 743.826 M. Cu. M. hence there

is deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water per year. This deficit of water may be

fulfilled by groundwater abstraction and the water coming from upper or and other

minor catchments.

6.1.30 The district experience considerable deficit in yield of rainfall and utilization of water

under major headings. So it is pressing need to conserve and manage water resources

to fulfill the ever increasing needs of population, agriculture, livestock and industry.

Roof top rain water harvesting, well recharge, watershed management, irrigation

projects are the prominent approaches towards the management of water resources.

6.1.31 In order to adopt various means of water conservation it is prime importance to know

whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments, land use/ land cover etc.

are favorable or not. Artificial recharge zones are delineated by integration of various

thematic maps using GIS technique. As per artificial recharge zones about 1783.1 sq.

km. is highly favorable zone in the district. Eastern and south-eastern part of the

Shirpur tehsil and a narrow strip along Panzara river is the most favorable for

recharge. Moderate favorable zone is spread all over district and occupies an area

admeasuring 5068.75 sq. km. Upper course of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil,

eastern portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and southern part of Sakri tehsil, western

Shindkheda tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of groundwater which covers

1209.15 sq. km. area.

6.1.32 The study area experiences dry spells, fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall,

frequent droughts posses serious problem of scarcity of water while Girna river of

adjoining Nasik district and Panzara river carries excess water during floods. The

river linking project was initiated in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District

Collector, in August 2005 when the district was under drought situation. Girana –

Bori – Kanoli river link, Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli rivre link, Panzara –

Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link and Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad

Project Link are completed and working sucessfully. Fifteen more river link projects

are suggested by the Irrigation Department, Zilla Parishd, Dhule. It may cost Rs.

20075 lakh and transfer 4300 M. C. Ft. River linking has numerous benefits.

Moreover river linking on small scale is more beneficial than on large scale. In case of

river linking on small scale water is diverted due to gravity while electricity is

required to lift water at various stages on grand scale.

6.1.33 Few NGOs have done noteworthy work of water conservation through watershed

management activities in Dhule district. Huge project of water conservation in Shirpur

and Shindkheda tehsils is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill,

Shirpur, under the supervision and guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar (retired

Senior Geologist). He has invented a new technique known as ‘Angioplasty

Technique’ to augment groundwater resources. Widening and deepening of 14

streams for 30 km., construction of 91 cement bunds, 59 well recharge and three field

ponds were carried out under this project. Main distinctive feature of this project is

that it is implemented in non-command and rain fed portion of Dhule district. This

work is being acknowledged at national and international level. As a result water

table in Deccan basalt and alluvial plain increased considerably. Streams are flowing

up to summer. About 1950 ha. area has brought under irrigation and farmers

cultivating two to three crops.

6.1.34 Baripada represents a unique example of community participation in rural

development through soil, water and forest conservation. Mr. Chaitram Pawar along

with two NGOs initiated Rural development activities in the village Baripada. He

mobilized the village community and urged them to act. The local ‘Forest Protection

Committee’ was formed in 1993. The villagers have undertaken watershed

programme. Gradually village Baripada became self-sufficient in terms of water, fuel

wood, vegetables, food grains etc. The village Baripada participated in a competition

on "Local Knowledge and Innovation of the Rural Poor" in the Asian region,

organized by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, and

SRISTI in 2003 and won 2nd prize.

6.1.35 Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar, a social activist, along with villagers formed ‘Joint Forest

Management Committee’ and undertook eco-developmental activities. Now the land

which is treated with CCT is covered by dense grass. Livestock and milk production

has been substantially increased in surrounding 20 to 25 villages. These activities

minimized the intensity of drought in 2008. Main results of all water conservation

activities are increased water table, vegetation, fodder and more wild animals. Now

farmers are cultivating two to three crops in a year. Government of Maharashtra

declared 1st prize under the ‘Mahatma Phule Jal Abhiyan’ to Lamkani village in

Dhule district. The village also received ‘Sant Tukaram Vangram’ Prize in the year

2007.

6.1.36 Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda tehsils experiences severe scarcity of

drinking water. About 36 villages of Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and

9 villages of Dhule tehsil are facing acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore

several villages of Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsils depended on tankers for

drinking water.

6.1.37 Amount of chlorides, sodium and calcium in groundwater crosses the upper limit in

several villages. Hence a tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in

Shindkheda tehsil is found to be Saline. This part of the study area dose not produces

irrigated crops because of saline groundwater.

6.1.38 River Tapi experiences devastating floods submerging settlements and agricultural

land. There are several records of severe floods in the study area in historical and

current past. Most of the villages located on the banks of Tapi river in Shirpur and

Shindkheda tehsil are prone to the floods.

6.1.39 Alluvial part of Tapi basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsil has been experiencing

depletion of aquifer. The water table has dropped between 10 to 50 m. Around 1980s

The water table which was about 30 m. b.g.l. has dropped to 60 m. b.g.l. Water table

is sinking due to both human consumption as well as irrigation purpose. Lined dug

wells of 1980s of this area have been dried up and hence abandoned. Severe problem

may arise due to depletion of aquifer in future.

