A Corpus Based Analysis of Pakistani English

Ph.D Thesis

By

Muhammad Asim Mahmood

Supervisor

Dr. Mubina Talaat

This thesis is submitted in requirement of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

The Department of English Language and Literature

Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan

2009

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ABSTRACT

English has become a global language and virtually every nation is using it for national or

international communication. It is helping the world to bridge the ethnic and linguistic

differences. Although it has got international status, it is also exhibiting local cultural traits. It

enjoys global ownership and the age old concept that it only reflects the Judo-Christian cultural

traditions has been rejected at least by the language scholars around the globe. In this

evolutionary process, new dialects and varieties are emerging. A plethora of research activity, in

line with the ‘World Englishes’ tradition, is being conducted around the globe. The issues like

status of the newly emerging varieties of English and the similarities and differences between the

native and nativised varieties, are being vigorously studied.

English, in Pakistan, enjoys the status of a privileged official language. English is being

used both for country internal as well as external functions. English language has been nativised

in Pakistan. Pakistani English is similar to British and American English to the extent that it does

not impede communication but it has developed a flavor and colour of its own.

Pakistani English is not a well researched variety. Only a handful of research studies have

been conducted so far, pointing to some of the variety specific features, but all of these

researches are intuition based or have relied on chance examples. No quantitative data based

comparative study of the variety exists till to-date.

The present research is an attempt to make a corpus based analysis of Pakistani English

and to find some characteristic features of the variety which are different from the British and

American varieties. It is basically a quantitative, corpus based comparative research. Two

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million words corpora, each from Pakistani, British and American written Englishes have been

employed to outline the characteristic features of Pakistani English.

The research question, ‘Whether Pakistani English is an independent variety’, has not

been completely answered by the present research as the data available was not sufficient enough

to make any conclusive judgement. But it is still considered a step forward, in the sense that in

this research corpus based methodology has been used to study the variety specific features of

Pakistani English. On the one hand, it has verified some of the earlier judgements about

Pakistani English and on the other hand it has pointed out the new areas which have not been

discussed in the previous literature about Pakistani English. Some of the areas like the use of

subjunctive, verb particle, and complementation have been explored by the linguists to study the

distinctive features of the non native varieties. The same has been done in the case of Pakistani

English and the results indicate that these areas show potential differences among the native

varieties, i.e. British and American Englishes, and the Pakistani English which need to be

explored further. The results point out that Pakistani English is an independent, systematic, and

rule governed variety which shares features both with the British and American Englishes.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor Prof. Dr. Mubina Talaat,

for the continuous support of my Ph.D research, for her motivation, enthusiasm, and immense

knowledge, and most of all, for her patience. I would also like to thank Dr. Zafar Iqbal for his kind

support and guidance. I remain indebted to my teacher and advisor Dr. Pernilla Danielson, who taught

me the intricacies of a corpus based research. I would also like to thank Dr. Jeoff Barnbrook, and

Dr. Oliver Masson for their valuable comments and technical support during my stay at Birmingham

University. This thesis would have been nearly impossible without the help, support and criticism of

my friend, colleague and class fellow Mr. Rashid Mahmood. I am really grateful to him for all this. I

am grateful to Dr. Paul Rayson, who allowed me to use his software, WMatrix and also provided me

the opportunity to present my research at UCREL Corpus Research Group Meeting at Lancaster

University. I am indebted to Dr. Sebistian Hoffman for his support and guidance. I am thankful to the

team of Connexor Mechanized parser who provided me the software support. I would like to thank

Dr. A. Sedlatschek of Germany, who took pains to read the manuscript and gave some valuable

suggestions.

I would like to send my gratitude to my colleagues at GC University Faisalabad, Javed, Fazal, Kazim

and Hassan, and also to Mr. Tariq Feroz and Dr. Saeed Akram, my former colleagues at Samanabad

College. I am grateful to Professor Waqar Peroz for his encouragements and inspirations. I wish to

admire his moral support.

To Mr Shakir Aziz, I gladly acknowledge my gratitude. His untiring and dedicated devotion in typing

and retyping the material, made it possible for me to complete the work in time.

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I remain indebted to my parents, my family members, my Uncle Ahmad Hussain Raz, my teachers and

professors for providing me the means to learn and understand.

I am really thankful to my brothers Asif, Faisal and Hassan for their love and support.

Furthermore I would like to send my gratitude to the untiring support of my wife, who took leading

roles as caretaker of our children while I was busy for the research work.

Lastly I offer my regards and blessings to all those who supported me in any respect during the

completion of the project.

D E D I C A T I O N

To

My Parents

My Wife

and

My Uncle Ahmad Hussain Raz

DECLARATION

"I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my

knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by

another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other

degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except

where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.

Place: Multan, Pakistan Signature

Date Name: Muhammad Asim Mahmood

Reg.No:

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled: A Corpus Based Analysis of Pakistani

English submitted by Mr. Muhammad Asim Mahmood to Bahauddin Zakariya

University Multan for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is a bona

fide record of the research work carried out by him under my supervision and

guidance. The content of the thesis, in full or parts have not been submitted to any

other Institute or University for the award of any other degree or diploma.

Signed by Research Supervisor with name and date

Place

Date

Signature of Head of the Department

(Office seal)

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.

No

Contents Page

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vii

Abbreviations ix

List of Tables x

List of Figures xiv

1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 The Limitation of the Study 7

1.3 Statement of Problem 8

1.4 Hypothesis 8

1.5 Study Questions 8

1.6 Scheme of Research 9

1.7 Significance of the Research 9

2 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Contextualization 11

2.1.1 Context of Situation 11

2.1.2 Participations of Speech Community 14

2.1.3 Cline of Intelligibility 16

2.1.4 Roles and Types of Linguistic Interaction. 17

2.2 Standardness 20

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2.3 Native Speakerism 27

2.4 Nativisation 31

2.5 Fossilization 34

2.6 Interlanguage 36

2.7 Interference Varieties 38

2.8 The Ownership of English 39

2.9 Models to Describe the Spread of English 42

2.10 Models Explaining the Evolution of New Englishes 50

2.11 Corpus Methodology 58

3 CHAPTER 3 PAKISTANI ENGLISH 62

4 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 84

5 CHAPTER 5 CORPUS COMPILATION 89

6 CHAPTER 6 DATA ANALYSIS 97

6.1 Lexical Profile 97

6.2 Spelling Differences 112

6.2.1American and British Spellings in PWE 116

6.2.2 Variant Spellings of Function Words in PWE 120

6.2.3 Verbs with Variant Spellings 123

6.3 Subjunctive 125

6.3.1Mandative Subjunctive 127

6.3.2 Formulaic Subjunctive 129

6.3.3 Were Subjunctive 129

6.3.4 Subjunctive in PWE 129

6.3.4.1 Mandative Subjunctive 130

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6.3.4.2 Be Sunjunctive 136

6.4 Verb Particle 142

6.4.1 Verb + Particle in 3 Corpora 142

6.4.2 Verb + Particle Vs Verb Only 159

6.4.3 Verb + Particle Vs Synonymous Verb 161

6.4.4 Case Study: Hold up 163

6.4.5 Case Study: Put down 165

6.5 Verb Complementation 168

6.5.1 V to V (Pattern 1) 175

6.5.2 Verb + Bare Infinitive (Pattern 2) 183

6.5.3 V + -ing (Pattern 3) 185

6.5.4 Verb + Prep + -ing (Pattern 4) 191

6.5.5 Verb + Prep + To + Verb (Pattern 5) 197

6.5.6 V + NP + -ing (Pattern 6) 198

6.5.7 Verb + NP + To + Verb (Pattern 7) 202

6.5.8 V + that + Verb (Pattern 8) 208

6.5.9 V + NP + Bare Infinitive (Pattern 9) 209

6.6 Case Study: Begin and Start 212

6.7 Case Study: Like 230

6.8 Case Study: Help 243

6.8.1 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 1 V + to + V) 251

6.8.2 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 2 V + Bare Inf) 257

6.8.3 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 3 V + ing) 261

6.8.4 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 4 V prep ing) 263

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6.8.5 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 7 V NP to V) 265

6.8.6 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 9 V + NP + BareInfinitive)

268

6.9 Case Study: Prevent Group 272

7 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS 286

7.1 Conclusion 286

7.2 Pedagogical Implications 291

Appendix

References

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BF Brown and Frown CorporaBNC British National CorpusBOE Bank of English CorpusEAP English for Advanced PurposesEFL English as a Foreign LanguageEIL English as an International LanguageELT English Language TeachingENL English as a Native LanguageESL English as a Second LanguageESP English for Specific PurposesF Function WordFig FigureICE International Corpus of EnglishICLE International Corpus of Learner EnglishInf/inf Verb Infinitive FormIng Verb –ing formKWIC Key Word in ContextL1 First LanguageL2 Second LanguageLF LOB and FLOB CorporaN NounNP/np Noun PhraseOED Oxford English DictionaryP PronounPOS Parts of SpeechPrep/prep PrepositionPWE Pakistani Written English CorpusTL Target LanguageTTR Type Token RatioV VerbVP Verb Phrase

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Title PageCHAPTER 2

Table 2.1 Language Wise Distribution of Publications in Pakistan 12Table 2.2 News papers and periodicals by language and province 13Table 2.3 Trade of Pakistan with English/Non-English Speaking Regions 15Table 2.4 Functions of English in the Three Circles 18Table 2.5 Terms Promoting English 36Table 2.6 The Seven Ages of English 43

CHAPTER 3Table 3.1 Verb Complementation (Frequency) 69Table 3.2 Verb Complementation (Percentage) 69Table 3.3 Adjective Complementation (Frequency) 71Table 3.4 Adjective Complementation (Percentage) 71Table 3.5 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage) 73Table 3.6 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Frequency) 73Table 3.7 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage) 75Table 3.8 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Frequency) 75Table 3.9 To Infinitive Vs That Complementation (Percentage) 79Table 3.10 To Infinitive Vs That Complementation (Frequency) 79Table 3.11 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage) 81Table 3.12 To Infinitive Vs -ing (Frequency) 81

CHAPTER 5Table 5.1 Text Categories in PWE Corpus 95

CHAPTER 6Table 6.1 Over All Comparison of POS Types in Three Corpora 97Table 6.2 Over All Comparison of POS Frequency in Three Corpora 98Table 6.3 Average Tokens Per Type 98Table 6.4 300 Most Frequent Lexical Items Rank Higher In PWE Than BF and LF 99Table 6.5 300 Most Frequent Lexical Items with Rank Lower Than BF and LF in PWE 100Table 6.6 Common Core Items in PWE 102Table 6.7 Rare Words in PWE Categories (Freq Less Than 20) 104Table 6.8 Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Adjectives 106Table 6.9 Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Adverbs 107Table 6.10 Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Nouns 108Table 6.11 Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Pronouns 109Table 6.12 Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Verbs 110Table 6.13 Orthographic Regimes for Different Types of Text 115Table 6.14 Total Frequency of American Vs British Spellings in PWE 117Table 6.15 Family Wise Spelling Differences 117Table 6.16 Category Wise American Spelling Frequency in PWE Categories 119Table 6.17 Category Wise British Spelling Frequency in PWE Categories 119Table 6.18 Function Words With Different Spellings 120

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Table 6.19 Verbs With Different Spellings in 3 Corpora 123Table 6.20 Mandative Subjunctive 130Table 6.21 Adjectives+Mandative Subjunctive 132Table 6.22 Other Modals with Suassive Verbs 134Table 6.23 Other Modals with Verbs 136Table 6.24 Be as Subjunctive Frequency Vs Percentage 136Table 6.25 Were as Subjunctive Frequency Vs Percentage 137Table 6.26 Subjunctive Total Percentage 137Table 6.27 Distribution of Were in PWE Genres 138Table 6.28 Distribution of Be-Subjunctive in PWE 139Table 6.29 Pronoun Wise Frequency of Were As Subjunctive 140Table 6.30 Were Subjunctive in Type of Clause 140Table 6.31 No of Verbs Per Particle (Total No Verbs 100) 142Table 6.32 No of Particles Per Verb (Total No of Particles 15) 144Table 6.33 Verbs Having Zero Freqency in Particles in All Corpora 147Table 6.34 Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in PWE 147Table 6.35 Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in BF 148Table 6.36 Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in LF 149Table 6.37 Verb + Particle Having Frequency Greater than Both BF & LF in PWE 150Table 6.38 Verb + Particle Having Frequency Greater than BF in PWE 152Table 6.39 Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than Both BF & LF in PWE 153Table 6.40 Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than BF in PWE 154Table 6.41 Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than LF in PWE 156Table 6.42 Verb + Particle(VP) Vs Verb Only 159Table 6.43 Verb + Particle Vs Synonymous Verbs 161Table 6.44 No. of Verbs Per Pattern 174Table 6.45 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Greater Percentage in PWE than BF & LF 175Table 6.46 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Greater Percentage in PWE Than BF 177Table 6.47 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Greater Percentag in PWE Than LF 177Table 6.48 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF & LF 178Table 6.49 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF 179Table 6.50 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Lesser Percentage in PWE Than LF 179Table 6.51 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Zero Frequency in PWE 180Table 6.52 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Zero Frequency in BF 181Table 6.53 Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V): Zero Frequency in LF 182Table 6.54 Pattern 2 (V + Bare Inf): Zero Frequency in PWE 184Table 6.55 Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs having Zero Occurrence in PWE 185Table 6.56 Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF 187Table 6.57 Pattern 3 (V + -ing ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF 188Table 6.58 Pattern 3 (V + -ing ): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE than BF & LF 189Table 6.59 Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE than LF 190Table 6.60 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs With Greater Frequency in PWE 191Table 6.61 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE than

BF & LF192

Table 6.62 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE 193

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Table 6.63 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF 194Table 6.64 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF 195Table 6.65 Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs Having Zero Frequency in Any Corpus 197Table 6.66 Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE 199Table 6.67 Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF 199Table 6.68 Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF 200Table 6.69 Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE Than LF 201Table 6.70 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE 202Table 6.71 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF 203Table 6.72 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF 204Table 6.73 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE Than

BF & LF205

Table 6.74 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF& LF

206

Table 6.75 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF 206Table 6.76 Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE than LF 207Table 6.77 Pattern 8 (V + that + V): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE 208Table 6.78 Pattern 9 (V + NP + Bare Inf) Verbs 209Table 6.79 Overall Frequency of Begin and Start 212Table 6.80 BEGIN Vs START Frequency & Percentage in Complementation Patterns 212Table 6.81 Frequency and Percentage of BEGIN in Complementation Patterns 213Table 6.82 Frequency and Percentage of START in Complementation Patterns 215Table 6.83 BEGIN: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage) 216Table 6.84 START: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage) 217Table 6.85 Active Voice in Begin & Start (Percentage) 219Table 6.86 Passive Voice in Begin & Start (Percentage) 220Table 6.87 Positive in Begin And Start (Percentage) 220Table 6.88 Negative in Begin And Start (Percentage) 221Table 6.89 Present in Begin And Start (Percentage) 222Table 6.90 Past in Begin And Start (Percentage) 223Table 6.91 Type Token Ratio 225Table 6.92 Collocates of Begin and Start in PWE 225Table 6.93 Collocates of Begin and Start in BF 227Table 6.94 Collocates of Begin and Start in LF 228Table 6.95 Frequency of Like in the three Corpora 230Table 6.96 Frequency and Percentage of LIKE in Complementation Patterns 230Table 6.97 Like: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage) 231Table 6.98 Active & Passive Voice in Like (Percentage) 233Table 6.99 Positive & Negative in Like (Percentage) 234Table 6.100 Present & Past in Like (Percentage) 235Table 6.101 ‘Like to V’ Collocates 236Table 6.102 Variety Specific Collocates of Like in PWE 239Table 6.103 HELP: Frequency in Corpora Three Corpora 243Table 6.104 HELP: Frequency and Percentage in Complementation Patterns 244Table 6.105 HELP: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage) 245

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Table 6.106 HELP: Infinitive Vs Bare Infinitive (Frequency and Percentage) 246Table 6.107 Active & Passive Voice in Help (Percentage) 247Table 6.108 Positive & Negative in Help (Percentage) 248Table 6.109 Present & Past in Help (Percentage) 249Table 6.110 Collocates of Help in Pattern 1 (V + To Infinitive) 251Table 6.111 Collocates of Help in Pattern 2 (V + Bare Infinitive) 257Table 6.112 Collocates of Help in Pattern 3 (V+ ing) 261Table 6.113 Collocates of Help in Pattern 4 (V + np + ing) 263Table 6.114 Collocates of Help in Pattern 7 (V+ np +To + V) 265Table 6.115 Collocates of Help in Pattern 9 (V + np + Bare Infinitive) 268Table 6.116 Prevent Group Frequencies 273Table 6.117 Prevent Group Percentage and Frequency in Patterns 274Table 6.118 KEEP in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage) 277Table 6.119 PREVENT in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage) 278Table 6.120 STOP in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage) 281Table 6.121 Active and Passive Voice in Prevent Group (Percentage) 283Table 6.122 Positive and Negative in Prevent Group (Percentage) 284

Table 6.123 Present and Past in Prevent Group (Percentage) 284

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title PageFig 2.1 Three Circles of Kachru 46Fig 2.2 Gorlach's circle model of English 48Fig 2.3 The Circle of World English 49Fig 2.4 The Evolution of New Englishes as a cyclic process 55Fig 2.5 Developmental cycles of new varieties of English 56Fig 6.1 Zones of Social Meanings 114Fig 6.2 Family Wise Spelling Differences 118Fig 6.3 Function words with Different Spellings in PWE 123Fig 6.4 Mandative Subjunctive 131Fig 6.5 Adjective + Mandative Subjunctive 133Fig 6.6 Other Modals with Suassive Verbs 135Fig 6.7 Subjunctive Distribution 138Fig 6.8 Tendency of Using Verbs with Particles 158Fig 6.9 Hold Up Examples from PWE 164Fig 6.10 Hold Up Examples from LF 164Fig 6.11 Put down Examples from PWE 165Fig 6.12 Put down Examples from LF 166Fig 6.13 Begin Vs Start (Percentage) 213Fig 6.14 BEGIN: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Percentage) 216Fig 6.15 START: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Percentage) 217Fig 6.16 Overall Comparison of BEGIN (Percentage) 224Fig 6.17 Overall Comparison of START (Percentage) 224Fig 6.18 LIKE: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Percentage) 232Fig 6.19 Overall Comparison of LIKE 242Fig 6.20 HELP Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Percentage) 245Fig 6.21 HELP Infinitive Vs Bare Infinitive (Percentage) 246Fig 6.22 Over All Comparison of HELP 250

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Language change is a regular feature of all the living languages of the world and English is

not an exception. (Aitchison 1981) During the course of history English has developed from

merely a tribal language to the status of a world language. This is quite an acceptable

phenomenon among the applied linguists, as Norrish (1997) says, that it is entirely natural that

English used in environments from those in which it grew up, so to speak, should mutate to suit

its new environments. Alongwith the width in the functional range of language, there came

changes at all levels of language. In the words of Weeks (1996),

As the language takes root around the globe, the world is on the verge of having a

common tongue. For the first time in the history of civilization we appear to be on the

verge of having a genuine world language.

This is the only language in the world which has more non native users than the native

ones. “No matter whose statistics one believes, it is clear that English now has more non-native

speakers than native ones. Some estimates put the ratio at four to one in favour of the non native

speakers”. (Weeks 1996)

English and globalization have travelled hand in hand and it has virtually become the

second language of every body. There is no doubt that English now enjoys international

ownership. Kachru (1985) believes that what’s happening is that English indeed is becoming the

2

international language except that now it’s “Englishes”. The forms of English which have

emerged in post-colonial settings and countries of the world have typically been regarded

individually, as unique varieties shaped by idiosyncratic conditions. (Schneider 2003)

In the post colonial setting, the language of the colonial rulers is now being ruled by the

natives. They have ‘nativised’ the language and have made it their own. They have domesticized

it and changed it so that it may be able to bear the load of a different socio-cultural and

geographical environment.

English in Pakistan is not a native language but it has been nativised. Due to the influence of

local culture and languages, the variety of English used in Pakistan has undergone many

systematic changes. This variety of English, used in Pakistan, follows rules different from the

standard British English. Pakistani English can be called an institutionalised variety as it fulfils

the four criteria proposed by Kachru (1992) for the existence of institutionalized varieties, i.e.

1. An extended range of uses

2. An extended range of registers or styles

3. Nativisation of registers and styles, formal and contextual

4. A body of nativised English literature, marked linguistically as localised.

English in Pakistan enjoys the status of an official language and is being used quite

extensively in the local, national and international settings. It is being used in administrative and

business domains. It is the language of civil and military bureaucracy and the medium of higher

education in the country.

3

There are at least four or five sub varieties of English which have been identified by

researchers (Rahman 1991, Hassan 2000). These sub varieties are used in different domains and

specific registers.

The variation in Pakistani English is regular and quite frequent. This variant language is

being used by almost all the registers and even the highly educated people also exhibit features

different from the Standard British English.

Quite a large number of literary works in English have been produced by Pakistani writers

and poets. Some of them have acclaimed a world fame, e.g. Bapsi Sidhwa, Tariq Ali, Muneza

Shamsi etc.

All this proves sufficiently that Pakistani English is a nativised variety but it needs

codification, and some quantitative studies are required to outline the features of Pakistani

English. The early studies of variety tend to be restricted to prescriptive or pedagogical

descriptions based on deficiency – or error oriented approaches. In response to these relatively

limited investigations, with the advent of corpora some of these issues in the study of dialectal

syntax are particularly resolvable.

It is the responsibility of the local linguists to identify the features of Pakistani English.

The present research is an endeavour towards it. Initially the local community might consider

Pakistani English a second rated variety. Kachru (1992) notes that local varieties are hardly

accepted in the local settings. “Recognition of local varieties comes mainly from local scholars

in linguistic and literary fields with public opinion lagging well behind. The metropolitan ‘norm’

is taken as a reference point by most of the non-linguistically involved” (p.57). This is quite

common with almost all the varieties. People are using it unconsciously and if they are realized

4

of it they may consciously try to avoid it but this has actually permeated in their language. There

are two characteristic features of this research. First of all it is a corpus based research and the

chief purpose of it is to attain maximum objectivity in describing the variety. Secondly, the data

has been taken from formal written English sources which have been published and have

‘professionally’ been edited, in majority of cases.

The purpose of this selection is to find those variety specific features of Pakistani English

which have been nativised and are no more considered errors. This in turn would help to codify

the features of the variety. Codification is very important in determining and establishing the

status of a variety but that does not mean that the variety can not exist without codification.

Pakistani English is a scarcely researched area and only a handful of researches have ventured in

this area. The research conducted so far has relied on the intuitive judgments of the researchers

based on the chance occurrences or self created examples.

Some of the researchers like Baumgardner (1988, 1993), Rahman (1991), Talaat (1993,

2002) have discussed Pakistani English as an independent variety whose norms are being

established. A purely objective and quantitative study of the variety is the need of the time which

might help in determining the future and status of English in Pakistan.

The characteristic features of the present research are that it is the first corpus based study

of the variety which can be considered ground breaking as for the first time, a systematic study

of the variety has been attempted. As there is no corpus available to study the English used in

Pakistani settings. A corpus of 2.1 million words from written Pakistani English has been

compiled because English in Pakistan is mainly used in the written form and by the educated

elite of the country.

5

The major influences on Pakistani English are of the British and American Englishes. To

find the level of similarity and differences between Pakistani, British and American Englishes a

comparative study of the three varieties has been conducted. For the British and American

varieties Brown family corpora have been selected. For the purpose of this research the Brown

and Frown corpora as well as the LOB and FLOB corpora have been combined. All these

corpora have texts from written domain and the individual text size is 2000 words. Similar

principles have been observed in the compilation of Pakistani English corpus. It is 2.1 million

words corpus having data from written texts produced by Pakistani writers and the individual

text size is also 2000 words.

This is the first study of its kind as no data based comparative study of the variety has

been conducted so far. It is hoped that the study would outline the features of Pakistani variety of

English.

The plan of the study is that first of all some of the features of Pakistani English outlined

by the previous researchers like Baumgardner (1993) and A. Mahboob (2004) have been studied

to verify the authenticity of the claims made on the basis of the intuitive studies of the variety.

Complementation has been the focus of attention of the previous researchers and the

complementation patterns specific to the selected verbs have been studied.

For the present research first 100 most frequent verbs alongwith 25 other low frequency

verbs from PWE have been selected and the same verbs from the British and American data have

been studied. The three verb complementation patterns i.e. Infinitive, Gerundive and ‘That-

Clause’ Complementation have been studied. The infinitives are further classified as ‘To

infinitive’ and ‘Bare infinitive’ complements. Similarly the gerundive complements have been

6

further classified into three categories. There are, on the whole, nine complementation patterns

which have been studied for each of these 125 verbs.

Some of the verbs have been studied in detail and the verb collocates, in any of these

complementation patterns, have also been studied.

As the aim of the present research is the description of Pakistani English, the lexical

profile of Pakistani English has also been studied. For this purpose, the 300 most frequent lexical

items from Pakistani English have been selected and their rank in the British and American

corpora has been compared with their rank in PWE. The items unique to Pakistani culture have

also been studied.

At the orthographic level the English speaking world is torn between the British and

American spelling norms and this conflict is also present in Pakistani English. The issue of what

is its exact nature and how frequently the Pakistanis use British or American spelling variants,

has never been studied before. In the present research some 317 words, given by Algeo (2006) as

having different spellings in British and American varieties, have been selected and it has been

studied that which spellings are preferred by Pakistani writers.

Use of Subjunctive Mood is another point of departure among the British and American

varieties of English. What is the situation in Pakistani English, with regard to the use of

Subjunctive Mood, has yet not been studied. In the present research, the use of Subjunctive

Mood in general and specifically the Mandative Subjunctive has been studied in the British,

American and Pakistani Englishes.

It is a common belief that the native varieties of English are phenomenally different from

the non native varieties and the verb particle is one such area where the native varieties differ

7

from the non native varieties (Schneider 2003). In the present study, the first 100 most frequent

verbs in PWE have been selected and the range of particles coming with these verbs and the

semantic range of these phrasal verbs have been studied across the three varieties to find the

potential differences in the Pakistani, British and American varieties of English.

The present research is basically a quantitative study of the variety. The aim is to find not

only the areas where Pakistani English differs from the British and American Englishes but also

to find how much different it is from the native varieties of English, in quantitative terms.

1.2 THE LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The present research would be limited only to the written aspect of the language as only

written corpora have been used in this study.

The research is limited only to the areas and levels which have been selected for study.

The analysis would mainly be based on quantitative results. The Brown family corpora have

been used for comparison and at times BNC and BOE corpora have also been used.

Due to the temporal, financial and technical constraints the PWE corpus is limited to 2.1 million

words only and no conclusive judgment can be passed about the final shape of Pakistani English

on the basis of this small corpus.

8

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

There have been sporadic attempts to study Pakistani English and there is not even a

single objective and corpus based study of the variety that might determine the features of

Pakistani English.

1.4 HYPOTHESIS

“Pakistani English is a systematic, nativised variety of English”.

1.5 STUDY QUESTIONS

This study aims to find answers to the following questions.

What is the true shape of Pakistani English?

What are its characteristic features?

What are the similarities in Pakistani, British and American English?

If different, how much different (in quantitative terms) it is from the native varieties?

9

1.6 SCHEME OF RESEARCH

The scheme of research is that it would study the orthographic features of Pakistani

English at first and then the lexical profile of the variety would be compared with that of the

British and American varieties of English. Later, the research would be focused towards the

areas related to verb phrase, like subjunctive mood of the verb, the use of verb particles and

chiefly the verb complementation profile.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The research can be considered ground breaking, in the sense that it would initiate a new

era of research in the field of English language variation in Pakistan. It, being the first corpus

based research, would highlight many avenues of research on Pakistani English. It is expected

that the present research would establish the need of more corpus based studies of the variety and

that may consequently be used for the codification of the variety in the form of grammar books

and dictionary of Pakistani English. This would help in convincing the future researcher not only

to rely on their intuition but also to give due importance to data based studies. This would also

convince the future researcher to compile an even larger corpus of Pakistani English like BNC.

The research results may be useful for the development of text books and other allied educational

materials. It would also build the confidence of the teachers, researchers and learners of English

language that their variety is valid, legitimate, and rule governed. This would in return bring a

change in the attitudes of the local as well as international community towards the variety of

English used in Pakistan.

10

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Pakistani English is a second language variety. It is basically a school learned variety.

English is a co-official language of the country and is widely used in the domains of civil and

military administration and in legal settings. It is chiefly used in the written form and the

education system of the country is also writing oriented. In the classrooms the teachers focus on

the written aspect of language and the general approach is that the students should be given

exposure to the best form of language, which is literature. Due to this reason the text books are

literature based. The teachers follow the grammar translation method and the system of

education is generally examination oriented. The teachers are preparing the students for the

examination and they have to make the students aware of the norms on which they are going to

be tested. Those who deviate from the norms of language prescribed in the grammar books,

handbooks or in the dictionaries would run the risk of failing in the examination where some

unified standards are prescribed for all the students. There is hardly any room for any deviation.

Once the students pass out and enter the practical life, they are supposed to use English in

official settings. It is actually at this stage that the language they are using exhibits influences of

their native language, local contexts, local culture and the socio-economic status. The language

of the educated Pakistanis is generally the product of similar educational set up and all of them

are exposed to the standard written British English and ideally all of them are expected to

produce and use (native like) Standard English. But the micro and macro analysis of the English

language used in Pakistan reveals that the product is not what we can label as Standard English

rather it is a dialect having systematic variations from the Standard English.

11

2.1 CONTEXTUALISATION

To contextualise the research certain terms, theories and issues need to be discussed.

There are different models of speech to be followed. The decision that which model is to be

followed by a particular speech community is to be made on the basis of the following criteria

given by (Kachru, 1996, p.119):

i. Context of situation

ii. Participant in a speech community.

iii. Cline of intelligibility

iv. Roles and types of linguistics interaction.

2.1.1 Context of Situation

According to Kachru(1996) “The educational, linguistic and glosso-political settings

which determine the use of English” (p.119): Pakistan is a multilingual country having more than

57 languages in the country. Urdu is the national language of the country. It is the mother tongue

of less than 10% of Pakistanis (Hashmi 1996). It is a kind of link official language. English

language is widely used in Pakistan in all domains of life. A large number of publications are

available in English language in Pakistan.

12

Table 2.1

Language Wise Distribution of Publications in Pakistan

13

Table 2.2

Table 2.1 and 2.2 show that English newspapers and periodicals are being published all

around the country and their circulation outnumbers any of the local language like Sindhi or

Punjabi. And most of the annual periodicals/ magazines published in the country are in English.

There are 125 annual periodicals published in Urdu language in the year 2007 but the number of

annual periodicals in English in the same year is 730.

14

Table 2.2 shows the figures of last ten years regarding the language wise publications in

Pakistan. After Urdu, English is the most widely used language in Pakistan. During the colonial

era Urdu was considered a language having cultural and historical linkages with Muslim

traditions. Urdu contained a cultural and emotional baggage. During the independence

movement, it was promised that Urdu would be the national language of Pakistan. In the post

independence era, time and again the promise to make Urdu the national/official language of the

country was repeated by different officials and governments.

In 1985 Urdu was declared the official language of the country but English kept on

functioning as co-official language. With the advent of 21st century, the use of English has

increased many folds and it is being widely used in the country.

English is being taught as a compulsory subject in schools and it is being introduced from

grade one to graduation level.

2.1.2 Participation in a Speech Community

Who are the participants in the speech event is the second parameter. In the colonial era

English was used by the native speakers to communicate in the native settings or by some non

native speakers chiefly to communicate with native speakers. But the equation has changed

dramatically. In the words of Yamuna Kachru (2008):

It is no longer the case that English is used by people from Korea, Thailand or

Switzerland just to speak with Americans or the British or Australians. English is

increasingly being used by people from Asia to interact with those from Europe, and

15

people from South America to interact with people from Africa. English is frequently

used among interlocuters when no ‘so-called native speaker’ is present. The contexts for

the use of English may be academic conferences, business, commerce, diplomacy,

educational institutes, manufacturing, mining, print or audio-visual media or tourism.

(p.1)

Table 2.3Trade of Pakistan with English/Non-English Speaking Regions

Region Trade In Dollars

NON ENGLISH SPEAKING REGIONS

American Region (Excluding USA, Canada) 8080939

Western European Region (Excluding UK) 10715230

Eastern European Region 1503881

Middle East Region 17334966

Asian Region 18087175

Oceania Region (Excluding Aus, NZ) 760359

TOTAL 56482550

ENGLISH SPEAKING REGIONS

Australia 657284

Canada 705237

UK 1799620

USA 6157912

New Zealand 96791

TOTAL 9416844

Source:Export promotion Bureaue of Pakistan Summary 2007-08

If we just look at the statistics published by the Export Promotion Bureau of Pakistan

about the year 2007-08, it is clear that the trade with Asia, Africa and Europe is far higher than

with English speaking countries. In Pakistani situation, we rarely interact with the native

speakers and use English mainly with local Pakistani uses of English. Even in international

setting, English is being used to communicate with a broad international audience and not in the

restricted context with native speakers as was the case during the colonial era. In majority of the

situations both the participants are not the native speakers. Previously it was the native speaker

16

model which was elevated and aspired to but the change in the context has necessitated a

reorientation of the situation. McArthur (1998) rightly believes that:

The monolithic, linear model that takes us from Old English through Middle English to

Modern English (culminating with Darwinian elegance in the standard international

language of newspapers and airports) has, it seems tome, been asked to bear more weight

than it can reasonably support. The emergence, therefore, of plural, non-linear models is

a positive development, among whose advantages are a more accurate depiction of the

diversity in which we are embedded and also a more democratic approach to the social

realities of English at the end of the twentieth century. (p. xvi)

2.1.3 Cline of Intelligibility

Intelligibility is one of the fundamental requirements of communication. It is generally

believed that as long as a language variety is intelligible to participants it is considered valid.

There are three situations possible in language.

a. Native speaker to native speaker

b. Native speaker to non-native speaker

c. Non-native speaker to non-native speaker

As for as the 1st situation is concerned this is the case with inner circle varieties. In the

second situation the native speaker is communicating with non-native speaker. In the third

setting the non-native speaker is in communication with some other non-native speaker. In this

situation, which variety or model of language is required, depends on the context of the

17

participant. None of the participants have English as native language and both have learned it as

a second/foreign language. In this situation there is no need of following the native speaker

model.

The survey conducted by Rasheed (2009) reveals that 98% of the Pakistanis learn or use

English in Pakistani context and only 2% learn it with the purpose to be able to communicate

with the native speakers of English. The survey further points out that more than 80% Pakistanis

use a local variety of English at least on phonological, lexical or syntactic level. The survey

shows that only 3% or less Pakistanis have a chance to communicate frequently with native

speakers. Rasheed (2009) concluded that Pakistani users of English learn and use English in the

local settings, using a variety which is distinct from the native variety.

2.1.4 Roles and Types of linguistic interaction

In Pakistan, English is being used in all walks of life. It is performing all the linguistic

roles a language can perform in a society. It is performing all the functions of social life which a

language can play in the non native settings.

Y. Kachru (2008) says that:

Nations around the world use English for various purposes and in various contexts. The

systems of government, the educational policies, the socio-cultural contexts of literacy

and language use, the legislative, administrative and legal traditions all differ widely from

context to context. It is, therefore, expected that functions of English – accultured or not –

will vary as well (p.6).

18

Kachru (2006) discusses the uses of English in different domains in the ‘three circles’.

These are presented in the table 2.4.

Table 2.4

Adapted from Y. Kachru (2008, p.7)

The concept ‘World Englishes’ entails a paradigm shift. Earlier the focus of Chomskiyan

Linguistics was on the idealized native speaker/listener for the study of language. Language was

generally considered a monolithic whole and it was believed that only one correct form existed

and it was the prerogative of the native speaker and the non native speakers should follow the

norms set by the educated native speakers, through grammar books and dictionaries. This idea

gives the right of ownership only to the native speakers. English language is traditionally

associated with ‘Judo-Christian’ cultural traditions and the global spread of English language is

considered a part of the new imperialistic agenda.

This creates a clearcut divide between ‘Us’ and ‘Them’. All these concepts have been

instilled in the minds of the native as well as non native speakers of English language.

19

English has become a true world language and its users are always on the increase. It has

travelled to all the continents and is being used in multiple cultures. People in different cultures

are using English language and the language has the potential to bear the burden of representing

the concepts and ideas of these far off cultures in an appropriate way.

By the end of the 20th century linguistic community started realizing that the age old

concept of regarding language a property of the native speaker needs serious revision. With the

expansion of English language users, there was a clearcut change in the attitudes of the users.

Earlier, the idealistic views of language were famous and the prescriptive norms were propagated

and observed. In the 20th century descriptive attitude replaced the prescriptive approach and the

objective analysis revealed that English language is not a monolithic whole. Linguists now

believe that considering language a monolithic whole, mono culturism, and the normative

powers with the native speakers are only the fallacies of the past and are not facts.

This gave birth to some of the popular ideas in the field of language variation, which has

become an established field in linguistic studies.

English has grown to unprecedented heights and it has become the first ‘Universal

Language’ in the real sense of the term. But alongwith this rapid increase in the number of its

users it has also changed considerably. Different theories and approaches have been used to

study this process of change. Different models have been proposed so far. Some of them have

been discussed here for the purpose of contextualising the present research. One of the models

tries to understand this variation process by dividing English into three categories i.e. ENL, ESL

and EFL. In this model the native speaker has the centrality and power. The other traditional

model divides English into ‘standard and non-standard’ varieties. This model actually wants to

20

suppress all variation and considers language as a monolithic whole. Another group of linguists,

who wants to preserve the common core of English in this global village, comes with the idea of

English as a global language. This concept has been discussed as World Language or EIL i.e.

English as an international language.

2.2 STANDARDNESS

The concept of standard has a high currency in linguistic research in general. Oxford English

Dictionary contains many different sub-headings:

the one most closely connected to the theme reads as follows:

B. 3.e. Applied to that variety of a spoken or written language of a country or other

linguistic area which is generally considered the most correct and acceptable form, as

Standard English, American, etc. (Oxford English Dictionary 1989, online)

This has close linkage with the following definition:

10. a. An authoritative or recognized exemplar of correctness, perfection, or some

definite degree of any quality.

b. A rule, principle, or means of judgement or estimation; a criterion, measure. (Oxford

English Dictionary 1989, online)

All the above definitions seem to be figurative derivations of the following:

9. a. The authorized exemplar of a unit of measure or weight; e.g. a measuring rod of unit

length; a vessel of unit capacity, or a mass of metal of unit weight, preserved in the

21

custody of public officers as a permanent evidence of the legally prescribed magnitude of

the unit. (Oxford English Dictionary 1989, online)

Crowley (2003) has explained both the senses of the term Standard. In the words of Crowley,

The term standard has a complex recorded history in that it demonstrates at least two

major senses amongst the variety of its uses. First, there is the sense of standard as a

military or naval ensign, defined in the OED as a flag, sculptured figure or other

conspicuous object, raised on a pole to indicate the rallying point of an army (or fleet)–

the distinctive ensign of a king, great noble, or commander, or of a nation or city. The

function of this standard was to act as an authoritative focal point, as a marker and

constructor of authority around which could be grouped armies, fleets, nations and cities.

Thus the standard would be a focus of unity and under it would be all those who

recognised its authority. In this sense the standard is intertwined with crucial concepts of

commonality, unity and therefore, at least in part, uniformity. The second sense is distinct

from though related to the first. In the second sense standard signifies an exemplar of

measure or weight: The authorized exemplar of a unit of measure or weight, for example,

a measuring rod of unit length; a vessel of unit capacity, or a mass of metal of unit

weight, preserved in the custody of public affairs as a permanent evidence of the legally

prescribed magnitude of the unit. Original Standard: the standard to which others are

copies, and to which the ultimate appeal has to be made. (pp.77-78)

In the eighteenth century Swift proposed ‘to refine language to a certain standard and then fix it

over there for ever’. In the same vein Chesterfield (1777) called for a process of ‘purifying and

22

finally fixing our language’ (p.166). He showed deep concern for not having either a standard

language or any authority to regulate the language. He said:

I cannot help thinking it a sort of disgrace to our nation, that hitherto we have had no

such standard of our language .………But a grammar and a dictionary and a history of

our language through its several stages were still wanting at home, and importantly

called for abroad……… learners were discouraged by finding no standard to resort to

and consequently thought it incapable of any. (pp.167-169)

Traditionally the term Standard Language has often been associated with the socially prestigious

written form of language which is used in majority of the formal settings. Richards, Platt, and

Weber (1985) in their dictionary also say of Standard English:

The variety of a language which has the highest status in a community or nation and

which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated speakers of the language.”

They then add: “A standard variety is generally: (a) used in the news media and literature

(b) described in dictionaries and grammars (c) taught in schools and taught to non-native

speakers when they learn language as a foreign language (p.271).

According to Watts and Trudgill (2002) the present history of English Language is actually the

history of the Standard Variety of English. Generally, a prestige is attached to the Standard

variety of English.

According to Watts and Trudgill (2002):

‘Standard’ is identified with ‘high status’, but it is the high status of speakers that is

involved, not of language, since language in its internal properties is indifferent to status.

Thus, when these scholars refer to Standard English they do not mean ‘the most uniform

variety’ – defined by its internal properties. They mean ‘English as used by high-ranking

23

persons’. This implies that the language does not belong to all its speakers – only to a

select few.(p.13)

Standard languages or varieties are selected for special functions. They are extensively

codified and institutionalized, and enjoy greater social prestige. Penny (2000) while talking about

the varieties of Spanish says that:

Every standard language grows out of some spoken variety or varieties, which are in

competition with a much larger number of other varieties, which are not so selected.

Since the creation of a standard cannot be achieved without the devotion to it of great

resources(required for writing, making, and copying books, etc.), it follows that the

varieties which underpin standards are always those spoken by the wealthiest and most

powerful groups.(pp.196-197)

It is a part of common social belief to associate the concepts of Standard English with

educatedness. Honey (1997) thinks that:

the general point from which it seems impossible to escape, [is] that there is a long-

standing and now overwhelming association, right across British society, between the use

of the grammar, vocabulary and idiom of Standard English, and the concept of

educatedness. (p.39)

This association of Standard with education gives the educated elite the authority and

right to choose the appropriate form of language as Honey (1997) says:

All potential changes, usually brought about by less educated people thus must pass

through the filter of approval by educated people generally. That filter, and that criterion

acceptability to the educated constitute for English the mechanism of authority, and

24

embody the notion of prescription which is then codified by dictionary-makers and

grammarians. (p.147)

Whatever may be the reasons to select a variety as standard, but once it is selected and

codified it attains the status of law. Milroy (2002) views this process as:

The selection of one variety as the standard variety and the diffusion of this variety through

codification and prescription establish it as the canonical variety. This leads to a sense of

legitimacy of this variety. The manuals of usage are effectively law codes, and using non-

standard forms is analogous to disobeying the statutes enshrined in law codes. With certain

exceptions, as we shall see below, non-standard varieties are seen as illegitimate, and the

standard language comes to be looked upon as representative of the English language as a

whole. Thus, when the term ‘correct’ is used in reference to a linguistic form, it has

legalistic – and frequently moral – overtones. (p.8)

The standard varieties have also the beginning like other dialects and it is only due to some

political or economic factors that they attain the prestigious status but they, as Lodge (1993)

observes,: “…acquire what can be termed ‘retrospective historicity’, that is they are given, after

the event, a glorious past which helps set them apart from less prestigious varieties …”(p. 8).

In the twentieth century the issue of Standard variety has been hotly debated, due to the

popularization of the concept of Linguistic relativism, which propagates the view that all dialects

or varieties of a language are equal and linguistically systematic. (Walker 1990)

The definition and the ideas discussed so far show in very clear terms that uptil 20th century

the concept of Standard English entailed the idea of correctness and codification. In the 20th

century, as the descriptive approach in language became prominent, the supremacy of the

25

language of the educated elite was reviewed and the debate about the discursive power of this

model came into lime light. Linguists accepted the validity or usefulness of other varieties of

language. In Walker’s (1990) opinion:

Standard English is not just a neutral form for the expression of independent meaning: it

is a discursive practice that makes possible the sharing of particular meanings among

privileged members of a community. Effective use of Standard English is an unavoidable

curriculum goal. Standard English should be taught, not exclusively, but alongwith

respect for and acceptance of non-standard forms of English that children, and especially

young children, have acquired from their communities. Teachers should see non-standard

forms not as errors and bad grammar, but as systematic representations of meaning and

experience. (p.334)

With the rise of the descriptive approach in linguistic the evaluative discourse which

propagated the supremacy of the standard variety has challenged and the linguists have denied

that, the standard variety is any better than any other variety linguistically, but the public opinion

is hard to change. In the words of Walker (1990)“This scientific claim was regarded as

counterintuitive by public opinion, which held that Standard English embodied certain aesthetic,

logical, and even moral qualities essential to national and personal well being.” (p.337)

Fries (1957) went a step further and in purely a descriptive vein said that there is no such

thing as good or bad, correct or incorrect, grammatical or ungrammatical in language.

The common belief about the supremacy of the Standard variety is no more considered a

truth at least by the linguists and language teachers. Trudgill (1983) is of the view that “Of

course, in acquiring the standard language, we do not abandon the variation…. each has its own

26

authenticity, and to move with facility between them is to develop a versatility in language, a

linguistic repertoire, which should be open to all” (p.7).

Regarding the teaching of the Standard English linguists of the time believe that though

at schools and colleges for the purpose of codification of norms and the stability of language

standard is required but they also acknowledge the importance of local varieties and dialects. For

instance Cox (1991) has said,

For pupils who do not have Standard English as their native dialect, teaching Standard

English should draw on their knowledge of other dialects or languages. The aim is to add

Standard English to the repertoire, not to replace other dialects or languages. It should

also be recognised that non-standard forms are systematic and not haphazard. (p.32)

The preference of standard variety at the cost of local dialect or variety can have serious

negative effects on the learner and can be considered against the linguistic rights of an

individual. Having said all this there is another side of the picture. Now the attitude of the people

towards standard language is positively biased and even in the presence of the linguists’ remarks

in favour of the legitimacy of the non-standard language varieties the general public still

considers the idea of standardness useful. According to Milroy and Milroy (1985), “[t]he

attitudes of linguists (professional scholars of language) have little or no effect on the general

public, who continue to look at dictionaries, grammars and handbooks as authorities on ‘correct’

usage” (p.6).

27

2.3 NATIVE SPEAKERISM

Native speaker is an allied concept of standardness. It is again difficult to have a

comprehensive definition of the term ‘Native Speaker’. Davies (2003) has described six

characteristics of ‘Native Speaker’:

1) The native speaker acquires the L1 of which s/he is a native speaker in childhood.

2) The native speaker has intuitions (in terms of acceptability and productiveness) about

his/her Grammar 1.

3) The native speaker has intuitions about those features of the Grammar 2 which are

distinct from his/her Grammar 1.

4) The native speaker has a unique capacity to produce fluent spontaneous discourse, which

exhibits pauses mainly at clause boundaries (the ‘one clause at a time’ facility) and which

is facilitated by a huge memory stock of complete lexical items. In both production and

comprehension the native speaker exhibits a wide range of communicative competence.

5) The native speaker has a unique capacity to write creative1y (and this includes, of course,

literature at all levels from jokes to epics. metaphor to novels).

6) The native speaker has a unique capacity to interpret and translate into the L1 of which

s/he is a native speaker. (p.211)

Of the characteristics presented earlier only the first feature that of acquiring the first

language in childhood in a natural setting, is not attained in non-native settings but with serious

effort compensation can be made and according to Davies (2002) the other characteristic features

of a native speaker can be attained through effort, skill, and experience. He says:

28

(1) Childhood acquisition: No, the second-language learner, by our own definition does

not acquire the target language in early childhood. As I have noted, if s/he does then

s/he is a native speaker of both L1 and the target language (TL) or in his/her case of

L1x and L1y.

(2) Intuitions about idiolectal grammar (Grammar 1): Yes, it must be possible, with

sufficient contact and practice for the second-language learner to gain access to

intuitions about his/her own Grammar I of the target language (although, as I will

show, this makes an important assumption about criterion 1, childhood acquisition).

(3) Intuitions about group language grammar (Grammar 2): Yes again, with sufficient

contact and practice the second-language leaner can gain access to the Grammar 2 of

the target language. Indeed in many formal leaning situations, it is exactly through

exposure to a TL Grammar 2 that the TL Grammar 1 would emerge, the reverse of

the L1 development.

(4) Discourse and pragmatic control: Yes, this may indeed be a descriptive difference

between a native speaker and a non-native speaker but it is not in any way

explanatory: that is to say it in no way argues that a second-language learner cannot

become a native speaker.

(5) Creative performance: Yes again, with practice it must be possible for a second-

language learner to become an accepted creative writer in the TL. There are, of

course, well-known examples of such cases — Conrad, Becket, Senghor, Narayan —

but there is also the interesting problem of the acceptability to the L1 community of

the second- language learner's creative writing; this is an attitudinal question but so

too is the question of the acceptability to the same community of a creative writer

29

writing not in the Standard Language but in a (standard) language.

(6) Interpreting and translating: Yes again, this must be possible although

international organisations generally require that interpreters should interpret into

their L1. (It remains of course unclear what judgements are made of an applicant for

an interpreter’s post: no doubt proficiency tests are carried out but it would be

difficult to deny a claim of an applicant that s/he is a native speaker.) (p.211)

The macro analysis of the situation would reveal that it is not generally clear what a

native speaker is but it is defined in terms of what a non native speaker cannot be. Tajfel (1981)

points out that minorities are negatively defined against the majorities in comparative terms and

a biased view of the non native is presented. The concept of native speaker can also be traced

back to have linkage with imperial and colonial discourse. It is again a concept which gives the

native speaker confidence and identity and put authority in the hands of the native speaker.

In the twentieth century the research in the filed of sociolinguistic and ESL have shaken

many prevailing ideas in the field. Many notions like standard language and native speakerism

were established to strengthen the hegemony of the colonizers and to empower them. The

traditional view of a native speaker projects the image of a language user, who has command

rather only he has the full command of the language and has proper intuitions about its structural

properties. This importance of being a native speaker of English has been questioned in recent

years. (Kachru 1986, Singh 1998)

In the context of ESL/Outer Circle, the reality is really complicate. Schneider (2003)

says:

30

Competence in language is tied to its constant use and in such countries we find both

indigenous native speaker of English in the narrow sense whose intuitions may differ

significantly from those of British or American people, and speakers who, after having

acquired an indigenous mother tongue, have sooner or later shifted to using English only

or predominantly in all or many domains of everyday life. Such speakers can be

classified as “first language (or vernacular) English” speakers, although they do not

qualify as native speakers in the strict sense. (p.130)

Different linguists working in the field of ESL and world Englishes have discussed some

further types of ‘Nativeness’. Kachru (1998) talks about genetic and functional nativeness and

believes that functional nativeness is just as important as genitive nativeness. Davies (2003) says

that:

In addition to the mythic or idealised definition of native speaker, that product of the

homogenised, error-free linguistic Eden, there are different flesh-and-blood or reality

definitions. They include:

(1) native speaker by birth (that is by early childhood exposure),

(2) native speaker (or native speaker-Like) by being an exceptional learner,

(3) native speaker through education using the target-language medium (the lingua franca

case),

(4) native speaker by virtue of being a native user (the post-colonial case)and

(5) native speaker through long residence in the adopted country.

31

It is clear that definitions (2)-(5) are all ways of compensating for not being definition

(1). But they are not parasitic on (1). Indeed they help clarify what it is that (1) means and

they challenge us to specify what it is in functional terms they lack that (1) has. (p.438)

2.4 NATIVISATION

In the traditional view about ESL speakers they are considered non native speakers and

branding some one as non native means to take away the authority required to build the

confidence and identity. Kachru (1983) came up with a new term ‘nativised’, “to stress the

adaptations that English has undergone in ESL making it culturally and referentially appropriate

in its new contexts” (pp.2-3). According to McArthur (1992)

Nativisation is the process by which a transplanted language becomes native to a people

or place, either in addition to or in place of any language or languages already in use. The

process is often given a specific name, such as Africanization or Indianization (in case of

English), and takes place at every level of language”. (pp. 682-83)

The argument put forward by the researchers like Schneider (2003), Kirkpatrik (2007) and

Kachru (1985) is that the communities using Standard English as their native language are very

thin and their number is less than 3%. The others are the native speakers of different dialects.