6.1.40 Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592 mm. The district suffers from

uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall, dry spells of 2 to 10 weeks, delayed onset

and early withdrawal of monsoon. Dhule district historically has been known for the

droughts. Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for 4 tehsil analyzed using Gamma

distribution. Frequency distribution of annual average rainfall indicates that drought

and severe droughts will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106 coming years. While

Sakri tehsil has to go through maximum years of droughts i. e. 37 out of 106 years.

Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29 and 25 years of drought

condition in forthcoming 106 years.

6.2 CONTRIBUTION TO THE SUBJECT:

Civil engineers, geographer, geologists are engaged in research related to the water

resources. Geologist rather than geographer have contributed more in the field of Water

Resources such as delineate groundwater potential areas, potential artificial recharge zones,

conservation of water, artificial recharge, demarcation of watersheds, monitoring water table,

chemical analysis of water etc. Geologists were using mainly geophysical methods to

delineate groundwater potential areas. Nowadays recent techniques like Remote Sensing,

GIS, GPS are being used by geologists, geographers and civil engineers. A geographer can

play a crucial role in the study of water resources because geographic elements such as

geomorphology, weathering, drainage network, slope, sedimentation etc. have been proved

crucial in delineation of ground resources. Geographer can understand the role of these

elements thoroughly while dealing with various aspects of water resources. In the present

research impact of geomorphology, weathering, drainage network, slope, sedimentation has

been examined to delineate groundwater potential zones and potential areas of artificial and it

is proved successful.

6.3 CONTRIBUTION TO THE SOCIETY:

Study of water resources consist of various aspects which are directly related to the

various human activities. Such as WQI, SAR, groundwater potential zones, potential artificial

recharge zones, calculating runoff, calculation of yield, probability of analysis of rainfall.

Such studies of water resources within the study are area directly beneficial to the various

elements of the society.

Nowadays government of Maharashtra has decided to test water sources of each

village. It is a welcome step towards availability of safe drinking water. But chemical

analysis of water comprises several parameters and their standard values prescribed by BSI,

ICMR and WHO. By using only test results and standard values it is very difficult to decide

whether the water is safe or fit for drinking or not but the technique of WQI provides us a

decision. If we use WQI it possible take decision regarding drinking water at village level. If

source of drinking water is not suitable, administers or policy makers can decide policy for it.

Part of Shindkheda tehsil to the south of Tapi river has been experiencing a problem of

salinity. SAR is measure of salinity of water. It helps to guide farmers SAR of their own

village, area and to cultivate the crops which tolerate salinity such as cotton. Tehsil wise

probability analysis of annual rainfall has been calculated. It gives us probability of droughts,

normal rainfall, excess rainfall etc. It may guide farmers in the farm management practices. It

is also helpful for local administrative officers and disaster management cell.

Present study of water resources deals with calculation of surface runoff using Ingliss

formula and yield of rainfall. It provides total availability of water in the study area while

crop water requirement, water need of population and live stock has also been calculated.

Above measurement reveals the total availability of water recourses and utilization through

various ways for all purposes. If such calculations are performed at local, village and water

shed level, people may be made aware of the availability and utilization of water resources.

These activates also disclose not only the crops consuming high quantity of water but also

over or miss-use of water. Finally people’s participation in the water management and

conservation may be increased.

6.4 SUGGESTIONS:

The investigator has drawn the conclusions from the research work and suggests

following suggestions:

6.4.1 Rejuvenation of traditional methods of artificial recharge instead of implementing

new projects. It would be first step towards water conservation because traditional

methods of artificial recharge are cost effective as they do not require electricity and

special staff for their management.

6.4.2 To adopt scientific methods for targeting groundwater potential zones and suitable

areas for artificial recharge such as Remote Sensing, GIS, GPS etc. to ensures the

success.

6.4.3 It is advisable create awareness among women, children and people regarding

importance of water, scarcity of water, methods of water conservation, optimum use

of water which will be beneficial for the society.

6.4.4 A massive programme of a forestation should be undertaken on fallow land, waste

land, deforested areas, mountain slopes with involvement of various elements of the

society such as students, youths, workers, farmers, women, retired persons and so on.

It would be a key to forest, water and soil conservation.

6.4.5 Rooftop Rainwater harvesting should be made compulsory for each household in

urban as well as rural areas. It will certainly minimize the intensity of droughts and

scarcity of drinking water.

6.4.6 In order to avoid continues cultivation of water intensive cash crops like cotton and

sugarcane, instead of the suitable crops for drought prone area should be cultivated.

6.4.7 Agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water all over the world. Instead of

traditional flood irrigation method drip, sprinkler, rain-gun method should be used. It

may reduce consumption of water considerably.

6.4.8 Pavements like roads, use of pavement blocks, unnecessary surface covering concrete

should be avoided because it reduces percolation and promotes surface runoff which

results in flush floods.