Dialects in the traditional sense are considered as second rated languages and so these native

speakers of the dialect are not the native speakers of the Standard English. They also acquire it in

the school or in educational set up. Same is the case of the second language users. They also

learn Standard English and can become proficient users. The variety of English language they

32

are using is systematically different from other dialects and only they have any claim to be native

speaker of that variety. Higgins (2003) calls for a ‘pluricentric understanding’ of English norms

to accept someone as a native speaker of Indian English or Caribbean English. Nero (2002) is of

the view that speakers of such varieties of English are often prescribed as ‘not quite native’ by

other speakers who claim exclusive ownership of English or who consider themselves the real

native speakers. Nero (2002) thinks that there seems to be a qualitative difference (and

judgement) between a native and a nativised speaker. Widdowson (1994) asks for an attitudinal

change by the British and American speakers to claim exclusive ownership of English,

The very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can have

custody over it … It is not a possession which they (so called native speakers) lease out

to others while still retaining the freehold. Other people actually own it. (p.385)

The Chomskyan school of thought over-emphasised the importance of the ‘ideal native

speaker’. This privileges a perceived native speaker that is typically middle class, educated and

of European heritage.

In the World English research traditions the concept of native language as presented by Paradis

(1998) “The dialect acquired from the crib... acquired incidentally, stored implicitly and

available for automatic use” (p.207) is often challenged. In the past monolingualism was

considered a norm and the whole ELT industry was chiefly constructed around this principle but

the linguistic scenario out of Europe shows that bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm and

unmarked situation. According to Mesthrie (2008) in some multilingual societies, a child may be

said to have several native languages, with the order of acquisition not being an indicator of

ability. Multilingual speakers may switch languages according to situation in a way that

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monolingual speakers switch styles of the same language natively. The change in the global

linguistic environment and use of English around the world necessitates a change in the attitude

toward languages and the status of different speakers.

Graddol (1996, p.10) talks about a possible language shift where the EFL speakers may

turn into ESL speakers and ESL speakers, in time, might come to regard the language as a native

one and thus turn into ENL speakers.

Singh (1998, p.26) is of the view that grammatical deviations found amongst fluent

speakers of New Englishes or ‘World Englishes’ are not qualitatively different from differences

between dialect and Standard English or between an historical stage of Standard English and

another. Singh argues that there are no structural features which are altogether missing in the

‘native’ varieties or the features which are present in the native varieties but are completely

absent from some of other non native varieties. The similar argument has been put forward by

Mufwene (1998) that “language as a system is partly inherited and partly being made by its

speakers, and the monolingual native speakers have no more authority than their (fluent)

multilingual counterparts, especially in the modern world.” (p.114)

On the basis of the above discussion the conclusion can be drawn that the Pakistani

speakers/users of English use a variety of English which is different from the Standard English,

and Pakistani English speakers/users have nativised the language. They can be considered the

native (like) users of this nativised variety.

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2.5 FOSSILIZATION

L2 learners can attain native like fluency/ proficiency or not, is yet an unsettled issue,

among the linguists. The number of L2 learners, who are considered to have developed native

like fluency in an L2 is generally assumed to be small. One reason generally agreed by linguists

is the ‘critical age’. The learners who are exposed to the language in the early childhood can

learn it natively. The L2 learners can attain a limited level of proficiency. The level has yet not

been decided. Some of the linguists like Han (2004) believe that at some point in the learner’s

path of development, no further learning appears possible, with their performance apparently

imperious to both further exposure to the L2 and explicit correction of errors, because the L2

now appears set in stone. To describe this point the term fossilization is used.

To consider the L2 varieties of English as fossilized varieties seems biased. It might be

the case with specific speakers/users due to a learning environment that is far from ideal or a

mind that has reached subconscious conclusions that are difficult to unlearn. This might be the

case with particular speakers but to name the L2 varieties as fossilised varieties does not seem

appropriate. The L2 varieties of English vary from the L1 varieties of English in a systematic

way. This difference is as systematic as the difference between L1 varieties.

The new varieties of English have been labelled variously. The general approach was to

consider all variations from the standard British variety as Errors or in the same negative vein as

interlanguage, interference varieties or fossilized varieties. As the very name suggest these all

types of varieties were considered as substandard and were shunned. Linguists like Nero (2006)

believe that:

35

There are two common characteristics emanating from the spread development and use of

these varieties of English: The first is the fact that they are all stigmatized, particularly in

school; secondly, a number of ambivalent attitudes towards them have emerged all of

which might be viewed through the levels of linguistic imperialism. (p.8)

Language attitudes and practices in the real world, view the new varieties as bad, or

broken or deformed English rather than separate language varieties. The prescriptivist, hierarchal

model of language which does not give equal status to all languages or all varieties thereof, is

guarded/ promoted rigorously. (Nero 2006)

Numerous theories have been put forward by different linguists about the spread of

English. These theories describe the same phenomenon but they are by no means synonymous

rather they exemplify different theoretical background and different approaches.

The approach given by Philipson (1992) is that the major purpose of the spread of

English is to promote the hegemonic and imperialistic designs of the English specially West.

Phillipson believes that English is regarded at the cost of other languages and the concepts like

native speaker and standardness are projected to create a positive image of the West and at the

same time devaluing the other. Philipson gives a list of terms that have been used to promote

English and devaluate other languages.

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Table 2.5

Terms Promoting English

Glorifying English Devaluating other languages

World language Localised language

Additional language Incomplete language

Link language Confining language

Window onto the world Closed language

Neutral language Biased language

Source: Phillipson (1992, p.286)

Phillipson considers that all the varieties of English are considered faulty or lacking the

decency and range which the standard variety has. This is purposefully done to keep the

powerful hegemony of the native speakers and the ELT industry intact.

2.6 INTERLANGUAGE

Interlanguage according to McArthur (1992a) is a language intermediate between two or

more other languages, generally used as a trade jargon, such as Taglish in Philippines”. The other

sense of the term given by McArthur (1992) is: “The transitional system of a learner of a foreign

language at any stage between beginner and advanced” (p.522).

37

Selinker (1972) is of the view that L2 learners construct a linguistic system that draws, in

part, on the learners L1 but is also different from it and also from the target language. It is a

unique linguistic system. The ‘Interlanguage’ concept of the varieties of English highlights the

psychological process of second learning. The theory suggests that in the process of learning L1

and the social context being different the output of L2 would also be different. The variety of

second language produced might contain the errors.

Selinker (1992) defines Interlanguage as: “An ‘Interlanguage’ may be linguistically

described using as data the observable output resulting from a speaker’s attempt to produce

foreign norm, i.e. both his errors and non errors.” (p.231)

To consider the nonnative varieties of English as ‘Interlanguages’ would be devaluing

them and taking them as debased forms of language in comparison with the standard language.

Characterising the ‘outer circle’ varieties as interlanguage is not justified on several

grounds. Users of Singaporian English, Nigerian English, Pakistani English or Indian English do

not try to produce native like English. They are functioning in their own variety of English.

Chinua Achebe observes about the African experience: “Most African writers write out of an

African experience and commitment to an African destiny. For them, that destiny does not

include a future European identity, for which the present is but an apprenticeship” (JussaWalla

and Dasenbrock, 1992, p.34).

This theory considers all language variation occurring in the language of the non native

speakers as something bad, error, away from the target and beyond the norm. This view takes the

L2 varieties as illegitimate and second rated.

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2.7 INTERFERENCE VARIETIES

The concept of ‘Interference varieties’ (Quirk et. al. 1985) is somewhat similar to

Interlanguage. According to McArthur (1992), “Interference Variety is a variety of language,

such as English , that has been affected by close contact for a long period of time with one or

more other languages” (p.522). The example given by McArthur is that of English language in

India. It is in contact with Hindi and Tamil and has been affected by these languages and has also

affected them in return. In this sense Indian English and on the same analogy other L2 varieties

of English like Singapore English, African English, Algerian English and Pakistani English can

be called Interference varieties of English. Weinreich (1953) defines interference the effect of

one language on another, producing instances of deviations from the norms of either language. It

occurs naturally in the speech of L1 and multilingual people and the efforts of foreign languages

on levels of language are affected by it. It is generally disapproved of in monolingual

communities as a display of inadequate skill on the part of a foreign learner. It is important to

keep in mind that imperfect learning in this context does not mean inability to learn or even

lack of sufficient access to the target language to permit full learning: Learners must surely

decide sometimes consciously or unconsciously, to use features that are not used by native

speakers of the target language.

According to Thompson (2001):

First, learners carry over some features of their native language into their version of the

TL, which can be called TL2. Second, they may fail (or refuse) to learn some TL

features, especially marked features, and these learners’ errors also form part of the TL2.

If the shifting group is not integrated into the original TL speech community, so that (as

39

in the case of Indian English) its members remain as a separate ethnic or even national

group, then the TL2 becomes fixed as the group’s final version of the TL. But if the

shifting group is integrated into the original TL-speaking community, so that TL1

speakers form one speech community with TL2 speakers, the linguistic result will be an

amalgam of the two, a TL3, because TL1speakers will borrow only some of the features

of the shifting group’s TL2. In other words, TL2 speakers andTL1 speakers will

‘negotiate’ a shared version of the TL and that will become the entire community’s

language. (p.75)

This school of thought thinks that the L2 learner has the native speaker or L1 user as

his/her ideal and in the process of learning/acquiring the TL/L2 the errors/changes induced by

the different context or L1 become a part of his TL1. This concept of variety again brands the

variety as away from the target or norm and takes it for granted that the goal is to achieve native

like competence in the target language which is not the whole truth.

2.8 THE OWNERSHIP OF ENGLISH

The global presence of English language has initiated many different issues like

standardness, native speakerism and the ownership of language. Regarding the ownership issue

there are two schools of thought, the purists and the pragmatists. The purists (Prator 1968, Quirk

1990) argue that only the native speakers of English have the legitimate right of ownership and

consequently have authority over language. The nonnative speakers should look towards the

native speakers for norms and rules. The pragmatists school (Jenkins 2000; Kachru 1986;

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Seidlhofer 2003) consider all those who use English as the owners of the language and do not

consider the natives as the only heir to the language. The pragmatists argue for the ‘pluricentric

centers’ of reference for norms and standards. There is no linguistic reason to look towards the

native speaker for directions and models concerning language. (Foley, 1988, p.XIV). The

pragmatists offer two justifications for the claim namely the numerical majority of the non

natives (Crystal 1985, Jenkins 2000, Phillipson 1992, Seidlhofer 2003) and the nativisation

argument. (Achebe 1965, Kachru 1986, Widdowson 1982).

The statistics reveal that the non native speakers of English outnumber the native

speakers. For example Jenkins (2000) notes that there may be as many as 1350 million second

language speakers of English as compared to 337 million speakers using English as their first

language. She also discusses another important fact that increasingly interactions in English do

not involve first language speakers.

Brumfit (2001) gives somewhat different figures. He says:

The massive spread of English teaching in the years after the war led to the position that

is now true: that the English language no longer belongs numerically to speakers of

English as a mother tongue, or first language. The ownership (by which I mean the power

to adapt and change) of any language in effect rests with the people who use it, however,

multilingual they are, however monolingual they are. The major advances in

sociolinguistic research over the past half century indicate clearly the extent to which

languages are shaped by their use. And for English, the current competent users of

English number up to seven hundred million, living in every continent … of whom less

than half are native speakers. Statistically, native speakers are in a minority for language

41

use, and this in practice for language change, for language maintenance, and for the

ideologies and beliefs associated with the language – at least in so far as non-native

speakers use the language for a wide range needs. (p.116)

Crystal (1997, p.54) gives the following estimates for speakers of English in terms of

Kachru’s (1985, 1992) concentric circles: Inner Circle [i.e. USA, UK] 320-380 million, Outer

Circle [i.e. additional language e.g. India, Singapore] 150-300 million, Expanding Circle [i.e.

foreign language e.g. China, Russia] 100-1000 million. Kachru (1996) himself maintains that

“There are now at least four non-native speakers of English for every native speaker” (p.241).

McArthur (1992, p.355) has a more conservative estimate namely ‘a 2-to-1 ratio of non-natives

to natives’.

The argument of the German author Gnutzmann (2000) is important in the sense that

whatever the number of native and nonnative speakers may be, the overall use of English around

the globe shows that the native speaker is not in control of the situation. Gnutzmann says, “It has

been estimated that about 90 per cent of verbal exchanges in which English is used as a second

or foreign language do not involve native speakers of English” (p.357).

Taking any of these statistics the fact strengthens the non native’s claim that the language

belongs to them as well. Thus by implication, the kind of English spoken by L1 speakers is

increasingly irrelevant to the use of English on the global stage (Wee 2002). The other argument

concerns ‘nativisation’. This highlights the issue that the massive increase in the users and uses

of English around the world has necessitated the reorientation of approaches towards English.

The traditional monolingual and monolithic whole model needs serious revision and should be

replaced by the pluricentric model. English is being used in new cultural and linguistic

42

environment. The English language has developed a unique functional range and unprecedented

identities on every continent, both in terms of medium and its societal depth. As Wee (2002)

says:

The spread of English necessarily leads to changes and variations in the language, as it

becomes adapted to the needs of different groups of speakers, resulting in the existence of

many different Englishes. Both the numeric majority and nativisation provide enough

support to the pragmatist school of thought. (p.283)

The idea of the exclusive ownership of the English language by the Britishers or

Americans has even been rejected by Quirk (1962), “English is not the prerogative or possession

of the English ... Acknowledging this calming that the English of one area is more correct than

the English of another. Certainly, we must realize that there is no single ‘correct’ English and no

single standard correctness.” (pp.17-18)

2.9 MODELS TO DESCRIBE THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH

The spread of English has been described by different schools in different ways. Some of

the scholars following the traditions of historical linguistics tried to capture the unprecedented

spread of English by compartmentalizing into time zones of history. This is the approach used in

most of history books.

Historians have described the spread and development of English from three to seven

phases. There is generally an agreement among the scholars about the three phases but the 20th

century being the most turbulent period in human history has brought a multitude of changes in

all spheres of life, and language being no exception, has also changed. As the world got changed

43

at an exceptionally high pace so does language and to aptly describe this phenomenon of change

modern linguists like Graddol et al (1996, p.41) have described the development of English into

7 phases. During all these phases the language has radically changed and it is difficult to

understand the language of Old English or Middle English. The history of English has been

divided into 7 ages as under:

Table 2.6

The Seven Ages of English

Pre-English to A.D 450 C

Early Old English C450-850

Later Old English C850-1100

Middle English C1100-1450

Early Modern English C1450-1750

Modern English C1750-1950

Late Modern English 1950-_____

Graddol has also formulated a post modern or globalised model of English as an

international lingua franca, relating particularly to ‘services’ and ‘knowledge intensive

industries’.

The phenomenon of language change in the later half of 20th century is not very simple

and multiple factors are involved but one relatively straightforward and economical set of

categories has been widely used by linguists and language teachers alike. Quirk et al (1972)

write: “English is the world’s most widely used language. It is useful to distinguish three primary

categories of use: as a native language, as a second language and as a foreign language”. (p.3)

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For the purpose of convenience the communities using these varieties are generally

referred by commentators as ENL, ESL and EFL countries or territories. This is a widely used

model in the field of language studies and is a common currency in the worldwide English

teaching industry.

What do these three varieties consist of and which communities use them is explained by

Strang (1970). Although , she has used the terms A, B and C to discuss ENL, ESL and EFL

respectively. She described them as:

At the present time, English is spoken by perhaps 350 to 400 million people who have it

as their mother tongue. These people are scattered over the earth, in far-ranging

communities or divergent status, history cultural traditions and local affinities. I shall call

them A-speakers, because they are the principal kind we think or in trying to choose a

variety or English as a basis for description. The principal communities of A-speakers are

those or the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. There are

many millions more for whom English may not be quite the mother tongue, but who

learnt it in early childhood, and who lived in communities in which English has a special

status (whether or not as an official national language) as a, or the, language for advanced

academic work and for participation in the affairs of men at the international, and

possibly even the national level. These are the B-speakers, found extensively in Asia

(especially India) and Africa (especially the former colonial territories). Then there are

those throughout the world for whom English is a foreign language, its study required,

often as the first foreign language, as part of their country’s educational curriculum,

though the language has no official, or even traditional, standing in that country. These

are the C-speakers. (pp. 17-18)

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The model is widely used and understood whatever labels may have been applied to its

elements.

This classification has some inherent short comings. The ENL territories are so described

as to have only one variety which is a legitimate and linguistically superior variety and which

may serve as a Standard Language for the ESL and EFL communities. This conceals the facts

that in the ENL countries there are many varieties and all these varieties and only thin minority

of the native speaker are the native speakers of the Standard English. This model also ignores the

fact that this native speakers model might be inappropriate in ESL countries where the local

variety might be more useful as there are more fluent speakers and expert users of that variety.

Another shortcoming of this model is that due to the spread of English the ESL and EFL

classification has also blurred. The native, non native distinction and ENL, ESL, EFL issue

create a divide between ‘Us’ and “Them’ and empowers the native speakers and brands all non

native varieties as some what illegitimate.

An alternative and influential classification has been put forward by Kachru (1985). This

is the three circles model. Kachru divided the English speaking world into three concentric

circles. This conceptualization is based not only on the historical context of English but also on

the status of the language and its functions in various sociocultural domains in different regions.

In the view of Kachru , it would be better to use the concentric model instead of ENL, ESL and

EFL division.

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Kachru defines these circles as:

(Adapted from Kachru 1992) Fig 2.1

The most prominent feature of the model is that it makes English plural and one English

becomes many Englishes. Another linguistically valid characteristic is that in this pluricentric

model no variety is considered any better than the other variety. The underlying idea is that the

spread of English has resulted in many Englishes and not the transplanting of any model to other

countries. “… English now has multicultural identities”. (Kachru, 1992, p.357)

47

After 1980’s language variation became an accepted norm and there appeared numerous

articles and books on the topic. Earlier on, it was believed that language was a monolithic whole

and there was only one culture i.e. Standard English. All the models of English language,

appearing after 1980, share one common feature that is the acceptance of pluricentricity. All the

three models given by Kachru, Gorlach and McArthur give importance to the new varieties of

English. In Kachru’s model it is yet the native speaker model which is at the centre. In the model

presented by Gorlach (1990), again a circles model, it is not the native speaker’s model which

has the central place. It is rather the International English at times written as World English or

Global English, which has the central position. This model, according to McArthur (1992),

displays the status of varieties of English and related languages worldwide. The hub is

international English surrounded by a range of regional standards such as African Englishes,

British and American Englishes, here in turn, enclosed by ‘sub regional semi standards’ such as

Australian English, and Irish English. Beyond this are such forms as Aboriginal English, Black

English Vernacular and Yorkshire. Again eight regions are marked off by spokes, and beyond

the rim (outside English proper) are pidgins, creoles, ‘mixes’ and related languages such as

Scots, Tok Pisin.

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Fig 2.2

Adapted from McArthur (1998, p.101)

Another similar model using the wheel analogy is proposed by McArthur (1998). A circle

of World English is compared to a wheel with a hub, spokes and rim. The hub is called World

49

Standard English, within an enriching band of regional varieties, such as the Standard and other

forms of African English, American English, Canadian English and Irish English. Beyond these

but linked to them by spokes marking off eight regions of the world, is crowded (even riotous)

fringe of sub-varieties such as aboriginal English, Black English Vernacular, Gullah and etc

Fig 2.3

All these models share some of the common features.

1. All these models accept the basic concept of language variation.

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2. All the models talk of the pluricentricity of the norms.

3. The hegemony of the British Standard English has been broken.

4. The circles model does not represent any variety any better or any worse than any other

variety.

5. McArthur and Gorlach refer to World English or Global English or International English/

World Standard English occupying the central place.

In spirit they have many elements common but one issue over which Kachru differs with

Gorlach and McArthur is that Kachru dismisses any concept of World English and considers it a

fallacy. He believes that any such thing does not exist at all. He thinks that the drawback of this

approach can be that all such attempts take language as a monolithic whole and impose some

norms foreign to the variety users. The issue of intelligibility regarding international

communication which is the cause of any such construct is settled by Kachru by giving the

principle of accommodation. Kachru believes that both the participants accommodate each other

and have to make adjustments. Both have to make effort to understand each other.

2.10 MODELS EXPLAINING THE EVOLUTION OF NEW

ENGLISHES

There have been many theories discussed by the linguists about the development of the

different varieties of English. All these theories or models of the development of the new

varieties of English specifically and of a language in general share the majority of the features.

Schneider (2003, p. 234) gives a comprehensive overview of how the field of New/World/Global

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Englishes has subsequently developed, and points out that all established varieties, including

fully acrolectal varieties such as American English, each initially underwent a similar process of

emergence, and no longer count as ‘new’ today. Attempts to classify and characterize the wide

range of L2 Englishes, including relatively competent (mesolectal) and fairly basic and

rudimentary (basilectal) varieties has not been a simple matter for dialectologists, and as yet no

agreement has been reached upon.

Many scholars have talked about the evolutionary process of the new varieties of English,

of these, there are three proposals which are detailed and comprehensive. The most widely

discussed models of the developmental cycles of the new varieties of English are the models

proposed by Kachru (1992), Moag (1992) and Schneider (2003).These three proposals mainly

discuss the nativised varieties of English. A brief discussion of these models is given here. All

the three appear to agree in many areas and there are different terms to refer to the same idea.

Several theorists have related the emergence of New Englishes to shifting attitudes of speakers,

starting with a lack of recognition of the status of the variety, moving through acknowledgement

that the variety exists but is used by ‘others’ (Kachru 1986, p. 90), and finally reaching a point

when the variety achieves public support and is promoted by traditional linguistic gate-keepers

such as educationists.

Kachru (1992, p.56) has suggested three phases through which non native

institutionalised varieties of English seem to pass. In the first phase the variety is not recognised

legitimate by the local as well as by the native speakers of English. During this phase the local

community considers this variety as illegitimate, broken, ill organized, deficient, or crude. They

strive to learn the native or standard variety of English. They want to speak like native speakers

and they dislike those who speak the local variety of English.

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In the next phase the local variety coexists with the native variety. There is increase not

only in the number of people using this variety but the functional domains of local variety also

increase. People start using the local variety and the native variety side by side. The local variety

is no more despised.

Although its use increases but still people feel comfortable in using the native variety in

formal situations and local variety in informal contexts.

In the final phase, the local variety is fully established and it is being used in all domains

of life. The local norms are accepted by the indigenous community and by native speakers alike.

The locals have fully nativised the variety and they become the native speaker of this

institutionalised variety. The local speakers who use the native variety are considered snobs or

outsiders.

Another model is proposed by Moag (1992, pp. 233-52). Moag studies the Fijian variety

of English and proposes a “life cycle of non-native Englishes”. Moag has identified five phases

of the evolution of the new Englishes. Four of these phases are experienced by all the new

English varieties but the fifth may only be considered by some. Of these five, Transportation is

considered the first phase. This refers to the arrival of English to a place which does not have

English before. Either one variety or a mixture of varieties is brought to a linguistically or

culturally new environment. The second phase is named as indigenization. This is quite a long

phase during which the local linguistic and cultural forces negotiate with the transplanted

language variety and finally the local linguistic culture is reflected through the variety of

language used by the local community. At the third step, there is a rapid increase in the number

of users and the uses of language. There is also a marked increase in the variations from the

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transported variety as the language/variety is being used in new situations. In the next phase the

local variety is being used in schools and educational environment. This local variety becomes a

standard in community and the users start learning it. The local norms become stabilised. During

this phase local literature is being written in the local variety. This phase is named as

‘institutionalisation’. The fifth phase is optional. In some of the societies due to the renowned

importance of the other language, the variety falls into disuse and specific examples, Moag

quotes, are of Philippines and Malaysia, where the local languages were promoted and English

was abandoned from the official arena (for some time).

The third and very elaborate model describing the development cycle of nativised

varieties of English is proposed by Edgar Schneider (2003). He agrees with Mufwene (2001) in

arguing that “post colonial Englishes follow a fundamentally uniform development process”

(p.23)

Schneider (2003) has given a five stage cyclic model of Evolution of the new Englishes. He

divides the evolutionary process into five stages namely Foundation, Exonormative

Stabalisation, Nativization, Endonormative Stabilisation and Differentiation. In the first stage the

settlers arrive and the simplified communication mechanisms like pidgins and creoles get

established.

In the second phase the language of the settlers, commonly the colonial rulers, is learnt by the

indigenous community. Due to the influence of the indigenous languages certain adjustments are

made in the language of the settlers and lexical borrowing from the indigenous languages is also

a common practice during this phase.

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The next phase is ‘Nativization’. It normally occurs at the end of the colonial and start of

the post-colonial era. At this time there are the opposing attitudes towards the adjustments which

are made at stage 2. Some of the purists believe that the external norms should be accepted and

stepping away from the externally prescribed norms is not permissible and should be

discouraged. The liberalists believe that the adjustment and deviance is a natural part of the

evolution and it should be encouraged.

The next phase is marked as a stage of exonormative stabalisation and the indigenous

community does not look towards the colonizers and the adjustments, earlier on debated and

labelled as errors, are accepted as local standards and the codification process starts and during

the period dictionaries and grammars of the new variety are written and the indigenous

community do not despise the nativized variety.

The fifth and the last stage of differentiation is a natural part of this evolutionary process.

In this stage the locally developed variety starts to vary internally at dialectal level and new

varieties emerge.

This model deals with the English language varieties in a diachronic perspective. It shows

that the development of the new varieties of English is a dynamic process.

55

Fig 2.4

On the horizontal axis of the table, the sociolinguistic processes that take place during these

stages are shown. They are classified into 4 categories:-

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History and Politics

Identity Construction

Sociolinguistics of contact/use/attitudes

Linguistic development/structural effects

In the light of the Schneider’s dynamic model, placing present day Pakistani English is a

difficult task. There are certain features of Pakistani English which point to stage 3, at the same

point there are some other features which indicate that Pakistani English is in the fourth phase of

evolution.

The three models have been presented in the following diagram.

Fig 2.5(Adapted from Kirkpatrick 2007, p.33)

They have their similarities. The basic concept shared by all the models is that the

English language when used by the non English speaking communities changes due to its contact

with local languages and local cultures. This nativisation or acculturation of the language is not

57

approved initially by the local community but with the passage of time this local variety wins

public acclaim and becomes a norm which occurs in post colonial societies generally.

It can be said that the difference between these approaches is that of World English or

Englishes. Both McArthur and Gorlach believe that World English or International English is or

should be the new center of linguistic gravity whereas Kachru does not feel any such need.

This particular research is in line with Kachru’s circles model. As it is the most relevant

model according to the present status of English in Pakistan.

There have been sporadic attempts to study Pakistani English. 1980s were the hay days of

variation studies and the concept World Englishes or national/regional varieties of English was

frequently discussed. In Pakistan, the indigenous linguists like Rahman (1991), Talaat (1988),

Abbas (1995), Saleemi (1993), Chaudhry (1995), and Haque (1983) had started discussing the

issue of English language variation and Pakistani English from 1980s. The international (foreign)

linguists like Kachru (1976, 1985, 1992), Baumgardner (1987) have also discussed the issue of

Pakistani English at length. Some of the works are discussed to contextualize the present

research.

All these works have one feature in common. All these studies use data, based on

invented examples purposefully located/identified. There is no denial of the fact that the features

identified by these earlier research studies are valid and are present in Pakistani English but the

method of study is not objective. There are no quantitative results available to make qualitative

decisions. To have a proper objective and scientific analysis of the variety a quantitative study of

the variety has been planned which, it is believed, would help in proving any claims about the

language feature particular to Pakistani English.

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2.11 CORPUS METHODOLOGY

OED defined a ‘corpus’ as a ‘body, collection of writing’. Of the three apparently

synonymous terms ‘corpus’, ‘archive’ and ‘collection ‘ only corpus is related to linguistics

(Sinclair 1996). It is generally defined as a purposefully collected large body of text which is in

machine readable (computer readable) form. There is no minimum or maximum size of a corpus

or specification of what it should contain, Rayson (2003). It could be any thing from the

instructions on the match box to the constitutions of the country. It could be written, spoken or

multimedia corpus. There are many ways to define a corpus (Francis, 1992, p.17, Atkins et al,

1992, p.1) but there is an increasing consensus that a corpus is a collection of (1) machine-

readable (2) authentic texts (including transcripts of spoken data) which is (3) sampled to be (4)

representative of a particular language or language variety.

There can be different types of corpora. Sinclair (1995) lists the following types of corpora.

1. Reference Corpora: This type of corpus is designed to provide comprehensive

information about the language e.g. BNC (Aston and Burnard, 1998)

2. Monitor Corpus: It is of a constant size but constantly refreshed with new material, while

old material is removed to archival storage e.g. BOE (Renouf, 1987, p.21)

3. Parallel Corpus: Collection of texts, each of which is translated into one or more other

languages e.g. CRATER Corpus (McEnery et al, 1997)

4. Comparable Corpus: Similar texts form more than one language variety e.g. ICE

Corpora, Brown Family Corpora (Greenbaum, 1996)

Hunston (2002, p.14) adds the following types of corpora.

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1. Specialised Corpus: Collection of texts of a particular type designed to be representative

only of a given type of text, e.g. Pakistani Legal English Corpus (PLEC)

2. Learner Corpus: Collection of texts produced by learners of a language. E.g. The

International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE)

3. Historical (Diachronic) Corpus: Texts from different periods of times, e.g. Helsinki

Corpus.

Corpus based study of language is a ‘new philosophical approach to the subject’ (Leech

1991). Both World Englishes and Corpus based studies proliferated in 1980s. As the computer

technology developed, more and more linguists started using corpus linguistics as a methodology

to study different aspects of language. Corpus linguistics received the attention of the linguists as

it conforms to the features generally attached to ‘the scientific method’: Falsifiablity,

completeness, simplicity, strength and objectivity. This methodology can be used in a wide range

of linguistic studies. Biber et al (1998) have given a detailed description of corpus based

approaches in different areas of linguistics including lexicography, grammar, discourse, register

variation, language acquisition and historical linguistics.

Machine-readability is a defacto attribute of modern corpora. Electronic corpora have advantages

unavailable to their paper-based equivalents. The most obvious advantage of using a computer

for language study is the speed of processing it affords and the ease with which it can manipulate

data (e.g. searching, selecting, sorting and formatting). Computerized corpora can be processed

and manipulated rapidly at minimal Cost. Second, computers can process machine-readable data

accurately and consistently (Barnbrook 1996). Third, computers can avoid human bias in an

analysis, thus making the result more reliable. Finally, machine-readability allows further

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automatic processing to be performed on the corpus so that corpus texts can be enriched with

various metadata and linguistic analyses.

In principle, by using the intuition-based approach, researchers can invent purer examples

instantly for analysis, as Xiao (2007) says:

Because intuition is readily available and invented examples are free from language-

external influences existing in naturally occurring language. However intuition should be

applied with caution. First, it is possible to be influenced by one’s dialect or sociolect.

What appears unacceptable to one speaker may be perfectly felicitous to another.

Assuming that what we see in a corpus is largely grammatical and/or acceptable, the

corpus at least provides evidence of what speakers believe to be acceptable utterances in

their language, typically free of the overt judgement of others. Second, when one invents

an example to support or disprove an argument, one is consciously monitoring one’s

language production. Therefore, even if one’s intuition is correct, the utterance may not

represent typical language use. (p.6)

The corpus-based approach, in contrast, draws upon authentic or real texts, though authenticity

itself may be a cause of dispute. Xiao (2007) believes that:

Results based on Introspection alone are difficult to verify as introspection is not

observable. All of these disadvantages are circumvented by the corpus-based approach.

Additional advantages of the corpus-based approach are that a corpus can find differences

that intuition alone cannot perceive (Francis, Hunston and Manning 1996; Chief, Hung,

Chen, Tsai and Chang 2000) and a corpus can yield reliable quantitative data. Broadly

speaking, compared with the more traditional intuition-based approach, which rejected or

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largely ignored corpus data, the corpus-based approach can offer the linguist improved

reliability because it does not go to the extreme of rejecting intuition while attaching

importance to empirical data. The key to using corpus data is to find the balance between

the use of corpus data and the use of one’s intuition. (p.7)

Biber (2001) opines that Teachers, authors, and testing professional constantly rely on

their intuitions to choose the most important words and structures to focus on. However corpus

studies show that such intuitions about use are often incorrect.

All this can be concluded with Leech’s (1991) comments:

Neither the corpus linguist of the 1950s, who rejected intuition, nor the general linguist of

the 1960s, who rejected corpus data, was able to achieve the interaction of data coverage

and the insight that characterise the many successful corpus analyses of recent years.

(p.14)

62

CHAPTER 3

PAKISTANI ENGLISH

Since 1980’s , in the World Englishes Tradition a lot has been said about Asian, South

Asian and Colonial Englishes which indirectly relates to Pakistani English. The literature about

Pakistani English can be classified into two categories. One looks at the Macro level issues and

the other deals with Micro level issues.

At the Macro level, the issues concerning the status of Pakistani English and the attitudes

of local and international community about the variety are to be looked at. At the Micro level,

the linguistic differences concerning lexis, syntax, phonology and pragmatics have been

discussed.

At the Macro level, B. Kachru (1985) talked about Pakistani English as a different variety

and included Pakistan as an outer circle country. These outer circle communities/Englishes are

considered as norm developing. Kachru (1986) considers Pakistani English as an

“institutionalized second language” variety. According to Kachru

The institutionalized second language varieties have a long history of acculturation in

new cultural and geographical contexts; they have a large range of functions in the local

education, administrative and legal systems. The result of such uses is that such varieties

have developed nativised discourse and style types and functionally determined

sublanguages (registers), and are used as a linguistic vehicle for creative writing in

various genres. (p.19)

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‘Pakistani English’ is a sub variety of South Asian English. It shares some of the general

features with Asian and South Asian English but is still an independent variety.

Y. Kachru and Nelson (2006) believe that “‘local usages’, elements of Pakistani English

(in the World Englishes perspective) are of legitimate interest” (p.128). Baumgardner (1987,

p.242) is of the view that English in Pakistan is a nativised, institutionalized variety of English. It

has country-internal as well as external functions and is similar to other South Asian Englishes,

which together form a larger ‘Pan-regional Variety’. Using English in Pakistan is different from

using it in the native setting. In Pakistan the local socio-cultural traditions and local languages

affect the English used in the country. Baumgardner (1987) says, “to be able to read a local

Pakistani English Newspaper thoroughly and with complete understanding, it is necessary that

the reader be familiar with both the Urdu language and Islamic culture” (p.242).

Following the tradition of Kachru’s ‘liberation linguistics’ the local and international

linguists consider Pakistani English a legitimate variety but there are still others who consider all

the deviations from the native varieties of English as errors or sub-standard English. Those who

believe that Pakistani English is an independent variety in its own, consider the innovations and

deviations in Pakistani English, “a matter of pride among Pakistani speakers of English”.

(Baumgardner, 1987, p.243) The deviations from other varieties give Pakistani English its

defining character. Pakistani English using community is using a variety of English which has

local flavour and colour but “upon realizing this, the reaction of many users would be to label the

non-corresponding Pakistani-English elements as ‘errors’ out of hand”. (ibid, p.241). The local

grammar and guide book writers brand such local users as errors. Shah (1973) gave a detailed list

of common errors many of them on enquiry have been proved the features of Pakistani English.

For example, the verb complementation studies of Pakistani English conducted by Baumgardner

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(1987). There are still some linguists and native speakers like Prator (1968) who attack Indian

and Pakistani English as, “the most unintelligible educated variety of English for the rest of the

English speaking world” (p.473).

At the Micro level, many researchers have ventured to study Pakistani English on

different linguistic levels .The major work on Pakistani English has been done by Robert J.

Baumgardner (1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2008). He published many articles on this

topic. He has also edited a book titled “English Language in Pakistan” (Baumgardner, 1998).

Other researchers who have written a lot about Pakistani English include Tariq Rahman, Mubina

Talaat, Ahmar Mahboob, and Bashir Chaudhry chiefly and many others.

Baumgardner (1998) conducted a study of the attitudes of Pakistanis towards Pakistani

English and towards the acceptability of local lexical and grammatical innovations in Pakistani

English. The study concludes that Pakistani norm is beginning to emerge.

Talaat (2002) studies the ‘phenomenon of change’ and opines that “Pakistani English is

not any one stable system”. The focus of her study is not the product rather the process of

change.

Mahboob (2009) has studied the cultural aspect of Pakistani English. He studies the

relationship between Islam and English in Pakistani context. He shows that Islam, being the

dominant force in the cultural tradition of Pakistan, is also reflected in the English produced by

Pakistanis. It needs to be studied further.

The book written by Rahman (1990b) “Pakistani English: The linguistic description of a

Non-Native variety of English” is the only book length detailed description of the variety.

Rahman (1990b) discussed the features of Pakistani English in comparison with Standard

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English. He tried to dispel the popular notions about English in Pakistan. He divides Pakistani

English into four broad categories.“While such quantitative studies are needed, the

sociolinguistic methodology of his work was unfortunately neither sophisticated enough nor his

data base large enough to produce significant results” (Baumgardner, 1993, p.xvi).

Majority of research on Pakistani English is in the area of lexis. Mahboob (2004),

Baumgardner (1990, 1993, 1996, 1998), Kachru (1975), Rahman (1990b), Talaat (1993) have

discussed the processes of formation of words of different categories. They have pointed out how

different with the interaction of local languages and due to the processes of code mixing,

translation and retranslation the innovative lexis of Pakistani English has developed. These

unique lexical items represent the different socio-political culture of the country.

The syntactic features of Pakistani English have been discussed by Baumgarnder (1993),

Chaudhry (1995), Hashmi (2000), Mahboob (2004), Rahman (1991), Talaat (2002), Y. Kachru

and Nelson (2006). Of these, the work done by Baumgardner (1993) is the most detailed one. It

discusses grammatical innovations in Pakistani English. The major area Baumgardner discusses

is that of verb and adjective complementation patterns in Pakistani English. Baumgardner (1993)

points out that some of the verbs in Pakistani English have complementation patterns different

from that of British English.

Mahboob and Huma (2004), Chaudhry (1995), and Rahman (1990b) have discussed the

phonological features of Pakistani English. It is on the Phonological level that the differences

between the varieties are easiest to perceive and due to the effect of the local languages the

pronunciation of Pakistani English is markedly different.

66

Damron (2004) discusses the role of intonation in the interactional language. She studies

the form and functions of the intonation units in Urdu and Pakistani English. She concludes that

the intonation patterns and functions of Pakistani English are different from Standard English,

due to the effect of Urdu language.

Hassan (2000) in “Modalities in the teaching of writing in English in Pakistan” discusses

some of the features of Pakistani English. He is of the opinion that “there is a regular pattern of

deviation with regard to orthography, lexis and structure. This level of regularity means that

these deviations are now well embedded in the English of this region”. (p.71)

Hassan (2000) is the only work which has discussed the issue of spelling variations in

Pakistani English. He considers that the Urdu phonology influences the pronunciation of English

words . English not being a phonographic language the ‘urduish’ pronunciation affects the

spellings of the Urdu speaker’s English.

A large number of writers are producing the creative work in English. The language and

some of the stylistic devices they employ are also special to them. There are only few articles

discussing the stylistic features of Pakistani English. Hashmi (1996), Sidhwa (1993, 1996), and

Rahman (1990a), have talked about the literary traditions prevailing in Pakistani English

Literature.

In the words of Hashmi (1996) “literature in English is the youngest of the major

literatures and oral texts of Pakistan, but its achievement is a vital part of our literary heritage”

(p.107).

67

Rahman (1990b) opines that “Pakistani creative writers use deviant English as a stylistic device

in their fiction” (p.1). He thinks that Pakistani writers consciously deviate from the Standard

English and use these deviations as a foregrounding device in literary writings.

Sidhwa (1993) opines that Pakistani creative writers use their indigenous languages and cultural

terms in English and give it a local colouring. She has related ‘how she uses Pakistani languages

for literary effect in her very popular novels’ (Baumgardner, 1993, p.xviii).

After quickly reviewing the literature about Pakistani English some observations can be

made. In almost all works, the judgements are intuition or observation based. No research has

ever been conducted on Pakistan English, where a corpus has been used. These are basically

collections of chance or invented examples. No researcher has conducted a data based study of

Pakistani English. We do not know for sure either these features which have been pointed out by

some of the researchers in the field are rare occurrences or the idiosyncrasies of the writers and

again they have not be compared with any data based study of the native Englishes.

Baumgardner being a native speaker made many observations about the native variety of English

on the basis of his intuition and has compared the chance examples collected from Pakistani

writing or from the responses of the survey, he made in Pakistan.

The authenticity and the frequencies of the features of the native variety and those of the

Pakistani variety have not been verified yet.

Complementation is an area where most of the work on Pakistani English has been done.

Baumgardner (1993) gave a detailed list of verbs and adjectives having different

complementation patterns. He being a native speaker based his judgement on the basis of his

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knowledge and intuition. He collected examples of the occurrences where he felt that being a

native speaker he uses or would use the construction or would use otherwise.

All this work was intuition based. When verified with corpora the results showed that

both the complementation patterns were present in the corpora but with the change of frequency.

At times the frequency of the feature was relatively quite high in the native speaker’s corpora.

Such results show that intuition based judgements may be wrong, at times. They need to be

supplemented with corpus based studies. Present research is an example of it.

In this study all the examples of verbs or adjectives having variant complementation

patterns mentioned by Baumgardner (1993) and A. Mahboob (2004) have been selected. All of

these items have been studied in detail. For some of the categories only the British data has been

used for comparison and two larger corpora, i.e. BNC and BoE have been used and for the rest of

the categories the PWE data has been compared with the British (LOB, FLOB) and the American

(BROWN, FROWN) corpora.

The verbs ‘assure, demand, reiterate, urge, and announce’ have been pointed out by

Baumgardner (1993) to have deviant complementation pattern in Pakistani English.

Baumgardner observes that these verbs take a ‘that clause complement’ in the Standard English

and Pakistani English users replace ‘that clause complements’ with a ‘to infinitive verb’. For

British English the data has been taken from Bank of English (BOE) corpus and for Pakistani

English the data has been taken from PWE.

69

Table 3.1

Verb Complementation (Frequency)

To Infinitive That Clause

Verbs PWE BOE PWE BOE

Assure 3 20 17 1530

Demand 6 2808 39 6928

Reiterate 0 9 30 495

Urge 13 3913 5 895

Announce 13 760 32 12134

Table 3.2

Verb Complementation (Percentage)

To Infinitive That Clause

Verbs PWE BOE PWE BOE

Assure 15 1.29 85 98.7

Demand 13.3 28.8 86.67 71.2

Reiterate 0 1.79 100 98.2

Urge 72.2 81.4 27.78 18.6

Announce 28.9 5.89 71.11 94.1

The results in table 3.2 show that 85% of the time verb ‘assure’ takes ‘that clause

complements’ in PWE and 98.7% of the time it takes ‘that clause’ in BOE. It takes only 1.3% of

the time ‘To Infinitive Complements’ in BOE, whereas the percentage of Pakistani data is

relatively high i.e. 15%. This invalidates Baumgardner’s observation.

In the case of ‘demand’ the results show that 86.7% of the time it takes ‘That Clause

Complements’ in PWE and only 71.2% of the time it takes ‘That Clause Complements” in BOE.

The use of ‘To Infinitive Complement’ structures with the verb demand is 13.3% in PWE and

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28.8% in BOE. This result nullifies the claim as the percentage of ‘To Infinitive Complements’

is relatively high in BOE.

The third verb studied is ‘reiterate’. There is no example of it using ‘To Infinitive’ in

PWE and 1.8% of the time it has been used in BOE. It has been used with ‘That Clause

Complements 98.2% in BOE and 100% in PWE. This shows that the verb is chiefly used with

‘That Clause Complement’ structures in both the varieties.

The next verb is ‘urge’. Contrary to the observation of Baumgardner (1993) the verb

‘urge’ preferably takes ‘To Infinitive Complement’ structures in both the corpora and the

percentage of BOE is higher than that of PWE. In BOE 81.4% of the time ‘urge’ takes ‘To

Infinitive Complements’ and 72.2% of the time in PWE. It comes with ‘That Clause

Complements’ only 18.6% of time in BOE and 27.7% of the time in PWE. The results show that

the observation is not verified by the corpora.

The fifth verb discussed by Baumgardner in this complementation pattern is ‘announce’.

‘Announce’ takes ‘That Clause Complements’ 94% of the time in BOE and 71.1% in PWE. In

5.9% of the occurrences in BOE ‘Announce’ accompanies ‘To Infinitive Complements’ and

28.9% in PWE. This shows that the frequency of ‘To Infinitive Complements’ accompanying

‘announce’ is relative higher in PWE .

The overall results show that it is not the case in any of the verb that it does not take the

other complement in any variety. It is only a case of preference and out of the five example verbs

given by Baumgardner (1993) only two have been proved to have ‘That Clause Complements’

preferably in BOE and the frequency of ‘To Infinitive Complements’ is comparatively higher in

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PWE. With the verbs ‘demand’ and ‘reiterate’ the percentage of British data with ‘To Infinitive

Complements’ is higher than that of PWE.

Baumgardner (1993) and A. Mahboob (2004) have pointed out that in the case of the

adjectives ‘successful, interested, committed, responsible, and insecure’ Pakistani English users

replace ‘Adj + Prep + -ing’ structures with ‘Adj + To Infinitive’ structures. To verify the claim

the data was taken from PWE and British National Corpus (BNC).

Table 3.3

Adjective Complementation (Frequency)

Adj + Prep + -ing Adj + To Infinitive

Adjective PWE BNC PWE BNC

Successful 11 365 0 8

Interested 27 944 19 436

Committed 8 443 14 67

Responsible 50 1093 12 22

Insecure 0 9 0 4

Table 3.4

Adjective Complementation (Percentage)

Adj + Prep + -ing Adj + To Infinitive

Adjective PWE BNC PWE BNC

Successful 100 97.9 0 2.14

Interested 58.7 68.4 41.30 31.6

Committed 36.4 86.9 63.63 13.1

Responsible 80.6 98 19.35 1.97

Insecure 0 69.2 0 30.8

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The data shows that in the case of ‘successful’ all the examples in PWE use ‘Adj + Prep

+ -ing’ construction whereas 2.1% of the examples in BNC use ‘Adj + To Infinitive’

constructions.

In the case of ‘interested’ 59% of the time ‘Adj + Prep + -ing’ construction is used in

PWE and 68% of the time the construction is used in BNC. The construction ‘Adj + To

Infinitive’ is used in 41% cases of PWE and only 32% from BNC. This verifies the claim to the

extent that Pakistanis make comparatively more frequent use of the infinitive constructions than

the natives.

The adjective ‘committed’ is the clearcut example of Pakistanis’ preference for ‘Adj + To

Infinitive’ construction as 64% of the occurrence of the adjective accompany ‘Adj + To

Infinitive’ complements in Pakistani data whereas in the British data Adj + Prep + -ing’

complements are preferred 87% of the time. The difference is obvious enough that it can easily

be detected .

In the case of the adjective ‘responsible’ 80.6% of the examples from PWE use ‘Adj +

Prep + -ing’ construction and 98% of the examples of BNC use this construction. Only 2% of the

BNC examples use ‘Adj + To Infinitive’ constructions and in the case of PWE the ratio is 19%

which shows a clear tendency towards ‘Adj + To Infinitive’ construction in Pakistani data.

Baumgardner (1993) has pointed out that the following verbs in Pakistani English have variant

complementation pattern. In British English it is customary to attach ‘Verb + prep + ing’

complementation pattern with the verbs like ‘resort, think, and look’. The data analysis reveals

the following results.

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Table 3.5

To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage)

To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Resort 12.9 0 9.5 8.1 33.33 19.01

Think 2.5 2.87 3 4 2.3 1.8

Look 2.79 1.84 1.3 2 1.3 1.4

Table 3.6

To Infinitive Vs -ing (Frequency)

To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Resort 8 0 2 5 4 4

Think 31 59 71 49 48 43

Look 37 36 27 27 25 28

As far as the ‘–ing complements’ are concerned, the verb ‘resort’ has been used 19% in

LF and 33% in BF and only 9.1% in PWE in this complementation pattern. So it is highest in

American English and lowest in Pakistani English. On the other hand the ratio of ‘To Infinitive’

complements is highest in Pakistani English that is 12.9% and lower in British English which is

9.5%. The American data has not even a single example using ‘To Infinitive Complements’ with

‘resort’. These results verify Baumgardner’s claim that ‘resort’ has variant complementation

pattern in Pakistani English.

[To Infinitive]

a. They are scared to move during the day and are resorting to advance by night for

protection of the infantry. (PW

74

[V + -ing]

a. Whenever the clerical alliance is losing its hold on the masses and progressive and

moderate forces are gaining strength and challenging its religious authority, the MMA

resorts to creating ugly scenes. (PWE)

b. They had fought from caves, and the marines resorted to burning them out. (BF)

c. A more distant viewpoint could have sharpened up the foreground figures slightly at the

same stop, and to further reduce this useful area without resorting to trimming, the cross

shadow of, say, an onlooker would have broken it up as shown. (LF)

‘Look’ is the other verb in this category. Its over use of ‘To Infinitive’ complementation pattern

in PWE is attested although it has also been overused with gerundive complements.

[To Infinitive]

a. This trend looks to be continuing in the post cold war period. (PWE)

b. The Targo is a good outfit for fun shooting or for economic wing-shooting practice, but

it's tougher than it looks to run up a score on the clay birds. (BF)

c. It is to their successful industrial and commercial development that the corporations must

look to recoup the high costs of main sewerage and drainage, main roads and other

special development expenditure. (LF)

[V + -ing]

a. This states that management is looking for closing the unprofitable branches. (PWE)

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b. This time, military planners say they are reluctantly looking at shrinking the size of the

overall force itself. (BF)

c. LIGHTWEIGHTS AND TRAVEL by IAC Video Adviser, David Whittet IN THE last

issue, we looked at travelling with a video camera and some of the problems that arise

when you want to video holidays abroad. (LF)

The third verb in this category is ‘think’. Contrary to the claim of Baumgardner (1993)

‘think’ takes ‘-ing complements’ 4% in PWE, 2.3% in BF and only 1.4% in LF i.e. lowest in

British English and highest in Pakistani English. On the other hand think’ takes ‘V + To

Infinitive’ complements 3% of the time in Lf, 2.87% in BF and only 2.5% in PWE. This falsifies

Baumgardner’s (1993) claim as the infinitive complements are over used both in British and

American English and under-used in Pakistani English.

Table 3.7

To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage)To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

consider 11.25 6.69 6.85 4.05 7.4 3.9

Require 26.76 24.5 29 2.6 3.5 1.9

suggest 3.99 1.53 0.99 0.92 1.53 1.32

Avoid 2.28 0 0.4 19 22 17

Table 3.8

To Infinitive Vs -ing (Frequency)

To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

consider 75 41 46 27 45 26

Require 167 156 164 16 22 11

suggest 13 7 6 3 7 8

Avoid 6 0 1 51 48 42

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The next category of verbs claimed to have different complements is ‘avoid, consider,

require and suggest’. It is claimed that in Standard British English these verbs take ‘-ing

complements’ and in Pakistani English the tendency is to replace these ‘-ing complements’ with

‘To Infinitive complements’. The data shows that in the case of ‘consider, suggest and avoid’ the

infinitive complements are over-used in PWE as compared to BF and LF. But in the case of the

verb ‘require’ the reverse is true. In the British variety the ‘-ing complement’ is less used than in

the American and Pakistani English. In British data the use of infinitive complements is higher

than in Pakistani and American varieties of English.

[To Infinitive]

a. However, the vast area between Germany and Russia was generally considered to be a

waste land. (PWE)

b. Procedures were required to reduce all the separate pieces of knowledge into an

integrated body of knowledge. (PWE)

c. What else would you suggest to help us rid of monotonously offering of the prayers?

(PWE)

d. It is, therefore, to be avoided to have amount on interest and pay interest on it. (PWE)

a. They were a vagabond lot and considered to be shady and undesirable characters. (BF)

b. Henry C. Grover, who teaches history in the Houston public schools, would reduce from

24 to 12 semester hours the so-called teaching methods courses required to obtain a

junior or senior high school teaching certificate. (BF)

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c. Perhaps the engineers can find out what causes all the congestion and suggest methods to

eliminate it. (BF)

a. The speed with which water could be heated was considered to be particularly important.

(LF)

b. They are required to show why they should not be bound over for disturbing the peace

and for inciting a breach of the peace.(LF)

c. Intention, I would suggest to begin with, is a term which is applicable when a certain

roughly specifiable complex of conditions hold.(LF)

d. On a multi-engined aircraft, this recommendation avoids the need for maintainers to

move the compressor washing rig from one wash point to the other and reduces the time

to wash engines.(LF)

[V + -ing]

a. It will have to be involved in such areas as design, marketing, selling and distributing and

consider specializing in one or more of them, he said. (PWE)

b. Doing it right requires keeping a huge, modern, multi-billion rupee network of pipes,

pumps and plants in excellent condition and operating the network efficiently. (PWE)

c. Author suggests partnering media in resilience promotion and capacity building of the

disaster affected population and developing psychotherapeutic techniques to enhance the

natural resilience and strength in victims of psycho-trauma. (PWE)

78

d. Heart patients should avoid consuming energy drinks as the sudden jolt caused by

caffeine can be strong enough to trigger a heart attack. (PWE)

a. This somewhat cynical comment may be found in Blue Skies, Brown Studies, a

collection of travel essays by William Sansom, who would never consider staying home

for long. (BF)

b. After it has been seen, have the child start on a mat on hands and knees (a thin,

inexpensive mat is quite sufficient for anything that does not require falling). (BF)

c. Mr. Eisenhower seized upon the incident of the postcard lost by a Peace Corps girl in

Nigeria to attack the entire Corps as a juvenile experiment and to suggest sending a Corps

member to the moon. (BF)

d. Do avoid puncturing or cutting into meats to test them. (BF)

a. The only Brecht play he would consider directing is Mother Courage.(LF)

b. It may also be either a straightforward switch, or form part of the volume control and

require turning on by rotating the knob clockwise. (LF)

c. Some members of the Edinburgh Faculty suggested asking the good doctor to dine at a

fashionable tavern and presenting him with a purse containing 30 guineas.(LF)

President Kennedy did his best to avoid giving Pressmen a direct answer.(LF)

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Table 3.9

To Infinitive Vs That Complementation (Percentage)

To Infinitive That Complementation

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Want 69.27 65.1 61 0.16 0 0

hesitate 70.37 26 24.2 0 0 0

Fail 65.53 59.5 61.2 0 0 0

Resort 12.9 0 9.52 0 0 0

Think 2.5 2.87 2.98 5 1.85 3.16

Aim 20.09 23.3 30 0 0 0

Table 3.10

To Infinitive Vs That Complementation (Frequency)To Infinitive That Complementation

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Want 861 983 881 2 0 0

Hesitate 19 13 16 0 0 0

Fail 287 178 180 0 0 0

Resort 8 0 2 0 0 0

Think 31 59 71 62 38 75

Aim 43 24 36 0 0 0

The other category of verbs claimed to have different complements is ‘want, hesitate, fail,

resort, think and aim’. According to Baumgarnder (1993) these verbs collocate with ‘To

Infinitive Complements’ in British English but Pakistani English replace the ‘To Infinitive’ with

‘that Clause Complements’. Only the verb ‘think’ has been used in ‘that clause complements’

and the percentage of Pakistani English usage is relatively higher than British and American

varieties and the frequency of ‘To Infinitive Complements’ is higher in LF and BF than PWE.

As for ‘want, hesitate, fail, and resort’ no usage of ‘that Clause Complements’ can be attested

in any of the corpora except 2 instances of ‘want’ in PWE. In all of the four verbs Pakistani

80

English shows higher frequency of ‘To Infinitive’ complements as compared to British and

American corpora.

a. An academic needs not be a scientist, of course, but if we want to understand the

phenomenon why the pursuit of knowledge is less important than other pursuits then we

must understand people's desire to join academia. (PWE)

b. Pakistan has never hesitated to flout such a pivotal element. (PWE)

c. In Pakistan, as in the case of most less developed countries, industrial development was

slow and a strong entrepreneurial class that could have fuelled the development of S and

T; failed to emerge. (PWE)

d. They are scared to move during the day and are resorting to advance by night for

protection of the infantry. (PWE)

a. Letters by the reams came in from investment firms all over the nation, all of them

wanting to get a part of the shares that would be sold (185,000 to the public at $12.50,

with another 5,000 reserved for Morton Foods employers at $11.50 a share).

b. Some new members will hesitate to ask questions audibly. (BF)

c. They indicated that stand-ins and picketing would be started if theater owners failed to

cooperate. (BF)

a. Said Mr. Nkumbula last night: We want to discuss what to do if the British Government

gives in to Sir Roy and the talks fall through. (LF)

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b. Outside this category there are many plays of a mild degree of unsuitability; and to these

I personally should not hesitate to take any member of my family. (LF)

c. This puzzled such students of comparative religion as had failed to detect this cult. (LF)

Table 3.11

To Infinitive Vs -ing (Percentage)

To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Beseech 0 0 50 0 0 0

Forbid 12.13 39.5 47 0 0 2.13

Table 3.12

To Infinitive Vs –ing (Frequency)To Infinitive Gerundive

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Beseech 0 0 2 0 0 0

Forbid 8 17 22 0 0 1

The last verb in this category given by Baumgardner (1993) is ‘aim’. Although no

instance of ‘aim’ with ‘that clause complements’ could not be attested in any of the varieties. But

during the study it came out that ‘aim’ accompanies ‘to infinitive’ compliments 30% in British

English, in American English 23.3% and in Pakistani English just 20% but it is the ‘verb + prep

+ -ing’ pattern is highest in all the corpora and it is the main complementation pattern used by

the verb ‘aim’ in Pakistani English. It has been used 42% in Pakistani English, 17% in American

English and 19% in British English. This deviation has not been observed in any of the earlier

researches.

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[To Infinitive]

a. WRAP aims to achieve social compliance objective without damaging the business

competitiveness of participants. (PWE)

b. Like Green, Trevelyan aimed to write a history not of English kings or English conquests,

but of the English people. (BF)

c. Under this plan Washington aims to meet an initial enemy conventional onslaught with

conventional weapons. (LF)

[V + -ing]

a. In their perception, the Muslim approach should aim at retaining Islamic dynamism and

not at reprising the past. (PWE)

b. Public-spirited backers staked him to a brand-new airplane, aimed at putting their city

and state on the flying map. (BF)

c. Plans are afoot, I gather, for a training programme during the summer aimed at producing

an England team to play Holland in the autumn, a team which will do justice to a match

marking the 75th anniversary of the Hockey Association. (LF)

The results of this corpus based study are at times different from the earlier reported results.

There may be many reasons for these differences. One possible reason is that all the previous

studies of the variety are chiefly intuition based and intuition is not always reliable. Y. Kachru

(2008) says that “linguists tend to be indifferent to corpora, however, as the predominant

paradigm in linguistics is based on introspective data, i.e. native speaker intuition. Research has

shown that intuitions are not hundred percent reliable”. (Y. Kachru 2008)

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One other reason might be the major studies of the variety i.e. Rahman (1990b), Talaat

(1993), Baumgardner (1993) were conducted at least 10 years ago and during these ten years the

language might have been changed.

All these results show that the features mentioned are not specific to Pakistani English,

in the sense that they are not used by the native speakers. It is only the issue of the over or under

use of the frequency of occurrence in a variety. Some of the claims have not been verified. This

confirms the need of corpus based research for variation studies. In the absence of the corpus, the

results based on intuition or chance occurrence may not show the real picture. This pilot study

justifies the need for the present research. No corpus based empirical study of Pakistani English

has been conducted uptil now and all the previous researchers have relied on their intuition,

observation or personal knowledge. In such a situation an empirical and objective corpus based

study of Pakistani English is the need of the hour and the present research attempts to qualify for

it. The study is going to be mainly quantitative as there has been no quantitative study of the

variety so far.

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CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This is basically an applied and quantitative research. It attempts to confirm the

previously discussed features of Pakistani English and also explores some new areas. It is mainly

a corpus based research.

As the features of the variety are not neatly defined and the previous researchers like

Baumgardner (1993, 1996, 1998) and Mahboob (2004) have relied on the chance examples or on

their intuitions. In this background nothing could be said about the frequency of occurrence of

each. Pakistani English is not an established variety yet and the debate whether the deviations in

Pakistani English are varietal features or mere errors is still continued. The researcher believes

that a corpus based quantitative study of the language produced by Pakistanis is needed and it

would help determine the exact level of variation. One of the features of corpus based research is

the quantification of research data. The quantitative results can be used to make the qualitative

judgements.

The aim of the research is to provide a picture of the features of Pakistani variety of

English, which might help in determining the status of the variety. The quantitative results have

been relied upon in determining the variety specific features. Generally speaking there are

differences on all levels studied but the areas where the results are statistically significant are

considered the features of Pakistani English.

85

There is a blend of confirmation and exploration in this research. Some of the areas like

verb complementation have been studied to seek confirmation of the features proposed by the

previous researchers.

It is also exploratory. Areas like Subjunctive and Verb particle studies have been

explored where no previous research has ventured.

It is an applied research in a sense that it has no theory to formulate rather it is the

application of the theories of World Englishes to find out the features of Pakistani English.

It is a corpus based research as there were some predefined areas which were to be

verified/ studied with the help of the corpus. The areas have either been discussed by the

researchers working in the area of Pakistani English or World Englishes. Some of the variables

like verb particle were selected to study the new Englishes (Schneider 2004).

The basic idea of the research was to study the features of Pakistani English objectively

and in the quantifiable terms. In this connection, a corpus was required. As there was no readily

available corpus of Pakistani English, so it was decided that a corpus of Pakistani English would

be compiled. There were different types and sizes of corpora available in the field. While

deciding the size of Pakistani English corpus, one factor, which was considered, was its

comparability with some corpus of the native English users. It was decided that Brown, Frown,

and LOB, FLOB corpora would be compared with Pakistani English corpus. The collective sizes

of Brown, Frown corpora, and LOB and FLOB corpora are 2 million each. So the corpus length

was decided to be 2 million.

For explorations of the corpus different approaches were tried. In the first phase the data

was compiled and POS tagged with CLAWS 7 tagger. It was processed through Wordsmith 4.

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The first 300 most frequent items from PWE were selected for study. Similarly 300 most

frequent items from British corpora LOB and FLOB, heneceforth LF, and American corpora

Brown and Frown, henceforth BF, were extracted through Wordsmith 4. The comparison of the

lexical profile of the three corpora was made. In the second phase, the proportion of American

and British spellings in Pakistani English has been studied. These spelling differences have been

categorised into 29 families. The words using any of these spellings have been identified with the

purpose to carve out a sketch of Pakistani English spelling norms and to find out the British and

American influences of Pakistani English.

In the third phase the instances of the subjunctive mood have been located from the

British, American and Pakistani corpora. Three forms of subjunctive have been studied i.e. the

present form without s/es with third person singular subjects, the subjunctive ‘be’ and the past

form ‘were’ with singular pronouns. All the forms of ‘be’ and ‘were’ have been studied. In the

case of present without s/es form with third person singular subjects only the sentences having

3rd person singular pronoun have been studied. The purpose is to find the use of subjunctive

mood among different corpora.

In the next phase the use of verb particles in Pakistani English have been studied. For this

purpose, first one hundred most frequent main verbs of PWE have been selected. The same 100

verbs from the British (LF) and the American (BF) corpora have been selected. All the corpora

have been tagged with CLAWS 7 tagger which tags ‘RP’ to all the prepositions which function

as verb particles. All the instances of the verb particles coming with these 100 verbs have been

studied to discuss the use of verb particle in Pakistani English.

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In the final phase the verb complementation patterns of Pakistani English have been

compared with that of the British (LF) and American (BF) English. The complementation

patterns of the first 100 most frequent verbs alongwith some low frequency verbs have been

studied. Mainly there are 4 complementation categories selected for analysis. These are:

1. Verb + To-infinitive

2. Verb + Bare-infinitive

3. Verb + Gerundive

4. Verb + That Clause

These 4 categories are further divided into 9 patterns which are

1. V + To Infinitive

2. V + Bare Infinitive

3. V + -ing

4. V+ Preposition+ -ing

5. V+ Preposition+ To Infinitive

6. V+ NP+ -ing

7. V + NP + To Infinitive

8. V+ (NP)+ That + V

9. V+ NP + Bare Infinitive

All the selected verbs, having any of these 9 complementation pattern have been studied

and calculated. The results have been compiled to find which complementation pattern has been

employed by a verb and what the ratio of complementation pattern with a verb is across varieties.

Once this detailed discussion is given, four case studies of some of the verbs have been

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conducted. The verbs which collocate with the matrix verbs have been studied for the indepth

analysis of these verbs.

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CHAPTER 5

CORPUS COMPILATION

In the last quarter of the 20th century corpus linguistics have established as a fairly

developed field of study. Explicitness is the hallmark of all scientific disciplines. It is a tool for

studying the real language in use. The better and well organised the corpus is, the better and

more representative the results would be.

The aim of the present research is to identify the features of General Educated Pakistani

Written English. For this research corpus has been used as a method. Urdu being the national

language is a mother tongue to only 10% of the total population and about 3% of the population

uses English in (every day speech) (Hashmi 1996). But that is the most powerful elite of the

country. Alongwith that English is the official language of the country. It is a language which is

being learnt at school and is a compulsory subject from grade one to graduation. Even after

graduation the learners do not feel comfortable in speaking the language but they are supposed to

use the written version of the language in the professional life. So, it is only the educated class of

the country that can use English and even then all university graduates do not feel confident in

using English. The countries where English is learnt only as a second or third language, it is

difficult to determine where an interlanguage ends and educated English starts. In such a

situation many university graduates are probably using learner language and not necessarily

educated English. Unfortunately the number of years of education through English does not

necessarily guarantee educated English, since this largely depends on the nature and quality of

the education system in place. As it is hard to determine the level of learners’ language, student

90

writing has been excluded from the corpus and only those writers whose writings have been

published or who are working somewhere have been selected. The students’ writings are to be

studied separately to determine the features of Pakistani Learner English. A corpus of learner

English is also being compiled (ICLE Pakistan) to be included in ICE project. Till then, it was

considered appropriate to exclude the learner’s writings from the present corpus.

The general concept prevailing inside Pakistan and among the teachers as well is that

Pakistanis use British model of English. The education system of the country gives exposure to

Standard English and any deviation from the British norms equates to an error. Same is the case

with the publishing houses. The editors also follow the British norms and in such an environment

if the media is providing them access to the American variety having been exposed to these two

native varieties the languages produced by Pakistanis is to show different traits. The preliminary

researches conducted so far show that there are systematic differences. (Baumgardner, 1987,

1993, Talaat, 1988, 1993, 2003)

There are generally two approaches in gathering the data for corpora (McCarthy 1998)

the demographic approach where population of language users is targeted and its output is

recorded over a given period of time and the genre approach, which tries to target not only a

population of languages users but also particular environments and contexts in which language is

produced. This genre approach does not simply rely on a pre-ordained notion of what a text is,

but also tries to seek a balance between the language uses, environment, context and recurrent

features.

In this corpus the genre approach is generally followed. Data has been collected from

different genres and registers.

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As Oostdijk (2001) points out:

The sample size differs from component to component; while it is impossible to know

what the optimum sample size is, intensive judgements are brought into play when it

comes to deciding what constitutes an appropriate sample. Here the natural length of a

text also plays a role. (p.107)

The size of the different categories is chiefly determined on the basis of two factors; i.e.

the readership and the availability of the text. The number of readers, a text is supposed to have,

is considered an important criterion to understand the effect of language variation. The

newspapers have maximum readership, so a major portion of the corpus is selected from the

newspaper sources.

All the texts have been extracted verbatim from the original, no sentences were added or

modified.

The corpus has been compiled by using three different ways /sources:

(1) The data has been keyed and manually entered because there was no soft copy available

or the scanned image could not be properly recognized by the OCR software.

(2) In majority of the cases the data was available in hard form and was scanned and then

was converted into text using OCR. At the beginning, Abbay Fine Reader 4 and 5 was

used to convert the image into text. The quality of the converted data was not very good

and it required a lot of manual editing.

(3) In this case web was used as a resource of data in soft form.

92

For any research to be particularly of more value should be based on representative data.

According to Leech (1991) “A corpus is representative when the findings based on its contents

can be generalized to a larger hypothetical corpus” (p.27). To make the language, samples

selected more and more representative of the English language used by Pakistanis the data is

collected from all the four provinces of the country. The English newspapers were selected from

all the fours provinces. The textbooks from grade one to grade ten are prescribed, written and

designed by the provincial textbook boards. The text books prescribed by Punjab, Sindh,

Balochistan and NWFP textbooks boards have been selected. The reason for their selection is

that these are the main source of English language input given to the Pakistani students.

English in Pakistan is being used chiefly in administrative, legal and educational domains

so the majority of the text categories are either from educational domain or administrative

domains – civil, judicial or military. Attempt has been made to include data from all those

domains where English is being used. At times the opportunistic approach of data collected has

been adopted. There are certain categories like Fatawa from the religious domain where English

language is rarely used so only limited number of texts have been selected or are available.

The corpus contains texts from the year 2000 to 2006 generally with few exceptions. The

reason for selecting this period is that the researcher believes that 50 years after independence

would be enough for the local linguistic norms to develop. Pakistan got independence in the year

1947 and in 50 years English is chiefly used in the local settings by the locals.

In the domain of law, the constitution which was promulgated in 1973 and was amended

from times to time was also included.

93

In general terms, the approach adopted in the Brown family corpora and also in ICE

corpora has been adopted. The size of the sampled text is 2000 words. The first 2000 words have

been selected. If the total size of the text is less than 2500 words the whole text has been

included, otherwise it is truncated at the appropriate place after 2000 words.

As the majority of the language samples are selected from the published material so they

have undergone the editorial revision and there is hardly any margin of mistakes or common

errors. Any feature which is different from the British or American English is not to be

considered an error rather it would be a feature which has undergone acculturation and now has

been established as a feature of Pakistani English.

The figures or the pictures and tables have been removed. The data has been saved in the

plain text format to make it compatible with maximum number of different software

requirements.

Attempt has been made to remain as close to the Brown Family Corpora in sampling

design as possible. The data is collected from Pakistani writers. Anyone who is Pakistani by birth

and is also still living in Pakistan would be considered a Pakistani. Once the corpus was

compiled, the second stage of POS tagging started. The corpus was tagged by different taggers.

First of all it was tagged by NLP Tagger 1.0 version. As it was a DOS based tagger, a software

was specially designed to conduct researches from the output data. The results were studies but

the accuracy and precision was not very good so the decision to tag the data with so other tagger

was made. The Helsinki based Connexor tagger was used but the results were once again not

according to the desired standards. It was found that these taggers produce good results with the

native varieties of English but in case of Pakistani English the results lacked precision. During

94

my study at Birmingham University, the data was compared with Bank of English corpus which

was tagged through tree Tagger, the PWE corpus was also tagged with TreeTagger, with the

courtesy of Dr. Pernilla Danialson (my supervisor). On my return to Pakistan the BOE was, not

available so again there were problems. So finally it was decided that all the Brown Family

Corpora and PWE should be tagged through one tagger. CLAWS tagger was selected and all the

5 corpora were tagged from it (with courtesy of Dr. Paul Rayson).

For the purpose of research the lexical analysis software Wordsmith 4 has been used to

study lexical profile and collocation analysis. Some of the properties and the details of the corpus

are as under:

The name: Pakistani Written English (PWE) Corpus

The size of Corpus: 2,119,626 words

Date of text: 2000-2006

No of Files: 1477

Format: Plain Text (ASCII)

Text Categories: 29

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Table 5.1

Text Categories in PWE Corpus

S # CategoryAbbreviation File Size Sentences

Words(Running Wordsin Text)

Types(DistinctWords)

TypeTokenRatio

Standardized TypeToken Ratio

1AppraisalLiterature ALT 30361 201 4762 1676 35 46.54

2 Article ART347034

4 27601 574238 28206 4 44.12

3 Books BKS212716

8 24124 362813 18731 5 40.90

4 Bulletin BLT 16647 124 2790 707 26 36.90

5 Broachers BRU 44136 293 7157 1601 22 36.11

6 Columns CLM197545

0 15510 327410 19882 6 45.19

7 Constitution CST 118352 447 19616 2283 11 31.07

8 Directives DIR 28882 184 4583 1376 30 42.77

9 Editorials EDT 203285 1515 33899 6129 18 46.49

10 Fatawa FTW 104696 977 18416 2735 14 36.54

11 Interview INT 259881 2891 44221 5409 12 42.96

12LegalDecisions LDS 485660 2786 82199 5960 7 35.37

13 Letters LTR 401509 3238 66879 8684 13 47.25

14Monographs MGP 68815 454 10841 2710 25 43.13

15 Manifesto MNF 41539 294 6551 1887 28 45.79

16 Manual MNU 20448 174 3427 876 26 35.5

17NewsLetter NLT 192113 1379 31827 5087 16 43.61

18 Novel NVL 37194 487 6643 1951 29 46.81

19 News NWS 563889 3545 91659 9557 10 43.58

20OfficialLetter OLT 124961 1161 22136 3210 15 40.73

21 Policy PLC 39701 275 6469 1648 26 40.91

22PressReleases PRS 81670 433 13207 2775 21 43.29

23ResearchPaper RPR 492558 3458 79480 8907 11 41.63

24 Reports RPT 178377 1397 28444 4689 16 40.62

96

25 Survey SRY 60832 358 9707 2047 21 38.25

26 Stories STR 554902 7032 98966 11414 11 45.41

27 Thesis THS 496225 3708 80983 8949 11 41.78

28 Translation TRN 207907 2761 37720 5127 13 42.15

29WorldWide Web WWW 270681 1914 42583 6322 15 43.86

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CHAPTER 6

DATA ANALYSIS

6.1 LEXICAL PROFILE

The total size of the corpus is 2,119,626 words. There are 49612 number of types. The

detailed analysis revealed that there are 63 vocabulary items/or types which have appearance in

all the 29 text categories and they form 38% of the total corpus which form the common core.

The peripheral items which appear only in any one text category are 23544. The frequency of

these peripheral items in PWE is 36749. These 23544 types form just 1.73% of the total corpus.

The first 300 most frequent lexical items from PWE, BF and LF have been taken and

compared. The analysis reveals that out of these 300 items, 208 items are similar which form the

common core and 92 items are unique in PWE. Out of these 92 items 81 are not present in BF

and 86 are not present in LF. These are the peripheral items. This shows that the most frequent

items are 70% similar and only 30% are different.

All the three corpora are POS tagged by CLAWS7 Tagger so a comparison of POS

categories has been made.

Table 6.1Overall Comparison of POS Types in Three Corpora

POS PWE BF LF

Nouns 30157 40015 38867

Verbs 5629 7029 5992

Adverbs 1768 2624 2341

Adjectives 8939 12318 10954

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Table 6.1 shows that there are least number of Noun, Verb, Adjective and Adverb types

in PWE and most number of types are in BF.

Table 6.2Overall Comparison of POS Frequency in Three Corpora

POS PWE BF LF

Nouns 580465 530080 512283

Verbs 347671 348189 361650

Adverbs 91573 115141 126035

Adjectives 165712 161108 156388

The frequency of nouns and adjectives is higher in PWE than BF and LF.As compared to

the British and American corpora the Pakistani data shows that there is a general tendency to use

more nominal phrases instead of verb phrases. It may be due to the oral tradition in Pakistani

culture (Talaat 2002) that Pakistanis use more noun phrases than Verb phrases, whereas both

British and American varieties use more verbs and make comparatively less use of nominal

constructions.

Table 6.3Average Tokens Per Type

POS PWE BF LF

Nouns 19.2481 13.24703 13.18041

Verbs 61.76426 49.53606 60.35547

Adverbs 51.79468 43.87995 53.8381

Adjectives 18.53809 13.07907 14.27679

The average number of tokens per type, shown in Table 6.3, is highest in PWE. This

means that the limited number of lexical items are repeatedly being used by Pakistani writers.

99

One reason might be that there are limited contexts and situations in outer circle varieties so

there are limited number of lexical items being used in Pakistani English than the inner circle

varieties i.e, British and American Englishes. In Pakistan, though English is widely used but its

use is still restricted and this is evident from Table 6.3.

Table 6.4

Higher Rank In PWE Than BF and LF300 Most Frequent Lexical Items Having

Word PWE BF LF Cat Word PWE BF LF Cat

Political 91 276 313 A Society 183 413 416 N

Economic 116 327 521 A Khan 185 23487 17480 N

National 119 240 262 A History 196 345 393 N

Social 125 225 278 A Level 199 357 412 N

General 135 191 235 A Students 201 430 623 N

Different 140 270 226 A Allah 208 21916 20909 N

International 167 599 755 A Process 213 469 517 N

Islamic 170 14146 6784 A Minister 217 1726 467 N

Important 176 232 248 A Population 226 684 735 N

Foreign 195 527 669 A Land 237 492 458 N

Pakistani 209 36087 52620 A Rs 240 13409 6268 N

Million 227 423 471 A Role 242 552 793 N

Indian 231 1489 1820 A Nation 246 766 1920 N

Major 253 308 311 A Situation 247 598 638 N

South 255 392 488 A Bank 249 1052 945 N

Various 266 536 600 A Constitution 254 2371 4212 N

Religious 273 685 867 A Person 256 467 518 N

Under 87 144 139 F Study 257 396 486 N

Therefore 198 586 402 F Means 258 318 312 N

Towards 212 2723 305 F Security 261 1016 1059 N

Thus 228 338 345 F View 264 489 328 N

Non 241 809 514 F Prophet 265 11169 7481 N

Above 263 384 333 F Information 271 354 498 N

Pakistan 31 11116 8060 N Needs 275 682 716 N

People 48 99 99 N Problems 276 399 439 N

Government 59 207 173 N Sector 279 2450 2247 N

Country 82 288 256 N Knowledge 285 690 483 N

India 98 2290 1305 N Rights 286 892 1066 N

Development 105 319 389 N Afghanistan 292 12037 13991 N

Water 108 221 245 N Future 293 457 462 N

100

Muslim 113 12467 3752 N Peace 294 743 897 N

Education 120 422 348 N Period 300 416 401 N

Countries 121 547 595 N Us 67 126 126 P

System 129 195 277 N Am 252 386 318 P

Power 131 252 250 N Shall 165 483 354 V

Order 141 293 258 N According 190 542 730 V

Muslims 143 11087 3948 N Due 203 916 581 V

Court 148 433 525 N Become 211 286 276 V

Islam 150 15281 8699 N Help 215 282 283 V

Law 152 283 466 N Cannot 233 443 339 V

Human 162 307 427 N Based 234 497 540 V

Policy 171 395 513 N Including 267 461 510 V

Areas 172 460 687 N Support 270 432 515 V

Research 178 407 559 N Held 287 408 340 V

Military 179 448 862 N

Area 181 322 326 N

Note:- N= Noun, V=Verb, F=Function Word, P=Pronoun

Table 6.4shows that there are 91 items in the list of 300 most frequent items from three

corpora which have higher rank in PWE. Out of these 91 items 55 are nouns and 17 are

adjectives and only 11 are verbs. So this again strengthens the observation that nouns are over-

used in Pakistani English as compared to British and American varieties.

Table 6.5

300 Most Frequent Lexical Items with Lower Rank Than BF and LF in PWE

Word PWE BF LF Cat

Old 222 129 124 A

Second 284 209 225 A

Just 158 91 100 F

Long 180 112 122 F

Back 182 96 95 F

Down 186 105 105 F

Still 197 125 110 F

Here 200 127 132 F

Too 204 109 108 F

Never 205 134 133 F

Away 260 196 170 F

101

Once 290 190 199 F

Mr 218 135 80 N

House 243 156 161 N

Hand 262 203 184 N

Men 278 142 165 N

Home 295 169 155 N

See 189 110 114 V

Know 194 122 119 V

Came 225 162 156 V

Say 229 167 142 V

Thought 269 168 148 V

Going 281 182 166 V

Asked 291 218 227 V

Think 296 175 151 V

Table 6.5 shows the 26 lexical items which have lower rank in PWE as compared to

British and American varieties. Contrary to the figure in table 6.4, there are only nouns in PWE

which have lower rank as compared to BF and LF. There are 8 verbs which have higher rank

order in British and American varieties than PWE. Some of the nouns are culture specific e.g. the

nouns related to religion and Muslim culture. The other fact is that English in Pakistan is chiefly

used in the official domains and international business so there are a lot of nouns like

‘government’, ‘system’, ‘military’, ‘power’, ‘court’, ‘process’ etc.

The in-depth analysis of the first 300 most frequent items of PWE reveals that there are

19 items which are common in all 29 text categories and there are 176 items, having minimum

20 frequency, which are unique and have occurred in only one text category.

Table 6.6

102

103

Table 6.6 continued

Table 6.6 illustrates that all of these 19 items which form the common core are Function

Words and not even a single content item is there. The large majority of the unique items are

nouns.

104

Table 6.7Rare Words in PWE Categories (Frequency Less Than 20)

Category No of Items

ALT 2

BLT 2

BRU 4

CLM 2

CST 20

EDT 2

FTW 16

INT 4

LDS 12

MGP 4

MNF 1

MNU 2

NLT 13

NVL 1

NWS 4

OLT 20

PLC 3

PRS 10

RPR 7

RPT 14

SRY 11

STR 2

THS 4

TRN 9

WWW 7

105

Table 6.7 depicts that these 176 items have appeared in 23 categories. Out of these,

Constitution 19616 and Official Letters having 22136 words in total have the maximum number

of unique items. The official letters have a high frequency of vocabulary items like ‘requested’,

‘tax’ ‘letter’, ‘reference’, ‘mentioned’, ‘subject’, ‘following’, ‘inform’, ‘kindly’, ‘amount’,

‘attached’, ‘documents’, ‘herewith’, ‘request’, ‘supply’, ‘branch’, ‘hereby’, ‘best’, ‘enclosed’

which are specific to the domain of business/official letters.

There are 16 unique items from the category of ‘FATAWA’ (the religious

decrees/decision). The words like ‘Allah’, ‘Shariah’, ‘Mosque’, ‘Prayers’, ‘Prophet’, and

‘Divorce’ are specific to the domain of religion. Similarly the words like allowed, prohibited,

lawful and right are also over-used in this category as the text contains the decisions about

religious issues and problems.

One fact which has been observed is that the categories like Articles and Books which

have the maximum number of words and have the largest readership have not even a single

unique item. The reason might be the texts from these two categories are generally written for a

wider range of audience so there is a conscious effort on the part of the writers and editors to use

every day common vocabulary and avoid neologism and unique items. Similarly the categories

of Columns, Story and Editorial have only two unique items each. It can safely be concluded that

the text types which have larger readership have more use of common vocabulary items and the

text types which have limited readership and are register specific have maximum number of

unique items.

106

Table 6.8Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Adjectives

Word PWE BF LF

Other 1 1 1

Political 2 22 20

New 3 2 2

Muslim 4 2076 643

Economic 5 27 51

National 6 13 16

Social 7 9 18

Different 8 15 10

Good 9 3 3

High 10 8 12

International 11 60 88

Islamic 12 2401 1052

Great 13 6 5

Human 14 26 42

Important 15 10 15

Military 16 43 103

Foreign 17 54 75

Pakistani 18 5807 9917

General 19 24 22

Public 20 16 29

If we have a look at Table 6.8 we find the ranks of 20 most frequent adjectives from

PWE which have been compared with the ranks of these items in BF and LF. Out of these 20

adjectives 13 have higher ranks in PWE than BF and LF. The three adjectives ‘Muslim’,

‘Islamic’ and ‘Pakistani’ have high ranks in PWE and very low rank in BF and LF. These three

adjectives are specific to Pakistani variety as they are related to Islam and Pakistan so they are

obviously variety specific. The other set of adjectives like ‘political’, ‘economic’, ‘military’ and

‘international’ are higher in rank in PWE. These adjectives mainly appear in the text from

107

government domain or newspaper and books. The third group of adjectives is ‘good’ and ‘great’

which has higher rank in LF and BF but comparatively lower rank in PWE. Similarly high and

important are the two adjectives which have higher rank in BF but in the British and Pakistani

varieties the ranks are comparatively lower.

Table 6.9Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Adverbs

Word PWE BF LF

Also 1 8 8

Only 2 6 6

So 3 2 1

Up 4 1 2

Out 5 4 5

Very 6 21 9

Then 7 5 4

Now 8 7 7

More 9 3 3

Even 10 9 12

How 11 11 11

However 12 26 26

Most 13 16 23

Just 14 10 10

In 15 19 18

As 16 12 15

Well 17 22 17

Why 18 31 32

Therefore 19 78 66

Here 20 15 22

Table 6.9 contains the list of 20 most frequent adverbs of PWE according to their rank in

the three corpora. Most of these 20 adverbs have higher rank in PWE than in the British and

American corpora. ‘Also’, ‘only’, ‘very’, ‘however’, ‘most’, ‘why’ and ‘therefore’ are the

108

adverbs which have higher rank position in PWE than BF and LF. ‘So’, ‘then’, ‘now’, ‘more’,

‘just’, ‘as’ and ‘up’ are the 7 adverbs which have comparatively lower rank in PWE.

Table 6.10Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Nouns

Word PWE BF LF

Pakistan 1 5884 5094

People 2 4 3

Government 3 22 11

World 4 6 8

Time 5 1 1

Country 6 48 30

India 7 939 458

Years 8 3 2

Development 9 68 88

Life 10 7 7

Water 11 24 39

Countries 12 168 182

Education 13 112 71

Day 14 10 10

State 15 8 75

System 16 17 47

Way 17 5 5

Women 18 14 45

Man 19 2 4

Power 20 35 37

In Table 6.10 the 20 most frequent nouns of PWE according to rank positions in the three

corpora have been given. 11 of these 20 nouns have markedly higher ranks in PWE. ‘Time’,

‘years’, ‘life’ and ‘day’ are related to the concept of time and these nouns are at higher rank

positions in BF and LF than in PWE. The words like the country names Pakistan and India or

country and countries are at higher rank in PWE. ‘Power’, ‘system’, ‘development’ and

109

‘government’ belong to the domain of government or related to it and are at higher rank in PWE.

The noun ‘woman’ has higher has higher rank in BF but is quite lower in PWE and LF.

Table 6.11Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Pronouns

Word PWE BF LF

It 1 2 1

He 2 1 2

I 3 3 3

They 4 5 6

We 5 7 7

You 6 4 5

Who 7 8 8

She 8 6 4

Them 9 10 10

Him 10 9 9

One 11 12 13

Me 12 11 11

Us 13 14 14

Her 14 13 12

Itself 15 18 18

Himself 16 15 16

Something 17 16 15

Themselves 18 20 19

Nothing 19 17 17

Other 20 29 28

Table 6.11 shows the rank positions of the pronouns in the three corpora. All the three

corpora have pronoun ‘I’ at rank 3 but pronoun ‘you’ is lower down in order in PWE and higher

in BF and LF. Both the 1st and 3rd person plural pronouns are at higher ranks in PWE, this

indicates that there is comparatively lower degree of dialogues in PWE as the pronoun ‘you’ is

110

relatively less used in PWE. ‘They’ and ‘we’ are generally the reporting pronouns signalling that

PWE has relatively lower degree of dialogue in it as compared to BF and LF. The pronouns ‘she’

and ‘her’ are at lower rank in PWE but at higher ranks in BF and LF indicating that the

orientation is more towards male dominant texts in PWE and woman and female are

comparatively less referred to in PWE.

Table 6.12

Rank Comparison of 20 Most Frequent Verbs

Word PWE BF LF

Be 1 1 1

Have 2 2 2

Do 3 3 3

Will 4 6 5

Can 5 8 9

Say 6 4 4

Make 7 7 7

Would 8 5 6

Take 9 13 10

Should 10 24 18

Give 11 17 15

Go 12 10 8

Come 13 15 14

Could 14 11 11

Get 15 12 16

May 16 19 19

Use 17 18 24

Know 18 14 12

Become 19 28 27

Provide 20 42 47

The 20 most frequent verbs can be placed in 3 categories. The auxiliary verbs category

consists of three primary auxiliaries: ‘Be’, ‘do’ and ‘have’. All three have similar rank among the

verbs in all the corpora compared.

111

The other category is that of modal auxiliary. There is a small difference in the rank of

the modals in all the three varieties. The modals ‘will’, ‘can’, ‘should’, and ‘may’ have

comparatively higher ranks in PWE than LF and BF. The difference in rank is significant in the

case of ‘should’. It is comparatively overused in PWE.

The third category of verbs is that of main verbs. There are 11 main verbs. The verbs

‘say’, ‘go’, and ‘know’ have comparatively lower ranks in PWE and the verbs ‘take’, ‘give’,

‘come’, ‘use’, ‘become’, and ‘provide’ have comparatively higher ranks in PWE. The verbs

‘become’ and ‘provide’ have markedly lower ranks in LF and BF. Although the verbs compared

are present in the first 300 lexical items, in all the three corpora. There are only few verbs which

show slight variation in their rank order.

The overall results show that the three varieties differ from each other markedly even at

the level of lexis.

112

6.2 SPELLING DIFFERENCES

English orthography is highly standardised. Standardisation of the written language is

easiest to demonstrate with reference to orthography. Milroy and Milroy (199, p.67) are of the

view that spelling is the most uniform level of language use; and contrasts in this respect with

variability of its counterpart in speech – pronunciation ... Twentieth century English spelling is

almost absolutely invariant.

Spelling is that bit of linguistic practice where issues of authority, of control, of

conformity can be most sharply focussed. Spelling is the domain for excellence – no matter how

tiny it may seem – where the politics of conformity can be selected home. (Kress, 2000, p. X)

According to Kress (2000, p. 1) orthography is knowing how to write words correctly.

‘Writing correctly’ is exactly what is implied by the term used for spelling in many languages

like German and Greek.

Spellings can be defined as writing of words of a language according the norms or conventions

of that language. (Sebba, 2007, p. 34)

Spelling is an issue among the linguistic community and also outside the world of

linguistics. It is a general concern of English language learners’ community in the ‘outer’ or

‘expanding circles’. There is a general concern that ‘spelling standards’ should be upheld and not

allowed to skip.

According to McArthur (1992a), “The most abrasive differences between present day

American and British documents are their spellings”(p.970).

113

Millward (1989) contends that proper spelling has become so culturally important that,

‘Thou shalt not spell incorrectly’ has almost attained the status of an “Eleventh Commandment”.

People respond strongly to what they perceive to be incorrect spelling (p.270).

There is some acceptable variation in spellings within both American and British national

systems, as reflected in their respective authoritative dictionaries. The widespread exchange of

written materials among English speakers around the world, especially electronically, introduces

different spellings and over time can become more acceptable in other locations.

It is also important to realise that in terms of standard usage, the spelling differences are

minor but noticeable, (Crystal 1995) but sometimes annoying and alienating.

English is a living language and like all living organisms it keeps on changing. It has

almost attained the status of the world language. It is being used by people all over the world.

About 2 billion people around the world speak English. Although they use the same language i.e.

English, but if we closely analyse, there are many differences between the different varieties of

English used in different societies. The differences are phonological, orthographic, syntactic as

well as semantic and pragmatic.

Pakistani English is generally believed to bean exonormative variety which follows the

British norms and standards. The present research shows that it has its, developed

endonormatively, stabilised rules which are different from the British English.

Sebba (2007, p. 34) describes that one important feature of language is to communicate

meanings which are culture, society, grouping or community specific. These meanings could not

be conveyed by following the norms and codification standards of other cultures. This is also

true about spellings. If complete standardisation of spellings takes place, there would be

114

invariant spelling, unable to convey social meaning, and on the other hand, if non-standard and

freely varying spellings are being used that cannot convey the social meanings.

This concept of zones of social meanings is represented in the diagram.

Fig 6.1 Zones of Social Meanings Source: (Sebba, 2007, p.34)

It is largely context dependent that the writer makes one selection. In present day English

there are two main varieties of English regarding spelling differences, i.e. American English and

British English.

The differences in these two spelling systems are purposeful and families of words that

illustrate spelling practices draw attention to differences between the American and British

Spelling Systems.

Americans tried and are still trying to simplify English and “Spellings, according to

Kövecses (2000, p.166), is where this phenomenon can be observed the most”.

115

The renowned linguistic scholar Noah Webster and the other Americans consciously tried

to change the spellings. The chief motives behind these changes can be classified under three

categories i.e.

i. To make English phonographic language which has sound and spellings harmony

ii. Related to the first objective is the principle of simplification and ease

iii. The third reason and that is also significant one is the conscious effort by these American

linguist was the conscious effort by the Americans to differ and be distinct from the

Britishers.

Spellings can be categorised from highly regulated and focussed on standard to the least

regulated and focussed on anti standard depending upon the regime, text types, institutional order

and readership.

Table 6.13

Orthographic Regimes for Different Types of Text

Regime Writing Types(Examples)

Institutional Oder Readership Orthography

Most HighlyRegulated

Text s forpublication

Publishing,journalism etc.

General public Focussed onStandards

Texts forcirculation(memos,business letters,work e-mail etc.)

Business,employment

Colleagues/competitors

‘school’ writing School Teachers Usually focussednot always onstandard

Poetry, ‘literary’writing

Publishing Identified readership

Personal letters Not institutional Self/intimates Least focussedzone

Private diaries Not institutional Self/intimates

116

Personal memos(notes, lists)

Not institutional Self/associates

Electronic media(personal e-mail,chat rooms)

Not institutional Self/in-group

SMS text-messaging,fanzines,‘samizdat’

Oppositional In-group

Least Regulated Graffiti Oppositional In-group/general public Focussed on anti-standard

Source (Sebba 2007, p. 47)

6.2.1 American and British Spellings in PWE

Pakistani English is a newly developing variety. It is in the process of endonormative

Stabilisation. In the educational set up of the country, it is the British spellings which are strictly

followed. Teachers, textbook writers and examiners all focus on the British spellings and all

other deviations are discouraged. For the purpose of present research, some 320 lexical items

were selected. These items were selected as their American and British spelling differences are

almost established. These items were further categorised into 26 different families, based on the

systematic spelling variations.

The frequency of both the spelling variants of these lexical items was calculated. The

results show that although Pakistani English historically has linkage with the British variety but

in the area of spelling it seems to have followed the American trend as well.

Out of 317 items selected, only 17 items had no appearance in category A which represents

American spellings. There were 4 items in category B (British Spellings) which have no

appearance in PWE. This reflects that there is high degree of variation in spellings in Pakistani

117

English. The total occurrences of these 317 items in both the categories were calculated. (See

Appendix)

Table 6.14Total Frequency ofAmerican Vs British Spellings in PWE

Variety Frequency

American 4358

British 7246

Table 6.14 shows that the American spellings of the words appeared 4358 times and the

British spellings appeared 7246 times. So the ratio is 1:1.66. This shows that Pakistani variety is

not specifically following the British variety.

Table 6.15Family Wise Spelling Differences

Family Am Br

a-e 21 46

ae-e 1 1

dg-dge 316 57

e-ae 8 10

ei-i 6 12

eo-aeo 2 7

er-or 53 26

er-re 429 657

eu-oeu 3 6

f-ph 6 7

g-gue 6 177

i-igh 11 965

ie-iae 26 1

io-iou 82 262

i-y 3 6

k-c 9 20

l-ll 177 220

m-mme 318 759

oe-oeo

o-ou

or-ore

or-our

ow-ough

se-ce

u-iu

u-ou

Zs

Total

Table 6.15 reveals that in 21 spelling families the British spellings were more used than

American spellings. There were 4 families i.e. dg

spellings were over-used.

In the text types there are mixed trends.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

a-e

ae-e

dg-

dge

e-a

e

ei-

i

eo

-ae

o

er-

or

er-

re

Figure 6.2

3

92

3

336

3

88

1

1

2354

4358

Table 6.15 reveals that in 21 spelling families the British spellings were more used than

were 4 families i.e. dg-dge, er-or, ie-iae, and s-z where American

In the text types there are mixed trends.

er-

re

eu

-oe

u

f-p

h

g-gu

e

i-ig

h

ie-i

ae

io-i

ou i-y

k-c

l-ll

m-m

me

oe

-oe

o

o-o

u

or-

ore

or-

ou

r

ow

-ou

ghFigure 6.2 Family Wise Spelling Differences

118

13

377

3

1414

16

876

5

12

1291

7246

Table 6.15 reveals that in 21 spelling families the British spellings were more used than

z where American

se-c

e

u-i

u

u-o

u zs

Family Wise Spelling Differences

Am

Br

119

Table 6.16

Table 6.17

120

6.2.2 Variant Spellings of Function Words in PWE

There is a general impression about Pakistani English that it has a tendency to use formal

technical vocabulary. This is also due to the fact that Pakistani English, like other south Asian

Englishes, is acquired in formal educational settings through ‘the study of text books and literary

classics’. (Kachru, 1986, p.43, Hickey, 2004, p.547)

Table 6.18Function Words With Different Spellings

Adjective PWE BF LF

Amid 26 31 27

Amidst 18 5 13

Among 830 820 562

Amongst 176 5 96

While 1803 1353 1335

Whilst 14 0 120

Till 328 84 111

Until 300 841 943

Toward 80 744 25

Towards 893 81 610

Afterward 2 37 1

Afterwards 43 20 131

Some of the function words like ‘Amid’, ‘Among’, ‘Till’ and ‘While’ have some archaic

and formal forms as well e.g. ‘Amidst’, ‘Amongst’, ‘Until’ and ‘Whilst’. (Quirk et al 1985, Biber

and Quirk, 1999, Sedlatschek, 2009, p.115)

In British English both forms exist to varying degrees but the American English seems to

prefer the modern forms and avoid the archaic formal forms. These spelling related differences

are considered to be marked indicators of formal style.

121

These four words have been selected and verified from the corpora. The results reveal

that ‘Amid’ has been used 31 times in BF and 27 times in LF and 26 times in PWE. ‘Amidst’ has

been used 18 times in Pakistani English, 13 times in LF and only 5 times in BF. This indicates

that it is rarely used in American variety and the ratio between Amid and Amidst is 6:1 whereas

in British English the ratio between the two variants is 2:1 and in Pakistani variety of English

this ratio is quite close: it is 3:2 which indicates that in Pakistani English this formal preposition

is comparatively over-used.

The other pair is ‘Among’ and ‘Amongst’. The data reveals that ‘Among’ is clearly an

American preference and ‘Amongst’ is almost non existent in the American variety. The ratio

between these two variables in American corpora is 167:1. In the British data the ratio is that of

5.85:1 and in the Pakistani data the highest ratio is 4.7:1. This again shows that, in Pakistani

English, the trend to use these stylistically marked forms exists.

The third variable which has been selected for discussion is ‘Till’ and ‘Until’. The results

in the Table below suggest that ‘until’ is clearly a preference in American and British English.

The ratio in American English between the variables is 1:10. In the same fashion British English

data shows that the ratio between ‘till’ and ‘until’ is that of 1:849. Contrary to these two varieties

Pakistani English indicates a preference for ‘till’, as it has been over-used in Pakistani English.

The ratio between ‘till’ and ‘until’ is 1.09:1.

The fourth pair is ‘while’ and ‘whilst’. The table illustrates that ‘while’ is the only choice

in American data and there is not even a single occurrence of ‘whilst’ in the American data. In

contrast to that British English has the ratio of 11:1 between the use of ‘while’ and ‘whilst’. The

122

case of Pakistani English is close to the American variety. It has the ratio of 128:1 and ‘while’

clearly seems to be a Pakistani preference.

In the case of ‘Toward/Towards’ pair, ‘Toward’ is clearly an American preference and it

has appeared 744 times in the American corpora and just 25 times in the British data which

indicates that it is least used in the British variety. It has been used 80 times in Pakistani English

which is lower than its occurrence in BF but higher than LF. On the other hand ‘Towards’ is a

preferred choice in the Pakistani and British data but not in the American data.

The other pair ‘Afterward’ and ‘Afterwards’ shows more clearcut regional tendencies.

‘Afterward’ has appeared 37 times in BF and just twice and once in PWE and LF respectively.

Conversely ‘Afterwards’ is a clearcut choice in the British data it is comparatively less used in

the Pakistani and American data. It has 131 occurrences in LF, 42 in PWE and only 20 in BF. If

both pairs are analysed the data in the table shows that ‘S’ is clearly a choice in British and

Pakistani corpora and the ‘without S’ form is the American choice. But the statistics reveal that

Pakistani variety differs from both the varieties.

The study shows mixed trends but obviously different from the British and American

varieties. This might be due to the reason that these archaic words were in use in the British

variety at the time of empire but have changed in the course of time, but in Pakistani English that

archaic use still persists.

6.2.3 Verbs with Variant Spellings

Table 6.19Verbs With Different Spellings in

Verb

Burned

Burnt

Dreamed

Dreamt

Wed

Wedded

Leaped

Leapt

Smelled

Smelt

Inquired

Enquired

Learned

Learnt

0

500

1000

1500

2000

Fig 6.3 Function words with DifferentSpellings in PWE

Verbs with Variant Spellings

Verbs With Different Spellings in 3 Corpora

PWE BF

17

20

8

5

1

2

1

1

0

2

1

2

38

58

Fig 6.3 Function words with DifferentSpellings in PWE

PWE

BF

LF

123

LF

33 22

4 15

20 9

2 1

2 1

2 3

3 1

1 1

5 1

5 1

1 0

0 3

119 73

0 32

124

The table 6.19 shows the 7 verbs which have orthographically variant past participle

forms. The statistics collected from the three corpora reveal that in the case of the verb ‘burn’,

‘burned’ is a clearcut American preference. Out of the 37 examples, 33 use ‘ed’ spellings in

American corpora. The British and Pakistani corpora make roughly equal use of both ‘ed’ and ‘t’

spelling variants. In the case of verb ‘dream’, ‘dreamed’ is a clearcut preference both in British

and American corpora whereas Pakistani data has also 5 occurrences of the form ‘dreamt’. The

verbs in ‘wed’, ‘leap’, ‘smell’, ‘enquire’ have only rare occurrences in all the three corpora. In

the case of the verb ‘learn’ the ‘ed’ form is a clearcut American and British choice whereas the

Pakistani data shows a preference for the ‘t’ variant of spellings.

The orthographic conventions followed in Pakistani English data reject the common

belief in the country that we are following the British spelling norms. The results reveal that we

are torn between the orthographic norms and have not decided yet, which spellings weshould

use.

125

6.3 SUBJUNCTIVE

Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:62) define the subjunctive as a mood beside the indicative

and imperative mood. According to them “Finite verb phrases have three moods”. Overgaard

(1995, p.93) also explains the subjunctive and indicative moods. “The indicative is employed

when the speaker intends the words to match the world”[…] i.e. it is used to express the

prevailing situation, whereas the subjunctive and the imperative are used to state a wish, to make

the world match somebody else’s wish.

Subjunctive is the traditional label for one of the possible values of the grammatical

category mood (in some conditions also known as conjunctive).

According to Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary subjunctive is

“Adj 2. In grammar designating or of that mood of a verb used to express condition,

hypothesis, contingency, possibility, etc. rather than to state an actual fact: distinguished

from imperative and indicative.

n. A verb in the subjunctive mood; specifically, the subjunctive mood”.

(McKechnie1983)

It is harder to explain the subjunctive. Five hundred years ago, English had a highly

developed subjunctive mood. However, after the 14th century, speakers of English used the

subjunctive less frequently.