6.4.9 By means of interlinking of rivers and streams it is possible to transfer the surplus

water during peak runoff to ensure water supply in arid and semi-arid areas or to store

excess runoff in dams or recharge aquifers for later use.

6.4.10 In order to avoid the problems like water logging, salinity, submergence of valuable

land and forest, displacement of indigenous people instead of large projects small

measures of artificial recharge should be employed. So that water conservation will

take place in decentralized manner and more people will be benefited of it.

6.4.11 The problem of groundwater salinity can be minimized by means of well recharge

using surface runoff every year. This is simple, cheap and the best remedy for saline

tract of Shindkheda tehsil of the study area.

6.4.12 The ‘Mantra’ of 3 - R i. e. Reduce the use of water, Reuse water and Recycle water

is necessary for houses, industries and so many sectors.

6.4.13 Dug and tube wells which are dried up and abounded can be utilized for groundwater

recharging.

6.4.14 The district is underlined by hard rock, hence, percolation is small. Therefore Farm

Pond shall prove the best measure to catch surface runoff in situ.

6.4.15 Horticultural is advised for drought prone areas instead of water intensive cash crops.

6.4.16 Regular de-silting of percolation tank, K. T. weir, storage tank, village tank must be

undertaken.

6.4.17 Alluvial aquifer in Shirpur tehsil is overexploited hence restrictions should be

imposed on new tube wells.

6.4.18 Recharge structures like percolation tanks should be constructed exactly along

lineaments.

6.4.19 Restrictions should be imposed on new tube wells in overexploited ares and

preference should be given to recharge groundwater.

6.4.20 Alluvial plain in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is favorable for groundwater

augmentation. A massive program for groundwater recharge should be undertaken.

6.4.21 Moderate water potential zone is deeply weathered. It is also suitable for recharge

purpose.

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Photo No. 1 Partially developed columnar joints in basalt rock near Louki, Shirpur Tehsil.

Photo No. 2 Deeply weathered hill along NH-3 in Shirpur Tehsil.

Photo No. 3 Deeply weathered hill with angular fragmentation near Sangvi.

.

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Photo No. 4 Physical weathering through spheroidal exfoliation.

Photo No. 5 Weathered parent rock along with sediment deposition.

Photo No. 6 Deposition of sand and yellow silt layers near Karvand village in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 7 Granular disintegration of Deccan basalt.

Photo No. 8 Layers of Deep black soil, yellow silt and deposition of fine sand exposed during excavation for water conservation.

Photo No. 9 Red bole layer exposed due to conversion of NH-3 into four lane highway in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 10 Very pale Red bole layer exposed in the bed of Panzara river near Kudashi in Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 11 Two tire Red bole layer in Satpura ranges.

Photo No. 12 A thin layer of weathered rock with parent rock in dug well near Kodid village in Shirpur

Photo No. 13 A lined well with weathered rock material.

Photo No. 14 Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river.

Photo No 15 Board showing command and area under Submergence of Sulawade medium irrigation project across Tapi river.

Photo No. 16 Lower Panzara medium irrigation project near Akkalpada village in Dhule tehsil on the verge of completion.

Photo No. 17 Aner medium irrigation project near Mahadeo Dondwada village in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 18 Kolhapur Type weir across Panzara river near Betavad in Shindkheda tehsil.

.

Photo No. 19 Loose boulder structure at Lamkani in Dhule tehsil.

Photo No. 20 Cement bund constructed in Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 21 Field pond constructed by Agriculture department in Dhule tehsil.

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Photo No. 22 Field pond at Kundane village in Dhule tehsil.

Photo No. 24 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani cotton mill in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 23 Continuous contour trenches constructed by Forest department in Shirpur tehsil.

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Photo No. 25 Well recharge at Bhatpura village under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 26 Deeping and widening of streams under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 27 A cement bund constructed across a stream under water conservation project conducted by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 28 Dissected agricultural land reclaimed during deepening and widening of streams in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 29 Lift irrigation from water conservation project constructed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 30 Joint forest management through Cooperative Society in Lamkani village, Dhule tehsil.

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Photo No. 31 A Sign board showing details of water conservation work completed by Priyadarshani Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur.

Photo No. 32 Continuous contour trenches for water conservation and consequent vegetative growth in Lamkani, Dhule tehsil

Photo No. 33 Rich forest growth due to soil and water conservation by efforts of local people near Baripada, Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 34 Earthen bund and sediment deposition reclaimed for agriculture in Baripada village, Sakri tehsil.

Photo No. 35 Age old lined dug well dried up due to decreased water table near Kurkhali village, Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 36 A lined dug well became dry due to decreased water table in Shirpur tehsil.

Photo No. 37 Percolation Tank, at Baripada. village, Sakri tehsil.

Photo No 38 A cement bund constructed at Baripada, Sakri tehsil.

Documents

A REPORT OF MINOR RESEARCH PROJECT - SPDMspdm.ac.in/SCGORANE-MONOGRAPH.pdf · artificial recharge areas in dhule district (m. s.) a report of minor research project file no. no. 23-360/07