According to Berk (1999) “Like the term imperative, the term subjunctive refers to

particular verb form. In old English, special verb forms existed to communicate non-facts, e.g.

wants, hopes, and hypothetical situations” (p.49).

126

Thus subjunctive is somewhat weak in modern English, but there are speakers who use it

routinely.

Vallins (1956, p.29) says that the characteristic old English subjunctive Tense endings

were –e (singular) and –en (plural). These, in the ordinary process of the language, were

weakened and lost.

The demise of the subjunctive is one of the reiterated changes in English. Bevier (1931,

p.207) calls the subjunctive a ‘disappearing features of the English language’; Foster (1968,

p.220) remarks that ‘the subjunctive mood of the verb is a rather feeble and restricted device in

modern English’ and Harsh (1968) concludes that ‘the inflected subjunctive forms decline to the

point of non-existence in present-day English’ (p.08). Givon (1993, p.274) points out that ‘the

old grammatical category of subjunctive has almost disappeared’, and according to Peters’ most

recent comment (2004), the ‘subjunctive is a pale shadow of what it used to be’ (p.520). English

subjunctive , which had a fully fledged subjunctive that was formally distinct for most

person/number/ tense combinations in the Old English period has been reduced to remnants of

the paradigm in the third-person singular present tense forms, the verb ‘be’ in its bare form and

the past subjunctive ‘were’ with the first and third person singular. Today the subjunctive is

considered as an optional and stylistically marked construction.

It has been claimed that it is dying, except in a few easily specified uses’ (Fowler and

Gower, 1965, p. 595). Palmer (1974) believes that “it has no place in English Grammar” (p.48).

According to Leech et .al. (2009) ,”As far as the use of subjunctive is concerned , it

survives in a few fossilized contexts, e.g. such as if need be, be it that....., God save the Queen or

in subordinate clauses introduced by lest, to name a few examples.”(p.53)

127

The subjunctive can be classified into present and past forms.

Quirk et al (1985) describes subjunctive in three categories: the ‘Mandative Subjunctive’,

the Formulaic as the ‘Present Subjunctive’ and the ‘Were Subjunctive’ as past form.

6.3.1 Mandative Subjunctive

The term mandative derives from Latin root for mandate, “a command or order”. The

mandative subjunctive is a verb “distinct kind of directive” and it always takes the same form.

e.g.

1. Singer asks that account be taken of the consequences of an act for the preference of

sentient beings not to suffer, before that act is performed.

2. It has been suggested many times that a Class be set up for the Juniors who are overage

and cannot enter the Junior Classes.

3. We advocate a strong policy against the spread of communism or fascism at home and

abroad, and we insist that America's efforts toward this end be directed by those who

have no sympathy either with communism or fascism.

4. Human rights groups have been demanding for years that Hudood Ordinances be

repealed.

5. When a person is facing a lot of problems in his life and he cannot get sufficient money,

then finally he apply the wrong path and he becomes the criminal, thief or kidnapper.

128

6. The process stipulates that the choreographer sense the quality of the initial movement he

has discovered and that he feel the rightness of the quality that is to follow it.

7. When he called again, demanding that she sing him his favourite song, You Must Have

Been a Beautiful Baby, she hung up.

8. It was Sheriff Popejoy who suggested he work for the Pinkertons, and it was the glowing

recommendation from the sheriff that got him the job.

In these sentences, the main verb makes sort of demand, from very mild (ask/suggest) to

very strong (demand, insist). In each case, the direct object of the main verb is a clause. When

the subject of the clause is third person singular, its verb does not take third person (s/es) and be

in its infinitive form. In Berk’s (1999) opinion “These atypical verb forms are the vestiges of the

Old English subjunctive system. The same meaning can be communicated by a verb in present

tense” (p.150). The sentences from 6 to 8 can be considered as example.

The subjunctive forms in examples 1-4 are identical to the base form of the verb. There is

no concord with the subject and no back shifting of tense depending upon the subordinate verb.

According to Quirk et al (1985, p. 156) the mandative subjunctive is productive when the

superordinate clause satisfies the requisite semantic conditions, i.e. the ‘that clause’ introduced

by an expression of demand, recommendation, proposal, resolution, intension etc., mandative

subjunctive can be used.

It is generally believed that mandative subjunctive is an American preference as

compared to the British. (Quirk, 1985, Johansson and Norheim, 1988)

129

6.3.2 Formulaic Subjunctive

English has a small set of phrases and sayings that are so old that they contain uniquely

marked subjunctive verbs. Formulaic Subjunctive, in the words of Quirk, ‘tends to be formal and

rather old-fashioned style’. They also consist of the base form of the verb like the mandative

subjunctive and are to be learnt as a whole.

e.g. Peace be upon Abraham!

6.3.3 Were Subjunctive

In English, the only possible past subjunctive form is ‘were’ (as in If I were you, I would not do

it). It is called past because of its formal contrast with the present subjunctive form ‘be’ and its

formal identity with the past indicative form ‘were’. The meaning of the past subjunctive is not

factual but either counter factual (e.g.[I wish] he were here; If I were you–)or tentative (e.g. I

would be surprised if he were to do that).

According to Davidsen (1990) “In English the subjunctive is used for the expression of

contingent, i.e. hypothetically, in conditional, comparative, and concessive clauses. Outside

formal language, the only subjunctive used for this purpose is ‘were’” (p.108).

6.3.4 Subjunctive in PWE

A study of three corpora i.e. PWE, Brown Frown, LOB FLOB has been carried out. The

result shows the following patterns.

130

6.3.4.1 Mandative Subjunctive

There is a general observation that the use of subjunctive constructions is fading out. In

the case of the suasive verbs, which uptill the early twentieth century were accompanied by the

mandative subjunctive constructions, the subjunctive is being replaced by the ‘Should

constructions’ or modals . Quirk et al (1985) and Johanson et al (1988) have discussed some of

the verbs which habitually take the subjunctive constructions and have named them as suasive

verbs. The suasive verbs given by Quirk et al (1985) and Johanson et al (1988) have been studied

to find the frequency of the subjunctive constructions with them. A list of adjectives, which may

be followed by ‘that clause subjunctives’, has also been added.

Three patterns have been observed.

1. Suasive Verb/Adjective + that + Mandative Subjunctive

2. Suasive Verb/Adjective + that + Should

3. Suasive Verb/Adjective + that + Other Modals

Table 6.20

Mandative Subjunctive

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Advise 0 1 0 Intend 0 0 0

Agree 0 0 0 Move 0 0 0

Allow 0 0 0 Ordain 0 0 0

Arrange 0 0 0 Order 9 5 1

Ask 0 2 0 Pledge 0 0 0

Beg 0 2 0 Pray 6 0 0

Command 0 0 0 Prefer 0 1 0

Concede 0 0 0 Pronounce 0 0 0

131

Decide 4 1 1 Propose 2 11 2

Decree 0 0 0 Recommend 9 12 5

Demand 2 10 4 Request 5 7 3

Desire 0 1 0 require 6 15 3

Determine 1 1 1 Resovle 0 0 0

Direct 5 5 0 Rule 0 0 0

Enjoin 0 0 0 Speculate 0 0 0

Ensure 0 2 0 Suggest 6 11 3

Entreat 0 0 0 Urge 3 3 1

Grant 0 0 0 Vote 0 0 0

Insist 2 14 2 Wish 2 1 1

Instruct 0 0 0 TOTAL 62 105 27

Table 6.20 shows clearly that mandative subjunctive is an American preference with the

trigger suasive verbs and periphrastic should or use of other models is a British preference. In the

case of Pakistani English in all three constructions there are clearcut differences from British and

American varieties.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Fig 6.4 Mandative Subjunctive

Mandative SubjunctivePWE

Mandative Subjunctive BF

Mandative Subjunctive LF

132

In PWE 62 tokens containing a mandative subjunctive construction have been found and

the verb “Recommend” is the most productive verb which has produced 9 instances of mandative

subjunctive.

Table 6.21Adjectives+Mandative Subjunctive

Adjectives PWE BF LF

Appropriate 0 0 0

Essential 1 0 0

Important 0 3 2

Necessary 3 3 1

Vital 0 0 0

Compulsory 0 0 0

Fitting 0 1 0

Impossible 0 0 0

Obligatory 0 0 0

Crucial 0 0 0

Imperative 4 0 0

Improper 0 0 0

Proper 0 0 0

Advisable 0 0 0

Preferable 0 0 0

Desirable 0 0 0

TOTAL 8 7 3

Table 6.21 shows that out of 16 trigger adjectives only 5

constructions and 11 of these trig

With these adjectives even the mandative subjunct

American data than the British data but here the Pakistani data shows 8 instances of mandative

subjunctive construction which is the highest

Table 6.21 also reveals similar results

choice with the trigger adjectives in British English.

The general observation about the data is that “be” often appears in the mandat

constructions. In the case of American English and Pakistani English the results of the mandative

subjunctives show that it is higher than the use of periphrastic should, as there are 62 instances of

subjunctive and 30 instances of should construction

mandative subjunctive in American data which is the highest figure in all the three corpora

compared. The results also clearly show that in American English should is not a preferred

00.5

11.5

2

2.53

3.54

app

rop

riat

e

ess

en

tial

imp

ort

ant

ne

cess

ary

vita

l

com

pu

lso

ry

fitt

ing

Fig 6.5: Adjective + Mandative Subjunctive

shows that out of 16 trigger adjectives only 5 have been

e triggers have produced no results.

With these adjectives even the mandative subjunctive construction is more used

American data than the British data but here the Pakistani data shows 8 instances of mandative

subjunctive construction which is the highest frequency among the three corpora.

also reveals similar results, that mandative subjunctive is not the preferred

choice with the trigger adjectives in British English.

The general observation about the data is that “be” often appears in the mandat

constructions. In the case of American English and Pakistani English the results of the mandative

subjunctives show that it is higher than the use of periphrastic should, as there are 62 instances of

subjunctive and 30 instances of should construction in Pakistani data. There are 105 instances of

mandative subjunctive in American data which is the highest figure in all the three corpora

compared. The results also clearly show that in American English should is not a preferred

fitt

ing

imp

oss

ible

ob

ligat

ory

cru

cial

imp

era

tive

imp

rop

er

pro

pe

r

advi

sab

le

pre

fera

ble

de

sira

ble

Fig 6.5: Adjective + Mandative Subjunctive

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc PWE

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc BF

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc LF

133

used in mandative

ive construction is more used in

American data than the British data but here the Pakistani data shows 8 instances of mandative

among the three corpora.

that mandative subjunctive is not the preferred

The general observation about the data is that “be” often appears in the mandative

constructions. In the case of American English and Pakistani English the results of the mandative

subjunctives show that it is higher than the use of periphrastic should, as there are 62 instances of

in Pakistani data. There are 105 instances of

mandative subjunctive in American data which is the highest figure in all the three corpora

compared. The results also clearly show that in American English should is not a preferred

Fig 6.5: Adjective + Mandative Subjunctive

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc PWE

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc BF

Adjectives+Mandative Subjnc LF

134

choice at all. As there are only 10 instances of ‘should constructions’ in American data which is

more than 10 times lower than the mandative subjunctive construction.

It is only in the British data that the number of ‘mandative subjunctive construction’ is

lower than ‘should constructions’. In the case of British data the ‘should’ construction is the

obvious choice and the ‘mandative subjunctive’ is not a preferred choice. Should construction is

used more than twice as compared to the ‘mandative subjunctive construction’ in British data

and this is the highest number of should construction instances among all the three corpora.

Table 6.22

Other Modals with Suasive Verbs

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Advise 0 2 0 Intend 0 0 1

Agree 6 8 4 Move 1 0 0

Allow 0 0 1 Ordain 0 0 0

Arrange 0 1 1 Order 1 1 1

Ask 0 1 0 Pledge 1 0 0

Beg 0 0 0 Pray 5 4 2

Command 0 0 1 Prefer 0 0 0

Concede 1 1 2 Pronounce 0 1 0

Decide 8 8 15 Propose 1 1 0

Decree 0 2 0 Recommend 0 0 0

Demand 0 0 0 Request 0 0 0

Desire 0 0 0 require 0 0 0

Determine 1 2 3 Resolve 0 0 0

Direct 0 0 1 Rule 0 0 2

Enjoin 0 0 0 Speculate 0 1 0

Ensure 3 2 6 Suggest 8 12 15

Entreat 0 0 0 Urge 1 0 0

Grant 3 1 1 Vote 0 0 1

Insist 8 2 3 Wish 0 1 0

Instruct 0 0 0 TOTAL 48 51 60

135

Table 6.22 reveals that the use of other modals with the trigger verbs is higher than the

instances of ‘should’ in table 6.21.

Here again the pattern remains the same, as the number of instances of other modals is

the highest in British data. In table 6.22 and 6.23 the British data have 60 instances of other

modals, American data has 51 and the Pakistani data shows 58 occurrences of other modals with

the trigger verbs.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

advi

se

allo

w

ask

com

man

d

dec

ide

dem

and

det

erm

ine

enjo

in

entr

eat

insi

st

inte

nd

ord

ain

ple

dge

pre

fer

pro

po

se

req

ues

t

reso

vle

spec

ula

te

urg

e

wis

h

Fig 6.6 Other Modals with Suassive Verbs

PWE

BF

LF

136

Table 6.23Other Modals with Verbs

Modal PWE BF LF

Can 6 2 8

Could 1 3 4

May 8 2 8

Might 3 6 4

Must 8 6 6

Ought 0 1 3

Shall 0 0 4

Will 8 8 10

Would 14 23 13

TOTAL 48 51 60

Table 6.23 reveals that among other modals ‘would’ is the most preferred choice in all

the three corpora.

The results clearly indicate that in the use of mandative subjunctive Pakistani English is

having patterns different both from American and British English.

6.3.4.2Be Sunjunctive

Table 6.24Be as Subjunctive Frequency Vs Percentage

Value PWE BF LF

Frequency 437 215 102

Percentage 87.2 57.84 43.63

137

Be is used 437 times in Pakistani data that is 87.2% which is the highest number of

subjunctive in any of the corpora. This reveals the fact that the overall no of Subjunctive is the

highest in PWE, followed by American corpora and the least no of occurrences of subjunctive

are in British.

Table 6.25Were as Subjunctive Frequency Vs Percentage

Value PWE BF LF

Frequency 50 148 134

Percentage 9.98 38.44 58.36

3rd Person Sing without s/es

PWE BF LF

Frequency 14 22 9

It is evident from table 6.25 that ‘were’ is least used as subjunctive in PWE, whereas its

appearance in American and British corpora is almost same i.e. 148 and 134 respectively.

As far as the Present Subjunctive form, i.e. the base form of the verb without s/es with

third person singular pronouns, is concerned there are only 9 instances of this form in LOB

FLOB which is the lowest in the three varieties. This is followed by 14 instances of this form in

PWE and 22 instances in American English corpora.

Table 6.26Subjunctive Total Percentage

Verb PWE BF LF

Be 87.2 57.84 43.63

Were 9.98 38.44 58.36

Without s/es 2.79 5.71 3.67

Of the three forms of Subjunctive ‘were’ and ‘base form’ without s/es are more used in

American English than in Pakistani and British corpora.

Table 6.27Distribution of Were in PWE Genres

Category Frequency

ART

BKS

CLM

EDT

LDS

LTR

NVL

RPT

STR

THS

TRN

INT

Total

Table 6.27 shows the distribution of ‘were’ in PWE. It appears in 12 text categories and

is mostly used in two categories i.e. 15 occurrences in ART and 12 in STR. The reason of its

0

500

Fig 6.7 Subjuntive Distribution

Of the three forms of Subjunctive ‘were’ and ‘base form’ without s/es are more used in

American English than in Pakistani and British corpora.

in PWE Genres

Frequency

shows the distribution of ‘were’ in PWE. It appears in 12 text categories and

y used in two categories i.e. 15 occurrences in ART and 12 in STR. The reason of its

Be

Were

Without s/es

Fig 6.7 Subjuntive Distribution

138

Of the three forms of Subjunctive ‘were’ and ‘base form’ without s/es are more used in

15

5

4

1

1

1

2

1

12

1

6

1

50

shows the distribution of ‘were’ in PWE. It appears in 12 text categories and

y used in two categories i.e. 15 occurrences in ART and 12 in STR. The reason of its

PWE

BF

LF

139

high occurrence in the category of STR may be that it is the world of fiction or irrealis which is

being described by the subjunctive and the world of story can have situations which are not facts.

Table 6.28

Distribution of Be-Subjunctive in PWE

Categories Frequency Categories Frequency

ALT 1 NLT 2

ART 113 NWS 9

BKS 37 OLT 4

CLM 55 PRS 1

CST 25 RPR 14

DIR 2 RPT 5

EDT 11 STR 8

FTW 10 THS 9

INT 11 TRN 9

LDS 35 WWW 1

LTR 17

MNF 1 TOTAL 437

The distribution of ‘Be’ as shown in Table 6.28 reveals that the five categories of ART,

CLM, BKS, CST and LDS account for 61% of the total occurrences of the form. The categories

BLT, BRU, MGP, MNU, PLC, SRY, INT do not have any instance of subjunctive and the

categories like DIR, MNF, NLT, PRS and WWW have only single examples. The reason of this

may be because these categories generally talk about the real world and describe the actual and

not the world of dream or fiction which is described in stories.

140

Table 6.29Pronoun Wise Frequency of Were As Subjunctive

Pronoun PWE BF LF

I 8 20 20

He 10 43 43

She 1 26 17

It 29 53 45

One 1 3 7

Everything 0 2 1

Someone 1 1 0

Nothing 0 0 1

Total 50 148 134

Table 6.29 highlights the frequency profile of the pronouns which occur with ‘were’ as

subjunctive. In all the three corpora the pronoun ‘it’ appears most of the time followed by ‘He’.

Table 6.30

Were Subjunctive in Type of Clause

Clause Type PWE BF LF

If 21 65 61

Though 0 0 0

As if 14 47 31

As though 3 18 24

Whether 1 1 2

Even if 3 3 5

Unless 0 0 1

As 5 0 0

SIMPLE 3 14 10

Total 50 148 134

141

There is a general tendency that the subjunctive constructions appear in subordinate

clauses and the result of present study validates this observation. Table 6.30 reveals that in PWE

21 times it occurs in ‘if’ clause and 14 times it comes in ‘as if’ clause.

It can safely be concluded from the study that the subjunctive is not dying in PWE and of

all the three varieties, it is most frequently used in Pakistani variety. The subjunctive is least used

in British English and comparatively more used in American English but highly over-used in

Pakistani English.

The results show that the apparently irregular uses of the present and the past forms of

subjunctive ‘i.e. the present without s/es with third person singular subjects, is comparatively

under-used in Pakistani English. There can be multiple reasons for such trends. The apparently

irregular forms are not being used in Pakistani English. ‘Be’ is not considered irregular and

Pakistanis are making much use of it. In the formally learned varieties the users generally follow

the regular patterns and these irregular / unusual features are normally avoided. It also depends

on the genre. The genres which can have fiction, have more examples of subjunctive ‘Be’ and

the genres which narrate /discuss factual information generally avoid the subjunctive forms.

142

6.4 VERB PARTICLE

There is a general observation that outer circle and expanding varieties use simple

constructions instead of the complex structures. This is a common phenomenon regarding

formally learned languages. This trend of simplicity is dominant and pervasive in all areas of

language. Use of particle is also considered a complex area.

6.4.1 Verb + Particle in 3 Corpora

To find the use of particles in PWE in comparison with other corpora, one hundred most

frequent verbs have been selected from PWE and the same verbs have been selected from BF

and LF. All the corpora have been tagged using CLAWS 7 Tagger. The tagger differentiates

between preposition and particle and all the instances tagged as particle, after the verb, have been

extracted. It includes all the instances of particles coming just after the matrix verb and also

those instances where there is a noun/NP in between the verb and the particle.

Table 6.31No of Verbs Per Particle (Total No Verbs 100)

Pattern PWE BF LF

V about 9 22 27

V along 15 20 16

V around 18 32 22

V back 38 43 47

V by 10 13 9

V down 30 39 37

V in 42 49 50

V off 25 36 37

V on 32 38 39

V out 52 55 57

V over 28 46 36

V round 9 6 22

143

V through 14 15 21

V under 5 5 3

V up 44 50 49

There are 15 different prepositions which are functioning as particles. They are listed in

Table number 6.31alongwith their frequency in the three corpora. The results in table 6.31 reveal

that ‘out’ is the most productive particle in all the three varieties as it occurs with more than 50

verbs. It comes with 57 verbs from LF, 55 of BF and 52 of PWE. The next productive particle is

‘up’. It comes with 44 verbs from PWE, 49 verbs of LF and 50 verbs from BF. The third

productive particle is ‘in’ which comes with 42 verbs of PWE, 49 verbs of BF and 50 verbs of

LF. Although there is a slight bit of variation among the three corpora but the top three particles

are the same.

Table 6.31 reveals that ‘under’ is the least productive particle which comes only with 5

different verbs of PWE and BF and only 3 verbs of LF. ‘Round’ and ‘About’ are the next two

particles in the ascending order. Each of these two has 9 occurrences in PWE, but they have been

more productive in BF and LF.

On the other hand the verb ‘Go’ has occurred with maximum number of particles. It has

occurrence with 14 different particles in PWE and 15 different particles each in BF and LF. For

example,

a. Once they are, you will see the birth rate come down, productivity go up and quality of

output improve. (PWE)

b. "With this kind of new product log-jam, the premium for brilliant product planning will

obviously go up geometrically". (BF)

144

c. The lighting trusses, the first thing to go up, should have been the last thing to come out.

(LF)

Table 6.32

No of Particles Per Verb

(Total No of Particles 15)

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Accept 1 0 1 Mean 0 2 3

Achieve 1 1 0 Meet 2 3 6

Add 2 3 4 Mention 4 1 0

Allow 2 2 2 Move 11 12 11

Appear 2 6 3 Need 3 3 3

Ask 1 3 4 Observe 0 1 0

Become 4 1 2 Offer 2 3 4

Begin 0 3 3 Open 3 5 4

Believe 1 1 2 Pass 7 12 10

Bring 10 14 12 Pay 3 3 4

Call 6 9 8 Play 5 8 9

Carry 6 9 11 Prepare 0 0 1

Cause 4 2 0 Present 3 0 2

Change 0 3 2 Produce 0 0 0

Consider 1 0 1 Provide 3 2 1

Continue 1 4 3 Put 8 10 11

Create 2 1 1 Raise 4 2 1

Date 1 1 1 Reach 4 6 6

Decide 2 1 0 Read 3 2 7

Eat 2 3 5 Receive 1 2 0

Enjoy 1 0 2 Refer 1 0 3

Ensure 0 1 0 Relate 0 0 0

Establish 2 1 2 Remain 7 6 3

Express 1 1 0 Require 1 1 1

Feel 2 6 2 Run 10 12 13

Find 4 4 7 Say 2 4 5

Follow 3 9 9 See 8 11 8

Form 2 0 2 Seek 1 3 1

Get 11 14 14 Seem 2 2 3

Give 7 8 10 Send 7 9 9

145

Go 14 15 15 Serve 2 3 2

Grow 4 5 4 Set 9 8 7

Hear 1 4 6 Show 5 6 7

Help 4 6 7 Sit 8 9 8

Hold 6 8 11 Speak 3 3 3

Improve 1 1 0 Stand 6 9 11

Increase 5 3 2 Start 5 7 8

Introduce 1 0 0 State 1 0 0

Issue 0 1 0 Stop 2 4 2

Join 4 3 2 Take 10 12 12

Keep 6 9 7 Talk 6 5 8

Lead 5 9 10 Tell 1 5 5

Leave 5 8 9 Think 4 8 6

Lie 3 8 6 Try 2 3 3

Like 1 1 3 Turn 10 10 11

Live 12 10 9 Understand 0 0 0

Look 8 10 13 Visit 1 1 1

Lose 2 2 3 Want 0 8 4

Maintain 2 1 0 Work 9 12 8

Make 9 9 9 Write 7 7 8

Table 6.32 shows that ‘live’ is the second most productive verb in PWE which takes 12

different particles but its occurrence in BF and LF is bit lower and it comes with 10 particles in

BF and 9 in LF. For example,

a. This is indeed a dangerous situation as no society can claim to be civilised if it doesn't

have a set of morals to live by. (PWE)

b. Pleasure, fame and fortune, drowning your troubles with a drink, and living it up with the

gang are like candy bars when you're hungry: they may ease your hunger temporarily, but

they'll never take the place of a satisfying, mouth-watering steak. (BF)

146

c. The difference between them lies in the systems they live under, only there, nowhere

else." (LF)

‘Get’ comes on the third rank in PWE where it occurs with 11 particles but it has been

attested to accompany 14 different particles each in BF and LF. For example,

a. When we reached the city gate, I stopped and turned round to help him get down. (PWE)

b. The false reasoning is that a gradual advance prolongs the pain while a swift powerful act

gets it over with and leaves the girl pleased with his virility and grateful for his

decisiveness in settling the problem once and for all. (BF)

c. To get over this difficulty Alcock has suggested that instead of measuring directly the

concentration of oxygen in the flowing sodium its thermodynamic potential should be

measured by a suitable galvanic cell incorporated in the circuit. (LF)

‘Move’ occurs with 11 particles in PWE but it has been attested to accompany 12

different particles in BF and 11 in LF. For example,

a. For we go to sleep and move about in our waking hours, with the knowledge that any

crazy with the pressing of a button blow this world apart destroying us and everyone and

everything that we love. (PWE)

b. I have a hunch Marv Breeding might move up a notch. (LF)

c. Lewis, at the head of the table, would leap up and move around behind the chairs of his

guests making remarks that, when not highly offensive, were at least highly

inappropriate, and then presently he collapsed and was put to bed. (BF)

147

Table 6.33Verbs Having Zero Frequency with Particles in All Corpora

Verb PWE BF LF

Produce 0 0 0

Relate 0 0 0

Understand 0 0 0

‘Produce’, ‘Relate’ and ‘Understand’ are the three verbs which do not occur with any

particle in any of the corpora.

Table 6.34

Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 0 3 3

Change 0 3 2

Ensure 0 1 0

Issue 0 1 0

Mean 0 2 3

Observe 0 1 0

Prepare 0 0 1

Produce 0 0 0

Relate 0 0 0

Understand 0 0 0

Want 0 8 4

Table 6.34 shows the verbs which do not take any particle in PWE. Eight of these verbs

have taken particles either in BF or LF or in both. For example the verb ‘want’ has not come

with any particle in PWE but has accompanied with 8 particles in BF and 4 in LF. For example,

a. By the time I made it to my apartment, my heart was pounding against my rib cage like it

wanted out. (BF)

b. If you want this lot on in time it'll need to be done right away. (LF)

148

The verb ‘change’ has not also come with any particle in PWE but has accompanied with

3 particles in BF and 2 in LF.

a. For one thing you can stop keeping that child in starched dresses and changed from the

skin out nineteen times a day. (BF)

b. These may be changed over depending on wind direction and the intensity of local

contamination. (LF)

Table 6.35

Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in BF

Verbs PWE BF LF

Present 3 0 2

Form 2 0 2

Accept 1 0 1

Consider 1 0 1

Enjoy 1 0 2

Introduce 1 0 0

Refer 1 0 3

State 1 0 0

Prepare 0 0 1

Similarly there are 12 verbs in BF which do not accompany any particle. Leaving those 3

which have zero occurrences in all the three corpora the other 9 verbs have ‘verb + particle’

combinations in PWE or LF or in both. For example the verb ‘present’ combines with 3 particles

in PWE and 2 in LF. For example,

a. They present a horrifying picture of Islam in! (PWE)

149

b. The sales of toys and dolls at auctions, include many of the most desirable examples,

presented in profusely illustrated catalogues, which are now widely used by collectors as

reference books on the subject. (LF)

c. The move of the government to refer the matter back to the Ulema committee was mala

fide. (PWE)

d. Normally the committee's decision would be rubber stamped by the full council, but they

voted by 27 to 25 to refer the matter back to the committee with a recommendation to

renew the lease. (LF)

Table 6.36Verbs + Particles with Zero Frequency in LF

Verbs PWE BF LF

Cause 4 2 0

Receive 1 2 0

Mention 4 1 0

Decide 2 1 0

Maintain 2 1 0

Achieve 1 1 0

Express 1 1 0

Improve 1 1 0

Ensure 0 1 0

Issue 0 1 0

Observe 0 1 0

Introduce 1 0 0

State 1 0 0

Produce 0 0 0

Relate 0 0 0

Understand 0 0 0

LF has the maximum number of verbs which have not been attested to have any particle

combination. Table 6.36 points out those 16 verbs which do not take any particle in LF but 13

out of them have occurred with some particle either in PWE or BF. For example the verb ‘cause’

150

combines with four particles in PWE and with 2 particles in BF but has not taken any particle in

LF. For example,

a. This city has fascinated millions through the centuries and been written about by

heavyweight personalities such as Goethe, Byron, Dante, Dickens, Petrarch, Henry

James, Moravia, Pirandello, Gulio Andreotti, to name a few. (PWE)

b. "Writers," he said, are per se damn lousy bourgeois parasitic upperclass shits and not to

be written about unless they are your enemies. (BF)

c. I rub my feet together, trying to help the electric blanket along, willing my body to warm

up. (PWE)

d. A Bay State supporter said, Mr. Hearst's fight has been helped along greatly by the

starting of his paper in Boston. (BF)

Table 6.37Verb + Particle Having Frequency Greater than Both BF and LF in PWE

Verb + Particle PWE BF LF

--------V about--------

Bring about 10.42 4.1 5.84

--------V on--------

Keep on 3.59 2.37 1.87

--------V out--------

Carry out 44.05 20.72 34.6

Reach out 5.93 4.55 4.56

Read out 1.69 0 0.68

--------V up--------

Eat up 5.69 3.72 3.24

Open up 10.34 5.4 6.76

Set up 37.95 17.75 21.21

151

The in-depth analysis of the data reveals that there are differences at the micro level. The

frequency of different verb and particle combinations is different among the three varieties. For

example there are 8 verbs combining with 4 particles which are over-used in PWE and their

frequency in BF and LF is comparatively lower. Table 6.37 indicates that carry out has 44%

occurrence in PWE, which means that out of all instances of the verb ‘carry’ 44% of the time it

comes in the company of ‘out’. In BF the frequency of this combination is 21% and in LF it is

35%. For example,

a. In our opinion, the Supreme Court, while deciding the routine cases, should also give a

clear ruling on whether the Parliament has the authority and sanction to carry out such

legislation, which not only conflicts with the overall spirit of the Constitution, but is also

contrary to its other basic clauses. (PWE)

b. Each ally will have to carry out obligations long since laid down, but never completely

fulfilled. (BF)

c. What is impressive is the enthusiasm and thoroughness with which they carry out their

systems: grooming of cows, attention to their feet, feeding of calves, detailed keeping of

farm records. (LF)

Table 6.37 further reveals that the combination ‘set up’ has occurred 38% in PWE as this

combination has occurred just 18% in BF which is less than half the occurrence in PWE and

same is the case in LF where ‘set up’ occurs just 21%. For example,

a. The PCSI will set up of some 22 zones across the country. (PWE)

b. Since a new ad hoc NATO committee has been set up so that in the future such topics as

Angola will be discussed in advance. (BF)

152

c. The case was presented to the tribunal by one of the voluntary panel set up by the council

to help patients wishing to appeal against their detention under the new Act. (LF)

Table 6.38Verb + Particle Having Frequency Greater than BF in PWE

Verb + Particle PWE BF LF

--------v on--------

go on 8.42 7.15 9.28

move on 4.13 2.5 4.75

--------v up--------

follow up 1.61 0.51 3.25

get up 3.36 2.28 2.84

put up 4.33 2.96 5.87

In Table 6.38 again there are verbs combining with different particles which are over-

used in PWE as compared to BF. For example the combination of ‘get up’ occurs 3.36% in

PWE, 2.28% in BF and 2.84% in LF. For example,

a. I get up at early in the morning and say my Prayer. (PWE)

b. "Just when you think you have it licked, this golf course can get up and bite you", Player

had said one afternoon midway through the tournament. (BF)

c. Later, Councillor Loosley said: "I feel it is wrong for the people of this council to get up

at another meeting and decry our efforts. (LF)

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Table 6.39Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than Both BFand LF in PWE

Verb + particle PWE BF LFVerb +particle PWE BF LF

Date back 9.36 23.81 10.45 Hold out 1.23 3.4 4.47

Get back 1.1 2.83 2.65 Look out 0.38 2.25 1.61

Lie back 0 1.42 1.52 Move out 0.2 1.55 1.53

Send back 1.59 2.85 3.44 Put out 1.11 2.45 2.69

Sit back 0.84 2.04 3.23 Seek out 0.97 7.87 3.8

--------v down-------- Send out 2.99 7.68 4.73

Lead down 0.12 1.16 1.31 Set out 6.06 8.88 15.28

Look down 1.13 3.27 3.36 Turn out 7.99 11.74 10.29

Put down 2.23 3.98 5.79 Work out 4.91 8.44 7.89

Run down 1.28 3.97 3.12 --------v over--------

Sit down 12.39 15.57 19.03 Pass over 0 3.14 2.1

Turn down 1.31 2.5 3.26 Turn over 1.31 3.51 2.57

--------v in----------------v up--------

Bring in 1.89 4.45 4.84 Grow up 11.71 15.01 15.02

Move in 0.59 3.1 2.76 Hold up 1.59 4.14 5.18

--------v off-------- Keep up 2.49 3.85 4.77

Set off 1.21 4.59 2.9 Make up 1.36 2.82 2.44

--------v on-------- Move up 0.39 1.79 1.53

Bring on 0 1.17 1.37 Pass up 0 1.26 1.26

--------v out-------- Sit up 1.47 3.62 3.87

Get out 0.62 2.57 2.18 Start up 0.09 1.19 2.45

Go out 2.08 3.31 3.69

Table 6.39 reveals that there are 36 verbs with 8 particles which are under-used in PWE

as compared to BF and LF. For example the combination ‘set out’ has 6% frequency in PWE,

9% in BF and over 15% in LF. This shows that this is not very common in PWE as compared to

BF and specially LF. For example,

a. He set out to increase a sense of reverence. (PWE)

154

b. Whoever has set out on His way has already found the Destination. So, move on we must

and drag we must further with all our heart and soul. (BF)

c. It seems like only last year that we watched them set out up the hill hand in hand on a

rainy day in their yellow raincoats to finger-paint at the grammar school. (LF)

Similarly ‘look out’ occurs 0.38% in PWE, and 2.25% and 1.69% in BF and LF

respectively which is higher than PWE. For example,

a. Enemy is always on the look out for recruiting suitable persons serving on sensitive

assignments and defence installations. (PWE)

b. Malocclusion, or a bad fit, is what parents need to look out for. (BF)

c. "Look out!" Joyce cried. (LF)

Table 6.40Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than BF in PWE

Verb + Particle PWE BF LF

--------v along--------

Pass along 0 1.05 0

--------v back--------

Bring back 3.53 5.74 4.2

--------v down--------

Ensure down 0 1.64 0

Pass down 0 1.05 0.63

Set down 0.67 2.22 1.26

--------v off--------

Pay off 2.54 4.36 2.93

Run off 0.55 1.85 1.48

Take off 1.2 2.25 2.05

--------v on--------

Continue on 0 1.17 0.41

Live on 0.34 1.5 0.95

Put on 2.35 3.67 3.02

--------v out--------

Start out 0.47 3.43 1.22

155

Talk out 0 1.01 0.54

--------v over--------

Carry over 0.31 1.71 0.99

Look over 0.23 1.43 0.49

Reach over 0 1.45 0.91

--------v through--------

Carry through 0.15 1.33 0.66

--------v up--------

Give up 3.12 4.85 3.24

Look up 2.64 4.96 3.51

Raise up 0.48 2.58 0.99

Run up 0.36 1.59 1.31

Send up 0.4 1.97 1.08

Stand up 7.32 8.79 7.48

There are 23 verbs combining with 9 different particles which have the highest frequency

in BF as compared to PWE and LF. The detailed scrutiny revealed the fact that all these 23 verbs

have the higher frequency in BF as well as LF. The frequency percentages of BF and LF are

higher than PWE but the frequency percentages of BF are the highest and that of PWE are the

lowest so they have appeared in the table. For example the combination ‘rise up’ has appeared

2.58% in BF, 1% in LF and just .48% in PWE.

a. It's good to rise up to a challenge but this was mere spoof. (PWE)

b. As the hand glides beneath the bridge the boy is suddenly afraid that it will rise up from

the other side and pull him off the bridge and drown him. (BF)

c. Rise up and give us our Hogmanay. (LF)

In the same way, ‘start out’ has appeared 3.43% in BF and 1.22% in LF abut hardly

0.47% in PWE, which indicates that there is a clear tendency that ‘start out’ is under-used in

PWE. For example,

156

a. In ancient times they started out as one and the same. (PWE)

b. The year will probably start out with segregation still the most troublesome issue. (BF)

c. I started out with nothing, really. (LF)

Table 6.41Verb + Particle Having Frequency Lesser than LF in PWE

Verb + Particle PWE BF LF

--------v about--------

Set about 0.27 0.74 2.65

--------v back--------

Move back 0.79 1.79 1.84

Stand back 0 0.88 1.42

--------v down--------

Keep down 0.09 0.99 1.5

--------v off--------

Eat off 0 0 1.39

Move off 0 0.6 1.38

Send off 0 0.88 3.44

--------v on--------

Carry on 7.26 7.79 9.23

Get on 0.43 0.52 2.18

--------v out--------

Bring out 2.84 3.16 4.65

Help out 0.97 1.5 2.43

Keep out 0 0.79 1.78

Open out 0.28 0.4 1.39

Pay out 0 0.18 1.54

Run out 2 2.51 3.61

Speak out 0.75 0.98 2.03

--------v over--------

Send over 0 0.66 1.08

Take over 1.61 1.88 2.72

157

Talk over 0.23 0.67 1.26

Just like the tendency pointed out in Table 6.40 again in Table 6.41 there are 19 verbs

combining with 7 particles which are less used in PWE than LF. The data also shows that these

verbs are also comparatively least used in PWE and the trend, a bit different from what has been

shown in table 6.40, is that it is most used with verbs from LF data than of BF and least used in

PWE. For example ‘stand back’ does not appear in PWE at all but it has 0.88% occurrences in

BF and 1.42% occurrence in LF.

a. But Costello stood back waiting for Koesler to cross the threshold. (BF)

b. He kicked the razor clear, then stood back, panting for breath, gesturing with the long

black muzzle of the Luger. (LF)

There are 36 verbs given in Table 6.39, 23 verbs in Table 6.40 and 19 verbs in Table

6.41. All these verbs are comparatively least used in PWE and more used in BF and LF. So these

results highlight a clear tendency that in Pakistani variety of English particle is not a preferred

choice.

158

The graph reveals that there is less internal variation in Pakistani English. One can

observe that in the British and American varieties there is a bit of internal variation but in the

case of Pakistani English, there is steady movement and less internal variation is observable.

Once it has been established that in Pakistani variety particles are less used, the reasons

or alternative choices made to convey those meanings have also been studied. There are two

reasons generally given in literature. (Schneider 2004)

1. That the particle at times is considered redundant and the meanings which are conveyed

with particle are conveyed in the outer circle varieties without the particle.

2. The second hypothesis is that instead of verb + particle combinations alternative

synonymous verbs are used to convey those meaning which are conveyed by verb +

particle.

Research has been carried out in both of these directions

020406080

100120140160180

vab

ou

t

val

on

g

var

ou

nd

vb

ack

vb

y

vd

ow

n

vin

vo

ff

vo

n

vo

ut

vo

ver

vro

un

d

vth

rou

gh

vu

nd

er

vu

p

Fig 6.8 Tendency of Using Verbs withParticles

LF

BF

PWE

159

6.4.2 Verb + Particle Vs Verb Only

Schneider (2004) conducted a research on the use of particle in 6 varieties and to test

these two above mentioned hypotheses he prepared two lists of verbs. These lists have been

borrowed.

First the hypothesis, that in ‘new Englishes’ the particles are less used due to the reason

that in these varieties the verb without the particle is used to convey the same meaning which in

British or American varieties is conveyed with the verb + particle combination, has been tested.

A list of 22 verbs has been compiled by Schneider (2004) which can occur with or without

particle without any major change in meaning. The verb forms with and without particles have

been studied and the following results have been generated.

Table 6.42Verb + Particle(VP) Vs Verb Only

PWE BF LFVerb+ Particle VP Verb Only VP Verb Only VP Verb Only

Connect up 0 100 0 110 3 91

Divide up 1 242 1 152 1 135

Finish off 0 92 2 197 5 198

Finish up 0 92 1 197 1 198

Impact on 0 9 0 6 0 1

Lend out 0 71 0 51 0 79

Move down 2 2 4 0 1 3

Open up 15 343 4 496 12 491

Pick up 29 159 56 219 41 191

Pick out 1 159 4 219 9 191

Rent out 0 9 1 25 0 13

Save up 0 317 0 200 1 231

Seal up 1 13 1 35 0 34

Seek out 2 516 12 344 5 311

Sell off 0 290 0 296 2 355

Sort out 4 20 6 19 9 33

Split up 1 22 1 50 6 48

160

Stir up 0 11 6 64 5 65

Wake up 28 63 18 59 12 66

Wind up 4 30 8 53 3 42

Wrap up 1 57 2 40 1 41

Yell out 0 15 0 62 0 13

Total Frequency 89 2632 127 2894 117 2830

Average 4.05 119.6363636 5.773 131.5454545 5.318 128.6363636

Ratio 1 29.61 1 22.8 1 24.22

Table 6.42 lists the 22 verbs and the frequencies of verb + particle combination and the

frequencies of the verbs without particle have been calculated. The results show that the total

frequency of the verbs with particles is 89 and frequency of the verbs without particles is 2632 in

PWE. In BF verb + particle frequency is 127 and verb alone frequency is 2894 and in LF the

verb + particle frequency is 117 and verb alone frequency is 2830. If the averages of these verbs

are taken by dividing these total frequencies with total number of verbs i.e. 22. Then the

following results are produced. On average if verb + particle combination is used 4 times in

PWE the verb alone has appeared 120 times. In BF the averages are 6:132 that is 6 times the verb

+ particle combination is used and 132 times the verb alone is used. Similarly the British data

reveals the averages of 5:129. When average of the verb only is divided by the average of verb

particle the results show the following trend. In PWE the equation between verb + particle

combination and verb only is 1 to 30 which can be interpreted that if a verb + particle is used

once the verb only has been used 30 times. In BF the equation is of 1 to 29 and in LF it is 1 to 24

which shows that the ratio of using particle is highest in LF then in BF and comparatively lowest

in PWE. This also confirms that in Pakistani variety particles are less used than British and

American varieties.

161

6.4.3 Verb + Particle Vs Synonymous Verb

The other hypothesis regarding the low occurrence of verbs + particle combination is that

the speakers use some synonyms of the verb and this way particle is avoided. To investigate the

possibility, a list of 20 verb + particle combination and 20 synonyms has been prepared. The list

of verbs has been taken from Schneider (2004). It has been calculated that how many time the

meaning is conveyed through ‘verb + particle’ and how many occurrences of the synonym verb

are used in the corpora.

Table 6.43Verb + Particle Vs Synonymous Verbs

PWE BF LF

Verb + ParticleV +Particle

VerbOnly

V +Particle

VerbOnly

V +Particle

VerbOnly

SynonymousVerbs

Branch off 1 5 0 8 0 9 Diverge

Brew up 0 6 0 4 0 6 Concoct

Bring up 13 405 4 234 13 243 Mention

Build up 21 207 14 57 19 63 Strengthen

Call off 1 21 4 19 1 26 Postpone

Cut back 1 391 6 337 3 334 Reduce

Dream up 0 97 1 206 1 204 Imagine

Fetch up 0 10 0 4 0 7 Vomit

Find out 51 145 66 231 81 263 Discover

Give in 8 44 7 35 6 28 Surrender

Give out 7 121 2 69 1 55 Distribute

Hand in 0 234 0 92 1 71 Submit

Help out 6 88 7 67 8 75 Assist

Leave out 1 67 2 61 7 77 Exclude

Make up 22 43 44 43 40 60 Invent

Point out 30 318 28 429 32 395 Explain

Put out 4 11 21 4 24 7 Extinguish

Sketch out 0 29 0 42 0 48 Outline

Tear down 1 26 3 10 0 18 Demolish

Turn down 0 163 6 122 5 175 Reject

TotalFrequency 167 2431 215 2074 242 2164

Average 8.35 121.55 10.75 103.7 12.1 108.2

162

Table 6.43 shows that the construction ‘find out’ is the most widely used combination in

PWE. The results reveal that there are 167 instances of verb particle combination in PWE and

2431 instances of the synonymous verbs. The average of both the variables can be calculated by

dividing the frequency by 20 to get the ratio of the verbs. There is a ratio of 1:15 in PWE

meaning that, in PWE if the particle is used once the alternate is used 15 times, whereas in BF

the averages are 1:10 and1:9 in LF .

This comparison shows that particle is the least used construction in PWE as compared to

BF and LF.

While studying the general behaviour of verb particles another fact has come ashore. The

verb particles also include the phrasal verbs and one phrasal verb can have multiple semantic

senses. It has been noticed that the verb complements do not convey the full range of meaning

and it is restricted to one or two senses. This limits the semantic range of verb particle.

Sometimes there is the semantic extension which means that verb used in some restricted sense

in the British or American varieties is given an extra sense or is used to convey a different

meaning which is not given in dictionaries. To study the meanings and the different sense of the

constructions two sources have been consulted, which are Oxford Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs

and Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs.

Two case studies, to verify the point have been conducted. The phrasal verbs or verb

particles selected for the study are ‘Hold up’ and ‘Put down’.

163

6.4.4 Case Study: Hold up

The verb ‘hold’ has appeared 13 times in the company of the particle ‘up’. So first 13

instances of the verb + particle ‘Hold up” have been selected from LF for the purpose of the

analysis. The comparison revealed that there are seven senses of the phrasal verb given in the

Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. These senses are:

i. Raise

ii. Prop up

iii. Delay

iv. Rob

v. Make an example

vi. To remain in good condition even after rough use

vii. Stand up.

The analysis of the data revealed that ‘hold up’ in PWE has been used in 3 senses and

chiefly in the sense of ‘raise’ as in example 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 11 and 13. It is used once in the

meaning of ‘set as an example’ sense no 5. It has been used once in example 12 in the meaning

of ‘delay in example number 4 and 8. The meaning could also be conveyed by the verb ‘hold’

alone or they all convey the same meaning of raise.

In example no 7 the meaning of ‘brought up’ has been conveyed through ‘held up’ which

seems a case of semantic extension. For example,

164

Fig 6.9 Hold Up Examples from PWE

In the case of LF data the examples revealed that out of the 7 meanings of the phrasal

verb 5 meanings have been conveyed. Sentence no 2, 3 7 and 11 give the meaning of delay.

Sentence 12, 13 are in the meaning of hold. For example,

Fig 6.10 Hold Up Examples from LF

The discussion of results shows that it is not only the frequency of particle verb which is

important, it is also to be noted that how many senses of a verb + particle have been used.

165

6.4.5 Case Study: Put Down

Collins Cobuild Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs gives 15 senses of the phrasal verb ‘put

down’. In the data from PWE, there are 15 examples of ‘put down’. These examples have been

analysed and categorised according to the meaning produced. The data shows that there are only

4 semantic senses of the phrasal verb which have been used in PWE. These are:

i. Support

ii. Suppress

iii. Put

iv. Phone

Except from the sense meaning put which has been used in 10 out of 13 cases the other

three meanings have been used just once. When the data from LF is analysed it contains 11

senses of the phrasal verb. The examples are there alongwith the semantic sense conveyed by

them.

Fig 6.11

166

Fig 6.12

167

This result also confirms the hypothesis that in PWE particles are used to a limited extent.

Unlike the native varieties where the verb particles and phrasal verbs are used to convey multiple

senses of a lexical item, in the non native varieties there is a general tendency either to avoid the

verb particle combinations or to use them in some restricted semantic fields.

Generally in the non native varieties the phrasal verbs are not used. The analysis shows

that phrasal verbs have been underused in Pakistani English and even if they are used they have

limited semantic range. It is the general tendency that one word substitutes are preferred instead

of phrasal verbs.

168

6.5 VERB COMPLEMENTATION

One of the features, which are chiefly responsible for the establishment of British and

American or other ‘inner circle’ varieties of English, is their codification and their description in

Grammar books and Dictionaries, which are the chief sources of language norms in the outer and

expanding circles. But the only reason that the outer circle varieties are not properly codified

does not negate the existence of the variety.

This research is an attempt towards the codification of Pakistani English. For the purpose

of this research 100 most frequent verbs and additional 25 verbs in some low frequencies from

PWE have been selected.

This is the first research of its kind. The purpose of this research is not to theorise and

provide explanations of the divergence rather it is descriptive / exploratory in nature. The

purpose of this research is to point out the emerging trends and to provide a general description

of the features present in Pakistani English and what is their frequency of occurrence.

As there were no clearcut guidelines available about the features of Pakistani English.

Baumgardner (1987, 1993) has talked about some of the complementation patterns where

Pakistani English varies from inner circle varieties. But it is not detailed at all. He has talked

about a few verbs and there frequencies in the specific patterns have been verified. But

Baumgardner (1993) has not talked about the complementation in general.

The aim of this research is to provide a general profile of Pakistani English and for this

purpose first 100 most frequency verbs alongwith some low frequency 25 verbs have been

selected. It has been studied that how many verbs take one complementation pattern and how

169

frequently a pattern is taken by a verb. Then it has also been studied that which complementation

pattern is preferred by specific verbs in the British and American corpora. This will help in

drawing an outline of Pakistani English.

Verb Complementation is considered one of the main areas of variation in non native/

outer circle varieties of English. Mainly, nine complementation patterns of the selected verbs

have been studied in detail.

These patterns can be grouped into four major categories i.e. To Infinitive, Bare

Infinitive, Gerundive, and That-clause Complements. These four can be further divided into nine

sub patterns. These patterns are exemplified here from the data in PWE.

1. V To V

a. Those who do adopt threatening tactics towards journalists must be taken to task

and the press allowed to do its job in a risk- and intimidation-free environment.

(PWE)

b. Customers need to fill SMS Banking Registration form available at Standard

Chartered and Muslim Commercial Bank branches. (PWE)

c. In view of this, it can be rightly hoped that if the current trend towards greater

coordination and cooperation is allowed to continue among major Asia-Pacific

countries, peace and stability can be ensured to the mutual benefit of the people of

the region. (PWE)

d. But our outlook has been, and continues to be, defensive. (BF)

170

e. WE are trying to bring about equal rights for all civilised men, said the Rev E.

Thornley, the northern area secretary for the Universities' Mission to Central

Africa, when he spoke to members of the St Chad's Church of England Men's

Society on Monday. (LF)

2. V + Bare Infinitive

a. In this, it would make sense to take help from both religious scholars as well as

NGO's, who can help bring the message home. (PWE)

b. Such efforts will also reduce the load on landfills and dumping sites and will help

keep the city clean. (PWE)

c. They embrace independent poverty, usually with a "shack-up" partner who will

help support them. (BF)

d. Through a variety of means, for a large number of varied reasons, it helps bring

the public to the market place of travel. (LF)

3. V + ing

a. After all it's up to me and they should not peep into my private matters because

Islam doesn't allow intervening into Peoples personal matters. (PWE)

b. This is called financing on deferred payment, or with some modifications, such as

murabahah. (PWE)

c. When it is done between races or nations, it is called making a treaty. (BF)

d. This is to change following the passing of the Broadcasting Act 1990 on 1

November 1990. (LF)

171

4. V + Prep + ing

a. Second menace of religious extremism, this is the class fixed rigid views and

believe in imposing those views on others through force. (PWE)

b. Many factors are considered in reviewing applicants for credit. (PWE)

c. He believed in making inspiring speeches and he made a great many. (BF)

d. If the night is cold you may feel like giving your guests a hot Punch. (LF)

5. V + Prep + To + V

a. It took time to build such a structure. (PWE)

b. The external factor was India's nuclear test in 1974 prompting Pakistan to

accelerate its weapon related nuclear programme. (PWE)

c. He said Britain had an obligation to consult the Federal Government. (BF)

d. It urged that the city take steps to remedy this problem. (LF)

6. V + NP + ing

a. Education is called upon to construct and elaborate upon these many enemies, to

explain the threats they pose, and to reiterate how the self has survived their

designs and, therefore, needs to be vigilant. (PWE)

b. Similarly, the U.N Secretary General and the OIC is urged upon to take notice of

the Danish Govt. (PWE)

c. Babette's Feast continues this film tradition by referring to nineteenth-century

Scandinavian painting to evoke and explain the complexity of Danish culture, to

which the film is a conscious homage. (BF)

d. British trade union can always be called upon to give an account of its

stewardship to those who elected it. (LF)

172

7. V + NP + To + V

a. The DuPont Artistri software allows users to print designs of all types directly

from the computer. (PWE)

b. The ginners asked the PCSI to depute at least three cotton classers in one ginning

factory for seed cotton grading and supervision, ensuring contamination-free

cotton production. (PWE)

c. A publicity release from Oregon Physicians Service, of which Harvey is

president, quoted him as saying the welfare office move to Salem, instead of

crippling the agency, had provided an avenue to correct administrative

weaknesses, with the key being improved communications between F+A and the

commission staff. (BF)

d. Let the orthodontist decide the proper time to start treatment, he urges. (LF)

8. V + that + Verb

a. When Nalaiq was informed that he will be meeting the Board of Directors, he

became quiet nervous. (PWE)

b. President General Pervez Musharraf has directed that all necessary measures be

taken for ensuring peace and tranquility during the forthcoming general elections

so that the people could exercise their right to vote and elect their representatives

in a free, fair and transparent manner. (PWE)

c. This means that if your insured vehicle is laid up for more than 30 days, insurance

can be suspended and a proportionate return of your premium made to you. (BF)

d. The court was told that he had made a statement to the police. (LF)

173

9. V + NP + Bare Infinitive

a. If at all the government feels it appropriate to enter into negotiations, then it must

take cognisance of the following points. (PWE)

b. Even in my utter confusion, I heard him say loud and clear: “come-in yaar, you're

Allah's guest nothing to be afraid of”. (PWE)

c. He hit him once on the sharp point of his chin and felt the body go limp. (BF)

d. He was reading his programme, and I suddenly felt him nudge me. (LF)

For the purpose of the study, special software was designed and with the help of

Wordsmith 4 Tool a frequency list and lemma list of all the verbs was prepared. All the instances

of the matrix/trigger verbs were calculated and copied in a separate file. All the three corpora

were POS Tagged by using CLAWS 7 Tagger. The software built for the purpose of research

was used to locate a pattern and all the occurrences of the matrix verb in the pattern were

calculated and a frequency list of the verbs in a specific pattern was prepared. The percentages of

the verbs in a given pattern was also calculated by dividing the pattern occurrence with total

frequency of the matrix verb multiplied by hundred in each corpus.

A comparative analysis of the nine complementation patterns in Pakistani, British and

American varieties was conducted. Furthermore it was studied that a verb can come in how many

different patterns.

174

Table 6.44No. of Verbs Per Pattern

Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ to+v) 104 88 96

Pattern 2 (v + bere inf) 8 3 6

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 73 68 67

Pattern 4 (v+ prep+ing) 90 80 85

Pattern 5 (v+ prep+to+v) 3 2 2

Pattern 6 (v+ np+ing) 114 101 102

Pattern 7 (v+ np+to+v) 116 110 113

Pattern 8 (v+that+v) 58 51 56

Pattern 9 (v+ np+bare inf) 9 8 7

The variation in the frequency of occurrence in various corpora is possible due to the

following reasons.

1. A verb complementation pattern is not used at all in Pakistani variety and some other

complementation is over-used.

2. It is present in PWE but it is not present in any one of the other varieties.

3. It is present in PWE but is not present both in BF and LF.

4. It is present in all the corpora but the frequency is different in the other corpora, i.e.

i. Its frequency/percentage of occurrence in PWE is greater than verb occurrences in

a specific pattern in Both.

ii. Its frequency is lesser than the frequency of the verb in the same pattern in BF and

LF.

iii. Its frequency in PWE is greater than the verb in either LOB/FLOB or

Brown/Frown.

iv. Its frequency in PWE is lesser than the frequency of BF or LF.

175

These statistics would help us in providing the answer to the following questions.

a. Which complementation patterns are possible with the given verb?

b. Which complementation patterns are over-used or under-used in British, American or

Pakistani English?

c. Is there any complementation pattern which is only specific to Pakistani variety of

English?

The procedure adopted in this research is that first the verbs which over use the pattern in

PWE than the other two corpora are given with the examples of use.

Then the verbs in the pattern which are greater in frequency than either BF or LF are given

alongwith relevant examples.

Then the reverse of it, the verbs which are under-used in PWE in comparison with both

American and British corpora are described, afterwards, the verbs which are lesser in frequency

in PWE than those of the verbs in BF or LF. In total there would be six points of description of a

verb to highlight the complementation trends.

6.5.1 V to V (Pattern 1)

Table 6.45Verbs in Pattern 1(V to V): Greater Percentage in PWE than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Need 41.27 25.77 29.29

Contemplate 8.33 0 0

Hesitate 70.37 26 24.24

Direct 12.56 4.43 2.44

Request 28.72 5.66 3.28

Resort 11.29 0 4.76

176

The results of Pattern 1 (V to V) (Table 6.45) show that 6 items/verbs are over-used in

PWE. The verb ‘hesitate’ uses this complementation pattern 70.37% (19) time in PWE but in BF

and LF this usage is 26% (13) and 24% (16) respectively. For example,

a. Unfortunately, the vested interest in the Punjab has been so blinded by the lure of power

and profit that it has not hesitated to deny it. (PWE)

b. Some new members will hesitate to ask questions audibly. (BF)

c. Outside this category there are many plays of a mild degree of unsuitability; and to these

I personally should not hesitate to take any member of my family. (LF)

Similarly the word ‘request’ is used 29% (56) of the total in this complementation

pattern, in PWE whereas it is used just 6% (3) and 3% (2) in American and British English.

For example,

a. The administrative departments of the provinces, under which these organisations work,

have been requested to implement the recommendations. (PWE)

b. Should any slave change his mind and request to leave earlier, Giffen was to provide

passage at once. (BF)

c. They became difficult, refused their names and addresses, and a passing motorist was

requested to find assistance for Constable Fallow field. (LF)

Like wise ‘need’ in PWE is used 41% (525) which is far higher than average occurrences

in BF and LF i.e. 258 and 287 times respectively. For example,

177

a. To address this question we need to see why the Muslim philosophy of science came out

the way it did. (PWE)

b. Something was needed to revive interest; the something was the home run. (BF)

c. We would only need to have a dozen clubs to make the League worthwhile. (LF)

Table 6.46Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V):Greater Percentage in PWE Than BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Require 19.55 14.13 20.14

Seem 48.18 42.25 43.6

Fail 64.16 57.86 60.2

Table 6.46 points out two verbs which have higher frequency of occurrence in PWE than BF.

For example in PWE the verb ‘require’ is used 20% (281) in this pattern whereas in BF its

particular usage is 14% (173).For example,

a. Procedures were required to reduce all the separate pieces of knowledge into an

integrated body of knowledge. (PWE)

b. Henry C. Grover, who teaches history in the Houston public schools, would reduce from

24 to 12 semester hours the so-called teaching methods courses required to obtain a

junior or senior high school teaching certificate. (BF)

Table 6.47Verbs in Pattern 1(V to V): Greater Percentage in PWE Than LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Continue 46.5 45.99 40.74

Decide 39.96 36.69 33.67

Like 39.18 34.84 31.68

Mean 14.05 10.66 6.55

178

Want 58.89 54.11 50.66

Table 6.47 refers to the verbs which have frequency greater than LF. The verb ‘mean’ has

14% (111) occurrences in PWE and just half of it i.e. 7% (62) in LF. For example,

a. This means that those of our scientists who make a mark in the world do so despite, and

not because of, the institutions which are meant to support them. (PWE)

b. Does it mean to show that we can produce all kinds of films, but we can't show reality to

our people, while you can watch the creative potential of other nations on your video-

players!. (LF)

Table 6.48Verbs in Pattern 1(V to V): Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Seek 23.36 30.9 30.7

Forbid 1.52 23.26 21.28

Table 6.48 shows the verbs in PWE which have lesser percentage than BF and LF. The verb

‘forbid’ is a very clear example which occurs only once as compared to 10 occurrences each in

BF and LF respectively.

a. We have been forbidden to ravel at night. (PWE)

b. The son of a wealthy Evanston executive was fined $100 yesterday and forbidden to

drive for 60 days for leading an Evanston policeman on a high speed chase over icy

Evanston and Wilmette streets Jan. 20. (BF)

c. They were halted by Afghan troops a mile from the fort and forbidden to come closer.

(LF)

179

This shows that this verb is very infrequently used in this pattern.

Table 6.49Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V):Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Prepare 11.72 22.3 16.67

Start 7.78 13.74 12.54

Table 6.49 shows the verbs which are used less frequently in PWE than their usage in BF.

The verb ‘prepare’ is used 43 times in PWE and 66 times in BF.

a. In fact the curriculum is prepared to achieve the aims and objectives of a Nation's policy.

(PWE)

b. I am not prepared to grant bail to any of them, said the magistrate, K.J.P. Baraclough

(BF)

Table 6.50Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V):Lesser Percentage in PWE Than LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Appear 24.67 26.28 32.97

Help 6.38 9.43 13.34

Serve 4.39 7.84 10.64

Aim 19.16 22.33 30

Urge 2.48 3.51 10.64

Table 6.50 shows the verbs which are lesser used in this construction in PWE than LF.

The verb ‘urge’ is used 3 times in PWE in this complementation pattern whereas it is used in LF

10 times.

180

a. He asked the lawyers for coordinated efforts to clear misunderstanding about Shariah and

urged to defend Islam through scholarly reasoning and positive comparison with other

legal systems. (PWE)

b. And accompanying adults are urged to keep an alert and sensible eye on their

responsibilities.

Table 6.51

Verbs in Pattern 1(V to V): Zero Frequency in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Become 0 0 0.07

Carry 0 0.19 0

Eat 0 0.83 0

Improve 0 0.56 0

Lie 0 0.71 0.76

Live 0 1.5 1.77

Mention 0 0.43 0.82

Open 0 0.4 0.8

Read 0 0 0.51

Sit 0 0.16 0

Remind 0 0 0.83

Table 6.51 shows the verbs in PWE which do not appear in this complementation pattern

whereas they are being used in other varieties.

For example the verb ‘live’ occurs 11 times in BF and 13 times in LF but not a single

occurrence has been attested in PWE.

a. Ritter died in 1810 and Oersted not only lived to see the event occur but was the author of

it. (BF)

181

b. Twenty years is a long time: Mr. Khrushchev will be eighty-seven if he lives to see his

Utopia come true. (LF)

Table 6.52Verbs in Pattern 1 (V to V):Zero Frequency in BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Accept 0.21 0 0.44

Become 0 0 0.07

Enjoy 0.26 0 0

Ensure 0.23 0 0

Express 0.54 0 0

Follow 0.2 0 0.11

Introduce 1.31 0 1.59

Lose 0.2 0 0

Maintain 0.49 0 0

Present 0.25 0 0.63

Produce 0.16 0 0.32

Provide 0.12 0 0.71

Read 0 0 0.51

Receive 0.18 0 0.21

Succeed 1.89 0 0

Announce 4.2 0 0.54

Suggest 1.23 0 0.33

Stress 1.2 0 0

Avoid 1.14 0 0

Contemplate 8.33 0 0

Press 1.3 0 3.7

Ban 1.25 0 0

Discourage 1.82 0 0

Remind 0 0 0.83

Resort 11.29 0 4.76

Assure 4.55 0 0

Table 6.52 highlights the 26 verbs in BF which do not use ‘v to v’ complements but 24

items have occurrence in PWE and 14 have in LF. For example the verb ‘resort’ has 7

occurrences in PWE and 1 occurrence in LF but no occurrence in BF. For example,

182

a. They are scared to move during the day and are resorting to advance by night for

protection of the infantry. (PWE)

Table 6.53Verbs in Pattern 1(V to V): Zero Frequency in LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Carry 0 0.19 0

Eat 0 0.83 0

Enjoy 0.26 0 0

Ensure 0.23 0 0

Express 0.54 0 0

Improve 0 0.56 0

Lose 0.2 0 0

Maintain 0.49 0 0

Play 0.23 0.41 0

Sit 0 0.16 0

Talk 0.93 0.17 0

Visit 0.49 0.5 0

Succeed 1.89 0 0

Stress 1.2 0 0

Avoid 1.14 0 0

Contemplate 8.33 0 0

Ban 1.25 0 0

Discourage 1.82 0 0

Assure 4.55 0 0

Table 6.53 indicates 19 verbs out of which 15 were attested in PWE but were not found

in the British corpora. There are 2 instances of the verb ‘play’, in this pattern, in PWE and 3

instances of the verb in BF.

a. The Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and Secretary General of the

ruling Pakistan Muslim League Mushahid Hussain Sayed has spoken about the crucial

183

role Pakistan and Iran can play to promote peace and stability in Afghanistan and the

region. (PWE)

b. This was typical of such games, which were earnestly played to win and practically never

wound up in an expression of good fellowship. (BF)

This shows that there are quite divergent trends in the three corpora, related to this

complementation pattern.

6.5.2 Verb + Bare Infinitive (Pattern 2)

This is a rarely used complementation pattern and out of 125 verbs it has been attested

with only 11 verbs. It is chiefly used with three verbs, namely ‘help, make, need’. For example,

a. The CCRI produced a number of high yield virus and pest resistant varieties after the

CLCV crises from the late 1990s onwards and not only revived the crop, but also gave it

the kind of fill up that helped produce this year's bumper and Pakistan's highest every

crop that has exceeded 14.15m bales and is still being counted. (PWE)

b. Attendance continued to run ahead of last year's during the five-day show, with clear

skies helping attract fairgoers. (BF)

c. They have helped build up Nato and rearm Western Germany, in pursuit of the old

familiar anti-Soviet policy which brought disaster in 1939. (LF)

a. Lyari dwellers unable to pay the middleman for water make do with little, disease-ridden,

water. (PWE)

b. Is it for me to be forbidden the flesh you made grow on me? (BF)

184

c. So try to make do with just one slice. (LF)

a. South Asian countries in general and India and Pakistan in particular need do no more

than draw lessons from Europe, whose post-war history is roughly the same length as our

two nations. (PWE)

b. Similarly, if the equivalents for the forms of a word do not vary, the equivalents need be

entered only once with an indication that they apply to each form. (BF)

c. There need be no doubt about that. (LF)

It has been used with eight different verbs in total in Pakistani English and out of which three

are common in all the corpora. Table 6.54 shows the picture.

Table 6.54Pattern 2 (V + Bare Inf): Zero Frequency in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Say 0 0 0.02

See 0 0 0.06

State 0 0 0.47

Pattern 2 Zero in BF

Say 0 0 0.02

See 0 0 0.06

State 0 0 0.47

Get 0.05 0 0

Become 0.06 0 0

Leave 0.11 0 0

Live 0.11 0 0

Speak 0.19 0 0

Pattern 2(V + Bare Inf)Zero Frequency in LF

Get 0.05 0 0

Become 0.06 0 0

Leave 0.11 0 0

Live 0.11 0 0

Speak 0.19 0 0

185

Although apart from ‘help’, ‘make’ and ‘need’, there are three more verbs in LF which are

‘say’, ‘see’ and ‘state’ but there occurrences are rare. For example,

a. In other words, if forced to align myself in terms of this caricature, I am ready to do so,

provided that in exchange everything further I have to say be received as typical of the

growlings of the monstrous metaphysicians. (LF)

In the case of Pakistani data, this pattern is used with five more verbs which are ‘get’,

‘become’, ‘live’, ‘leave’, ‘speak’. All these verbs have one occurrence each.

a. The expressions distasteful elevation and vulgarising of ministries were not much

approved by the majority of informants who speak BE. (PWE)

6.5.3 V + -ing (Pattern 3)

This pattern is attested with 73 verbs in PWE and 25 verbs do not have any example of

this complementation pattern.

Table 6.55Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs having Zero Occurrence in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Tell 0 0 0.06

Put 0 0 0.08

Lead 0 0 0.16

Bring 0 0 0.18

Produce 0 0 0.63

Take 0 0.07 0.03

Want 0 0.07 0.07

Write 0 0.09 0.2

Set 0 0.15 0.25

186

Pay 0 0.18 0.14

Read 0 0.19 0.17

Add 0 0.2 0

Open 0 0.2 0

Offer 0 0.21 0

Seek 0 0.28 0

Lie 0 0.35 0.51

Lose 0 0.36 0

Understand 0 0.38 0

Run 0 0.4 0

Express 0 0.41 0

Demand 0 0.53 0

Raise 0 0.78 0.5

Stress 0 1.43 0

Mention 0 1.71 0

Discourage 0 4.88 0

Table 6.55 points out the verbs which have zero occurrence and the other corpora i.e. British

or American have at least one occurrence of the pattern. For example, the verb ‘produce’ has

zero occurrence in PWE and BF and it has 4 occurrences in LF.

a. Whether it is statistics like their designs winning nearly one third of all the Fastnet Races,

or producing approaching 3,000 designs, or creating a ventilator 60 years ago which, to

this day, has yet to be bettered, the S and S has left an indelible impression on the world

of yachting. (LF)

b. The issue is specifically on the agenda of the review of the common fisheries policy

(CFP) in 1992, and a document has been produced laying out the Shetlands' and Orkneys'

case. (LF)

c. In addition, recombinant FVIII has been produced using genetic engineering techniques

(Wood et al, 1984; Truett et al, 1985). (LF)

187

d. This produces cancelling fields in windings W 1 and W 3 because of the cross-coupling

of windings W 3 and W 4. (LF)

The lowest number of verbs, attested to have this pattern, belongs to LF corpora. There

are 31 verbs which have zero occurrence in LF but majority of them are absent either in PWE or

BF.

Table 6.56Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Add 0 0.2 0

Open 0 0.2 0

Offer 0 0.21 0

Seek 0 0.28 0

Lose 0 0.36 0

Understand 0 0.38 0

Run 0 0.4 0

Express 0 0.41 0

Demand 0 0.53 0

Stress 0 1.43 0

Mention 0 1.71 0

Discourage 0 4.88 0

Hold 0.09 0 0

Live 0.11 0 0

Carry 0.15 0 0

Receive 0.18 0.21 0

Speak 0.19 0 0

Serve 0.2 0 0

State 0.2 0 0

Send 0.2 0.22 0

Play 0.23 0 0

Form 0.28 0 0

Achieve 0.33 0 0

Eat 0.36 0 0

Establish 0.36 0 0

Announce 0.76 0 0

Observe 0.9 0.88 0

Ban 1.25 0 0

Press 1.3 0 0

188

Forbid 1.52 0 0

Hesitate 3.7 0 0

For example the verb ‘write’ has 2 occurrences in LF in this pattern and one occurrence

in BF but has no occurrence in PWE.

a. It calls on all members of the British Actors' Equity Association to write asking their

M.P.s to urge the Government not to omit theatres from the proposed legislation

concerning amenities in shops and offices. (LF)

b. I never met John Dewey, whose style was a sort of verbal fog and who had written asking

me to go to Mexico with him when he was investigating the cause of Trotsky; but I liked

to think of him at ninety swimming and working at Key West long after Hemingway had

moved to Cuba. (BF)

Table 6.57Pattern 3 (V + -ing ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Tell 0 0 0.06

Put 0 0 0.08

Lead 0 0 0.16

Bring 0 0 0.18

Produce 0 0 0.63

Hold 0.09 0 0

Follow 0.1 0 0.11

Live 0.11 0 0

Carry 0.15 0 0

Believe 0.15 0 0.13

Change 0.18 0 0.42

Speak 0.19 0 0

Serve 0.2 0 0

State 0.2 0 0

Create 0.21 0 0.31

Play 0.23 0 0

Maintain 0.24 0 0.41

189

Relate 0.26 0 0.47

Introduce 0.26 0 0.64

Form 0.28 0 0

Achieve 0.33 0 0

Eat 0.36 0 0

Establish 0.36 0 0

Seem 0.39 0 0.06

Cause 0.61 0 0.86

Announce 0.76 0 0

Ban 1.25 0 0

Press 1.3 0 0

Forbid 1.52 0 0

Hesitate 3.7 0 0

Table 6.57 reveals that there are 30 verbs which do not take this pattern but in the other

two varieties these verbs have been found using this complementation pattern.

Table 6.58Pattern 3 (V + -ing ): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Start 33.87 18.49 17.13

‘Start’ is the verb which has been used most distinctively in PWE. Table 6.58 shows that

357 times or 37.87% it has used this complementation pattern in PWE whereas BF has used it

139 times or 18.36% and in LF it has been used 109 times which is 16.67% of the total use of the

verb ‘start’. So the usage of ‘start’ is markedly different in PWE from the other two corpora. For

example,

a. The exports in fact started increasing after that though the cut in duty drawback was also

accompanied with the appreciation of rupee value. (PWE)

190

b. Indeed, from the moment the reports of the coming issue first started circulating in

Dallas last January, the inquiries and demand for the stock started building up. (BF)

c. Angry West Berliners, shouting, Get out, you pigs, gathered outside the Zoo railway

station to-day after the East German officials who run it started issuing permits. (LF)

Table 6.59Pattern 3 (V + -ing): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE than LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Keep 13.82 9.58 8.22

Table 6.59 reveals another verb ‘keep’ which has also been used more frequently in PWE

than the other two corpora. It has been used 14% (153) in PWE but its use in American variety is

10% (99) and in British variety its use is 8% (91).

a. Similarly, the other great Muslim liberal Allama Iqbal always kept stressing to the

Muslim youth to find their own way and not tread on others' paths. (PWE)

b. Yet they keep running from one physician to another, largely to get a willing ear who will

listen to their parade of troubles. (BF)

c. What he did do was to fix us with a basilisk stare, make odd pointing gestures and keep

improvising for about twenty minutes. (LF)

The results of the pattern indicate that the different corpora have different tendencies

regarding specific verb complementation.

191

6.5.4 Verb + Prep + -ing (Pattern 4)

The following verbs use this pattern generally: ‘succeed’, ‘aim’, ‘think’, ‘say’, ‘make’,

‘take’, ‘begin’, ‘go’, ‘help’ and ‘feel’.

Table 6.60Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs With Greater Frequency in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Greater Than BF and LF

Hesitate 11.11 0 4.55

Aim 40.65 16.5 19.17

Greater Than LF

Succeed 37.74 34.02 25

Table 6.60 shows that ‘succeed’ and ‘aim’ are the most significant items in the sense that

they are over-used in PWE with this pattern.

a. In their perception, the Muslim approach should aim at retaining Islamic dynamism and

not at reprising the past. (PWE)

b. Moreover, it is likely that Federal policies aimed at stimulating a faster rate of economic

growth of the country, to keep ahead of the Communist countries and to demonstrate that

our free economic system is better than theirs, will lead to rising Federal spending in

certain areas such as education, housing, medical aid, and the like. (BF)

c. This aims at uniting all Somalis, including those in neighbouring Kenya and Ethiopia,

under one rule. (LF)

192

a. These investments have also succeeded in satisfying the basic needs of much of the

world's population. (PWE)

b. A bunch of young buckaroos from out West, who go by the name of Texas Boys Choir,

loped into Town Hall last night and succeeded in corralling the hearts of a sizable

audience. (BF)

c. Mr. Kruschev and his friends have succeeded in shocking a large part of the world that

might have been more friendly towards them by their callous indifference to the

consequences of these explosions that have threatened the health of the whole world, not

least the Russian people themselves. (LF)

Table 6.61Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Resort 6.45 33.33 14.29

Table 6.61 shows that ‘resort’ is relatively under-used in this pattern in PWE.

a. General Musharraf's fears as DG Military Operations were strong as time arrived when

few Sardars have resorted to creating their own private armies, in order to confront the

central government in defiance. (PWE)

b. They had fought from caves, and the marines resorted to burning them out. (BF)

c. Sometimes the household resorts to pushing out into the cold night any half-presentable

male who happens to be in the house just before midnight, re-admitting him with his

symbols of light and warmth. (LF)

193

Table 6.62

Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Accept 0 0 0.22 Seem 0 0 0.12

Cause 0 0.61 1.73 Serve 0 0.36 1.12

Change 0 0.43 0.42 Sit 0 0 0.16

Continue 0 0 0.21 Stand 0 0.38 0.13

Express 0 0.41 0.43 State 0 0.32 0

Introduce 0 0 0.96 Write 0 0.09 0.1

Mention 0 0.43 0.41 Stress 0 0 2.11

Present 0 0.3 0.31 Contemplate 0 0 2.22

Produce 0 0.81 0.32 Discourage 0 4.88 0

Receive 0 0.42 0.42

Table 6.62 shows that out of the 100 matrix verbs 18 have no instance in PWE in this

pattern. For example the verb ‘serve’ has 4 instances in LF and 2 in BF but has no instance in

PWE.

a. It should be plain that the public interest is best served by issuing the requested order, in

order to avoid passenger disruption, Lewis said in his ruling. (BF)

b. With its gooseberryish aromas and dry, grapefruity, citrus-fruit tang, the feel of the wine,

served to approving foreign tastebuds at last year's Master of Wine Symposium in

Cambridge, is not million miles in style from a Loire white such as Sancerre. (LF)

194

Table 6.63Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Allow 0.55 0.39 0

Enjoy 1.03 0 0

Ensure 0.46 0 0

Establish 0.24 0 0

Hear 0.18 0.35 0

Hold 0.09 0.11 0

Join 0.27 1.08 0

Live 0.34 0.41 0

Offer 0.17 0.43 0

Open 0.28 0.4 0

Reach 0.17 0.55 0

Refer 0.29 1.32 0

Send 0.2 0 0

Show 0.09 0.09 0

State 0 0.32 0

Tell 0.09 0.32 0

Try 0.32 0 0

Visit 0.25 0.5 0

Announce 0.38 0.51 0

Suggest 0.31 0 0

Avoid 0.76 1.36 0

Forbid 1.52 2.33 0

Discourage 0 4.88 0

Inform 0.44 0 0

Table 6.63 reveals that there are 23 verbs having not a single occurrence in LF. For

example the verb ‘avoid’ has not used this construction even once in the British data but has 3

occurrences in LF and 2 in PWE.

a. It is advisable for a judge to hear the male and female litigants separately; intermixing in

the court may be avoided by fixing different days for the hearing of men and women.

(PWE)

195

b. The Free Democrats (12 per cent of the vote) believe a nuclear war can be avoided by

negotiating with the Soviet Union, and more dealings with the Communist bloc. (BF)

The verb ‘reach’ has 3 tokens in BF and one instance in PWE but has no occurrence of

the verb in LF. This indicates that the verb has little tendency to have this complementation

pattern in the British corpora. For example,

a. He said that manual ginning would be promoted in rural areas and every farmer would

install his own wooden ginning device to exclude seed from the cotton and incidents of

tax evasion would be increased resultantly and more than 2.0 million cotton bales would

not reach in ginning factories and farmers would sell it out directly to the local traders to

escape from the taxes. (PWE)

b. Others, which are reached by walking up a single flight of stairs, have balconies. (BF)

Table 6.64

Pattern 4 (Verb + Prep + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Accept 0 0 0.22

Consider 0.15 0 0.6

Continue 0 0 0.21

Enjoy 1.03 0 0

Ensure 0.46 0 0

Establish 0.24 0 0

Improve 0.72 0 0.92

Introduce 0 0 0.96

Maintain 0.24 0 0.41

Meet 0.18 0 0.27

Observe 0.3 0 1.15

Pass 0.9 0 0.42

Relate 1.57 0 1.41

Remain 0.11 0 0.16

196

Run 0.18 0 0.49

Seem 0 0 0.12

Send 0.2 0 0

Sit 0 0 0.16

Try 0.32 0 0

Suggest 0.31 0 0

Stress 0 0 2.11

Contemplate 0 0 2.22

Hesitate 11.11 0 4.55

Ban 2.5 0 11.11

Inform 0.44 0 0

Assure 0.76 0 1.18

Demand 0.4 0 0.5

According to the figures in table 6.64, American data has the maximum number of verbs

i.e. 27 which do not use this complementation pattern. The verb ‘hesitate’ has 3 occurrences each

in PWE and LF but does not have any occurrence in BF. For example,

a. The Caliph did not hesitate in giving decision against the Muslim. (PWE)

b. He told us that people seem to think nothing of spending 6 pound to light the way to their

doorsteps, but will hesitate at spending the same amount for indoor lighting. (LF)

197

6.5.5 Verb + Prep + To + Verb (Pattern 5)

Table 6.65Pattern 5 (Verb + Prep + To + Verb): Verbs Having Zero Frequency in Any Corpus

Verb PWE BF LF

Pattern 5 Zero in PWE

Think 0 0.1 0.08

Pattern 5 Zero in BF

Look 0.08 0 0

Urge 0.83 0 0

Aim 0.93 0 0

Pattern 5 Zero in LF

Look 0.08 0 0

Urge 0.83 0 0

Aim 0.93 0 0

This is the most rare used complementation pattern which has been attested with only 5

verbs in all the three corpora. This pattern is used by the verb ‘call’ in all the three corpora. For

example,

a. On the one hand, he is to perform all the good deeds and on the other, he is called upon to

curb evil; he is to personify truthfulness, justice, and generosity; and at the same time he

is to eliminate oppression, persecution and inequality. (PWE)

b. Miss Upton told the Trustees that the death of Miss Giles was the sorest grief the

Seminary had ever been called upon to bear. (BF)

c. For the executive of a British trade union can always be called upon to give an account of

its stewardship to those who elected it. (LF)

Out of the other 4 verbs with which this pattern has occurred 3 are in PWE i.e. ‘look 1’,

‘aim 2’, ‘urge 1’occurrence.

198

a. The delay is beyond one's understanding and needs to be looked into to avoid waste of

the time, resources and energy put into developing this programme. (PWE)

b. Talking to newsmen after presiding over a meeting of Karachi Electric Supply

Corporation the minister said that the government was mulling on a plan to close business

and trade centers on Saturday and Sunday in a week all over the country aimed at to

overcome the shortage of electricity. (PWE)

c. Similarly, the U.N Secretary General and the OIC is urged upon to take notice of the

Danish Govt. and the Editor of the daily "Jalland Posten" to discourage such media

reporting in future. (PWE)

The verb ‘think’ has two occurrences in BF and LF.

a. Nothing's free in the whole goddam world, was all I could think of to say. (BF)

b. Entering the living-room, Joan put forward the first excuse she could think of to ensure

that her brother might have his coveted few minutes alone with the girl he loved. (LF)

6.5.6 V + NP + -ing (Pattern 6)

This is the second most productive pattern in Pakistani English. It has occurred with 114

matrix verbs, though the other two corpora showed that 24 verbs in BF and 23 verbs in LF do not

have any instance of this complementation pattern.

199

Table 6.66Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Try 0 0 0.31

Visit 0 1 0.43

Suggest 0 0.22 0

Contemplate 0 2.5 2.22

Request 0 1.89 0

Table 6.66 shows the verbs having zero frequency in PWE. For example verb

‘Contemplate’ has zero occurrence in PWE but BF and LF has 1 occurrence each.

a. Myself, Mr. Buchanan, I can not calmly think on the fate of those poor enslaved darkies,

the manner in which not only the men in the fields are abused but the colored ladies also -

I can not , it is a weakness of my nature, I can not contemplate such wrongs without my

heart rising up and yearning to smite those monstrous slave drivers into the Hades that

will be their everlasting abode! (BF)

b. "Well," Mrs Turner contemplated a silver photograph frame surrounding a picture of the

judge's mother. (LF)

Table 6.67Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Accept 1.07 0 0.66

Believe 0.45 0 0.13

Date 0.85 0 0

Eat 0.36 0 0

Improve 0.97 0 0.92

Maintain 0.49 0 0

Raise 2.14 0 0.25

Refer 2.59 0 0.99

200

State 0.81 0 0

Try 0 0 0.31

Succeed 3.77 0 0

Direct 0.97 0 0.81

Discourage 3.64 0 0

Aim 0.93 0 0

Persist 4.65 0 0

Resort 1.61 0 4.76

Reiterate 2.78 0 0

Urge 0.83 0 0

For example the verb ‘direct’ has 2 appearances in PWE and 1 appearance in LF.

a. Efforts should also be directed towards the establishment of a Council of International

Affairs consisting of representatives from universities, concerned Ministries and private

sector. (PWE)

b. The vents are claimed to direct a strong downward thrust of air just forward of the sail

giving the spinnaker increased lift and driving power. (LF)

Table 6.68Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Date 0.85 0 0

Eat 0.36 0 0

Express 1.35 1.65 0

Join 2.41 0.72 0

Maintain 0.49 0 0

Seek 1.35 0.56 0

Serve 1.2 0.53 0

201

State 0.81 0 0

Succeed 3.77 0 0

Suggest 0 0.22 0

Request 0 1.89 0

Discourage 3.64 0 0

Inform 0.87 2.54 0

Aim 0.93 0 0

Persist 4.65 0 0

Reiterate 2.78 0 0

Urge 0.83 0 0

For example ‘Inform’ is a verb which has zero occurrence in LF but has frequency of 2 and 3

in PWE and BF respectively.

a. General Secretary coordination group, Dr. Saira Bano also informed him about computer

labs being set up by the group in different cities of the province. (PWE)

b. Clinton is arguably the most articulate and certainly the best informed of the candidates

chronicling decline in this recession season, when economic failure provides the context

for politics. (BF)

Table 6.69Pattern 6 (V + NP + -ing): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE Than LF

Verb PWE BF LF

See 10.5 5.89 4.73

In Table 6.69 there is only one verb ‘see’ which has greater occurrence in PWE than BF

and LF.

202

a. Lastly, I would like to see Pakistan living with honour, dignity and respect amongst the

nations of the world. (PWE)

b. Patrolman James F. Simms said he started in pursuit when he saw young Stickney

speeding north in Stewart avenue at Central street. (BF)

c. He can not see it taking as blunt a turn as a new blockade on the scale of the last one.

(LF)

6.5.7 Verb + NP + To + Verb (Pattern 7)

Among the 9 complementation patterns, this is the highly used pattern in all the 3

corpora. Maximum number of verbs having occurrence in this pattern is from PWE.

Table 6.70Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Hear 0 0.24 0

Contemplate 0 0 2.22

Beseech 0 0 50

Discourage 0 4.88 3.7

Aim 0 0.97 0

Persist 0 1.75 0

Table 6.70 is showing the verbs having zero occurrence in PWE. For example the verb

‘Discourage’ has 2 occurrences in BF and 1 in LF.

a. Toft writes that Melville seemed to hold his work in small esteem, and discouraged my

attempts to discuss them. (BF)

b. If more suitable courses are developed, it is to be hoped that many of those pupils who at

present are discouraged by their inability to keep abreast of the work set may find it

possible to continue their language study with profit. (LF)

203

Table 6.71Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Eat 0.71 0 0.46

Enjoy 2.06 0 0.34

Observe 0.9 0 0.57

State 0.61 0 0.47

Succeed 1.89 0 0

Avoid 1.14 0 0.4

Contemplate 0 0 2.22

Beseech 0 0 50

Prevent 0.99 0 0.5

Resort 1.61 0 4.76

Assure 3.03 0 0

Reiterate 11.11 0 0

Table 6.71 has these 12 verbs with zero frequency in BF. Out of the 12 verbs ‘Reiterate’

is the verb which has 4 occurrences in PWE in this complementation pattern and it has not been

attested in any other variety.

a. Ms. Salima Pirani, Convenor Portfolio for Prevention of substance Abuse reiterated the

need to raise voice against drugs and work in a concerted way for a drug free Pakistan.

(PWE)

‘Enjoy’ is another verb which has zero occurrence in BF but has 8 occurrences in PWE and 1 in

LF.

a. Pakistan is to enjoy this exclusive benefit against its support to combat drug production

and trafficking in Afghanistan, till December 31, 2004. (PWE)

b. Sceptre's recent successes have led some people to make adverse comments about her

crew in the America's Cup races but it must be remembered that in Evaine she only had a

204

trial horse and not a contender for the challenge while the Americans enjoyed the fiercest

competition in their trials to select their defender. (LF)

Table 6.72Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 0.65 0.51 0

Hear 0 0.24 0

Improve 1.21 0.56 0

Succeed 1.89 0 0

Inform 1.75 0.85 0

Aim 0 0.97 0

Persist 0 1.75 0

Assure 3.03 0 0

Reiterate 11.11 0 0

These verbs have not been found in this pattern in LF. For example both ‘Begin’ and

‘Inform’ have no occurrence in LF. ‘Begin’ has 4 occurrences in PWE and 6 in BF.

a. He began drinking of ways to make Adam disobey God. (PWE)

b. Student leaders began sporadic efforts to negotiate theater integration several months

ago. (BF)

Similarly ‘Inform’ has 4 occurrences in PWE and 1 in BF.

a. It referred to the bilateral textile and apparel visa arrangements that currently applied to

the exports of textile and apparel goods to the US, and said that in accordance with the

termination clause contained in our visa arrangement, the US hereby informs your

country of our intention to terminate in whole the visa arrangement effective January 1,

2005. (PWE)

205

b. Mr. Kennedy had been informed early in the day of the attempt to steal the plane, kept in

touch throughout by telephone. (BF)

Table 6.73Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Greater Percentage in PWE Than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Ask 19.93 11.52 9.91

Stress 8.43 1.43 2.11

Direct 18.84 5.06 2.44

Request 26.15 15.09 8.2

Demand 10.76 1.6 1.49

Reiterate 11.11 0 0

Urge 55.37 34.21 28.72

Table 6.73 shows that Pakistani data has almost double frequency of occurrence in most

cases as compared to BF and LF. For example the verb ‘urge’ has been used 67 times in PWE in

this complementation pattern while it has 39 and 27 occurrences in BF and LF.

a. Urge people to stop using so much unhealthy cooking oil and at the same time encourage

farmers to grow Canola for edible oil production. (PWE)

b. That's not precisely the way Larkin urges them to look at it, though. (BF)

c. I hope that now you and your son and daughter-in-law will forgive and forget, and that

you will urge the young couple to receive all the help they can through prayer and

worship. (LF)

206

Table 6.74Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF and LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Cause 7.57 28.79 14.41

Forbid 10.61 16.28 25.53

Table 6.74 shows the 2 verbs having lesser frequency in PWE than BF and LF. For

example the verb ‘cause’ has the maximum difference of frequency with BF i.e. it has 37

occurrences in PWE while 95 in BF and LF has a frequency of 50, for this verb, in this

complementation pattern. For example,

a. This decline in overall investment caused economic growth to decelerate with a

corresponding rise in unemployment and poverty. (PWE)

b. Developments over the next two months, however, caused the President to reconsider

the question of the timing. (BF)

c. He claimed slackness in the Eisenhower Administration had caused America to lag

behind Russia in nuclear development. (LF)

Table 6.75Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE Than BF

Verb PWE BF LF

Allow 27.88 35.5 31.35

Send 4.38 9.65 6.24

Table 6.75 is showing the verbs with lesser frequency of occurrence in PWE as compared

to BF. Verb ‘allow’ which is also one of the most productive matrix verbs in this

complementation pattern has 203 occurrences in PWE while in BF and LF it has occurred with a

little difference i.e. 180 and 184 respectively.

207

a. At another level, literature allows the individual human being to make use of the unique

gift of articulation of his hopes and desires, joys and sorrows, feelings and thoughts - all

of which he actually experiences alone as an entity, a small cosmos, a universe more

dazzling than the one consisting of brilliant stars and constellations. (PWE)

b. Thru development, the reactor and its steam turbines had been reduced greatly in size,

and also in complexity, allowing a single propeller to be used, the navy said. (BF)

c. A lack of determined defence in midfield and casual defensive covering allowed Swansea

to score tries, but it was the greater experience and vigour of Swansea, with five

internationals, which carried the day. (LF)

Similarly the verb ‘send’ is one of the low frequency verbs in this complementation

pattern which has 22 occurrences in PWE but has a double frequency in BF i.e. 44 times. LF has

29 occurrences for this verb in this pattern.

a. Allah has, due to His Mercy; sent His chosen people to show us how to live a life that

would please Him. (PWE)

b. She had talked her boy friend into sending her to New York to take a screen test. (BF)

c. Hearing, during one hunting season, that there was much unemployment and hardship at

Woodstock, she sent money to provide work. (LF)

Table 6.76Pattern 7 (V + NP + To + V ): Verbs with Lesser Percentage in PWE than LF

Verb PWE BF LF

Beseech 0 0 50

Table 6.76 reveals that ‘beseech’ is showing a clear preference for this pattern in LF

although it is not present in the other two corpora.

208

a. He wrote to Rose beseeching her to help. (LF)

6.5.8 V + that + Verb (Pattern 8)

This pattern belongs to the third category i.e. ‘that clause complementation’. This pattern

has been used with maximum number of matrix verbs in PWE that is 58.

Table 6.77Pattern 8 (V + that + V): Verbs with Zero Occurrence in PWE

Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 0 0 0.22

Cause 0 0.3 0

Change 0 0 0.21

Get 0 0 0.04

Grow 0 0.21 0.45

Improve 0 0.56 0

Like 0 0.16 0.14

Look 0 0.05 0.1

Make 0 0.07 0.06

Reach 0 0 0.36

Set 0 0 0.13

Stand 0 0 0.13

Succeed 0 0 0.76

Contemplate 0 0 2.22

Forbid 0 0 2.13

Remind 0 0.79 0.83

For example ‘Remind’ has some instances in BF and LF but not attested in PWE.

a. Every November 5 until 1859, worshipers at virtually all Protestant places of worship in

England and Wales would be reminded that it had been a Catholic who had tried to blow

up James I and Parliament back in 1605. (BF)

209

b. Management are reminded that GLP studies must be identified as such before they are

initiated. (LF)

In BF, there are 23 verbs which do not come in this pattern. Of these 23 verbs, there are 9

verbs ‘get’, ‘set’, ‘stand’, ‘change’, ‘begin’, ‘reach’, ‘succeed’, ‘forbid’ and ‘contemplate’ which

also do not occur in PWE, whereas there are 11 verbs which in BF as well as LF do not take ‘that

clause complements’. ‘Cause’ and ‘Improve’ are the two verbs for which no occurrence has been

attested in PWE and LF.

6.5.9 V + NP + Bare Infinitive (Pattern 9)

Another pattern to study infinitive complements is verb + noun phrase + bare infinitive.

Table 6.78Pattern 9 (V + NP + Bare Inf) Verbs

Verb PWE BF LF

Bring 0.09 0.12 0

Feel 0.73 2.49 2.13

Give 0 0 0.04

Hear 4.19 7.92 7.27

Help 9.08 12.84 4.04

Make 4.25 5.76 5.27

Need 0.08 0.3 0.1

Say 0.02 0 0

See 1.62 3.2 2.38

Seek 0 0.28 0

Assure 0.76 0 0

This pattern is used by 11 verbs and chief among them are ‘make’, ‘help’, ‘see’, ‘hear’

and ‘feel’.

210

For example the verb ‘hear’ is used as follows.

a. He heard himself say 'Musa and Zamurrud' and with that he uttered a loud cry and fainted

away once again. (PWE)

b. You often hear people talk about team spirit and that sort of thing, Benington said in a

conversation after the ceremonies, but what this team had was a little different. (BF)

c. Believe me, this is not a lot of fuss and nonsense; the reason you hear people say few

people make really good tea is because this nonsense is underrated. (LF)

The verbs ‘give’ and ‘seek’ do not occur in this pattern in PWE. There is no occurrence

of the verbs ‘give’, ‘say’, and ‘assure’ in BF and the verbs ‘bring’, ‘say’, ‘seek’ and ‘assure’

have no appearance in LF. This is not a very productive pattern but this alongwith other 4

infinitive patterns completes the profile of infinitive complements.

Mainly three complementation patterns have been selected. They are infinitive, gerundive

and that clause complements.

This indepth analysis of the data shows that complementation is a really complex area

and each verb has specific choices and it is quite normal that these choices of complementation

patterns vary from one variety to other variety. The detailed list of the frequency of 125 matrix

verbs using any of these 9 complementation patterns is given in appendix C. The list gives

detailed view that which complementation pattern is used or preferred or otherwise by a verb in

Pakistani, British and American corpora. As this is mainly a quantitative study so all the

quantitative results have been given for further utilisation.

211

The major results discussed so far show that all these three sets of data belong to different

varieties. For the detailed and in depth discussion of the complementation patterns 4 case studies

have been conducted i.e. ‘Begin and Start’, ‘Like’, ‘Help’ and Prevent Group Verbs.

212

6.6 CASE STUDY: BEGIN AND START

For the purpose of study all the instances of the two identical synonymous verbs Begin

and Start were calculated. Table 6.79 shows the instances of Begin and Start in PWE, BF and

LF.

Table 6.79Overall Frequency of Begin and Start

Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 616 1178 913

Start 1054 757 654

Table 6.80BEGIN Vs START Frequency and Percentage in Complementation Patterns

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 318 611 538 Begin 51.62 51.86 58.92

Start 463 266 205 Start 43.92 35.13 31.34

Table 6.80 shows the total frequency of these two verbs as lemma and its inflected forms. The

frequency of these two verbs in any of the complementation patterns reveals that Begin is under-used in

PWE. It has only 318 occurrences in PWE that is 51.62% of the total occurrences of Begin in PWE,

whereas in BF, and LF the total occurrences of Begin and its occurrence in complementation pattern in

also high. There are 538 instances of Begin in LF i.e. 58.92% and 611 occurrences in BF i.e. 51.86%

that is the maximum percentage of occurrence of Begin in all of the corpora in these complementation

patterns.

Table 6.80 also reveals that the frequency of start is the highest in PWE and lowest in LF. This

shows a trend that in PWE the frequency of Begin

the frequency of Start is higher than

use start where the other varieties use Begin and vice versa.

Table 6.81Frequency and Percentage of BEGINPattern PWE BF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 243 450Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0 0

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 59 133

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing)

9 17

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 3 5

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 4 6

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Begin

Fig 6.13 Begin Vs Start (Percentage)

also reveals that the frequency of start is the highest in PWE and lowest in LF. This

t in PWE the frequency of Begin is lower than the other corpora and conversely

the frequency of Start is higher than the other corpora. This might be due to the reason that we

use start where the other varieties use Begin and vice versa.

Frequency and Percentage of BEGIN in Complementation PatternsLF Pattern PWE BF

450 462Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 39.44

0 0Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0

133 48Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 9.57

17 19

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing)

1.46

0 0Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0

5 7Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.48

6 0Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0.64

Start

Fig 6.13 Begin Vs Start (Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

213

also reveals that the frequency of start is the highest in PWE and lowest in LF. This

is lower than the other corpora and conversely

other corpora. This might be due to the reason that we

LF

38.20 50.60

0 0

11.29 5.25

1.44 2.08

0 0

0.42 0.76

0.50 0

PWE

BF

LF

214

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 2

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0.21

Total 318 611 538 Total 51.62 51.86 58.92

Then the occurrences of these verbs in the 8 selected patterns were calculated. Table 6.81

shows the occurrences of Begin in the eight complementation patterns. ‘Begin’ does not occur in

Pattern 2, 5 and 8 (which are gerundive complementation patterns). ‘Begin’ prefers the ‘to

infinitive’ complementation and there are ignorable occurrences of ‘Begin’ in gerundive patterns

in the three corpora. Out of the 8 patterns it is the ‘to infinitive’ pattern which is used most in all

three corpora. Begin occurs 51.62% in PWE, 51.86% in BF and 58.92% in LF which shows that

the British variety uses most of the time ‘Begin’ in these patterns. Examples of ‘Begin’ in these

patterns:

a. Once farmers and others begin to pay the real cost of water, the additional expenditure for

laying of the perforated pipes will be considered a bargain. (PWE)

b. And this was before he began to play his startlingly beautiful jazz. (BF)

c. Eleven years ago the enterprising Mr. Harvey began to specialise in contributions by

well-known sportsmen. (LF)

Conversely pattern 3 is over-used in BF, and PWE than LF.

a. The Truth begins working when one catches hold of one's self and presents it in front of

one's own conscience to be judged. (PWE)

b. So escalation proceeds, ad infinitum or, more accurately, until the contestants begin

dropping them on each other instead of on their respective proving grounds. (BF)

c. Perhaps he ought to begin shouting an injunction to open in the name of the law. (LF)

215

Table 6.82Frequency and Percentage of START in Complementation Patterns

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 82 104 82

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 7.77 13.73 12.53

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0 0 0

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0 0 0

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 357 140 112

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 33.87 18.49 17.12

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing)

5 11 6

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing)

0.47 1.45 0.91

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 8 8 3

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.75 1.05 0.45

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 11 3 2

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 1.04 0.39 0.30

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Total 463 266 205 Total 43.92 35.13 31.34

The result in Table 6.82 can be interpreted as under: Just like Begin, Start does not occur

at all in pattern 2, 5 and 8 in any of the corpora (which are gerundive complementation patterns).

Contrary to the trend in Table 6.82 regarding Begin, Start prefers pattern 3 gerundive

complementation as compared to ‘to infinitive’. The frequency of start in pattern 3 shows that

there is a clear difference in the preference among the three corpora. In PWE Start is over-used

in Pattern 3. It occurs 33.87%which is the highest frequency and percentage of start in any of the

corpus.

a. Yield conscious growers keep a tab on research on varieties when they reach field trail

stage and start using the seed before it is officially identified for cultivation. (PWE)

b. He might barge into a gallery, start haggling over prices without so much as a word of

greeting. (BF)

c. Then he started dancing

Opposite to that, pattern 1

with ‘Start’ is not preferred in PWE.

lowest percentage of ‘Start

a. By the way, that is also the reason why we should not

b. Says Keys: Maybe if the idea got around again that obesity is immoral, the fat man

would start to think

c. The melt is then cooled at a few degrees per hour until crystals

alternatively the flux is evaporated at a constant rate. (LF)

Table 6.83BEGIN: Infinitive Vs Gerundive

Verb PWE

Infinitive 247

Gerundive 71

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Infinitive

Fig 6.14 BEGIN: Infinitive VsGerundive (Percentage)

started dancing again. (LF)

pattern 1 results reveal that the tendency to use infinitive complements

is not preferred in PWE. In PWE Start occurs in just 7.77% in pattern 1 which is the

Start’ in any of the corpora compared. For example,

By the way, that is also the reason why we should not start to smoke

Maybe if the idea got around again that obesity is immoral, the fat man

start to think. (BF)

The melt is then cooled at a few degrees per hour until crystals start to form

alternatively the flux is evaporated at a constant rate. (LF)

EGIN: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage)

BF LF Verb PWE BF

456 462 Infinitive 40.09

155 74 Gerundive 11.52

Gerendive

Fig 6.14 BEGIN: Infinitive VsGerundive (Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

216

results reveal that the tendency to use infinitive complements

% in pattern 1 which is the

For example,

start to smoke. (PWE)

Maybe if the idea got around again that obesity is immoral, the fat man

start to form, or

BF LF

38.70 50.60

13.15 8.10

PWE

BF

LF

Table 6.84START: Infinitive Vs Gerundive

Verb PWE BF

Infinitive 93 107

Gerundive 370 159

Table 6.83 reveals that for

shows that ‘Start’ prefers gerundive complement construction.

Langacker (1991) is of the opinion that the syntax of these two verbs is based on

alternative ways of complementation i.e. nominal and/or verbal. Dixon (199

and have also talked about th

Begin and Start. It is argued that a ‘To Clause’ refers potentiality and an ‘

actual involvement. According to

generally in the cognitive or emotive domains and for contexts involving speaking and talking”

0

10

20

30

40

Infinitive

Fig 6.15 START: Infinitive VsGerundive (Percentage)

START: Infinitive Vs Gerundive( Frequency and Percentage)

BF LF Verb PWE BF

107 84 Infinitive 11.52

159 121 Gerundive 35.10

reveals that for ‘Begin’ the infinitive complementation is preferred and 6.84

efers gerundive complement construction.

acker (1991) is of the opinion that the syntax of these two verbs is based on

alternative ways of complementation i.e. nominal and/or verbal. Dixon (199

also talked about the Gerundive Vs To-Infinitive Complementation type

Begin and Start. It is argued that a ‘To Clause’ refers potentiality and an ‘

actual involvement. According to Lipka and Schmid (1994) “Begin refers to gradual begin

generally in the cognitive or emotive domains and for contexts involving speaking and talking”

Gerendive

Fig 6.15 START: Infinitive VsGerundive (Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

217

LF

13.15 8.10

21.00 18.50

ementation is preferred and 6.84

acker (1991) is of the opinion that the syntax of these two verbs is based on

alternative ways of complementation i.e. nominal and/or verbal. Dixon (1995), Quirk et al (1995)

Infinitive Complementation type differences of

Begin and Start. It is argued that a ‘To Clause’ refers potentiality and an ‘-ing’ clause indicates

“Begin refers to gradual beginnings,

generally in the cognitive or emotive domains and for contexts involving speaking and talking”

PWE

BF

LF

218

(p.13), whereas start “is used to denote dynamic and sudden beginnings of actions”. Lipka and

Schmid (1994) are of the opinion that ‘start’ is semantically more complex than begin, which is

confined to the meaning “inchoative”.

Halliday (1993) looked at polarity and (primary) tense. He found that ‘Begin’ is a past

oriented verb. (p.19)

Kjellmer (1992) looked at the frequency of passivity, tense and to complementation with

high frequency verbs in the LOB corpus. He distinguished verbs with low and high present tense

orientation, to complementation and passivity. Begin appeared in the low passivity list (Kjellmer,

1992, p.338) but is not among the 30 most frequent low past tense verbs. It even does not surface

with any marked preference for to-complementation.

In the case of start the opposite trend of Begin seems true. The occurrence of the

infinitive pattern is relatively low. It is lowest in PWE and highest in LF. The gerundive use of

Start is comparatively high in past tense. The difference between the varieties is quite visible at

this level. The results show that this pattern is most used in Pakistani data and contrary to it less

used in British and American varieties.

To have an in depth analysis of these two verbs, three features i.e. polarity, passivity and

(primary) tense have been studied.

As far as passivity is concerned all these corpora show a clear tendency towards active

usage of both the verbs Begin and Start.

219

Table 6.85Active Voice in Begin and Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 91.77 86.00 87.23

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 92.68 83.65 87.80

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 96.61 97.74 97.92

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 98.04 98.57 95.54

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 88.89 94.12 94.74

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+np+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 6(v+np+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 100.00 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 66.67 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 92.77 89.03 88.66 Total 97.19 92.48 92.68

The percentage of ‘Begin’ in the three corpora is almost more than 88%. Similarly Start

also has clear “Active’ preference and occurs almost 97%, 92% and 92% in PWE, BF and LF

respectively. However there are divergent trends as one moves to individual patterns of ‘Begin’

and ‘Start’ on passivity scale. Pattern 1 occurs in 86% active constructions in BF, then slightly

higher in LF i.e. 87% and the highest percentage of active construction is 91% in PWE.

In the case of ‘Start’, Table 6.85 reveals that Pattern 1 (to-infinitive) occurs 92% in PWE

which is the highest in all the three corpora. The occurrence of Pattern 1 in America and British

corpora is 83% and 87% respectively. Pattern 7 occurs 100% as active in PWE and BF but only

66% as active in BF.

220

Table 6.86Passive Voice in Begin and Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 8.23 14.00 12.77

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 7.32 16.35 12.20

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 3.39 2.26 2.08

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 1.96 1.43 4.46

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 11.11 5.88 5.26

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0.00 33.33 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 7.23 10.97 11.34 Total 2.81 7.52 7.32

Table shows that the passive use of begin and start is almost less than 10% in all the three

corpora.

Table 6.87Positive in Begin And Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 99.59 98.89 98.70

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 97.56 100.96 100.00

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 100.00 99.25 100.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 100.00 100.00 98.21

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 100.00 81.82 100.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

221

Pattern 6(v+np+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 6(v+np+ing) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 100.00 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 99.69 99.02 98.88 Total 99.57 99.62 99.02

Table 6.88Negative in Begin And Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 0.41 1.11 1.30

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 2.44 0.96 0.00

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 0.00 0.75 0.00

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 0.00 0.00 1.79

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 0.00 18.18 0.00

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 0.31 0.98 1.12 Total 0.43 1.13 0.98

On the polarity scale at table 6.87 and 6.88, both Begin and Start show 99% positive and

the negative use is rare, i.e. less that 1%.

222

Table 6.89Present in Begin And Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 30.04 37.33 34.42

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 32.93 42.31 42.68

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 11.86 14.29 6.25

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 40.90 43.57 47.32

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 88.89 64.71 73.68

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 100.00 72.73 100.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 100.00 60.00 42.86

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 37.50 37.50 66.67

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 0.00 16.67 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 63.64 66.67 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 50.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 28.62 33.06 33.46 Total 40.60 44.36 47.80

As far as the System of Tense is concerned, Table 6.89 shows that the use of Begin in the

present form is 30% in Pakistani data, 34% in British and 37% in American data which is the

highest percentage and the maximum use of present tense is in the pattern 1 which is to-infinitive

construction. In the case of Start, the total occurrence of ‘start’ in present tense in PWE, BF and

LF is 40%, 44% and 47% respectively. Pattern 1 reveals that there are micro level differences in

the sense that in this Pattern Both LF and BF occur 42% as present whereas 32% of PWE occurs

as present.

223

Table 6.90Past in Begin And Start (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 69.96 62.67 65.80

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 67.07 57.69 57.32

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 88.14 85.71 93.75

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 59.10 56.43 52.68

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 11.11 35.29 26.32

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 27.27 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 0.00 40.00 57.14

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 62.50 62.50 33.33

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 83.33 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 36.36 33.33 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 50.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 71.38 66.94 66.73 Total 59.40 55.64 52.20

It is evident from Table 6.90 that ‘Begin’ prefers past tense construction as there are 71%

occurrences of ‘Begin’ referring to past tense in PWE which declines to 66.93% in BF and it

drops to 66.72% in LF. There are differences among the corpora on pattern level, e.g. in Pattern

3, which is gerundive use, BF shows 85% occurrences and in the case of Pakistani variety 88%

of Begin is used in past tense and this increases to 93% in the case of British corpus.

The verbs coming after both matrix v

purpose of some detailed analysis of their collocation. Dixon (2005) gave a li

related to speaking (provided in

collocates of the trigger verbs the verbs of speaking

0

20

40

60

80

100

Acitve Passive

Fig 6.16 Overall Comparison of BEGIN

0

20

40

60

80

100

Acitve Passive

Fig 6.17 Overall Comparison of START

verbs coming after both matrix verbs ‘Begin’ and ‘Start’ have been

purpose of some detailed analysis of their collocation. Dixon (2005) gave a li

related to speaking (provided in Appendix D). This list has been taken and out of all the

collocates of the trigger verbs the verbs of speaking have been identified. There were 112

Positive Negitive Present Past

Fig 6.16 Overall Comparison of BEGIN(Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

Positive Negitive Present Past

Fig 6.17 Overall Comparison of START(Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

224

have been studied for the

purpose of some detailed analysis of their collocation. Dixon (2005) gave a list of 99 verbs

has been taken and out of all the

identified. There were 112

PWE

BF

LF

PWE

BF

LF

225

occurrences of 38 Verbs of Speaking with Begin and 92 occurrences of 29 Verbs of Speaking

with Start.

Table 6.91Type Token Ratio

Verb PWE BF LF

Begin 1.61 1.83 1.95

Start 2.14 1.91 2.18

The verbs which have accompanied with Begin as well as Start have been ignored

and the verbs which came only with any one verb specifically they have been selected. It

came to the observation that all three varieties under study have different sets of verbs.

Table 6.92Collocates of Begin and Start in PWE

BEGIN START

Agree Argue

Answer Blame

Congradulate Chat

Describe Encourage

Express Hum

Inform Instruct

Laugh Pray

Voice Preach

Welcome Shout

Whisper Utter

Whistle

Table 6.92 presents the unique collocates of Begin and Start. There are variety specific

collocates. These are verbs which behave differently in other corpora. The verb ‘Agree’, in

226

Pakistani variety, comes with Begin but in the British data it is a unique collocate of the verb

start.

a. In his informative book, A History of Pakistani English Literature, Dr. Tariq Rahman

says that by the 1950s, writers in Pakistan began to agree with the prescriptive dictum

that their work must have an extra-literary purpose, namely to “serve society”. (PWE)

b. But once you start agreeing that the proposal is reasonable, you can reach the extreme

lengths of unreason. (LF)

Similarly the verb ‘Whistle’ in Pakistani data collocates with Begin but in the American

corpora ‘Whistle’ comes only with Start.

a. He began to whistle happily as he started putting on his new dress. (PWE)

b. She started to whistle, She'll Be Coming Round the Mountain When She Comes,

Whiskers sniffing here and there and lifting his leg to pee a little. (BF)

In the case of Start again there are instances of variety specific differences. In Pakistani

data ‘Argue’ and ‘Blame’ come only with start and do not collocate with Begin.

a. The octogenarian started arguing and refused to leave the spot. (PWE)

b. Lately, to cover up for his government's failure to do so Mr Khan has started blaming

Afghanistan for publicising that "The test reports of these affected children were similar

to those found in Afghanistan". (PWE)

‘Argue’ collocates with Begin in British data and not with Start.

a. In the bleakest moments of gloom, many people are fearful, convinced that political

leaders are swayed by the formidable demands of belligerent generals for newer, bigger,

227

more deadly weapons, and that they are swayed because the scientific and technological

advances in weapons have made it impossible for lay politicians to resist or even begin to

argue against such demands. (LF)

Similarly ‘Blame’ which is a collocate of Start in Pakistani data collocates only with Begin.

a. Lately, to cover up for his government's failure to do so Mr Khan has started blaming

Afghanistan for publicising that "The test reports of these affected children were similar

to those found in Afghanistan". (PWE)

b. The pleas came as the Russian press began blaming Japan's " hysterical" environment for

contributing to Yeltsin's abrupt postponement. (BF)

Table 6.93Collocates of Begin and Start in BF

BEGIN START

Abuse Applaud

Blame Brief

Boast Confess

Complain Curse

Converse Lie

Cry Question

Debate Slander

Declare Sound

Exclaim Whistle

Moan Yell

Recite

Sizzle

Snort

State

Suggest

Thank

Threaten

228

The American variety has the most number of verbs coming with Begin uniquely.

a. Fortunately we were alone in the building so few people nowadays are interested even in

their own past or in the lovely craft of other days for they began to abuse each other in

the foulest language. (BF)

b. Many of them, moreover, are beginning to complain about the scarcity of Western

amusements and to ridicule the old life of the bazaar merchant, the mullah, and the

peasant. (BF)

c. And he had no sooner devoured them, than he turned his sights on Poland, and began

threatening them about issues that had been a problem for some time, in Danzig, and

elsewhere. (BF)

Table 6.94Collocates of Begin and Start in LF

BEGIN START

Admit Agree

Argue Speak

Grumble

Hiss

Murmur

Note

Observe

Pronounce

Regret

Sing

Sound

Undertake

229

Table 6.94 reveals that the British data has the least number of verb collocates occurring

specific to, either Begin or Start. Although there are 12 verbs which collocate only with Begin

but there are only 2 verbs ‘Agree’ and ‘Speak’ which collocate with Start only.

a. But once you start agreeing that the proposal is reasonable, you can reach the extreme

lengths of unreason. (LF)

b. Inevitably, as soon as we do that, the other party starts speaking, and everyone is talking

at once. (LF)

Of these two ‘Agree’ is only a British collocate in the sense that in Pakistani English this

comes as a Begin specific collocate.

a. In his informative book, A History of Pakistani English Literature, Dr. Tariq Rahman

says that by the 1950s, writers in Pakistan began to agree with the prescriptive dictum

that their work must have an extra-literary purpose, namely to "serve society". (PWE)

As the frequencies of these collocates are low so no categorical statement can be passed

about the collocates but the data just points out a tendency which may be explored further.

The study shows that there are slight differences among the varieties and the collocates of

the two verbs, i.e. ‘Begin and Start’, are quite different, in the three corpora.

230

6.7 CASE STUDY: LIKE

The verb ‘like’ has been categorized by Biber et al. (1999) as a verb of desire. It is enlisted

among the verbs which take post predicate infinitive clause as complements.

Table 6.95

Frequency of Like in the three Corpora

Verb PWE BF LF

Like 582 640 726

It has been used 582 times in PWE 640 times in BF and 726 times in LF. Among the 8

pattern specified for the study of complementation it is the first pattern i.e. ‘V+to+V’ which is

predominantly occurring in all the three corpora.

Table 6.96Frequency and Percentage of LIKE inComplementation Patterns

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 39.18 34.84 31.68

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 228 223 230

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0 0 0

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 2.23 2.81 3.86

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 13 18 28

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 0 0 0

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 0.17 1.41 0.83

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 1 9 6

231

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 1.03 2.34 3.72

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 6 15 27

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.16 0.14

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 1 1

Total 42.61 41.56 40.22 Total 248 266 292

Its occurrence in the different patterns of complementation is given in Table 6.96.

Table 6.97

Like: Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

Infinitive 234 238 257 40.2 37.19 35.4

Gerundive 14 27 34 2.4 4.219 4.68

Total 248 265 291 42.61 41.41 40.1

Table 6.97 reveals that although ‘V to v’ is the most recurrent pattern in all the three

corpora but there are subtle differences in the frequency of occurrence. In LF the percentage of

‘like to v’ is 31.68 which is comparatively the lowest percentage among all the three corpora.

The percentage of ‘like + to + verb’ in BF is 34.84 which is higher than LF but lower than PWE.

Biber et al. (1999) has also provided similar observation that this pattern is over-used in

American variety than in British variety. But ‘like +to +verb’ appears 39.18% in PWE which is

the highest percentage of the verb in this pattern.

Contrary to this result the occurrence of like in the gerundive patterns though low on the

whole, is showing the trend that the pattern 3 and 6 are comparatively equally used in British,

American and Pakistani varieties. In pattern 7 which is ‘like NP +

lowest one. This pattern occurs 3.71% in LF 2.34%% in BF and just 1.03% in PWE. This

indicates that although the general trends remain the same but there are slight variations among

the three corpora. The overall picture of ‘like

has been presented in Table6.97. Out of the 42% occurrence of the verb like in these patterns

40% is the infinitive and 2% occurrence of Gerundive complements with like in PWE. The

highest percentage of like in gerundive is 4.68% which is a British trend. ‘Like’ does not take

bare infinitive in any of the corpora.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Infinitive

Fig 6.18 LIKE: Infinitive Vs Gerundive

Contrary to this result the occurrence of like in the gerundive patterns though low on the

whole, is showing the trend that the pattern 3 and 6 are comparatively equally used in British,

American and Pakistani varieties. In pattern 7 which is ‘like NP + To’ PWE percentage is the

lowest one. This pattern occurs 3.71% in LF 2.34%% in BF and just 1.03% in PWE. This

indicates that although the general trends remain the same but there are slight variations among

the three corpora. The overall picture of ‘like’ with infinitive versus gerundive complementation

has been presented in Table6.97. Out of the 42% occurrence of the verb like in these patterns

40% is the infinitive and 2% occurrence of Gerundive complements with like in PWE. The

ke in gerundive is 4.68% which is a British trend. ‘Like’ does not take

bare infinitive in any of the corpora.

Gerundive

Fig 6.18 LIKE: Infinitive Vs Gerundive(Percentage)

PWE

BF

LF

232

Contrary to this result the occurrence of like in the gerundive patterns though low on the

whole, is showing the trend that the pattern 3 and 6 are comparatively equally used in British,

To’ PWE percentage is the

lowest one. This pattern occurs 3.71% in LF 2.34%% in BF and just 1.03% in PWE. This

indicates that although the general trends remain the same but there are slight variations among

’ with infinitive versus gerundive complementation

has been presented in Table6.97. Out of the 42% occurrence of the verb like in these patterns

40% is the infinitive and 2% occurrence of Gerundive complements with like in PWE. The

ke in gerundive is 4.68% which is a British trend. ‘Like’ does not take

PWE

BF

LF

233

Table 6.98Active and Passive Voice in Like (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 100.00 99.55 98.26

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 0.00 0.00 1.74

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 100.00 100.00 92.86

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 0.00 0.00 7.14

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 100.00 88.89 100.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 0.00 11.11 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 100.00 96.30

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 0.00 0.00 3.70

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 100.00 99.25 97.60 Total 0.00 0.38 2.40

The micro analysis of the verb ‘like’ revealed that in the system of voice ‘like’ generally

behaves as an active verb in all the three corpora. It is 100% occurring as an active verb, in the

patterns under study, in PWE. Its frequency is above 99% as active verb in BF and 97% of the

time in LF.

234

Table 6.99Positive and Negative in Like( Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 100.00 100.00 98.26

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 0.00 0.00 1.74

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2 (v+ bere inf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 100.00 88.89 92.86

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 0.00 11.11 7.14

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 100.00 88.89 100.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 0.00 11.11 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 100.00 100.00 96.30

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 0.00 0.00 3.70

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 100.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 100.00 98.87 97.60 Total 0.00 1.13 2.40

Its orientation towards positiveness is also established as it has above 97% occurrence in

all the three corpora, in positive context.

It is only the British corpora which has 4.2% occurrence of negative polarity in the

context of the verb like. In the temporal sense like generally has present time orientation in all

the three corpora.

235

Table 6.100

Present and Past in Like (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 97.81 88.34 92.17

Pattern 1(v+ to+v) 2.19 11.66 7.83

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 2(v + bereinf) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 76.92 27.78 78.57

Pattern 3(v+ –ing) 23.08 72.22 21.43

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 4(v+prep+ing) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 5(v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 100.00 77.78 100.00

Pattern 6(v+ np+ing) 0.00 22.22 0.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 83.33 93.33 100.00

Pattern 7(v+np+to+v) 16.67 6.67 0.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 100.00

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 100.00 0.00

Total 96.37 83.83 91.78 Total 3.63 16.17 8.22

Table 6.100 indicates 96% present occurrence in PWE, 84% in BF and 92% in LF. So the

American data has some more instances of like occurring in the past time.

To look at the collocates of the verb ‘like’ the verbs in the infinitive construction which

occurred with the matrix verb have been studied. Table 6.102enlists all the verbs in all the three

corpora which combine as complements of the verb ‘like’. There are 98 verbs which collocate

with ‘like’ in PWE, 119 verbs collocates of ‘Like’ in BF and 104 collocates of ‘Like’ in LF.

‘See’ is the most recurrent collocate of the verb ‘Like’. It occurs 28 times with like in LF.

19 times it co-occurs with like in PWE and 12 times in BF.

236

a. Would you like to see Islam, as a moral and political ideal, meeting the same fate in the

world of Islam as Christianity has already met in Europe? (PWE)

b. Barber, who is in his 13th year as a legislator, said there "are some members of our

congressional delegation in Washington who would like to see it (the resolution) passed".

(BF)

c. It is on the grounds of improving the quality of decision making that she would like to see

more women MPs. (LF)

Table 6.101

‘Like to V’ Collocates

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Abolish 0 0 1 Measure 0 1 0

Acknowledge 0 0 1 Meet 0 2 1

Acquire 1 0 0 Mention 4 1 2

Add 4 2 4 Miss 0 0 1

Alert 0 0 1 Move 0 0 3

Apologise 0 0 1 Mull 0 0 1

Appeal 1 0 0 Name 0 0 1

Apply 0 0 1 Nip 0 1 0

Appreciate 1 0 0 Note 1 2 0

Approach 1 0 0 Object 0 1 0

Ask 3 2 1 Oblige 0 0 1

Assassinate 0 1 0 Offer 3 1 0

Assess 0 1 0 Open 1 0 0

Assure 1 0 0 Organize 0 1 0

Attend 1 0 0 Part 0 0 1

Avoid 1 0 1 Pay 1 0 1

Awaken 1 0 0 Pick 0 0 1

Be 5 6 11 Place 1 1 1

Bear 0 0 1 Play 0 2 0

Become 2 1 0 Point 1 0 2

Begin 1 0 1 Praise 1 0 0

237

Believe 0 3 0 Preserve 0 0 1

Board 0 1 0 Press 0 1 0

Borrow 0 1 1 Pretend 0 0 1

Bother 0 1 0 Promote 1 0 0

Break 0 1 0 Prove 1 0 0

Bring 4 2 2 Put 2 3 0

Burrow 0 1 0 Quote 1 0 0

Buy 0 3 1 Read 1 1 1

Call 4 3 3 Reaffirm 1 0 0

Catch 0 1 0 Recognize 0 1 0

Chat 0 0 1 Record 0 1 0

Cite 1 0 0 Refer 1 0 1

Claim 0 0 2 Register 0 1 0

Clarify 0 0 1 Reiterate 1 0 0

Collect 1 0 0 Remain 1 0 0

Come 0 1 1 Remember 0 1 0

Commend 1 0 0 Remind 4 0 1

Compare 0 1 0 Request 3 0 0

Confirm 0 0 1 Retain 1 0 0

Congratulate 9 0 0 Retest 0 1 0

Congregate 0 1 0 Revert 1 0 0

Consider 0 0 1 Revive 0 0 1

Contact 0 0 1 Ride 1 0 0

Contest 1 0 0 Ridicule 0 1 0

Convey 5 0 1 Rise 0 1 0

Copy 1 0 0 Run 0 1 0

Crawl 0 0 1 Savor 0 1 0

Cruise 1 0 0 Say 5 6 5

Dance 0 2 0 See 19 12 28

Define 0 0 1 Sell 2 0 0

Describe 0 1 1 Serve 2 0 0

Designate 0 1 0 Set 0 1 0

Disclose 0 1 0 Sew 0 1 0

Discuss 1 0 0 Share 4 0 0

Dismiss 0 0 1 Shear 0 1 0

Disturb 0 0 1 Shout 0 0 1

Do 3 6 4 Show 1 0 0

Dominate 0 1 0 Sign 0 1 0

238

Draw 6 1 0 Sing 0 1 0

Drink 2 0 1 Sit 2 1 2

Drive 2 1 1 Sleep 0 1 0

Eat 4 2 1 Sniff 0 1 0

Embark 0 1 0 Solve 0 1 0

Emulate 0 0 1 Speak 1 1 3

Enact 0 1 0 Spend 0 0 2

End 0 0 1 Stand 0 0 1

Enjoy 1 0 1 Start 0 1 4

Exhibit 0 1 0 Starve 0 1 0

Explain 2 0 0 Stay 1 1 4

Express 3 0 0 Steal 0 0 1

Extend 8 0 0 Stop 1 0 0

Fancy 0 1 0 Straighten 0 1 0

Feel 2 0 2 Strengthen 0 0 1

Fill 0 1 0 Stretch 0 0 1

Find 0 0 1 Study 0 1 0

Fit 0 0 1 Submit 1 0 0

Follow 3 1 0 Suggest 2 1 0

Get 3 6 4 Suspend 1 0 0

Give 3 2 2 Sympathize 1 0 0

Go 4 7 8 Tackle 1 0 0

Govern 0 0 2 Take 4 2 4

Grow 0 1 0 Talk 0 7 3

Have 4 5 14 Tease 0 2 0

Hear 1 4 2 Tell 1 3 1

Help 2 1 1 Test 0 0 1

Hire 0 1 0 Thank 4 0 3

Hit 0 1 0 Think 5 13 14

Hook 0 1 0 Trace 1 0 0

Hunt 0 2 0 Trade 0 0 1

Hurt 0 1 0 Train 0 1 0

Identify 0 0 1 Travel 0 2 0

Imagine 0 2 0 Treat 0 0 2

Imitate 0 0 1 Trot 0 1 0

Impress 1 0 0 Try 0 0 1

Improve 0 0 1 Turn 2 1 1

Include 0 0 2 Underline 0 1 0

239

Inform 6 1 1 Use 0 2 1

Introduce 0 1 0 Venture 0 0 1

Invite 1 1 0 Visit 1 0 0

Join 1 0 1 Wake 2 0 0

Keep 1 1 4 Wander 0 1 0

Kick 0 1 0 Waste 1 0 0

Kill 0 2 0 Watch 0 0 1

Know 8 9 7 Woo 0 1 0

Lay 0 0 1 Work 1 3 0

Leave 1 0 1 Wrap 0 1 0

Liberate 0 1 0 Wrestle 0 1 1

Listen 0 1 0 Wring 0 1 0

Litigate 0 1 0 Write 0 1 1

Live 2 1 1 Total 228 223 230

Look 1 1 1

Make 2 6 4

Marry 0 2 1

Table 6.102Variety Specific Collocates of Like in PWE

Verbs PWE BF LF

Congratulate 9 0 0

Extend 8 0 0

Inform 6 1 1

Draw 6 1 0

Convey 5 0 1

Table 6.102 indicates some variety specific collocates of Like in PWE.

240

The verb ‘congratulate’ is a variety specific collocate of ‘Like’. It has occurred 9 times in

PWE with the verb help but has not occurred even once in any other corpus.

a. We would like to congratulate you and thank you for buying Honda Car. (PWE)

b. Through your esteemed online news paper I would like to congratulate to Miss Lakshan

for her great achievement, Fathima Jinnah Award is not only joy for her, but definitely

we all being Chitralis feeling proud that our sister being selected among the 75 Million

women of Pakistan. (PWE)

c. Through your esteemed online news I would like to congratulate Mr. Ihsanullah Jan for

his outstanding performance and securing first position in Govt. Schools in District

Chitral. We proud on him and best wishes for his future. (PWE)

Similarly the verb ‘extend’ is also a variety specific collocate of PWE as it has occurred 8

times in Pakistani variety but there is not even a single instance of the verb in BF and LF.

a. I would like to extend my heartiest congratulation to my dear Ali-ul-Mulk and his parents and to

all the public of Chitral for his getting of commercial pilot course license. It's a matter of pride

for all of us. (PWE)

b. On this occasion I would also like to extend my gratitude to the management of

www.chitraltimes.com that brings us these good news on time. (PWE)

241

‘Draw’ has occurred 6 times in PWE and just once in BF but has no appearance in LF. This

is clearly a variety specific preference.

a. In this connection we would like to draw your attention to section 165 of the Income Tax

ordinance 2001. (PWE)

b. I remember baby-sitting you and your brother, how you liked to draw. (BF)

The verb ‘inform’ is again a strong collocate of like in PWE and has occurred 6 times in

Pakistani English, whereas, it has one appearance each in both the British and the American

corpora.

a. We would like to inform you that we have checked draft of reference L/C. (PWE)

b. The Monadnock Greens of Keene, New Hampshire, would like to inform Nation readers

that in December we adopted conscientious objector Paul Cook through the organization

Hands Off! (BF)

c. I would like to inform your readers, through your columns, that these chain letters are

illegal and are, in fact, a complete hoax. (LF)

In all the three corpora there are 224 different verb collocates of the verb ‘Like’. In 225

instances of ‘like’ in PWE it has collocated with 98 different verbs. Out of these 98 verbs there

are 35 different verbs which have zero occurrence in BF and LF. Similarly there are 67 verbs in

LF which have not been attested in any other corpora. BF has 48 variety specific verb collocates

which have no appearance in PWE or LF.

As these statistics show that apparently there is similarity among the three varieties but there

is variation at the deeper level and specially in the realm of verb collocates all the three varieties

have their personal flavour,

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Acitve Passive

Fig 6.19 Over All Comparison of LIKE

As these statistics show that apparently there is similarity among the three varieties but there

is variation at the deeper level and specially in the realm of verb collocates all the three varieties

have their personal flavour, which is quite distinct from the other.

Positive Negative Present Past

Fig 6.19 Over All Comparison of LIKE

PWE

BF

LF

242

As these statistics show that apparently there is similarity among the three varieties but there

is variation at the deeper level and specially in the realm of verb collocates all the three varieties

PWE

BF

LF

243

6.8 CASE STUDY: HELP

The verb ‘Help’ belongs to the category of causation verb (Biber et al. 1999). Quirk et al,

(1985) comments on the subject of verb complementation choices with help and say, “of the two

construction with help, that with to is more common in British English, and that without to is

more common in AmE” (p.1205). The bare infinitive has generally been considered a norm in

American English whereas the To infinitive a British preference (Algeo, 1988, p.22, Kjellmer,

1985). Various structural and semantic factors have been discussed with regard to their influence

on the distribution of bare and to-infinitive after help, in the literature, in the field e.g. (Dixon,

1991, pp.199-230, Duffley, 1992, p.29).

Table 6.103HELP: Frequency in Three Corpora

Verb PWE BF LF

Help 925 732 742

Table 6.103 shows that PWE has the highest occurrences of ‘help’ and the BF and LF

have roughly similar number of occurrences i.e. 732 and 742 respectively.

244

Table 6.104

HELP: Frequency and Percentage in Complementation Patterns

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 59 69 99

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 6.38 9.43 13.34

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 109 106 74

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 11.78 14.48 9.97

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 19 11 37

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 2.05 1.50 4.99

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 51 8 5

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 5.51 1.09 0.67

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 11 2 3

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 1.19 0.27 0.40

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 76 27 60

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 8.22 3.69 8.09

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0.00 0.00 0.00

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 84 94 30

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 9.08 12.84 4.04

Total 409 317 308 Total 44.22 43.31 41.51

The closer look at the patterns reveals the following trends. Table 6.104 details the

pattern wise frequency and the percentage of the verb ‘Help’ in the three corpora. The verb

‘help’ generally prefers infinitive complements and all the corpora verify that the infinitive

complementation patterns are comparatively over-used. It can take all the infinitive patterns i.e.

‘V to V’ pattern two, ‘V + Bare Infinitive’ pattern seven, ‘V+NP+to+V’ and pattern 9 which is

‘V NP V’. All these patterns have also been attested in PWE.

Table 6.105HELP: Infinitive Vs Gerundive

Pattern PWE

Infinitive 297

Gerundive 81

Table 6.105 shows the cumulative frequencies of the infinitive as well as Gerundive

patterns. The statistics show that the infinit

highest percentage in all the three corpora followed by LF where infinitive complements appear

34.63% and the relatively lowest occurrence of infinitive patterns is in PWE where the infinitive

pattern occurs just 32%. These figures indicate that the overall structure of the language remains

intact but there are finer differences from one variety to the other. The Gerundive pattern with

the verbs is possible but not preferred. It occurs just 3% in BF, 3% in LF

that is 9% in PWE. This shows that the trend between American and British varieties is that in

American variety gerundive use is declining as compared to the British variety but the trend in

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

PWE

Fig 6.20 HELP Infinitive Vs Gerundive

Infinitive Vs Gerundive (Frequency and Percentage)

BF LF Pattern PWE

297 280 257 Infinitive 32.11

81 21 25 Gerundive 8.76

Table 6.105 shows the cumulative frequencies of the infinitive as well as Gerundive

patterns. The statistics show that the infinitive patterns are used 38.25% in BF which is the

highest percentage in all the three corpora followed by LF where infinitive complements appear

34.63% and the relatively lowest occurrence of infinitive patterns is in PWE where the infinitive

just 32%. These figures indicate that the overall structure of the language remains

intact but there are finer differences from one variety to the other. The Gerundive pattern with

the verbs is possible but not preferred. It occurs just 3% in BF, 3% in LF

that is 9% in PWE. This shows that the trend between American and British varieties is that in

American variety gerundive use is declining as compared to the British variety but the trend in

BF LF

Fig 6.20 HELP Infinitive Vs Gerundive(Percentage)

Infinitive

Gerundive

245

BF LF

32.11 38.25 34.64

8.76 2.87 3.37

Table 6.105 shows the cumulative frequencies of the infinitive as well as Gerundive

ive patterns are used 38.25% in BF which is the

highest percentage in all the three corpora followed by LF where infinitive complements appear

34.63% and the relatively lowest occurrence of infinitive patterns is in PWE where the infinitive

just 32%. These figures indicate that the overall structure of the language remains

intact but there are finer differences from one variety to the other. The Gerundive pattern with

the verbs is possible but not preferred. It occurs just 3% in BF, 3% in LF and more than double

that is 9% in PWE. This shows that the trend between American and British varieties is that in

American variety gerundive use is declining as compared to the British variety but the trend in

Infinitive

Gerundive

Pakistani variety is just the opposite. It i

British varieties. One observation on the basis of data is that the infinitive complementation is

comparatively less used and the gerundive complementation is comparatively over

This may be a variety specific pattern of Pakistani English.

Table 6.106HELP: Infinitive Vs Bare Infinitive

Pattern PWE

Infinitive 135

Bare Infinitive 193

A close view of Table 6.106 indicates that

differently used in PWE, BF and LF. For instance in LF the To

and the bare infinitive pattern occurs in 2/3rd of to

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

PWE

Fig 6.21 HELP Infinitive Vs BareInfinitive (Percentage)

Pakistani variety is just the opposite. It is comparatively much more higher than American and

British varieties. One observation on the basis of data is that the infinitive complementation is

comparatively less used and the gerundive complementation is comparatively over

variety specific pattern of Pakistani English.

initive Vs Bare Infinitive (Frequency and Percentage)

PWE BF LF Pattern PWE

135 96 159 Infinitive 14.59

193 200 104 Bare Infinitive 20.86

A close view of Table 6.106 indicates that ‘to’ and ‘bare infinitive’ patterns are

differently used in PWE, BF and LF. For instance in LF the To-infinitive patterns occur 21.42%

and the bare infinitive pattern occurs in 2/3rd of to-infinitive frequency that is 14.01%

BF LF

Fig 6.21 HELP Infinitive Vs BareInfinitive (Percentage)

Infinitive

Bare Infinitive

246

s comparatively much more higher than American and

British varieties. One observation on the basis of data is that the infinitive complementation is

comparatively less used and the gerundive complementation is comparatively over-used in PWE.

PWE BF LF

14.59 13.12 21.43

20.86 27.32 14.02

‘to’ and ‘bare infinitive’ patterns are

infinitive patterns occur 21.42%

ve frequency that is 14.01% ,whereas

Bare Infinitive

247

in PWE, the bare infinitive percentage is almost 2/3 times higher than the ‘to infinitive’

frequency. The American variety shows significant difference where the ‘To infinitive’ is almost

the half of the base infinitive i.e. 13.11%, 27.32% respectively. This indicates that in American

and Pakistani varieties ‘bare infinitive’ complements are preferred to the ‘To infinitives’.

The three systems of voice polarity and tense (primary) have been studied to point out the

behaviour of the verb help.

Table 6.107

Active and Passive Voice in Help (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 84.75 88.41 91.92

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 15.3 11.6 8.08

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 94.5 97.17 95.95

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 5.5 2.83 4.05

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 100 90.91 100

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 0 9.09 0

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 96.08 100 80

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 3.92 0 20

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 100 50 100

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 0 50 0

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 86.84 92.59 90

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 13.2 7.41 10

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 92.86 92.55 96.67

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 7.14 7.45 3.33

Total 91.93 93.06 93.83 Total 8.07 6.94 6.17

The overall use of the system of voice is almost equal in all the three corpora and there is

little variation.

248

All the corpora have cumulative average of 92%+ occurring as active and the average

figure for passive constructions is 6+. This unified picture hides the subtle diversity present at the

deeper levels. For instance pattern I appears 84% as active and 16% as passive in PWE, whereas

it is 88% active and 11% as passive in BF and LF has the highest use of active pattern that is

92% and just 8% as passive.

Similarly pattern 6 has 100% occurrences as active construction in PWE, 50% in BF and

100% in LF which is a significant difference in case of BF. So the difference among patterns

results prove, that, though subtle, but finer distinctions (among varieties) exist.

Table 6.108Positive and Negative in Help (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 98.31 98.55 97.98

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 1.69 1.45 2.02

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 100 98.11 100

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 0 1.89 0

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 31.58 9.091 0

Pattern 3 (v+–ing) 68.4 90.9 100

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 96.08 100 80

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 3.92 0 20

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 90.91 100 33.33

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 9.09 0 66.7

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 100 96.3 96.67

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 0 3.7 3.33

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 9(v+np+bareinf) 100 98.94 93.33

Pattern 9(v+np+bareinf) 0 1.06 6.67

Total 95.84 95.27 85.06 Total 4.16 4.73 14.9

249

The other system of polarity calculated in table 6.108 also has similar results. 95%

constructions are positive in PWE and BF and 85% in LF. This looks that they behave in a very

similar manner in case of PWE and BF. Pattern 3 indicates that 96% of the usage is positive in

PWE, 100% usage is positive in BF and 80% usage is positive in LF. This indicates that there are

subtle differences between the varieties is evident.

Table 6.109Present and Past in Help (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 89.83 78.26 69.7

Pattern 1 (v+to+v) 10.2 21.7 30.3

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 88.99 72.64 82.43

Pattern 2 (v +bere inf) 11 36.8 17.6

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 89.47 100 100

Pattern 3 (v+ –ing) 10.5 0 0

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 82.35 62.5 80

Pattern 4 (v+prep+ing) 17.6 37.5 20

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 5 (v+prep+to+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 81.82 100 100

Pattern 6 (v+np+ing) 18.2 0 0

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 88.16 85.19 86.67

Pattern 7 (v+np+to+v) 11.8 14.8 13.3

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 8(v+that+v) 0 0 0

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 82.14 91.49 83.33

Pattern 9(v+np+bare inf) 17.9 10.6 16.7

Total 86.55 81.39 81.49 Total 13.4 22.4 18.5

The third system which has been studied is the (simple) tense. Table 6.109 illustrates that

86% occurrences of help in these complementation patterns is active present in PWE and in BF

and LF it is 81%. The detailed analysis has revealed that pattern 1 has been used 89% in the

present tense and just 11% in the past tense, in PWE. In BF the figures are 78% present and 22%

past and in the case of LF 70% orientation towards present times and 30% past orientation.

It can be concluded on the basis of these results that the three corpora represent three

distinct varieties.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Acitve Passive

Fig 6.22 Over All Comparison of HELP

It can be concluded on the basis of these results that the three corpora represent three

Positive Negative Present Past

Fig 6.22 Over All Comparison of HELP

PWE

BF

LF

250

It can be concluded on the basis of these results that the three corpora represent three

PWE

BF

LF

251

6.8.1 Collocation Analysis of Help(Pattern 1 V + to + V)

Table 6.110Help Collocates in Pattern 1 (V + To Infinitive)

Verb PWE BF LF Verb PWE BF LF

Absorb 0 0 1 Impose 0 0 1

Acclimatize 0 0 1 Improve 1 0 1

Account 0 1 0 Increase 5 0 0

Achieve 1 0 2 Indicate 0 0 1

Adapt 0 0 1 Insure 0 2 0

Alleviate 0 1 0 Intensify 0 1 0

Arrange 0 0 1 Jog 0 0 1

Assemble 1 0 0 Keep 3 2 4

Assure 0 0 1 Lead 0 0 1

Attempt 1 0 0 Lend 0 0 1

Attract 1 0 0 Lower 1 0 0

Avoid 2 0 0 Maintain 0 0 1

Be 0 2 0 Make 0 5 5

Break 0 1 3 Meet 0 1 0

Bridge 0 1 0 Mitigate 1 0 0

Bring 2 0 3 Monitor 1 0 0

Build 2 1 1 Motivate 0 1 0

Buy 1 0 0 Move 0 1 0

Clarify 0 0 1 Negotiate 0 1 0

Clinch 0 1 0 Nurture 1 0 0

Coach 0 1 0 Organize 0 0 1

Conserve 1 0 0 Organise 0 2 0

Convey 1 0 0 Overcome 0 0 1

Cool 0 0 1 Pave 0 0 1

Cope 0 0 1 Pay 0 0 1

Create 1 4 3 perpetuate 0 0 1

Deepen 0 1 0 Pilot 0 1 0

Define 0 1 0 Place 0 0 1

Degrade 1 0 0 Prepare 0 0 1

Demonstrate 0 1 0 Present 1 0 0

Destroy 1 0 0 Preserve 1 0 1

Determine 0 1 1 Prevent 2 2 1

252

Develop 4 0 0 Produce 0 0 1

Disarm 0 0 1 Protect 0 0 1

Dispel 0 1 0 Provide 0 0 1

Distribute 0 0 1 Pull 0 0 1

Dramatize 0 0 1 Purify 1 0 0

Ease 1 0 0 Push 0 0 1

Eclipse 0 0 1 Raise 0 1 0

Educate 0 1 0 Rebut 0 1 0

Effect 0 0 1 Redeem 0 0 1

Elaborate 0 1 0 Reduce 3 2 2

Emancipate 0 0 1 Repeat 0 0 1

Ensure 0 0 1 Repel 0 1 0

Escape 0 1 0 Resolve 1 0 0

Escort 0 0 1 Restore 1 0 1

Establish 1 1 1 Reveal 2 1 0

Evaluate 0 0 1 Revise 1 0 0

Expand 0 1 0 Ruin 1 0 0

Explain 0 4 4 Sack 0 0 1

Explore 1 1 0 Save 1 0 0

Extend 0 0 1 Say 0 0 1

Finance 0 1 0 Secure 1 0 0

Find 0 0 1 Set 0 1 0

Flatter 0 0 1 Shape 0 1 0

Float 0 1 0 Solve 0 0 1

Formalize 0 0 1 Soothe 1 0 0

Fortify 0 0 1 Spawn 0 0 1

Free 1 0 0 Spell 0 0 1

Furnish 0 0 1 Stabilize 0 1 0

Gain 1 1 0 strengthen 0 2 2

Gather 0 0 1 Suggest 0 0 1

Generate 0 0 1 Survey 1 0 0

Get 0 0 1 Sustain 0 1 1

Give 1 1 1 Talk 0 0 2

Grow 0 1 0 Throw 0 0 1

Guarantee 0 0 1 Train 0 1 1

Have 1 0 0Understand 0 2 0

Heal 0 1 0 Unravel 0 0 1

Hold 0 0 1 Weed 0 1 0

253

Identify 0 0 1 Win 1 0 1

Illustrate 0 0 1 Total 59 69 99

In pattern 1‘help’ collocates with 26 verbs of PWE. The type token ratio is 0.44:1 in PWE. There

are 9 verbs ‘attract, develop, ease, have, mitigate, monitor, resolve, increase, nurture’ which have

not been used in any other corpus.

a. Effective implementation of compliance of Environmental standards in Pakistan's

industry would definitely help to attract international buyers. (PWE)

b. As we travel ahead into the future, we must become conscious of those factors which

will enrich and help to develop a positive national strategic instinct.

c. This has helped to ease the confrontationist approach adopted by the Arabs on the west

bank of the Gulf and Iran on the east bank. (PWE)

d. The device would also help to have excess to other snow leopards that might available

in nearby areas so that the endangered specie could be used for breeding to increase its

population, he added. (PWE)

e. Fortunately, the overseas remittances then helped to mitigate this scourge. (PWE)

f. "The snow leopard trapped last Friday was released in Chitral Gol National Park by

fitting a satellite collar in her body that would help to monitor her movement besides

giving timely information to identify her habitats for future conservation and protection,"

Dr Mumtaz Malik, chief conservator NWFP Wildlife Department told this agency here

Sunday. (PWE)

254

g. It will also bring in good governance and shall help to resolve tricky issues such as the

National Finance Commission Award, building water reservoirs and ensuring sustainable

development, after the administrative units achieve parity in terms of population and

territory. (PWE)

h. Rapid technological development has given rise not only to the development of a large

manufacturing sector in modern times, but is also helping to increase agricultural output

with the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizer. (PWE)

i. They are helping to nurture hatred and treachery in the guise of virtue. (PWE)

The verb ‘increase’ has appeared thrice in PWE but not even once in BF or LF. ‘Help to

make’ construction is rarely used in PWE whereas it is used 5 times each in BF and LF.

a. Selenium also helps to increase immunity. (PWE)

‘Help to explain’ is a construction which is used 4 times each in BF and LF but not used

at all in PWE.

a. It should also help to explain why Jews have until quite recently been marginal as

subjects of ethnographic study. (BF)

b. The tradition of accentual reading, moreover, helps to explain the demise of the

movement. (LF)

255

The range of verb collocates with help in LF is fairly wide. There are 79 verb types in LF

and 55 out of them are unique in LF and not used in BF or PWE. There are only 4 collocates of

‘Help’ which are similar in all varieties. These are ‘establish, keep, make, and reduce’.

a. It would have helped to establish that Saddam victims were both Sunnis and Shiites.

(PWE)

b. In the UMWA, it's meant helping to establish Miners For Democracy (MFD) as part of

the union's Powder River Basin organizing drive in Wyoming. (BF)

c. The reform of university examinations in the nineteenth century did not preserve

standards, it helped to establish higher standards of education for service to Church and

State. (LF)

d. Other whales will help to keep it near the surface to save its life. (PWE)

e. These flaring parts really help to keep the boat dry. (BF)

f. Many words of advice have been written on this subject, a teaspoonful of sugar or

starch added to the water, we are told, helps to keep tulip stems straight. (LF)

g. The water in the stem and leaves helps to make them stiff too. (PWE)

h. Some were clearly of Christian origin, among them the Great Awakening and other

revivals which helped to make Christian liberty, Christian equality, and Christian

fraternity the passion of the land. (BF)

256

i. With God's gracious blessing, the translator in his study, the printer with his press and

the preacher in the pulpit have all helped to make the Word of God available to English

speaking people throughout the world. (LF)

j. No doubt that some work in the city is going on and the new flyovers are helping

to reduce the traffic problems in the city. (PWE)

k. Although most Compton fountains are hand thrown and altered, a winch and 40-foot

overhead I-beam, which runs nearly the length of the work area, help to reduce the labor

involved in handling massive molds for slip-cast designs. (BF)

l. According to Coal Board officials who made 1960 a special safety year for Yorkshire

miners sharp tongues at home may have helped to reduce the number of deaths and

serious injuries.

257

6.8.2 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 2 V + Bare Inf)

Table 6.111Help Collocates in Pattern 2 (V + Bare Infinitive)

Verbs PWE BF LF Verbs PWE BF LF

Accelerate 1 0 0 Eliminate 1 0 0

Accommodate 1 0 0 Elucidate 1 0 0

Achieve 4 1 0 Encourage 0 1 0

Aim 0 1 0 Enhance 2 0 1

Align 0 1 0 Entertain 0 1 0

Alleviate 2 0 0 Eradicate 1 0 0

Arrange 0 1 0 Erase 0 2 0

Assemble 0 1 0 Establish 1 1 2

Attract 0 1 0 Evaluate 0 1 0

Augment 1 0 0 Excavate 0 1 0

Automate 0 2 0 Expand 0 0 1

Avert 1 0 0 Explain 1 3 2

Avoid 1 1 1 Exploit 0 1 0

Blow 0 0 1 Facilitate 1 0 0

Boost 0 1 2 Fight 0 1 0

Break 0 2 0 Fill 0 1 0

Bring 4 2 2 Finance 0 2 1

Build 1 3 1 Find 0 1 0

Campaign 0 0 1 Formulate 0 1 0

Carry 0 0 1 Fulfil 1 0 0

Change 1 0 0 Generate 0 2 0

Check 0 1 0 Give 0 1 0

Clarify 0 1 0 Hold 0 1 1

Connect 0 1 0 Identify 1 1 0

Consolidate 1 0 0 Improve 10 0 2

Create 2 3 4 Increase 1 0 1

Dampen 0 1 0 Inculcate 1 0 0

Defend 0 0 1 Investigate 0 0 1

Defray 0 3 0 Keep 4 6 4

Defrost 0 0 1 Knock 0 1 0

Defuse 1 0 0 Lift 0 1 0

Delay 0 0 1 Limit 0 0 1

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Deliver 1 0 0 Maintain 3 0 1

Determine 0 1 1 Make 2 3 2

Develop 5 0 0 Manage 0 1 0

Dispel 0 1 0 Meet 3 0 3

Dispose 0 0 1 Mitigate 3 0 0

Draw 0 1 0 Motivate 0 1 0

Drive 0 1 0 Negotiate 0 1 0

Dry 0 0 1 Numb 0 0 1

Ease 1 0 1 Obviate 1 0 0

Elevate 0 1 0 Optimize 1 0 0

Organize 0 1 0 Run 0 0 2

Overcome 2 0 1 Sell 0 0 1

Overthrow 1 0 0 Serve 1 0 0

Pass 1 0 0 Set 1 1 1

Pay 1 1 2 Shape 1 1 0

Persuade 0 2 0 Smuggle 0 1 0

Prepare 1 0 1 Spearhead 0 1 0

Preserve 0 1 1 Sponsor 0 0 1

Prevent 2 2 1 Stimulate 1 1 0

Produce 1 2 0 Stop 0 0 1

Promote 2 0 0 Strengthen 3 0 0

Propagate 0 0 1 Subdue 0 1 0

Protect 1 1 1Supplement 1 0 0

Provide 1 3 1 Support 1 4 0

Purge 0 0 1 Tackle 2 0 0

Push 0 1 0 Take 1 1 0

Put 0 2 0 Teach 0 1 0

Raise 1 1 1 Topple 0 1 0

Realise 1 0 0 Train 0 1 0

Rebuild 0 0 1 Transform 0 2 1

Reduce 3 0 3 Translate 0 0 1

Regulate 1 0 0 Universalise 0 0 1

Rehabilitate 1 0 0 Unload 0 1 0

Release 0 1 0 Unlock 0 0 1

Relieve 1 0 0 Unravel 0 0 1

Remove 3 1 0 Usher 0 1 0

Research 0 0 1 Win 0 0 1

Resolve 1 0 0 Write 0 1 0

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Restore 4 0 2 Total 109 106 74

Revolutionize 1 0 0

There are 68 tokens of bare infinitive verbs occurring with ‘Help’ in PWE. These are 46

types of verbs in PWE and the type token ratio is 0.68:1.

The highest frequency in this pattern is with the verb ‘improve’ which has occurred with

‘Help’ 10 times in PWE and only twice in LF, and has no occurrence in BF.

a. The best way to help improve the living conditions of the people in rural areas is to

increase their earnings from their land by improving agriculture through increasing the

availability of irrigation water. (PWE)

b. THE bargain struck with shipbuilding workers to help improve the competitive power

of the industry in return for an immediate wage increase is by no means one-sided. (LF)

‘Meet’ and ‘Reduce’ combine with the verb help in LF and PWE three times each but

never used in BF.

a. He said the new policy would go a long way in meeting the challenges and assist

exporters to capture new markets and would help meet the social compliance in the post-

quota era. (PWE)

b. Elderly people require information about the support measures available to help meet

their needs. (LF)

c. On the positive side, migration may help reduce pressure on agricultural land, provide

opportunities for the rural unemployed and underemployed, and is associated with rising

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living standards and livelihood prospects at the household and community levels in urban

as well as rural areas. (PWE)

d. It helps reduce wrinkling and provides a foundation so that interfacings, facings,

boning and hems can be sewn without stitches or ridges appearing on the outside of the

garment. (LF)

‘Defray’ has been used and time in BF but not even once in any other corpus.

a. The Carbondale Industrial Development Corp. has obtained a $500,000 loan to help

defray the cost of remodeling a city-owned factory to accommodate production that will

provide 500 new jobs. (BF)

b. These temporary appointments have a tenure of three months and support consists of a

per diem payment to help defray the cost of living away from home, plus travel expenses.

(BF)

c. Support consists of a per diem amount to help defray the cost of living away from

home, plus transportation. (BF)

‘Generate’ and ‘Put’ have been used twice each, in BF but has no occurrence in PWE and LF.

a. A supplementary grant from the Geological Society of America helped finance its

publication. (BF)

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b. American drug users help finance the environmental degradation, and the increasing

number of drug users in Europe, in neighboring Latin American countries that serve as

narcotics pipelines, and in the producer countries themselves add to the market. (BF)

c. A storm did take place that night, and fortunately enough, it included a cloudburst that

helped put out the flames. (BF)

d. Since then the technology transfer program helped put the laser to work for non-

aerospace uses. (BF)

6.8.3 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 3 V + ing)

Table 6.112Collocates of Help in Pattern3 (V + ing)

Verbs PWE BF LF

Acquire 0 0 1

Add 0 0 1

Admire 1 0 2

Ask 1 0 1

Be 1 1 2

Begin 0 1 0

Care 0 0 1

Carry 1 0 0

Clarify 1 0 0

Create 1 0 0

Dread 1 0 0

Empower 1 0 0

Exclaim 1 0 0

Feel 0 0 15

Grining 1 0 0

Hurt 0 1 0

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Identify 1 0 0

Laugh 2 2 0

Look 0 1 0

Notice 1 0 1

Overhear 0 1 0

Smile 1 1 2

Stare 0 0 1

Think 2 2 3

Treat 0 0 1

Watch 0 0 1

Wonder 2 1 4

Worry 0 0 1

Total 19 11 37

Help has occurred 19 times in PWE, in this construction. There are 16 types of verbs

and the type token ratio is 0.84 in PWE, 0.81in BF and 0.40 in LF. In this pattern there is

one significant combination ‘Help + feeling’ which has been used 15 times in British

English but not even once in PWE. This makes ‘Help Feeling’ a British peculiarity.

a. They are not a typically British feature, and I can not help feeling that the

organisers of this show, by waiting two or three weeks, would achieve effects

more popular and more subtle. (LF)

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6.8.4 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 4 V + prep +

ing)

Table 6.113Collocates of Help in Pattern 4(V + np + ing)

Verbs PWE BF LF Verbs PWE BF LF

Achieve 2 0 0 Know 1 0 0

Align 0 1 0 Look 1 0 0

Arrange 2 0 1 Maintain 1 0 0

Assess 1 0 0 Make 1 1 0

Be 0 0 1 Offer 1 0 0

Break 1 0 0 Overcome 1 0 0

Bring 1 0 0 Plan 1 0 0

Build 4 0 0 Prevent 2 0 0

Buy 0 1 0 Procure 1 0 0

Chalk 1 0 0 Protect 1 0 0

Collect 0 1 0 Raise 1 0 0

Communicate 0 1 0 Reconnecting 0 1 0

Comprehend 1 0 0 Reduce 1 0 0

Control 1 0 0 Reinforce 1 0 0

Convey 1 0 0 Remove 2 0 0

Create 1 0 0 Report 0 0 1

Curb 1 0 0 Run 1 0 0

Decrease 1 0 0 Safeguard 1 0 0

Define 1 0 0 Save 1 0 0

Delve 1 0 0 Secure 1 0 0

Develop 2 0 0 Send 1 0 0

Eliminate 1 0 0 Solve 2 0 0

Empower 1 0 0 Straighten 1 0 0

Give 0 0 1 Take 1 0 0

Imagine 1 0 0 Teach 0 1 0

Improve 1 0 0 Transfer 0 1 0

Understand 0 0 1

Total 51 8 5

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This is a pattern which is not very much frequent in any other variety but only in

PWE. In PWE it has 51 occurrences and 42 types so the type token ratio is 0.82 in PWE.

In BF it has occurred with 8 different verbs having type token ratio 1 and in LF only with

5 different verb forms (TTR 1). (Help + prep+ building) has occurred in PWE 4 times but

has not occurred with any verb in any other corpus.

a. But these foreign investments while rendering some help in building and

development of the country, do cause more economic and political damage.

(PWE)

b. The second film is on the life of Air Commodore Wladyslaw Turowicz of

Pakistan Air Force who together with Polish air force officers and technicians

helped in building the Pakistani POLISH REFUGEES IN KARACHI. (PWE)

c. Unfortunately all of this demonstrates lack of trust in the Parliament and has not

helped in building bridges between the military and civil society. (PWE)

d. One of the sponsors of this project, The Pakistan Center for Philanthropy, has

undertaken the task of certifying charities through a detailed audit and review

process, which can perhaps help in building this trust. (PWE)

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6.8.5 Collocation Analysis of Help (Pattern 7 V NP to V)

Table 6.114Collocates of Help inPattern 7 (V+ np +To + V)

Verbs PWE BF LF Verbs PWE BF LF

Achieve 2 2 0 Focus 0 1 0

Adapt 1 0 1 Follow 0 1 1

Apply 1 0 0 Forget 0 0 1

Appreciate 0 0 2 Form 0 0 1

Arise 0 0 1 Function 1 0 0

Articulate 0 0 1 Get 7 2 2

Assert 1 0 0 Give 0 0 1

Attract 0 1 0 Go 0 0 1

Be 1 1 0 Grease 0 1 0

Bear 0 0 1 Grow 2 0 0

Beat 1 0 0 Harness 0 0 1

Become 2 2 1 Identify 1 1 0

Build 0 0 1 Impose 0 0 1

Carry 2 0 0 Improve 0 1 0

Catch 0 0 1 Keep 1 0 0

Check 1 0 0 Know 1 0 2

Claim 0 0 1 Learn 3 0 0

Collect 0 0 1 Lift 0 0 1

Come 1 0 0 Live 0 1 0

Construct 1 0 0 Make 1 0 1

Continue 1 0 0 Meet 1 2 1

Cope 1 1 1 Mend 1 0 0

Create 1 0 1 Move 1 0 0

Cut 0 1 0 Pass 1 0 0

Deal 1 1 0 Perfect 0 0 1

Decide 0 0 1 Perpetuate 1 0 0

Develop 0 0 1 Pick 0 0 1

Disappear 1 0 0 Play 0 0 1

Discover 0 1 1 Predict 1 0 0

Do 0 1 1 Prepare 0 0 1

Dominate 1 0 0 Produce 1 0 1

Emerge 2 0 0 Promote 2 0 0

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Enjoy 0 0 1 Pump 1 0 0

Escape 0 0 1 Reach 0 1 0

Establish 1 0 0 Recognize 0 0 1

Evaluate 2 0 0 Resolve 0 0 1

Exert 0 0 1 Restore 1 0 0

Experience 0 0 1 Retain 0 1 0

Explore 0 1 0 Retreat 0 0 1

Face 0 0 1 Save 1 0 0

Feel 0 1 0 See 0 0 1

Find 1 0 1 Select 1 0 0

Serve 1 0 0 Think 0 0 1

Settle 1 0 0 Throw 1 0 0

Show 1 0 0 Treat 1 0 0

Solve 0 0 1 Understand 6 0 8

Speed 1 0 0 Undress 0 0 1

Spoil 1 0 0 Use 2 0 0

Stand 1 0 0 Walk 1 0 0

Stop 0 1 0 Win 0 1 0

Study 1 0 0 Write 0 0 1

Succeed 0 0 1 Zero 1 0 0

Take 1 0 1 Total 76 27 60

In this pattern ‘Help’ collocates with the 55 unique verbs and the frequency of these

tokens is 75 (TTR 0.73). This pattern is mainly used in PWE. ‘Get’ and understand are

the main collocates of help in this pattern. ‘Get’ occurs 6 times in PWE, twice in BF and

LF.

a. The horse would work and help him to get some money. The hunter was very

pleased. (PWE)

b. Practice helps you to get your timing down. (BF)

c. For many years now, he's been helping writers to get their work into print with

the aid of his daughter Saundrea. (LF)

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‘Understand’ is used 6 times in PWE and 8 times in LF and not even once in BF.

a. In other words, modern man seeks a knowledge for the sake of knowledge only,

and does not address the inner needs of traditional man who was in search of a

knowledge that would help him to understand himself, transcend his limitations,

and fulfill the mandate of his being. (PWE)

b. Our knowledge of physics and chemistry, physiology and neurology does not

account for the basic fact of subjective experience, though it helps us to

understand its workings. (LF)

‘Learn 3’, ‘grow 2’, ‘evaluate 2’, ‘emerge 2’, ‘carry 2’ and ‘promote 2’ have been

used in PWE but not used at all in Either BF or LF.

a. The show is very popular in the west, and now we are getting it to Amisha Patel is

working with an NGO that helps people in villages to learn reading through film

songs. (PWE)

b. It also helps our body to grow healthier. (PWE)

c. It will also help you to evaluate your own attitudes and reactions. (PWE)

d. It is this paradigm that will help humanity to emerge as one global family, besides

eliminating the scourge of poverty. (PWE)

e. It was clearly seen by the Mental Health Workers that Religious Faith was a

major factor helping the victims of this disaster to carry on with life struggles, and

make plans for future compared to the studies of the other disasters in the world.

(PWE)

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f. He said the tournament would help not only the association to promote the

game in the province but it would also provide an opportunity to the

youngsters to see top players in action and learn boxing skills from them. (PWE)

6.8.6 Collocation Analysis of Help(Pattern 9 V + NP +

Bare Infinitive)

Table 6.115Collocates of Help in Pattern 9 (V + np + Bare Infinitive)

Verbs PWE BF LF Verbs PWE BF LF

Accentuate 1 0 0 Finance 0 1 0

Achieve 1 3 0 Find 0 3 1

Arrange 0 1 0 Focus 1 0 0

Ascertain 1 0 0 Forge 1 0 0

Assemble 1 0 0 Forget 1 0 0

Attain 2 0 0 Gain 2 2 0

Avoid 1 1 0 Gather 0 1 1

Beat 0 1 0 Get 5 8 4

Become 2 1 1 Grow 0 1 0

Bounce 1 0 0 Have 1 0 0

Bridge 1 0 0 Honor 0 1 0

Bring 0 2 0 Identify 1 2 0

Build 2 2 0 Infiltrate 1 0 0

Carry 0 1 2 Inflict 1 0 0

Celebrate 0 0 1 Install 0 1 0

Change 0 2 0 Judge 1 0 0

Choose 1 2 1 Keep 0 4 0

Clean 0 0 1 Kill 1 0 0

Climb 0 1 0 Know 0 2 0

Come 0 1 0 Lead 1 0 0

Construct 1 0 0 leapfrog 1 0 0

Create 1 1 0 Learn 4 3 0

Cross 1 0 0 Lessen 1 0 0

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Deal 1 1 0 Lift 0 1 0

Decide 0 0 1 Live 0 1 0

Define 0 1 0 Load 0 0 1

Deliver 0 0 1 Locate 1 1 0

Determine 0 1 0 Make 2 3 2

Develop 2 2 0 Meet 3 0 0

Dial 1 0 0 Move 0 0 1

Discover 0 0 1 navigate 0 1 0

Distinguish 2 0 0 Notice 0 0 1

Do 0 4 0 Offer 1 0 0

Drive 0 1 0 outgrow 0 1 0

Earn 1 0 0 overcome 1 1 0

Establish 1 0 0 overlook 1 0 0

Examine 1 0 0 Pay 1 0 1

Exercise 0 0 1 Prepare 2 0 0

Explain 1 0 0 Prop 0 1 0

Face 0 1 0 Prove 1 0 0

Feel 1 0 0 Pull 1 0 0

Fight 0 1 0 Put 0 2 0

Rake 1 0 0 Solve 0 0 1

Reach 0 1 0 Sort 0 0 1

Realize 2 0 0 Stand 2 0 0

Regain 1 1 0 Stop 0 0 1

Relax 1 0 0 Strike 1 0 0

Remain 0 1 0 Survive 0 2 0

Replace 0 1 0 Swim 1 0 0

Restore 0 1 0 Take 1 0 0

Return 0 3 0 Think 1 0 0

Revive 1 0 0 Understand 1 4 2

Say 1 0 0 Unfold 1 0 0

Scrub 0 1 0 Unpack 0 1 0

See 0 1 0 Waste 0 1 0

Serve 1 0 0 Win 1 1 1

Set 0 3 0 Write 1 0 0

Settle 0 0 1 Total 84 94 30

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In this bare infinitive complementation pattern ‘Help’ collocates with 84 verbs of

PWE, 94 verbs from BF and 30 verbs from LF. ‘Get’ is the most significant collocate of

help in this pattern. It appears 5 times in PWE, 8 times in BF and 4 times in LF.

a. Hey! I can help you get sponsorship from my uncle who has set up a vest factory

in Kuwait. (PWE)

b. The following principles will help you get the calcium you need. (BF)

c. It'll help you get straight back to sleep again. (LF)

‘Learn’ appears 4 times as a collocate of help in Pakistani English and 3 times in BF but

never in LF.

a. However, the importance of teacher who helps you learn Islam cannot be denied.

(PWE)

b. Gad finds that Bournonville helps one learn how to create a role - and to do it in a

way that looks natural rather than 'acted'. (BF)

‘Meet’, ‘Prepare’ and ‘Realise’ have appearance in PWE only.

a. Economics makes the child familiar with, the multifarious economic activities and

the economic structure of the society which would help him meet his basic needs

and offer him various channels at the close of his school career. (PWE)

b. The UN Secretary General has appointed twelve persons to serve on a Panel to

help him prepare the World Summit on Sustainable Development to be held in

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Johannesburg during August 26-September 4 with a special focus on water

resources development and management. (PWE)

c. The fact that he had helped them realise their full potential was his reward.

(PWE)

The collocation analysis of the verb ‘help’ shows that all three varieties choose different

verbs to collocate. With the change of complementation pattern, the collocates also

change.

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6.9 CASE STUDY: PREVENT GROUP

There are two competing verb complementation patterns associated with the verbs

semantically related to prevent and hereafter called prevent group verbs. These are

1. v + from – ing

1a v + np + form ing

Considered as ‘from ing group’ and the other sets:

2. v + - ing and

2a. V + np + - ing

are considered ‘from less’ group. This variation has been much echoed (e.g. Van Ek

(1966), Dixon (1995), Rohdenburg (1995), Mair (2002), Heyvaert et al (2005)) but no

clear explanation has been given for the variation between the two complementation

patterns in different varieties.

In the present research the prevent group verbs have been selected and analysed.

273

Table 6.116Prevent Group Frequencies

Verbs PWE BF LF

Avert 33 9 18

Ban 80 24 36

Bar 25 25 17

Block 42 69 39

Check 158 180 158

Debar 3 0 3

Deter 9 9 17

Dissuade 5 4 6

Exclude 67 61 77

Forbid 66 43 47

Halt 21 29 29

Hinder 23 13 9

Hold 1135 942 985

Keep 1085 1012 1070

Preclude 8 17 15

Prevent 202 228 200

Prohibit 86 34 24

Stop 469 476 470

Suspend 56 32 35

Total 3573 3207 3255

Their frequencies are rather low so it is difficult to say anything conclusively but the

general trends and tendencies can be talked about. To understand the level of variation among

the three varieties all the instances of the prevent group have been selected and they have been

categorized according to the pattern 1-5. The results reveal that there is a mixed trend in the

choice of complements and different verbs of prevent group behave differently.

274

Table 6.117Prevent Group Percentage and Frequency inPatterns

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 6.38 5.68 5.10 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 228 182 166

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 1.93 1.25 3.01

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 69 40 98

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 0.20 0.09 0.34

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 7 3 11

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 0.56 0.44 0.46

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 20 14 15

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 3.19 3.59 2.27

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 114 115 74

Total 12.26 11.04 11.18 Total 438 354 364

The verbs of prevent group are low frequency words in all the corpora under study. There

are only 4 verbs ‘hold’, ‘keep’, ‘prevent’ and ‘stop’ which have appeared more than 10 times in

any of the patterns. The other verbs are very infrequent and these features can not be determined

with so limited a data.

The detailed analysis indicates that the verb ‘Ban’ prefers the ‘from ing’ form in all the

three corpora.

a. Vaisey to, Nasir Adeeb, Tanvir Kazmi, Ahmed Kamal Pasha, Parvez Kaleem, I

Rasheed Sajid and Jaffar Arsh have also written thought-provoking scripts for films

in the past, on this particular subject of American occupation of Afghanistan and Iraq,

Roti Goli Aur Sarkar and Qayamat are the only films that have come to the fore, and

both are now banned from screening under this I recent order from the Censor Board!

(PWE)

b. He was given conditional discharges for the motoring offences and banned from

driving for six months under the totting up regulations. (LF)

275

c. They have completely banned barbers from shaving off the beards of people and

scared away NGOs from operating there. (PWE)

d. It bans such businesses from locating within 1,000 feet of a residential zone, school,

church, park or other sexually oriented businesses. (BF)

e. In East Berlin, Foreign Ministry officials said they had not heard of any new

regulations banning foreigners from going to West Berlin. (LF)

Same is the case of ‘bar’, it also takes the ‘from –ing’ and ‘from np ing’ forms more

frequently.

a. For in the January 10th Bajaur by-polls, women were barred from voting through an

agreement between the PML and the Awami National Party. (PWE)

b. Had she been barred from playing, of course, the school could have been sued for Title

IX sex discrimination. (BF)

c. Italian clubs have also made approaches for Greaves, although they are barred from

obtaining new players from abroad until after the 1962 World Cup. (LF)

d. The recommendations to the government essentially ask for a political solution rather

than a military one, respecting democratic freedoms by immediately producing all

detainees before the courts, releasing political prisoners, as well as ending the political

role of intelligence agencies, military and civil, and barring them from detaining

prisoners; withdrawing travel restrictions, internal and external, on Baloch opposition

leaders and activists, and ending intimidation, torture, arbitrary arrests, disappearances

and extra-judicial killings. (PWE)

276

e. Early in the year, the NLRB sought and obtained a temporary restraining order and

injunction from the federal district court in Los Angeles, barring the ILWU from

interfering with PMA members doing business with the Southern Pacific ICTF in the

Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. (BF)

The verb ‘hold’ has preferred the ‘from less’ form in all the three corpora. Pattern 2 i.e.

‘V+np+ing’ contains the maximum examples of hold in all the three corpora.

a. The film is an extremely lengthy and hard-hitting depiction of how ordinary folks lose all

sense of humanity and morality and embark on vengeance and destruction blinded by a

hatred which is fuelled by the ring-leaders who are holding rallies churning people on

whilst they comfortably sit in their parliamentary seats. (PWE)

b. Ontario's foliage is most vivid from about Sept. 23 to Oct. 10, with both Muskoka (100

miles north of Toronto) and Haliburton (125 miles northwest of Toronto) holding color

cavalcades starting Sept. 23. (BF)

c. Teachers of academic subjects at secondary schools must hold a degree containing two

passes in the subject which they wish to teach. (LF)

The verb ‘keep’ appears in pattern 1 and 2 which shows that it also prefers the ‘from less’

form in all the three corpora. Most of the occurrences are in pattern I which takes ‘v –ing’ form.

a. All this while the intifada kept gathering momentum, angering and uniting the Muslims

across the globe. (PWE)

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b. Yet they keep running from one physician to another, largely to get a willing ear who will

listen to their parade of troubles. (BF)

c. THEY keep burying rock n roll but it just won't lie down. (LF)

Table 6.118KEEP in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 153 99 93 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 14.06 9.74 8.68

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 30 21 38

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 2.76 2.07 3.54

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 2 1 3

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 0.18 0.1 0.28

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 0 2 1

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 0 0.2 0.09

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 17 38 11

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 1.56 3.74 1.03

Total 202 161 146 Total 18.56 15.85 13.62

Table 6.118 shows that 14% of the instances of the verb ‘keep’ appears in this pattern in

PWE which is the highest percentage of ‘keep’ in any pattern. The British data has about 9%

occurrence in this pattern. If the results of pattern1 and pattern 2 are combined then the

percentages would be 17% in PWE, 12% in BF and 12% in LF. This shows that in Pakistani

variety of English ‘keep’ is more used in ‘from less’ complementation pattern 5. The results

indicate that combination of ‘keep from -ing’ construction is relatively higher in BF i.e. 4%

approximately.

a. The Divine force of prayer keeps away the evil from entering the threshold of the heart.

(PWE)

278

b. The Revenue Service said the addition of the attachment does not keep the range from

coming under the Federal manufacturers' excise tax on household-type appliances. (BF)

c. To keep you from being left in the cold by these unaccommodating articles the CWS

Pelaw Quilt Factory have introduced a new item into their range. (LF)

Table 6.119PREVENT in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 3 3 1 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 1.49 1.32 0.5

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 8 1 27

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 3.96 0.44 13.5

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 0 0 1

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 0 0 0.5

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 3 5 4

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 1.49 2.19 2

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 44 60 38

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 21.78 26.32 19

Total 58 69 71 Total 28.72 30.27 35.5

Contrary to the verbs already discussed ‘prevent’ combines with verbs in pattern 5 that is

‘verb np from ing’. 22% of the occurrences of ‘prevent’ in PWE take ‘v np from ing’

complementation structures. In LF,‘prevent’ takes this structure 19% of the time. The highest

number of occurrences of prevent in “v np form ing’ pattern are in BF. There are 60 occurrences

of the verb ‘prevent’ in BF i.e. 26%. This shows that in the American variety of English

‘prevent’ predominantly takes ‘v+np+from+ing’ complements.

a. The persistent hope of Cholistanis that the situation would improve soon also prevented

them from migrating towards the green belts of the Bahawalpur and Sukkar divisions.

(PWE)

279

b. There remains, of course, the question of what the West can do beyond diplomatic protest

to prevent the illegal efforts from becoming accomplished facts. (BF)

c. It is probable that this idea of a policy of concealment on the part of our Lord

corresponds with an actual impression given by his anxiety to prevent his own radical

reinterpretation of the kingdom of God from being confused with popular expectations.

(LF)

It also takes ‘v from ing’ pattern.

a. The human race could easily have been prevented from becoming extinct with only a

fraction of the normal human sexual urge.(PWE)

b. If baby teeth are retained too long, the incoming second teeth may be prevented from

emerging at the normal time or may have to erupt in the wrong place. (BF)

c. Observations on the inverse distribution of plants and animals in the sea suggested that

many forms must be prevented from coming up or must come up for only a short time in

the presence of high concentrations of phytoplankton. (LF)

The cross examination of patterns reveals that ‘prevent’ is also used in ‘from less’

constructions. For example in pattern 2 which is ‘v np ing’ there is a single occurrence of

‘prevent’ in BF, 8 occurrences of ‘prevent’ in PWE and interestingly 27 appearances of ‘prevent’

which amounts to 14% use with this complement patterns.

280

a. Hobbes's main worry in the Leviathan was how to prevent religious disputations leading

to civil war, and his remedy was a simple one: The king, and the government, would

bring an end to religious discourse by monopolising the discourse of religion and

imposing bans on even the use of public language if and when it was necessary. (PWE)

b. No small group of people ever win a major war; but sometimes quite small groups can

prevent it being lost. (BF)

c. It was done to prevent the returning officer or the acting returning officer from being

incarcerated in a certain building from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. on five successive days. (LF)

This behaviour is specific to the verb ‘prevent’ in the British variety, it has 19% occurrence

in ‘v np from ing’ construction and 13% appearance in ‘V np ing’. Pakistani English does not

seem to follow British English trend in the case of the verb ‘prevent’.

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Table 6.120STOP in Patterns (Frequency and Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 68 78 70 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 14.5 16.39 14.86

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 7 2 20

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 1.49 0.42 4.25

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 2 1 2

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 0.43 0.21 0.42

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 5 0 0

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 1.07 0 0

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 36 9 8

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 7.68 1.89 1.7

Total 118 90 100 Total 25.17 18.91 21.23

‘Stop’ is another verb which has more than 10 appearances in any pattern. ‘Stop’

predominantly appears in ‘v ing’ form in all the corpora. There are 68 occurrences in this pattern

in PWE 70 in LF and marginally high frequency of 78 in BF.

a. Ever since her husband's pension stopped coming five years ago, ever since Shehzaad

sahib died, ever through her second marriage and its end it is all she ever had. (PWE)

b. The only hope which good teachers have for being paid their due is to stop dragging the

dead weight of poor teachers up the economic ladder with them. (BF)

c. Last month Sir William Morgan, chairman of Gloucester Wagon, said that when existing

orders are completed the company would stop making rolling stock for railways, and the

main works would be closed down. (LF)

Pattern 2 also has 20 instances of ‘stop’ in the British data and 7 occurrences of the verb in

PWE.

a. He stopped after every few steps trying to gather up enough strength to move ahead.

(PWE)

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b. The British Government's urgent task is to stop the border generals being bold and brave

at mankind's expense. (LF)

The results of pattern 1 and 2 illustrate that stop prefers the ‘from less’ constrictions but the

Pakistani variety reveals that verb ‘stop’ has 41 occurrences in ‘v from ing’ and ‘v np from ing’

constructions.

a. That is why the Prophet stopped Muslims from standing in the styles expressive of

disinterest, tiredness and arrogance. (PWE)

b. Arriving just in time to stop men from turning their planet into a radioactive wasteland,

the Overlords unite earth into one world in which justice, order, and benevolence prevail

and ignorance, poverty, and fear have ceased to exist. (BF)

c. He told himself that the only reason he was stopping Oxenham from probing further was

that he knew Tarrant so well and trusted him. (LF)

This points out that in ‘Pakistani English’ the verb ‘stop’ behaves distinctly from BF and LF.

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To have an overall analysis, all the prevent group verbs have been combined and their

group behaviour have been studied. For the study of the group behaviour three language systems

have been studied, i.e. voice, polarity (positive or negative) and tense (present or past).

Table 6.121Active and Passive Voice in Prevent Group (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 96.49 97.8 93.37 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 3.51 2.20 6.63

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 76.81 82.5 82.65

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 24.64 17.50 17.35

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 42.85 66.66 27.27

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 57.14 33.33 72.73

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 5 21.42 20

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 95.00 78.57 80.00

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 90.35 97.39 86.48

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 9.65 2.61 13.51

Total 86.75 92.65 84.06 Total 13.47 7.34 15.93

The figures indicate that there are no significant differences among the corpora compared in

Table 6.121.

The behaviour of prevent group regarding ‘voice’ system indicated in Table 6.121 points out

that both in Pakistani and British data about 85% of the occurrences are active and 15% of them

are passive but the case of American English is a bit different. It has 92% occurrences as active

and only 7% of occurrences are passive.

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Table 6.122Positive and Negative in Prevent Group (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 98.68 98.35 98.19 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 1.32 1.65 1.81

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 100.00 100.00 93.88

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 0.00 0.00 6.12

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 85.71 100.00 90.91

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 14.29 0.00 9.09

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 95.00 100.00 93.33

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 5.00 0.00 6.67

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 91.23 93.91 97.30

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 8.77 6.09 2.70

Total 96.58 97.18 96.43 Total 3.42 2.82 3.57

On the scale of polarity the whole group shows quite similar results. It is approximately 96%

plus in all the corpora and a bit higher on average in BF which is 97.1%.

Table 6.123Present and Past in Prevent Group (Percentage)

Pattern PWE BF LF Pattern PWE BF LF

Pattern 1 (v+ing) 58.77 50.00 47.59 Pattern 1 (v+ing) 41.23 50.00 52.41

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 28.99 10.00 15.31

Pattern 2(v+np+ing) 71.01 90.00 84.69

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 14.29 0.00 54.55

Pattern 3(v+prep+ing) 85.71 100.00 45.45

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 50.00 21.43 60.00

Pattern 4(v+from+ing) 50.00 78.57 40.00

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 23.68 13.91 13.51

Pattern 5(v+np+from+ing) 76.32 86.09 86.49

Total 43.84 32.20 32.69 Total 56.16 67.80 67.31

The system of tense shows that the British and American varieties are in

close proximity to each other, but the Pakistani data shows strikingly different

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results . The Average percentage of BF and LF are 32.2% and 32.6% respectively

but in the case of Pakistani English the group behaves 43%, as present and 56%,

it occurs in the past tense.

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

7.1 CONCLUSION

As it has been stated earlier the present research is diagnostic and exploratory in nature.

A small corpus of 2.1 million words from written Pakistani English has been used for this

research. No conclusive judgement can be given on the basis of the results of this preliminary

study but this research points out some of the trends prevailing in the variety. None of the

previous studies of Pakistani English has used corpus as a method so a prominent feature of this

research is that it has made a corpus based comparative study of the three varieties of English.

The present study reveals that just like British and American varieties of the English

language, Pakistani English is an institutionalized variety of English.

The differences among any of the major varieties of English do not impede

communication and so is the case of Pakistani English. There exist differences among the three

varieties at almost all levels of the language but there is hardly any area which is altogether

missing in any of the variety. It is more of the differences of frequency or focus.

The spelling differences which have been studied in the present research show that the

Pakistanis have yet not decided about the spelling norms they are going to adopt. The

educational set up of the country favours the British norms but the influx of information

technology and the vast exposure of the American writings especially, in the fields of science

and technology, engineering, health and commerce have changed the scenario. The study

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revealed that systematic differences exist among the varieties. In some of the spelling families

like ‘s’ and ‘z’, it is because of the Internet and the default Microsoft word settings that people

are over using the ‘z’ family of spellings. The four spelling families ‘dg-dge’, ‘er-or’, ‘ie-iae’,

and ‘s-z’ in Pakistani data show that the American influence is more prominent. There are no

fixed rules as to which spellings should be used. Apparently there are no specific norms and both

the American and British spelling variants have been used by the Pakistani writers.

The differences in the spellings of some of the function words can also be attributed to

the ‘colonial lag’, as these archaic forms were used in the colonial British English and are still

being used in Pakistani English but are not frequently used in the present day British English.

The deeper look at spelling differences reveals that Pakistani English is not a monolithic

whole and there exist some intra varietal differences. The results show that some of these

spellings are being used as preferred choices in some of the registers, e.g. ‘dg-dge’ in legal

decisions.

The comparative study of the lexical profile of the three corpora reveals that the degree of

differences between American and British corpora is lesser than the differences between British

and Pakistani varieties. There are culture specific lexical items in the first three hundred words of

PWE. Religion being a dominant institute in the Pakistani culture is also represented in PWE. In

the first 300 most frequent lexical items from Pakistani English, there are six lexical items

representing Islamic identity and are from the domain of religion. The analysis of the three

corpora reveals that the preferences of the three corpora are different.

The next area, which has been studied, is the use of Subjunctive. Linguists (Palmer, 1974

and Fowler and Gower, 1965) generally believe that Subjunctive mood is a grammatical

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classification present in the old English and in the modern English, it is an exception but not a

regular feature. The analysis of the three corpora reveals that the ‘Were Subjunctive’ is

comparatively over-used in the British data but rarely used in the Pakistani data. The reason may

be that to the non native users of English this seems against the general rule and is generally

avoided. Similarly the present form without s/es is also quite rare. The analysis shows that the

irregular present is vanishing from all the three corpora and most rapidly from Pakistani English.

The use of ‘Be’ as subjunctive is the most common in Pakistani English. The reason

might be that Pakistani speakers are not very clear about the use of ‘be’ and are following

tradition. In the British and American varieties the subjunctive is disappearing but in Pakistani

English the change has not occurred and they are still using this mood. The overall tendency is

that the ‘Be’ subjunctive is still alive in Pakistani English. It can be called a fossilized form of

old English. In the last fifty years the English language has changed in the native settings but

remained fixed in non native settings.

Verb particle is considered another grey area where the non native varieties differ from

native varieties. In Pakistani English, it may be due to the effect of the local language that there

is a scarce use of particles. Verb particle constructions are not used in Urdu language, so in

Pakistani English the verb particle constructions are generally avoided. Even if some of the verb

+ particle constructions, which have taken the form of phrasal verb or idiom, are used in

Pakistan, they are used in a limited semantic domain. This area shows that like other nonnative

varieties, Pakistani usage is different both from the British and American usage.

Verb complementation is considered a key area in the variation studies. Some of the

earlier researchers (Baumgardner 1993, Y. Kachru 2006, Mahboob 2004) have talked about the

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various complementation patterns where Pakistani English differs from the British and American

norms. To find out, whether these deviations are systematic and stable or just errors, a detailed

study of the complementation patterns has been conducted. The results of the study show that

some of the complementation patterns which were considered ‘Pakistani’ or variety specific are

not statistically true. The study also pointed out that there are many verbs which have different

verb complementation patterns and these are not just mistakes or errors rather these are

systematic and regular features of Pakistani English.

It is important to mention that more than 90% of the data is taken from the published

material which has been professionally edited. Samples have not been taken from the writings of

the learners’ English. All data is taken from educated adults. It is not the case that their general

language skills are still developing. It is also their conscious efforts as they were writing it

professionally for publication or in their official capacity. In such circumstances, the chance of

error is minimum and if any deviant use persists even less frequently it has successfully passed

the tests of acceptability at least unconsciously. It has been accepted by the writer, editor and

even by the reader and no one objects it. This shows that in the majority of the features studied in

this research there are differences among the corpora, however small they may be. Although the

data compared is small enough that nothing can be said conclusively but one obvious feeling is

that the data compared belong to different varieties.

There is variation among the three varieties of English compared, both at the Macro as well as

Micro level. The variations in Pakistani English can be attributed to multiple factors. The

Pakistani’s using English rely heavily upon the British English, although at times they use a

fossilized form of language. The corpus data also highlights the fact that due to the influx of

international media and the all pervasive role of America in Pakistani politics, these days,

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Pakistani’s find more and more opportunities to come across the American variety of English.

Due to the American control on the internet there is a large scale ‘borrowing’ from the American

brand of English around the globe and this trend is also visible in Pakistani English. English in

Pakistan is being used in contexts not present in its traditional Judo-Christian settings. It is being

used to perform country internal and culture specific functions. In this connection independent

innovation or creativity is also a very important reason for the difference in Pakistani English.

English is now being used freely by the creative Pakistani writers. Some of the grammatical

differences like the use of Subjunctive can be attributed to the learning environment. As the

Pakistanis learn English formally and the regularity of the verb form is a norm generally

observed in the school learned varieties. Pakistanis over generalize this rule in the use of ‘were’

subjunctive and generally replace it with ‘periphrastic should’ or some other modal.

Pakistani variety shares some features with British English and some with the American

English but at all levels there are some features which are variety specific. The results show that

majority of the Pakistanis using English are using a Pakistani brand of English. Although, if

asked, few would accept Pakistani English a legitimate variety.

One implication of the research is that such corpus based explorations of the variety are

to be carried out at large scale. This would provide material for the codification of the variety. It

is only then that the change in the attitude towards Pakistani variety of English would take place.

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7.2 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

The research has many implications for the future Researchers, Teachers, Syllabus

Designers, Textbook writers, Lexicographers, and Policy makers. It has raised many questions

which need answers.

The research has highlighted many areas for further study. During research, at many

points, the small size of PWE corpus created problems. Nothing can be said conclusively about

any of the features of the variety, due to the small size of the corpus. It came out that for future

studies of the variety the size of the corpus should be enhanced to 100 million on the analogy of

BNC. Spoken component should also be included. This would make the researches more valid

and many areas which can not be studied appropriately due to the scant examples or rare

occurrence of a feature may be studied conveniently.

This research is an attempt to codify the features of Pakistani English. There are two

major sources/methods of codification i.e. Dictionary making and Grammar Guidebook writing.

For both of these projects corpus based studies like the one carried in the present research are

required. If a large corpus is prepared and a corpus based analysis of the data is carried out it

would finally help in preparing a dictionary of Pakistani English like the Australian English

Dictionary and Indian English Dictionary.

The current language policy of the country is not clear about the choice of the variety of

English. The policy makers, teachers, syllabus designers, learners, material developers are not

clear which variety of English they use and why. They have alien feelings for English as there is

an air of foreignness attached to it. If the Pakistani variety gets established then it is on the policy

makers to decide upon which variety to use for country internal and external functions. Once the

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policy makers decide to use the local variety, it would have positive effects on the language

learning and the attitudes, of the local users, towards English language would also change.

This research highlights some issues related to syllabus designers and material

developers. For example the material developers and text book writers have to think that which

spellings are to be given in the material for the learners and why. The corpus based research has

also highlighted the facts that the students need culture specific vocabulary items. The research

also implicates that the syllabus designers, material developers and text book writers should be

careful in the introduction of vocabulary and syntactic structures at various levels. They should

observe the natural order of progression so that at each level the appropriate vocabulary and

structures are introduced and the linguistic abilities of the learners are properly built. In the

absence of corpus based research it is hard for the material developers and text book writers to

know the frequency of occurrence of certain lexical items or syntactic structures and at times

certain rare words or structures might become part of text books at earlier stages. For example,

the word ‘Urn’ has been introduced in Book I of Punjab Textbook Board and after that it has not

been used even once up to graduation. If such corpus based studies are conducted better

material/textbooks may be prepared.

This research has many direct implications for the teachers. The results point out that

Pakistani English is not just a pack of errors and it has some system and it is also rule governed.

This requires the local language teachers to review their teaching practices and especially their

attitudes towards the English produced by the learners might change. Such researches reveal that

Pakistani English is an independent variety and there is nothing to be ashamed of. This approach

would give confidence to the teachers as well as the learners. It is expected that this change of

attitude would make English language learning comparatively easier. This research also

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highlights the need and importance of ESP corpora. It has pointed out that the register based and

genre based differences should also be studied.

The research shows that if Pakistani English is considered an established variety of

English it will not do any harm to the English language. Anyone who is using Pakistani English

is not any better or worse than any one else.

The research would help the language scholars gain a better understanding of “how

language is used rather than how language is perceived to be used”. (Rescski, 2006, pp.203-324)

This research shows that it is important for language teachers to experience formulating

generalizations about linguistic patterns that they have observed so that they try to grasp the

grammar as much as linguistic researchers do.

The research implicates that the policy makers and the educationists must decide about

any of these spellings as national standard. This would make the life of the students easier.

APPENDIX

Appendix 1

300 Most Frequent Words from PWE with Ranks in PWE, BF, LF

Word PWE BF LF

The 1 1 1

Of 2 2 2

And 3 3 3

To 4 4 4

In 5 6 6

A 6 5 5

Is 7 9 8

That 8 8 7

For 9 10 11

It 10 13 10

Was 11 11 9

As 12 14 13

On 13 16 15

With 14 15 14

Be 15 19 16

Are 16 25 27

By 17 20 20

This 18 23 22

He 19 12 12

Not 20 24 23

Has 21 43 42

From 22 27 25

His 23 17 18

Have 24 29 26

I 25 18 17

At 26 21 19

Or 27 28 31

Their 28 40 40

Which 29 37 28

They 30 33 34

Pakistan 31 11116 8060

An 32 30 33

But 33 26 24

All 34 38 38

We 35 39 41

Were 36 36 35

Its 37 58 64

Had 38 22 21

One 39 35 36

Will 40 54 49

Been 41 46 37

You 42 32 32

Also 43 85 86

There 44 42 39

Would 45 41 43

Her 46 31 29

Who 47 45 50

People 48 99 99

Our 49 82 88

Other 50 63 68

No 51 52 47

Can 52 59 59

These 53 71 73

If 54 50 44

Them 55 62 65

She 56 34 30

So 57 53 46

When 58 44 45

Government 59 207 173

Only 60 64 58

Said 61 47 53

Any 62 83 79

About 63 56 56

More 64 48 48

Time 65 67 62

My 66 65 60

Us 67 126 126

Some 68 66 57

Such 69 77 83

World 70 119 137

Out 71 51 52

Should 72 111 82

What 73 55 55

Up 74 57 54

Him 75 49 51

After 76 86 85

Into 77 61 61

Two 78 70 67

Do 79 73 70

Like 80 72 76

Very 81 120 84

Country 82 288 256

Through 83 94 113

Over 84 78 74

May 85 84 77

Being 86 132 94

Under 87 144 139

Than 88 60 63

Could 89 69 66

Well 90 88 87

Political 91 276 313

Then 92 75 69

New 93 68 78

Even 94 81 90

First 95 76 75

Most 96 80 89

Made 97 92 81

India 98 2290 1305

Now 99 79 72

Me 100 74 71

Against 101 151 157

Many 102 87 96

Your 103 93 112

Years 104 89 91

Development 105 319 389

Between 106 108 104

While 107 130 136

Water 108 221 245

Life 109 116 127

Because 110 98 115

State 111 115 300

Day 112 131 134

Muslim 113 12467 3752

Where 114 100 93

How 115 97 103

Economic 116 327 521

Those 117 103 102

During 118 158 181

National 119 240 262

Education 120 422 348

Countries 121 547 595

However 122 159 145

Way 123 102 97

Make 124 118 117

Social 125 225 278

Both 126 121 123

Must 127 107 101

Man 128 90 107

System 129 195 277

Did 130 95 106

Power 131 252 250

Before 132 101 98

Good 133 113 109

Work 134 106 116

General 135 191 235

Year 136 117 118

Same 137 141 130

Own 138 124 120

Much 139 104 92

Different 140 270 226

Order 141 293 258

Take 142 154 141

Muslims 143 11087 3948

Women 144 187 298

Great 145 161 144

High 146 155 185

Used 147 148 149

Court 148 433 525

Every 149 178 197

Islam 150 15281 8699

President 151 201 650

Law 152 283 466

Without 153 164 153

Part 154 165 152

Come 155 150 147

Another 156 138 140

Three 157 133 125

Just 158 91 100

Last 159 140 111

War 160 173 207

Each 161 123 146

Human 162 307 427

Number 163 204 192

Public 164 177 249

Shall 165 483 354

Does 166 176 176

International 167 599 755

Need 168 220 211

Get 169 114 131

Islamic 170 14146 6784

Policy 171 395 513

Areas 172 460 687

Use 173 153 171

Right 174 143 143

Given 175 250 178

Important 176 232 248

Case 177 255 169

Research 178 407 559

Military 179 448 862

Long 180 112 122

Area 181 322 326

Back 182 96 95

Society 183 413 416

Fact 184 214 191

Khan 185 23487 17480

Down 186 105 105

Why 187 199 187

Since 188 149 163

See 189 110 114

According 190 542 730

Place 191 170 183

Few 192 160 158

Go 193 147 129

Know 194 122 119

Foreign 195 527 669

History 196 345 393

Still 197 125 110

Therefore 198 586 402

Level 199 357 412

Here 200 127 132

Students 201 430 623

Present 202 298 236

Due 203 916 581

Too 204 109 108

Never 205 134 133

Per 206 350 160

Children 207 260 194

Allah 208 21916 20909

Pakistani 209 36087 52620

States 210 157 772

Become 211 286 276

Towards 212 2723 305

Process 213 469 517

Within 214 244 218

Help 215 282 283

Among 216 223 338

Minister 217 1726 467

Mr 218 135 80

Days 219 266 241

Called 220 194 239

Always 221 183 175

Old 222 129 124

Again 223 174 138

Taken 224 364 228

Came 225 162 156

Population 226 684 735

Million 227 423 471

Thus 228 338 345

Say 229 167 142

Give 230 256 215

Indian 231 1489 1820

Around 232 163 281

Cannot 233 443 339

Based 234 497 540

Family 235 234 294

Karachi 236 0 48732

Land 237 492 458

Further 238 482 269

City 239 238 459

Rs 240 13409 6268

Non 241 809 514

Role 242 552 793

House 243 156 161

Large 244 247 214

Local 245 333 190

Nation 246 766 1920

Situation 247 598 638

End 248 205 180

Bank 249 1052 945

Set 250 210 196

Far 251 231 162

Am 252 386 318

Major 253 308 311

Constitution 254 2371 4212

South 255 392 488

Person 256 467 518

Study 257 396 486

Means 258 318 312

Party 259 439 220

Away 260 196 170

Security 261 1016 1059

Hand 262 203 184

Above 263 384 333

View 264 489 328

Prophet 265 11169 7481

Various 266 536 600

Including 267 461 510

School 268 197 255

Thought 269 168 148

Support 270 432 515

Information 271 354 498

Others 272 295 350

Religious 273 685 867

Making 274 344 307

Needs 275 682 716

Problems 276 399 439

Interest 277 325 352

Men 278 142 165

Sector 279 2450 2247

Upon 280 273 285

Going 281 182 166

Pakistan's 282 0 52621

Past 283 299 396

Second 284 209 225

Knowledge 285 690 483

Rights 286 892 1066

Held 287 408 340

Better 288 246 222

Business 289 262 363

Once 290 190 199

Asked 291 218 227

Afghanistan 292 12037 13991

Future 293 457 462

Peace 294 743 897

Home 295 169 155

Think 296 175 151

God 297 343 481

Form 298 281 237

Having 299 348 252

Period 300 416 401

Appendix 2

Words With Different Spellings In PWE American Freq British Freq Category

Gray 21 Grey 46 A-E

Anemic 1 Orthopaedic 1 Ae-E

Judgment 255 Judgement 33 Dg-Dge

Judgments 58 Judgements 11 Dg-Dge

Acknowledgment 3 Acknowledgement 13 Dg-Dge

Orthopedic 1 Orthopaedic 3 E-Ae

Encyclopedia 6 Encyclopaedia 6 E-Ae

Pedophile 1 Paedophile 1 E-Ae

Aging 6 Ageing 12 Ei-I

Archeological 2 Archaeological 7 Eo-Aeo

Adviser 38 Advisor 22 Er-Or

Convener 14 Convenor 1 Er-Or

Conveyer 1 Conveyor 3 Er-Or

Caliber 16 Calibre 9 Er-Re

Center 97 Centre 345 Er-Re

Centers 76 Centres 142 Er-Re

Epicenter 1 Epicentre 2 Er-Re

Fiber 66 Fibre 25 Er-Re

Fibers 59 Fibres 10 Er-Re

Meager 12 Meagre 13 Er-Re

Meter 21 Metre 4 Er-Re

Meters 49 Metres 11 Er-Re

Somber 1 Sombre 4 Er-Re

Specter 2 Spectre 5 Er-Re

Specters 0 Spectres 2 Er-Re

Theater 2 Theatre 48 Er-Re

Theaters 0 Theatres 12 Er-Re

Deter 9 Detre 1 Er-Re

Kilometer 8 Kilometre 7 Er-Re

Lackluster 1 Lacklustre 2 Er-Re

Liter 5 Litre 14 Er-Re

Luster 4 Lustre 1 Er-Re

Maneuvers 2 Manoeuvres 2 Eu-Oeu

Manoeuver 1 Manoeuvre 4 Eu-Oeu

Sulfate 1 Sulphate 1 F-Ph

Sulfur 5 Sulphur 6 F-Ph

Analog 5 Analogue 2 G-Gue

Catalog 0 Catalogue 11 G-Gue

Cataloges 0 Catalogues 1 G-Gue

Cataloging 1 Cataloguing 0 G-Gue

Dialog 0 Dialogue 163 G-Gue

Medieval 26 Mediaeval 1 Ie-Iae

Behavior 63 Behaviour 218 Io-Iou

Behavioral 9 Behavioural 24 Io-Iou

Behaviorism 0 Behaviourism 2 Io-Iou

Behaviors 8 Behaviours 11 Io-Iou

Savior 2 Saviour 7 Io-Iou

Tire 3 Tyre 6 I-Y

Skeptical 1 Sceptical 7 K-C

Skepticism 2 Scepticism 5 K-C

Skeptics 5 Sceptics 2 K-C

Disk 1 Disc 6 K-C

Alright 16 Allright 0 L-Ll

Enrolment 36 Enrollment 14 L-Ll

Equaling 1 Equalling 1 L-Ll

Fulfil 54 Fulfill 40 L-Ll

Modeling 3 Modelling 7 L-Ll

Signaling 13 Signalling 4 L-Ll

Skilful 5 Skillful 4 L-Ll

Traumatized 3 Traumatised 2 L-Ll

Traveled 10 Travelled 41 L-Ll

Traveler 4 Traveller 17 L-Ll

Travelers 6 Travellers 15 L-Ll

Traveling 14 Travelling 34 L-Ll

Counseling 6 Counselling 4 L-Ll

Counselor 0 Counsellor 5 L-Ll

Counselors 2 Counsellors 1 L-Ll

Jeweler 1 Jewellers 3 L-Ll

Jewelery 0 Jewellery 22 L-Ll

Labeling 3 Labelling 4 L-Ll

Quarreling 0 Quarrelling 2 L-Ll

Program 186 Programme 477 M-Mme

Programs 132 Programmes 282 M-Mme

Homeopathic 3 Homoeopathic 13 Oe-Oeo

Ardor 1 Ardour 2 O-Ou

Armor 1 Armour 10 O-Ou

Mold 2 Mould 25 O-Ou

Molding 2 Moulding 3 O-Ou

Molds 0 Moulds 3 O-Ou

Odor 2 Odour 4 O-Ou

Odors 4 Odours 0 O-Ou

Savor 1 Savour 1 O-Ou

Savors 1 Savours 1 O-Ou

Color 32 Colour 129 O-Ou

Colored 5 Coloured 37 O-Ou

Colorful 8 Colourful 37 O-Ou

Coloring 2 Colouring 11 O-Ou

Colorless 1 Colourless 4 O-Ou

Colors 18 Colours 77 O-Ou

Parlor 1 Parlour 3 O-Ou

Rigor 6 Rigour 2 O-Ou

Rumors 5 Rumours 28 O-Ou

Furor 3 Furore 3 Or-Ore

Armory 1 Armoured 13 Or-Our

Candor 2 Candour 1 Or-Our

Endeavor 14 Endeavour 31 Or-Our

Endeavored 1 Endeavoured 6 Or-Our

Endeavoring 1 Endeavouring 2 Or-Our

Endeavors 8 Endeavours 22 Or-Our

Favor 31 Favour 182 Or-Our

Favorable 9 Favourable 44 Or-Our

Favorably 1 Favourably 5 Or-Our

Favored 4 Favoured 26 Or-Our

Favoring 2 Favouring 7 Or-Our

Favorite 16 Favourite 66 Or-Our

Favorites 2 Favourites 7 Or-Our

Favoritism 1 Favouritism 1 Or-Our

Favors 8 Favours 7 Or-Our

Fervor 3 Fervour 12 Or-Our

Flavor 2 Flavour 7 Or-Our

Flavors 0 Flavours 2 Or-Our

Glamorous 8 Glamourous 1 Or-Our

Harbor 2 Harbour 30 Or-Our

Harbors 1 Harbours 7 Or-Our

Neighbor 5 Neighbour 58 Or-Our

Neighborhood 12 Neighbourhood 41 Or-Our

Neighborhoods 2 Neighbourhoods 5 Or-Our

Neighboring 10 Neighbouring 65 Or-Our

Neighbors 22 Neighbours 125 Or-Our

Splendor 2 Splendour 2 Or-Our

Clamoring 1 Clamouring 3 Or-Our

Demeanor 2 Demeanour 5 Or-Our

Dishonor 4 Dishonour 3 Or-Our

Dishonored 3 Dishonoured 2 Or-Our

Enamored 2 Enamoured 1 Or-Our

Honor 40 Honour 151 Or-Our

Honorable 19 Honourable 42 Or-Our

Honored 9 Honoured 20 Or-Our

Honoring 3 Honouring 3 Or-Our

Honors 8 Honours 9 Or-Our

Humor 5 Humour 41 Or-Our

Humoros 0 Humorous 11 Or-Our

Labor 34 Labour 256 Or-Our

Laborer 3 Labourer 10 Or-Our

Laborers 3 Labourers 29 Or-Our

Laboring 2 Labouring 3 Or-Our

Labors 8 Labours 5 Or-Our

Unfavorable 8 Unfavourable 9 Or-Our

Unsavory 2 Unsavoury 3 Or-Our

Valor 9 Valour 12 Or-Our

Vapor 0 Vapour 5 Or-Our

Vapors 0 Vapours 1 Or-Our

Vigor 1 Vigour 15 Or-Our

Plow 0 Plough 12 Ow-Ough

Plows 3 Ploughs 4 Ow-Ough

Offense 1 Offence 37 Se-Ce

Offenses 0 Offences 17 Se-Ce

Defense 39 Defence 359 Se-Ce

Defenses 3 Defences 4 Se-Ce

License 18 Licence 14 Se-Ce

Licenses 8 Licences 6 Se-Ce

Practise 15 Practice 306 Se-Ce

Practises 3 Practices 129 Se-Ce

Pretense 1 Pretence 4 Se-Ce

Actualized 1 Actualised 1 Zs

Aggrandizement 5 Aggrandisement 2 Zs

Aluminum 1 Aluminium 5 U-Iu

Mustache 1 Moustache 12 U-Ou

Analyze 38 Analyse 30 Zs

Analyzed 29 Analysed 22 Zs

Analyzes 4 Analyses 26 Zs

Antagonize 1 Antagonise 2 Zs

Apologize 3 Apologise 8 Zs

Apologized 2 Apologised 3 Zs

Atomized 1 Atomised 1 Zs

Authorize 10 Authorise 5 Zs

Authorized 35 Authorised 15 Zs

Capitalize 5 Capitalise 3 Zs

Categorized 9 Categorised 4 Zs

Centralized 14 Centralised 9 Zs

Channelized 1 Channelised 2 Zs

Characterize 3 Characterise 2 Zs

Characterized 32 Characterised 20 Zs

Epitomized 1 Epitomised 2 Zs

Eulogize 1 Eulogise 1 Zs

Exorcized 1 Exorcised 1 Zs

Familiarize 3 Familiarise 1 Zs

Fantasize 4 Fantasise 1 Zs

Fertilizer 16 Fertiliser 9 Zs

Fertilizers 11 Fertilisers 4 Zs

Finalize 8 Finalise 5 Zs

Finalized 21 Finalised 11 Zs

Galvanized 1 Galvanised 2 Zs

Generalized 6 Generalised 3 Zs

Globalized 1 Globalised 1 Zs

Harmonize 3 Harmonise 1 Zs

Maximize 11 Maximise 2 Zs

Mechanized 2 Mechanised 2 Zs

Memorize 6 Memorise 3 Zs

Memorized 5 Memorised 3 Zs

Mesmerized 5 Mesmerised 1 Zs

Minimize 23 Minimise 8 Zs

Minimized 9 Minimised 3 Zs

Mobilize 15 Mobilise 9 Zs

Mobilized 5 Mobilised 9 Zs

Modernize 3 Modernise 2 Zs

Modernized 5 Modernised 3 Zs

Monopolize 2 Monopolise 2 Zs

Monopolized 2 Monopolised 1 Zs

Nationalized 8 Nationalised 2 Zs

Neutralize 10 Neutralise 9 Zs

Normalize 4 Normalise 1 Zs

Optimization 0 Optimisation 4 Zs

Optimize 3 Optimise 4 Zs

Organization 298 Organisation 150 Zs

Organizational 28 Organisational 14 Zs

Organizations 199 Organisations 135 Zs

Organize 28 Organise 22 Zs

Organized 165 Organised 87 Zs

Organizer 1 Organiser 4 Zs

Organizers 14 Organisers 8 Zs

Organizes 3 Organises 3 Zs

Oxidized 1 Oxidised 1 Zs

Scrutinized 9 Scrutinised 1 Zs

Socialization 6 Socialisation 7 Zs

Solemnized 1 Solemnised 1 Zs

Specialize 3 Specialise 2 Zs

Specialized 15 Specialised 12 Zs

Specializes 8 Specialises 3 Zs

Stabilize 10 Stabilise 6 Zs

Stabilized 1 Stabilised 2 Zs

Standardized 15 Standardised 1 Zs

Subsidized 7 Subsidised 7 Zs

Summarize 5 Summarise 1 Zs

Summarized 5 Summarised 5 Zs

Supervized 1 Supervised 16 Zs

Symbolize 3 Symbolise 3 Zs

Symbolized 8 Symbolised 3 Zs

Symbolizes 5 Symbolises 1 Zs

Sympathize 1 Sympathise 3 Zs

Sympathizers 2 Sympathisers 2 Zs

Synthesize 2 Synthesise 2 Zs

Tranquillizers 1 Tranquillisers 1 Zs

Civilized 42 Civilised 14 Zs

Colonized 8 Colonised 1 Zs

Colonizers 2 Colonisers 1 Zs

Commercialize 2 Commercialise 1 Zs

Commercialized 3 Commercialised 1 Zs

Computerized 10 Computerised 3 Zs

Criticize 14 Criticise 6 Zs

Criticized 29 Criticised 16 Zs

Criticizes 4 Criticises 1 Zs

Crystallized 2 Crystallised 2 Zs

Demonized 1 Demonised 1 Zs

Demoralize 1 Demoralise 2 Zs

Demoralized 1 Demoralised 2 Zs

Destabilize 2 Destabilise 3 Zs

Disorganized 6 Disorganised 1 Zs

Dozed 2 Dosed 1 Zs

Dozes 1 Doses 13 Zs

Dramatize 1 Dramatise 1 Zs

Emphasize 12 Emphasise 10 Zs

Emphasized 58 Emphasised 24 Zs

Emphasizes 17 Emphasises 9 Zs

Hospitalized 4 Hospitalised 2 Zs

Immunize 1 Immunise 1 Zs

Industrialization 31 Industrialisation 9 Zs

Industrialized 20 Industrialised 3 Zs

Institutionalize 4 Institutionalise 3 Zs

Institutionalized 9 Institutionalised 6 Zs

Jeopardize 10 Jeopardise 1 Zs

Legalize 3 Legalise 1 Zs

Legalized 1 Legalised 3 Zs

Legitimize 1 Legitimise 2 Zs

Legitimized 1 Legitimised 1 Zs

Liberalized 2 Liberalised 1 Zs

Localized 6 Localised 2 Zs

Marginalize 1 Marginalise 2 Zs

Marginalized 10 Marginalised 5 Zs

Materialize 12 Materialise 6 Zs

Materialized 9 Materialised 3 Zs

Paralyze 1 Paralyse 1 Zs

Paralyzed 3 Paralysed 6 Zs

Patronize 1 Patronise 3 Zs

Patronized 3 Patronised 5 Zs

Penalized 4 Penalised 1 Zs

Personalized 3 Personalised 3 Zs

Polarization 11 Polarisation 6 Zs

Politicized 6 Politicised 5 Zs

Popularized 2 Popularised 1 Zs

Pressurize 10 Pressurise 2 Zs

Pressurized 8 Pressurised 2 Zs

Prioritized 2 Prioritised 2 Zs

Privatize 4 Privatise 2 Zs

Privatized 7 Privatised 6 Zs

Publicized 4 Publicised 6 Zs

Rationalized 5 Rationalised 4 Zs

Realization 66 Realisation 23 Zs

Realize 129 Realise 65 Zs

Realized 125 Realised 44 Zs

Realizes 13 Realises 9 Zs

Recognize 63 Recognise 26 Zs

Recognized 124 Recognised 43 Zs

Recognizes 20 Recognises 6 Zs

Regularized 6 Regularised 1 Zs

Reorganize 4 Reorganise 1 Zs

Reorganized 4 Reorganised 1 Zs

Revitalized 1 Revitalised 3 Zs

Revolutionized 6 Revolutionised 1 Zs

Romanticize 1 Romanticise 1 Zs

Romanticized 1 Romanticised 2 Zs

Unauthorized 12 Unauthorised 4 Zs

Uncivilized 4 Uncivilised 1 Zs

Universalize 1 Universalise 1 Zs

Unrealized 1 Unrealised 1 Zs

Unrecognized 3 Unrecognised 1 Zs

Urbanized 6 Urbanised 4 Zs

Utilization 31 Utilisation 13 Zs

Utilize 18 Utilise 23 Zs

Utilized 36 Utilised 18 Zs

Utilizes 2 Utilises 1 Zs

Victimize 1 Victimse 0 Zs

Victimized 1 Victimised 4 Zs

Visualize 6 Visualise 2 Zs

Visualized 13 Visualised 1 Zs

Westernized 6 Westernised 4 Zs

Hi 11 High 965 I-Igh

Total 4358

7246

Appendix 3 125 Verb + Particle Frequencies in 3 Corpora

Appendix 3.1

Verb + about PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 1 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 121 35 64

call 0 0 0

carry 0 0 4

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 1

express 0 0 0

feel 1 1 1

find 0 0 1

follow 0 0 0

form 0 0 0

get 0 1 5

give 0 1 0

go 5 4 13

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 0 0

help 0 0 0

hold 0 0 1

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0

leave 0 1 1

lie 0 1 2

like 0 0 0

live 0 0 0

look 0 5 3

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 0 2

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0

move 5 7 6

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 0 0 0

pay 0 0 0

play 0 1 2

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 0 0

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 3 3

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 2 0 1

say 0 1 1

see 0 1 1

seek 0 0 0

seem 1 5 1

send 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 2 5 21

show 0 0 1

sit 0 0 1

speak 3 0 0

stand 0 2 3

start 0 0 1

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 0 1 0

talk 0 0 1

tell 0 2 2

think 0 1 0

try 0 0 0

turn 0 1 3

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 0

work 0 0 0

write 3 3 0

Appendix 3.2

Verb + along PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 1

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 1 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 1

bring 3 10 4

call 0 0 0

carry 0 0 3

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 1 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 1 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 1 0

form 0 0 0

get 3 19 3

give 0 0 1

go 5 13 5

grow 1 1 0

hear 0 0 0

help 1 4 0

hold 0 0 0

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 1 1

leave 0 0 0

lie 1 1 1

like 0 0 0

live 1 0 0

look 0 0 1

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 0 0

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0

move 3 3 2

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 0 5 0

pay 0 0 0

play 0 1 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 1 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 0 0

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 1 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 0 2 3

say 0 0 1

see 1 1 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 1 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 0

show 0 0 0

sit 1 0 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 0 0

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 7 5 8

talk 0 0 0

tell 0 1 0

think 0 0 1

try 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 1 0

work 1 1 2

write 0 0 0

Appendix 3.3

Verb + around PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 1 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 1 1

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 1 1 0

call 0 1 0

carry 0 2 2

cause 0 1 0

change 0 1 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 1

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 2 0 1

follow 0 4 1

form 0 0 0

get 2 16 7

give 0 0 1

go 8 8 9

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 0 1

help 0 0 0

hold 0 0 1

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 1 1 0

lead 0 2 0

leave 0 1 0

lie 1 3 2

like 0 1 0

live 1 2 0

look 35 35 13

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 1 0

mean 0 1 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0

move 5 10 2

need 0 0 1

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 0 4 0

pay 0 0 0

play 3 4 2

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 0 1

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 4 11 2

say 0 0 0

see 6 3 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 1 2 0

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 0

show 1 1 2

sit 4 12 4

speak 0 1 0

stand 2 4 4

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 0 3 3

talk 0 0 0

tell 0 0 0

think 0 0 0

try 0 0 0

turn 17 36 10

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 1 0

work 0 1 0

write 0 0 0

Appendix 3.4

Verb + back PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 2 0 1

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 1 2

become 0 0 0

begin 0 1 0

believe 0 0 1

bring 41 49 46

call 10 11 6

carry 0 2 2

cause 1 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 1 0 0

date 22 10 7

decide 1 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 1 6

follow 1 0 2

form 0 0 0

get 23 87 73

give 5 5 9

go 84 140 165

grow 1 0 0

hear 2 1 0

help 0 0 3

hold 14 14 16

improve 1 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 1 0

join 0 0 0

keep 1 2 5

lead 2 6 1

leave 1 0 1

lie 0 4 6

like 0 0 1

live 0 1 0

look 30 45 53

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 2 6 5

mean 0 0 1

meet 0 1 2

mention 0 0 0

move 4 15 12

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 3 1 2

pay 8 3 5

play 0 2 1

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 12 15 30

raise 0 0 0

reach 1 6 1

read 0 0 1

receive 1 1 0

refer 1 0 3

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 4 6 5

say 0 1 0

see 0 2 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 2

send 8 13 16

serve 0 0 0

set 0 5 6

show 1 0 1

sit 4 13 20

speak 0 0 1

stand 0 7 11

start 0 6 4

state 1 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 21 27 32

talk 3 3 5

tell 2 0 0

think 0 6 5

try 0 1 0

turn 20 38 39

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 1 0

want 0 3 5

work 2 0 2

write 2 3 3

Appendix 3.5

Verb + by PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 0 0 0

call 0 0 0

carry 0 0 0

cause 1 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 1 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 1 1

form 0 0 0

get 0 6 5

give 0 0 0

go 9 14 20

grow 1 0 0

hear 0 0 0

help 0 1 0

hold 0 0 0

improve 0 0 0

increase 1 1 2

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0

leave 0 0 0

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 1 0 1

look 0 0 0

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 0 0

mean 0 1 1

meet 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0

move 0 0 0

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 2

open 0 0 0

pass 14 8 8

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 0 0

raise 1 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 1 1 0

say 0 0 0

see 0 0 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 0

show 0 0 0

sit 0 1 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 4 6 6

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 1 5 0

take 0 0 0

talk 0 0 0

tell 0 0 0

think 0 0 0

try 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 0

work 0 1 0

write 0 0 0

Appendix 3.6

Verb + down PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 24 16 30

call 1 3 0

carry 2 4 2

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 1 1

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 1 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 1 1

find 0 0 1

follow 0 2 2

form 0 0 0

get 15 23 33

give 0 0 2

go 46 70 85

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 2 1

help 0 3 3

hold 4 12 5

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 1 0 0

keep 1 10 16

lead 1 7 8

leave 0 1 0

lie 6 19 6

like 0 0 0

live 2 3 3

look 15 64 69

lose 0 0 1

maintain 0 0 0

make 1 5 2

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 1 0 0

move 4 8 7

need 0 0 0

observe 0 1 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 0 5 3

pay 0 0 0

play 1 3 3

prepare 0 0 1

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 18 39 71

raise 0 0 0

reach 3 6 7

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 1 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 7 30 19

say 0 0 0

see 1 5 2

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 1 0

send 10 7 11

serve 1 0 0

set 5 15 10

show 0 0 0

sit 59 99 118

speak 0 0 0

stand 1 0 7

start 0 3 2

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 6 18 19

talk 1 3 0

tell 0 0 1

think 0 2 0

try 0 1 0

turn 8 27 33

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 1

work 0 2 0

write 17 21 20

Appendix 3.7

Verb + in PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 1 1 1

allow 1 2 3

appear 1 2 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

beg 0 1 0

believe 9 8 0

brg 22 38 53

call 12 12 15

carry 0 3 1

cause 1 0 0

change 0 0 1

consider 0 0 2

contue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 1

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 1 0

feel 1 1 0

fd 1 2 6

follow 0 1 2

form 1 0 0

get 3 22 27

give 16 14 11

go 19 19 49

grow 0 2 1

hear 0 0 1

help 1 1 0

hold 1 1 2

improve 0 0 0

crease 2 1 1

troduce 2 0 0

issue 0 0 0

jo 5 3 11

keep 1 1 1

lead 0 0 1

leave 0 3 1

lie 0 1 0

like 0 0 0

live 22 16 22

look 0 7 12

lose 0 1 1

mata 0 0 0

make 3 4 0

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 1 0 0

move 3 26 18

need 1 0 2

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 1 1

pass 1 1 0

pay 0 0 0

play 1 0 3

prepare 0 0 0

present 1 0 1

produce 0 0 0

provide 1 0 0

put 8 11 20

raise 0 0 0

reach 1 3 1

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 2

relate 0 0 0

rema 1 1 2

require 0 0 0

run 3 3 3

say 2 0 1

see 2 2 2

seek 0 1 0

seem 0 0 0

send 4 4 7

serve 0 0 1

set 11 7 10

show 0 1 2

sit 3 3 5

speak 0 0 0

stand 1 3 4

start 2 4 1

state 0 0 0

stop 0 2 0

take 5 14 13

talk 0 0 1

tell 0 0 1

thk 0 1 0

try 0 0 0

turn 3 7 7

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 1 1

work 4 3 8

write 0 1 6

Appendix 3.8

Verb + off PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 1 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 1

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 0 2 2

call 2 5 1

carry 2 2 7

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 3

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 0 0

form 0 0 0

get 10 27 17

give 2 4 8

go 12 33 50

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 0 1

help 0 0 0

hold 0 1 2

improve 0 0 0

increase 2 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 1 2

lead 1 4 2

leave 0 7 1

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 4 3 0

look 0 2 3

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 1 3 4

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 1

mention 0 0 0

move 0 5 9

need 0 1 0

observe 0 0 0

er 1 0 0

open 0 1 0

pass 2 2 5

pay 16 24 21

play 0 0 1

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 1 0

put 8 9 12

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 1

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 1 0

require 1 0 0

run 3 14 9

say 0 0 0

see 2 4 12

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 4 16

serve 0 0 0

set 9 31 23

show 7 10 11

sit 0 0 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 2 2

start 10 4 13

state 0 0 0

stop 1 2 1

take 41 67 74

talk 1 3 0

tell 0 0 2

think 0 0 0

try 0 0 1

turn 7 16 10

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 1

want 0 1 0

work 2 3 1

write 7 4 5

Appendix 3.9

Verb + on PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 1 1

allow 0 0 0

appear 1 2 0

ask 0 0 0

become 1 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 0 10 15

call 0 2 1

carry 47 41 56

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

csider 0 0 0

ctinue 0 7 2

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 1 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 1 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 1 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 0 3

form 0 0 1

get 9 16 60

give 0 1 2

go 227 253 375

grow 0 0 1

hear 0 0 2

help 1 0 1

hold 16 16 18

improve 0 1 0

increase 1 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 1 0 0

keep 39 24 20

lead 0 1 4

leave 9 7 2

lie 0 1 0

like 1 0 0

live 3 11 7

look 11 8 10

lose 1 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 1 2 2

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 1

menti 0 0 0

move 21 21 31

need 0 1 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 1 0 1

pass 20 18 21

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 1

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 19 36 37

raise 1 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 4 4

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 3 1 0

require 0 0 0

run 0 3 4

say 0 0 0

see 0 2 0

seek 0 1 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 3 1

serve 0 1 0

set 1 2 0

show 0 0 0

sit 2 2 5

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 1 1

start 0 0 1

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 69 72 73

talk 1 0 1

tell 0 1 0

think 1 0 0

try 4 0 7

turn 2 12 4

understand 0 0 0

visit 1 0 0

want 0 0 2

work 10 10 12

write 0 0 1

Appendix 3.10

Verb + out PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 1 0

add 0 0 0

allow 1 1 1

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 5 3

become 1 0 1

begin 0 0 1

believe 0 0 0

bring 33 27 51

call 25 26 21

carry 285 109 210

cause 1 1 0

change 0 1 0

consider 1 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 1 0

date 0 0 0

decide 1 0 0

eat 2 3 3

enjoy 0 0 1

ensure 0 0 0

establish 1 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 80 106 130

follow 0 5 4

form 0 0 0

get 13 79 60

give 19 5 15

go 56 117 149

grow 0 1 1

hear 0 2 1

help 9 11 18

hold 14 32 44

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 1 0

keep 0 8 19

lead 2 3 5

leave 15 8 22

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 1

live 3 9 3

look 5 44 33

lose 1 0 3

maintain 4 0 0

make 23 40 27

mean 0 0 0

meet 1 1 0

mention 0 1 0

move 1 13 10

need 1 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 1 1

open 1 2 7

pass 2 4 3

pay 0 1 11

play 3 3 7

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 1 0 1

put 9 24 33

raise 1 0 0

reach 34 25 25

read 8 0 4

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 2

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 1

require 0 0 0

run 11 19 22

say 2 2 1

see 1 7 8

seek 5 28 12

seem 1 0 2

send 15 35 22

serve 2 0 0

set 45 60 121

show 0 1 0

sit 3 1 1

speak 4 6 12

stand 19 21 23

start 5 26 8

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 1

take 68 57 59

talk 0 6 3

tell 0 0 0

think 8 7 8

try 6 10 8

turn 49 127 104

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 2 0

work 63 101 79

write 3 10 9

Appendix 3.11

Verb + over PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 1 1

ask 1 0 1

become 2 1 0

begin 0 1 1

believe 0 0 0

bring 1 4 5

call 0 1 1

carry 2 9 6

cause 0 0 0

change 0 1 2

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 1

create 1 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 1 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 1

express 1 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 1 0 1

follow 0 1 0

form 2 0 1

get 0 21 6

give 3 4 9

go 4 34 24

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 1 0

help 0 0 2

hold 0 1 2

improve 0 0 0

increase 3 1 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 1 0

lead 0 2 2

leave 2 6 9

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 1 2 0

look 3 28 10

lose 0 0 0

maintain 1 1 0

make 3 4 5

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 2

mention 0 0 0

move 2 7 6

need 0 1 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 1 0

open 0 1 0

pass 0 15 10

pay 0 0 0

play 0 2 1

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 1 0

put 0 1 3

raise 0 1 0

reach 0 8 5

read 1 0 2

receive 0 1 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 2 7 2

say 0 2 6

see 0 0 2

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 3 5

serve 0 1 0

set 1 0 0

show 0 0 0

sit 0 1 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 0 0

start 1 5 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 1 0

take 55 56 98

talk 1 4 7

tell 0 4 1

think 1 6 6

try 0 0 0

turn 8 38 26

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 1 0

work 5 2 0

write 1 0 0

Appendix 3.12

Verb + round PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 1

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 1

believe 0 0 0

bring 1 2 2

call 0 0 1

carry 0 0 0

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 1

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 0 0

form 0 0 0

get 1 1 8

give 0 0 0

go 8 2 21

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 0 0

help 0 0 0

hold 0 0 0

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0

leave 0 0 0

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 1 0 1

look 2 0 18

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 0 1

mean 0 0 1

meet 0 0 1

mention 0 0 0

move 1 0 0

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 1

open 0 0 0

pass 0 0 2

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 0 1

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 1 1 0

require 0 0 0

run 0 0 1

say 0 0 0

see 0 0 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 0 3

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 0

show 0 0 1

sit 0 0 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 0 1

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 1 0 6

talk 0 0 1

tell 0 1 0

think 0 0 0

try 0 0 0

turn 4 0 21

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 0

work 0 1 0

write 0 0 0

Appendix 3.13

Verb + through PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 0 0

become 1 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 0 1 1

call 0 0 0

carry 1 7 4

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 1

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 0 0

follow 1 4 3

form 0 0 0

get 5 10 19

give 0 0 0

go 17 15 20

grow 0 0 0

hear 0 0 0

help 0 0 1

hold 0 0 0

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 2

leave 0 0 1

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 3 2 1

look 0 0 1

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 1 0 0

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0

move 0 1 0

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 2 5 6

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 2 3 3

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 2

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 1 0 0

require 0 0 0

run 0 1 3

say 0 0 0

see 3 1 6

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 0

show 1 3 0

sit 0 0 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 0 0

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 0 1 4

talk 1 0 1

tell 0 0 0

think 4 7 2

try 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 0

work 0 1 2

write 0 0 1

Appendix 3.14

Verb + under PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 0 0

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 0 1 0

call 0 0 0

carry 0 0 0

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0

find 0 0 0

follow 0 0 0

form 0 0 0

get 0 0 0

give 1 0 0

go 0 2 3

grow 0 1 0

hear 0 0 0

help 0 0 0

hold 0 0 1

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0

leave 0 0 0

lie 0 0 0

like 0 0 0

live 1 0 2

look 0 0 0

lose 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 0 0 0

mean 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0

mention 1 0 0

move 0 0 0

need 0 0 0

observe 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 0 0 0

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0

put 0 1 0

raise 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0

read 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 0 1 0

require 0 0 0

run 0 0 0

say 0 0 0

see 0 0 0

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 1 0 0

show 0 0 0

sit 0 0 0

speak 0 0 0

stand 0 0 0

start 0 0 0

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 0 0 0

talk 0 0 0

tell 0 0 0

think 0 0 0

try 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0

stand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 0 0

work 2 0 0

write 0 0 0

Appendix 3.15

Verb + up PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0

add 3 4 3

allow 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0

ask 0 0 1

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0

bring 52 38 73

call 6 12 13

carry 0 0 0

cause 0 0 0

change 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0

continue 2 1 0

create 0 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0

eat 16 9 7

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0

establish 0 1 0

express 0 0 0

feel 0 2 0

find 0 3 0

follow 16 4 29

form 0 0 0

get 70 70 78

give 87 106 90

go 36 55 51

grow 48 71 67

hear 0 0 0

help 0 3 4

hold 18 39 51

improve 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0

join 1 1 3

keep 27 39 51

lead 2 2 6

leave 1 0 2

lie 0 1 1

like 0 0 1

live 0 2 4

look 35 97 72

lose 0 1 0

maintain 0 0 0

make 60 120 115

mean 0 0 0

meet 5 2 5

mention 1 0 0

move 2 15 10

need 1 0 1

observe 0 0 0

offer 2 3 1

open 37 27 34

pass 0 6 6

pay 2 0 6

play 4 1 4

prepare 0 0 0

present 1 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 1 0 0

put 35 29 72

raise 2 10 4

reach 0 5 4

read 2 0 0

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 1 1 1

require 0 1 2

run 2 12 8

say 0 0 0

see 1 6 1

seek 0 0 0

seem 0 0 0

send 2 9 5

serve 0 2 3

set 282 120 168

show 14 41 18

sit 7 23 24

speak 5 3 6

stand 42 70 58

start 1 9 16

state 0 0 0

stop 0 0 0

take 104 73 121

talk 0 0 0

tell 0 0 0

think 0 6 7

try 0 0 0

turn 18 31 47

understand 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0

want 0 2 0

work 4 9 10

write 3 5 7

Appendix 4 125 Verbs with Frequencies in 9 Patterns

Appendix 4.1 To Infinitive Patterns

Verbs V To V

V +

prep

to V

V np To V Total

PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 1 0 2 0 0 0 9 5 3 10 5 5

achieve 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 2 4 1 2

add 3 4 6 0 0 0 5 7 12 8 11 18

allow 137 73 130 0 0 0 203 180 184 340 253 314

appear 149 174 245 0 0 0 10 7 10 159 181 255

ask 66 65 78 0 0 0 215 143 131 281 208 209

become 0 0 1 0 0 0 45 16 19 45 16 20

begin 243 450 462 0 0 0 4 6 0 247 456 462

believe 24 24 37 0 0 0 9 11 19 33 35 56

bring 4 13 16 0 0 0 31 31 41 35 44 57

call 12 12 8 13 11 13 35 44 38 60 67 59

carry 0 1 0 0 0 0 12 9 8 12 10 8

cause 2 6 3 0 0 0 37 95 50 39 101 53

change 3 1 4 0 0 0 13 5 3 16 6 7

consider 54 22 27 0 0 0 21 19 19 75 41 46

continue 365 275 198 0 0 0 8 2 4 373 277 202

create 10 4 3 0 0 0 21 7 5 31 11 8

date 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

decide 223 142 166 0 0 0 7 6 6 230 148 172

eat 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 2 1

enjoy 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 1 9 0 1

ensure 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 1 3 8 1 3

establish 13 5 4 0 0 0 23 9 7 36 14 11

express 2 0 0 0 0 0 19 4 3 21 4 3

feel 7 3 13 0 0 0 18 23 31 25 26 44

find 26 49 48 0 0 0 50 64 49 76 113 97

follow 2 0 1 0 0 0 6 9 1 8 9 2

form 8 5 7 0 0 0 8 3 5 16 8 12

get 20 130 116 0 0 0 72 86 82 92 216 198

give 11 7 12 0 0 0 158 116 140 169 123 152

go 304 525 552 0 0 0 67 72 92 371 597 644

grow 2 7 10 0 0 0 4 4 6 6 11 16

hear 2 3 8 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 5 8

help 59 69 99 0 0 0 75 27 60 134 96 159

hold 20 6 16 0 0 0 20 17 8 40 23 24

improve 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 5 2 0

increase 2 3 1 0 0 0 10 6 7 12 9 8

introduce 5 0 5 0 0 0 3 5 8 8 5 13

issue 7 1 2 0 0 0 11 5 5 18 6 7

join 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 6 4 17 6 4

keep 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 3 9 9 3 9

lead 21 16 7 0 0 0 40 44 40 61 60 47

leave 23 29 42 0 0 0 33 47 63 56 76 105

lie 0 2 3 0 0 0 4 6 3 4 8 6

like 228 223 230 0 0 0 6 15 27 234 238 257

live 0 11 13 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 13 15

look 10 9 6 1 0 0 26 27 21 37 36 27

lose 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 10 9 9 10 9

maintain 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 4 5 4 4

make 143 64 79 0 0 0 239 133 144 382 197 223

mean 111 90 62 0 0 0 5 4 14 116 94 76

meet 1 2 5 0 0 0 2 10 10 3 12 15

mention 0 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 3 2 2 5

move 13 22 9 0 0 0 10 18 6 23 40 15

need 525 258 287 0 0 0 57 52 49 582 310 336

observe 3 3 1 0 0 0 3 0 1 6 3 2

offer 19 25 33 0 0 0 21 19 23 40 44 56

open 0 2 4 0 0 0 10 10 19 10 12 23

pass 1 1 3 0 0 0 7 3 5 8 4 8

pay 5 8 10 0 0 0 9 12 20 14 20 30

play 2 3 0 0 0 0 12 3 1 14 6 1

prepare 43 66 33 0 0 0 18 5 6 61 71 39

present 1 0 2 0 0 0 6 4 5 7 4 7

produce 1 0 2 0 0 0 12 6 7 13 6 9

provide 2 0 6 0 0 0 103 53 39 105 53 45

put 10 8 5 0 0 0 41 30 32 51 38 37

raise 2 2 1 0 0 0 12 9 8 14 11 9

reach 1 4 2 0 0 0 3 10 5 4 14 7

read 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 5 3 3 5 6

receive 1 0 1 0 0 0 5 9 9 6 9 10

refer 1 3 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 3 4 3

relate 10 5 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 11 7 2

remain 9 14 19 0 0 0 10 6 7 19 20 26

require 122 90 114 0 0 0 45 66 50 167 156 164

run 7 6 7 0 0 0 7 11 6 14 17 13

say 58 61 63 0 0 0 6 5 8 64 66 71

see 13 18 24 0 0 0 12 19 23 25 37 47

seek 121 110 97 0 0 0 15 6 4 136 116 101

seem 371 635 739 0 0 0 3 33 45 374 668 784

send 10 6 6 0 0 0 22 44 29 32 50 35

serve 22 44 38 0 0 0 9 6 5 31 50 43

set 20 10 14 0 0 0 22 11 26 42 21 40

show 13 7 21 0 0 0 36 17 36 49 24 57

sit 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 6 6 4 7 6

speak 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 1 1 3 1

stand 3 6 8 0 0 0 6 8 6 9 14 14

start 82 104 82 0 0 0 11 3 2 93 107 84

state 9 4 2 0 0 0 3 0 1 12 4 3

stop 7 25 20 0 0 0 5 7 4 12 32 24

take 67 50 58 0 0 0 227 149 191 294 199 249

talk 4 1 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 6 5 2

tell 13 15 17 0 0 0 44 66 71 57 81 88

think 13 45 44 0 2 2 18 12 25 31 59 71

try 641 660 656 0 0 0 10 5 8 651 665 664

turn 13 32 38 0 0 0 12 16 24 25 48 62

understand 3 2 7 0 0 0 5 5 3 8 7 10

visit 2 1 0 0 0 0 22 2 4 24 3 4

want 732 817 732 0 0 0 129 166 149 861 983 881

work 30 24 11 0 0 0 28 21 19 58 45 30

write 3 8 15 0 0 0 10 7 10 13 15 25

succeed 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 6 0 0

announce 11 0 1 0 0 0 8 7 6 19 7 7

suggest 4 0 2 0 0 0 9 7 4 13 7 6

stress 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 1 2 8 1 2

avoid 3 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 6 0 1

contemplate 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 1

hesitate 19 13 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 13 16

fail 281 173 177 0 0 0 6 5 3 287 178 180

forbid 1 10 10 0 0 0 7 7 12 8 17 22

beseech 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2

press 1 0 5 0 0 0 4 7 6 5 7 11

direct 26 7 3 0 0 0 39 8 3 65 15 6

request 56 3 2 0 0 0 51 8 5 107 11 7

prevent 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 0 1

ban 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

discourage 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 2 1

remind 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 2

inform 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 4 1 0

aim 41 23 36 2 0 0 0 1 0 43 24 36

persist 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

resort 7 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 8 0 2

assure 6 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 10 0 0

demand 6 6 6 0 0 0 27 3 3 33 9 9

reiterate 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 0 0

urge 3 4 10 1 0 0 67 39 27 71 43 37

Appendix 4.2 Bare Infinitive Patterns

Verbs

V Bare

Inf v np bare inf Total

PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

achieve 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

add 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

allow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

appear 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ask 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

become 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

begin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

believe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

bring 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0

call 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

carry 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

cause 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

change 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

consider 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

continue 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

create 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

date 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

decide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

eat 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ensure 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

establish 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

express 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

feel 0 0 0 7 30 28 7 30 28

find 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

follow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

form 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

get 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

give 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

go 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

grow 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

hear 0 0 0 23 67 55 23 67 55

help 109 106 74 83 94 29 192 200 103

hold 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

improve 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

increase 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

issue 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

join 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

leave 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

lie 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

like 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

live 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

look 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

lose 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

maintain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

make 7 8 8 188 245 248 195 253 256

mean 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

meet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

mention 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

move 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

need 14 9 25 1 3 1 15 12 26

observe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

offer 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

open 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

pass 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

pay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

play 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

present 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

provide 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

put 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

raise 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

reach 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

read 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

receive 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

remain 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

require 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

run 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

say 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

see 0 0 2 27 77 62 27 77 64

seek 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

seem 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

send 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

set 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

show 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

sit 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

speak 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

stand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

start 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

state 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

stop 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

take 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

talk 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

tell 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

think 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

try 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

understand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

visit 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

want 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

work 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

write 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

succeed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

announce 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

suggest 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

stress 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

avoid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

contemplate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

hesitate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

fail 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

forbid 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

beseech 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

press 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

direct 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

request 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

prevent 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ban 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

discourage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

remind 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

inform 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

aim 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

persist 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

resort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

assure 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

demand 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

reiterate 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

urge 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Appendix 4.3 Gerundive Patterns

Verbs V + ing V prep ing V np ing Total

PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 2 1 1 0 0 1 5 0 3 7 1 5

achieve 2 0 0 13 6 9 4 2 3 19 8 12

add 0 1 0 1 1 1 5 2 2 6 4 3

allow 4 1 2 4 2 0 4 1 4 12 4 6

appear 1 2 1 0 0 0 6 6 2 7 8 3

ask 2 2 1 4 2 3 4 4 2 10 8 6

become 6 1 1 0 0 0 18 6 8 24 7 9

begin 59 133 48 9 17 19 3 5 7 71 155 74

believe 1 0 1 20 5 5 3 0 1 24 5 7

bring 0 0 2 3 5 5 11 3 7 14 8 14

call 4 3 8 8 6 2 8 8 11 20 17 21

carry 1 0 0 0 0 0 17 7 13 18 7 13

cause 3 0 3 0 2 6 6 4 3 9 6 12

change 1 0 3 0 2 2 6 1 1 7 3 6

consider 18 40 19 1 0 4 8 5 3 27 45 26

continue 38 12 18 0 0 1 3 1 3 41 13 22

create 2 0 1 3 4 2 7 4 2 12 8 5

date 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0

decide 0 0 0 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2

eat 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0

enjoy 20 20 27 4 0 0 3 2 2 27 22 29

ensure 0 0 0 2 0 0 6 1 2 8 1 2

establish 3 0 0 2 0 0 4 5 4 9 5 4

express 0 1 0 0 1 1 5 4 0 5 6 1

feel 2 1 3 10 17 17 22 32 24 34 50 44

find 8 7 17 3 2 7 40 80 103 51 89 127

follow 1 0 1 1 2 6 4 7 9 6 9 16

form 1 0 0 2 1 1 2 3 5 5 4 6

get 5 9 7 4 7 6 18 31 26 27 47 39

give 4 3 2 3 8 8 27 18 28 34 29 38

go 24 39 47 28 24 13 17 18 18 69 81 78

grow 0 0 0 3 3 3 2 3 1 5 6 4

hear 5 4 6 1 3 0 44 47 51 50 54 57

help 19 11 37 51 8 5 11 2 3 81 21 45

hold 1 0 0 1 1 0 10 10 8 12 11 8

improve 2 5 3 3 0 2 4 0 2 9 5 7

increase 1 1 1 2 2 1 9 4 3 12 7 5

introduce 1 0 2 0 0 3 4 1 5 5 1 10

issue 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 7 8 9 7 8

join 0 0 0 1 3 0 9 2 0 10 5 0

keep 153 99 91 2 3 4 30 21 35 185 123 130

lead 0 0 1 3 3 2 11 6 11 14 9 14

leave 2 3 13 4 3 4 16 24 22 22 30 39

lie 0 1 3 11 3 2 3 2 7 14 6 12

like 13 18 28 0 0 0 1 9 6 14 27 34

live 1 0 0 3 3 0 6 4 1 10 7 1

look 2 1 2 6 6 9 19 18 17 27 25 28

lose 0 2 0 1 2 3 3 2 3 4 6 6

maintain 1 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 4 0 2

make 9 11 13 7 11 18 45 25 47 61 47 78

mean 30 26 41 5 3 3 2 2 4 37 31 48

meet 2 1 2 1 0 2 4 2 6 7 3 10

mention 0 4 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 2 7 2

move 0 0 0 2 2 1 4 7 4 6 9 5

need 3 7 25 5 4 3 4 2 1 12 13 29

observe 3 2 0 1 0 2 4 2 5 8 4 7

offer 0 1 0 1 2 0 4 1 3 5 4 3

open 0 1 0 1 2 0 5 2 2 6 5 2

pass 2 1 1 5 0 2 11 9 5 18 10 8

pay 0 1 1 5 5 2 11 1 7 16 7 10

play 2 0 0 5 2 3 7 2 3 14 4 6

prepare 0 0 0 3 4 3 3 3 1 6 7 4

present 0 0 0 0 1 1 7 5 3 7 6 4

produce 0 0 4 0 4 2 10 3 7 10 7 13

provide 5 4 1 8 3 7 21 13 4 34 20 12

put 0 0 1 4 1 2 8 3 10 12 4 13

raise 0 3 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 9 3 3

reach 0 0 0 1 3 0 2 1 1 3 4 1

read 0 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 4 5 5 8

receive 1 1 0 0 2 2 12 10 4 13 13 6

refer 0 0 0 1 3 0 9 0 3 10 3 3

relate 1 0 1 6 0 3 2 3 3 9 3 7

remain 1 2 2 1 0 1 10 3 1 12 5 4

require 7 9 4 7 6 5 2 7 2 16 22 11

run 0 3 0 1 0 3 3 11 1 4 14 4

say 18 15 3 10 15 10 29 7 10 57 37 23

see 37 15 24 2 3 3 175 142 123 214 160 150

seek 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 2 0 7 3 0

seem 3 0 1 0 0 2 2 2 3 5 2 6

send 1 1 0 1 0 0 9 24 30 11 25 30

serve 1 0 0 0 2 4 6 3 0 7 5 4

set 0 1 2 8 3 2 15 6 18 23 10 22

show 10 2 3 1 1 0 13 18 16 24 21 19

sit 7 9 16 0 0 1 15 15 20 22 24 37

speak 1 0 0 6 3 4 3 5 6 10 8 10

stand 8 29 23 0 3 1 12 21 17 20 53 41

start 357 140 112 5 11 6 8 8 3 370 159 121

state 1 1 1 0 1 0 4 0 0 5 2 1

stop 68 78 69 7 1 2 7 1 18 82 80 89

take 0 3 1 12 5 11 39 25 35 51 33 47

talk 0 0 0 9 9 10 4 4 3 13 13 13

tell 0 0 1 1 5 0 4 4 9 5 9 10

think 3 3 2 36 29 35 10 16 6 49 48 43

try 15 12 19 3 0 0 0 0 3 18 12 22

turn 0 0 0 4 3 4 4 6 9 8 9 13

understand 0 2 0 1 1 2 5 1 5 6 4 7

visit 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 3 1

want 0 1 1 0 0 0 4 4 8 4 5 9

work 1 3 5 13 6 4 10 5 9 24 14 18

write 0 1 2 0 1 1 13 19 19 13 21 22

succeed 0 0 0 60 33 33 6 0 0 66 33 33

announce 2 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 4 2 1

suggest 2 6 8 1 0 0 0 1 0 3 7 8

stress 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 1 1 2 2 3

avoid 47 42 35 2 3 0 2 3 7 51 48 42

contemplate 2 1 4 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 6

hesitate 1 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 3

fail 0 0 0 9 1 1 0 0 0 9 1 1

forbid 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 0

beseech 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

press 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 2 4 1

direct 0 0 0 6 2 4 2 0 1 8 2 5

request 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

prevent 3 3 1 3 5 5 8 1 26 14 9 32

ban 1 0 0 2 0 4 0 0 0 3 0 4

discourage 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 2 4 0

remind 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 2 4 2 2

inform 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 3 0 3 3 0

aim 0 0 0 87 17 23 2 0 0 89 17 23

persist 0 0 0 2 5 2 2 0 0 4 5 2

resort 0 0 0 4 4 3 1 0 1 5 4 4

assure 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 3 1 2

demand 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

reiterate 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

urge 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

Appendix 4.4 That Complementation Pattern

Verbs

v that

np v

PWE BF LF

accept 4 3 7

achieve 0 0 0

add 26 6 8

allow 3 1 5

appear 11 10 17

ask 1 0 2

become 0 0 0

begin 0 0 2

believe 60 67 57

bring 0 0 0

call 1 0 0

carry 0 0 0

cause 0 1 0

change 0 0 1

consider 4 6 9

continue 3 0 0

create 1 0 0

date 0 0 0

decide 28 13 32

eat 0 0 0

enjoy 0 0 0

ensure 27 7 38

establish 4 3 5

express 2 0 0

feel 44 39 52

find 25 23 29

follow 3 8 10

form 0 0 0

get 0 0 1

give 1 0 1

go 1 1 0

grow 0 1 2

hear 11 7 13

help 0 0 0

hold 11 9 7

improve 0 1 0

increase 0 0 0

introduce 0 0 0

issue 1 0 0

join 0 0 0

keep 0 0 0

lead 0 0 0

leave 0 0 0

lie 0 0 0

like 0 1 1

live 0 0 0

look 0 1 2

lose 0 0 0

maintain 9 6 5

make 0 3 3

mean 34 27 49

meet 1 0 0

mention 17 1 2

move 1 1 0

need 0 0 0

observe 18 8 5

offer 0 0 0

open 0 0 0

pass 1 0 0

pay 0 0 0

play 0 0 0

prepare 0 0 0

present 0 0 0

produce 0 0 0

provide 1 4 4

put 1 0 0

raise 1 1 0

reach 0 0 2

read 3 2 1

receive 0 0 0

refer 0 0 0

relate 0 0 0

remain 3 2 0

require 8 12 6

run 0 0 0

say 291 85 141

see 21 34 36

seek 0 0 0

seem 22 14 11

send 0 0 0

serve 0 0 0

set 0 0 1

show 41 29 43

sit 0 0 0

speak 2 0 0

stand 0 0 1

start 0 0 0

state 45 15 19

stop 0 0 0

take 0 0 0

talk 0 0 0

tell 13 7 10

think 62 38 75

try 0 0 0

turn 0 0 0

understand 10 8 12

visit 0 0 0

want 2 0 0

work 3 2 0

write 7 9 3

succeed 0 0 1

announce 18 16 16

suggest 50 44 77

stress 4 1 7

avoid 0 0 0

contemplate 0 0 1

hesitate 0 0 0

fail 0 0 0

forbid 0 0 1

beseech 0 0 0

press 0 0 0

direct 5 2 1

request 6 6 2

prevent 0 0 0

ban 0 0 0

discourage 0 0 0

remind 0 1 1

inform 10 0 3

aim 0 0 0

persist 2 2 1

resort 0 0 0

assure 8 6 4

demand 16 4 7

reiterate 1 0 0

urge 2 2 3

Appendix 4.5 Verbs in 4 Main Verb Complementation Patterns

To Infinitive Bare Infinitive Gerundive

That

Complementation

Verbs PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF PWE BF LF

accept 10 5 5 0 0 0 7 1 5 4 3 7

achieve 4 1 2 0 0 0 19 8 12 0 0 0

add 8 11 18 0 0 0 6 4 3 26 6 8

allow 340 253 314 0 0 0 12 4 6 3 1 5

appear 159 181 255 0 0 0 7 8 3 11 10 17

ask 281 208 209 0 0 0 10 8 6 1 0 2

become 45 16 20 1 0 0 24 7 9 0 0 0

begin 247 456 462 0 0 0 71 155 74 0 0 2

believe 33 35 56 0 0 0 24 5 7 60 67 57

bring 35 44 57 1 1 0 14 8 14 0 0 0

call 60 67 59 0 0 0 20 17 21 1 0 0

carry 12 10 8 0 0 0 18 7 13 0 0 0

cause 39 101 53 0 0 0 9 6 12 0 1 0

change 16 6 7 0 0 0 7 3 6 0 0 1

consider 75 41 46 0 0 0 27 45 26 4 6 9

continue 373 277 202 0 0 0 41 13 22 3 0 0

create 31 11 8 0 0 0 12 8 5 1 0 0

date 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

decide 230 148 172 0 0 0 5 2 2 28 13 32

eat 2 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

enjoy 9 0 1 0 0 0 27 22 29 0 0 0

ensure 8 1 3 0 0 0 8 1 2 27 7 38

establish 36 14 11 0 0 0 9 5 4 4 3 5

express 21 4 3 0 0 0 5 6 1 2 0 0

feel 25 26 44 7 30 28 34 50 44 44 39 52

find 76 113 97 0 0 0 51 89 127 25 23 29

follow 8 9 2 0 0 0 6 9 16 3 8 10

form 16 8 12 0 0 0 5 4 6 0 0 0

get 92 216 198 1 0 0 27 47 39 0 0 1

give 169 123 152 0 0 1 34 29 38 1 0 1

go 371 597 644 0 0 0 69 81 78 1 1 0

grow 6 11 16 0 0 0 5 6 4 0 1 2

hear 2 5 8 23 67 55 50 54 57 11 7 13

help 134 96 159 192 200 103 81 21 45 0 0 0

hold 40 23 24 0 0 0 12 11 8 11 9 7

improve 5 2 0 0 0 0 9 5 7 0 1 0

increase 12 9 8 0 0 0 12 7 5 0 0 0

introduce 8 5 13 0 0 0 5 1 10 0 0 0

issue 18 6 7 0 0 0 9 7 8 1 0 0

join 17 6 4 0 0 0 10 5 0 0 0 0

keep 9 3 9 0 0 0 185 123 130 0 0 0

lead 61 60 47 0 0 0 14 9 14 0 0 0

leave 56 76 105 1 0 0 22 30 39 0 0 0

lie 4 8 6 0 0 0 14 6 12 0 0 0

like 234 238 257 0 0 0 14 27 34 0 1 1

live 1 13 15 1 0 0 10 7 1 0 0 0

look 37 36 27 0 0 0 27 25 28 0 1 2

lose 9 10 9 0 0 0 4 6 6 0 0 0

maintain 5 4 4 0 0 0 4 0 2 9 6 5

make 382 197 223 195 253 256 61 47 78 0 3 3

mean 116 94 76 0 0 0 37 31 48 34 27 49

meet 3 12 15 0 0 0 7 3 10 1 0 0

mention 2 2 5 0 0 0 2 7 2 17 1 2

move 23 40 15 0 0 0 6 9 5 1 1 0

need 582 310 336 15 12 26 12 13 29 0 0 0

observe 6 3 2 0 0 0 8 4 7 18 8 5

offer 40 44 56 0 0 0 5 4 3 0 0 0

open 10 12 23 0 0 0 6 5 2 0 0 0

pass 8 4 8 0 0 0 18 10 8 1 0 0

pay 14 20 30 0 0 0 16 7 10 0 0 0

play 14 6 1 0 0 0 14 4 6 0 0 0

prepare 61 71 39 0 0 0 6 7 4 0 0 0

present 7 4 7 0 0 0 7 6 4 0 0 0

produce 13 6 9 0 0 0 10 7 13 0 0 0

provide 105 53 45 0 0 0 34 20 12 1 4 4

put 51 38 37 0 0 0 12 4 13 1 0 0

raise 14 11 9 0 0 0 9 3 3 1 1 0

reach 4 14 7 0 0 0 3 4 1 0 0 2

read 3 5 6 0 0 0 5 5 8 3 2 1

receive 6 9 10 0 0 0 13 13 6 0 0 0

refer 3 4 3 0 0 0 10 3 3 0 0 0

relate 11 7 2 0 0 0 9 3 7 0 0 0

remain 19 20 26 0 0 0 12 5 4 3 2 0

require 167 156 164 0 0 0 16 22 11 8 12 6

run 14 17 13 0 0 0 4 14 4 0 0 0

say 64 66 71 1 0 1 57 37 23 291 85 141

see 25 37 47 27 77 64 214 160 150 21 34 36

seek 136 116 101 0 1 0 7 3 0 0 0 0

seem 374 668 784 0 0 0 5 2 6 22 14 11

send 32 50 35 0 0 0 11 25 30 0 0 0

serve 31 50 43 0 0 0 7 5 4 0 0 0

set 42 21 40 0 0 0 23 10 22 0 0 1

show 49 24 57 0 0 0 24 21 19 41 29 43

sit 4 7 6 0 0 0 22 24 37 0 0 0

speak 1 3 1 1 0 0 10 8 10 2 0 0

stand 9 14 14 0 0 0 20 53 41 0 0 1

start 93 107 84 0 0 0 370 159 121 0 0 0

state 12 4 3 0 0 1 5 2 1 45 15 19

stop 12 32 24 0 0 0 82 80 89 0 0 0

take 294 199 249 0 0 0 51 33 47 0 0 0

talk 6 5 2 0 0 0 13 13 13 0 0 0

tell 57 81 88 0 0 0 5 9 10 13 7 10

think 31 59 71 0 0 0 49 48 43 62 38 75

try 651 665 664 0 0 0 18 12 22 0 0 0

turn 25 48 62 0 0 0 8 9 13 0 0 0

understand 8 7 10 0 0 0 6 4 7 10 8 12

visit 24 3 4 0 0 0 1 3 1 0 0 0

want 861 983 881 0 0 0 4 5 9 2 0 0

work 58 45 30 0 0 0 24 14 18 3 2 0

write 13 15 25 0 0 0 13 21 22 7 9 3

succeed 6 0 0 0 0 0 66 33 33 0 0 1

announce 19 7 7 0 0 0 4 2 1 18 16 16

suggest 13 7 6 0 0 0 3 7 8 50 44 77

stress 8 1 2 0 0 0 2 2 3 4 1 7

avoid 6 0 1 0 0 0 51 48 42 0 0 0

contemplate 3 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 6 0 0 1

hesitate 19 13 16 0 0 0 4 0 3 0 0 0

fail 287 178 180 0 0 0 9 1 1 0 0 0

forbid 8 17 22 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 1

beseech 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

press 5 7 11 0 0 0 2 4 1 0 0 0

direct 65 15 6 0 0 0 8 2 5 5 2 1

request 107 11 7 0 0 0 0 1 0 6 6 2

prevent 2 0 1 0 0 0 14 9 32 0 0 0

ban 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 0

discourage 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0

remind 1 2 2 0 0 0 4 2 2 0 1 1

inform 4 1 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 10 0 3

aim 43 24 36 0 0 0 89 17 23 0 0 0

persist 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 5 2 2 2 1

resort 8 0 2 0 0 0 5 4 4 0 0 0

assure 10 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 2 8 6 4

demand 33 9 9 0 0 0 1 1 1 16 4 7

reiterate 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

urge 71 43 37

0 0 0

1 0 0

2 2 3

Appendix 5 Verbs of Speaking

Abuse

Accuse

Acknowledge

Admit

Agree With

Announce

Apologise

Applaud

Argue

Ask

Assert

Beg

Blame

Boast About/Of

Brag About/Of

Call

Caution

Chat

Cheer

Claim

Command

Comment On

Communicate

Complain About/Of

Compliment

Confess To

Congratulate

Converse

Cry

Curse

Declare

Describe

Discourage

Discuss

Dissuade

Encourage

Excuse

Explain

Forbid

Forgive

Gossip

Greet

Grumble

Inform

Instruct

Insult

Intone

Introduce

Invite

Joke

Lecture

Mention

Narrate

Note

Observe

Order

Pardon

Persuade

Pick On

Praise

Pray

Preach

Proclaim

Prohibit

Promise

Propose

Quarrel

Read

Rebuke

Recite

Recommend

Refer To

Regret

Remark On

Remind

Report

Repute

Request

Roar

Rumour

Say

Scold

Shout

Sing

Slander

Speak

State

Suggest

Swear

Talk

Tell

Thank

Threaten

Undertake

Urge

Warble

Warn

Welcome

Whistle

i

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