A CBDmanualfor botanicgardens · 2019-04-10 · 06 ACBDmanualforbotanicgardens 1.Introduction Botanicgardenshavedevelopedand flourishedthroughalongtraditionof exchanging,studying,displayingand

A CBD manual forbotanic gardens

A CBD manualfor botanic gardens

A CBD manual for botanic gardens

Compiled by:Kate Davis

Recommended citation:Davis, K., 2008. A CBD manual for botanic gardens.Botanic Gardens Conservation International, Richmond,United Kingdom

ISBN-10: 1-905164-29-7ISBN-13: 978-1-905164-29-5

AcknowledgementsGrateful thanks are due to Tim Hodges,Frank Klingenstein, Kent Nnadozie and Clare Trivedi forreviewing and commenting on portions of the draft textand to China Williams for collaborative work on practicalCBD implementation and outreach. The contributions ofSara Oldfield and Suzanne Sharrock in reviewing andediting this manual are also gratefully acknowledged

PhotoImage used as background for the boxes is provided byJaime Plaza, Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney, Australia

DesignJohn Morgan, Seascape. Illustrations: Rachel Fuller

Published byBotanic Gardens Conservation InternationalDescanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond,Surrey, TW9 3BW, United Kingdom

© BGCI 2008

A CBD manual for botanic gardens02

A CBD manual for botanic gardens 03

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came intoforce on 29 December 1993 and has now been ratifiedby over 190 countries. The CBD aims to conservebiodiversity and ensure its sustainable use, as well aspromoting the fair and equitable sharing of the benefitsarising from the use of genetic resources. The CBD’sscope covers all levels of biodiversity and its work isdivided into a number of thematic areas and cross-cutting issues, one of which, the Global Strategy forPlant Conservation (GSPC), is of particular relevance tobotanic gardens. Indeed it was the botanicalcommunity, led by a number of leading botanic gardenscientists, that spearheaded the development of theGSPC and ensured its adoption by the CBD in 2002.

The inclusion of the GSPC within the CBD marked aturning point for biodiversity conservation, as this wasthe first time that specific time-bound targets forconservation had been agreed at the international level.Two years after the adoption of the GSPC, CBDmember states agreed that measurable targets andspecific goals were essential to monitor progress insaving the world’s biodiversity. As a result, the targetsof the GSPC were incorporated into the CBD’sprogrammes of work as a series of sub-targets, which,together with other newly-developed targets, contributeto the CBD’s overall goal of significantly reducing therate of biodiversity loss by 2010.

The experience of the GSPC has shown how a smallgroup of committed individuals can have an impact at theglobal level. It has also shown that, through workingtogether, the botanical community can influence decisionmaking at the highest levels. In light of global climatechange we must continue, and indeed strengthen ourefforts to ensure the conservation of the world’sbiodiversity. With the 2010 deadline rapidly approaching,we encourage the world’s botanic gardens, whatevertheir size or geographical location, to take action now.The CBD provides the framework within whichconservation actions, however small and localised, canbe brought together to make a real difference globally.

Preface

With its huge scope and the complicated languageassociated with its status as an international legalagreement, the CBD may seem remote and irrelevant tomany small botanic gardens. However many aspects ofthe Convention, and not only the GSPC, are relevant tothe work of botanic gardens. We hope with this manualto ‘de-mystify’ the CBD and explain its importance to allorganisations that are concerned with the conservationand use of natural resources.

This manual is the second in a series of botanic gardenguides produced by BGCI, aimed at stimulating plantconservation action by explaining the internationalcontext for such work. The first, A CITES manual forbotanic gardens, published in 2007, urges botanicgardens to ensure that CITES (the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species of WildFauna and Flora) is fully effective for plants, and thus noplant species become endangered by internationaltrade. Although this second manual has a muchbroader scope, its aim is the same – to ensure thatbotanic gardens play their part in the implementation ofan international biodiversity treaty. The manual providessuggestions as to how botanic gardens can better focustheir work in the framework of the CBD and how theycan ensure that their valuable work is recognised ascontributing to the overall aim of the CBD to reduce therate of biodiversity loss by 2010.


1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2. Outline of the CBD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.1 What is the CBD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.2 Cross-cutting issues of relevance to botanic gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.2.1 The 2010 Biodiversity Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2.2 Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing (ABS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2.3 Climate change and biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.2.4 Communication, education and public awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.2.5 Global Strategy for Plant Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.2.6 Global Taxonomy Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.2.7 Invasive alien species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.2.8 Protected areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.2.9 Sustainable use of biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.2.10 Tourism and biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.2.11 Traditional knowledge, innovations and practices – Article 8(j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.2.12 Technology transfer and cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3. Botanic gardens and practical CBD implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.1 Action on GSPC targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.2 ABS in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.3 Working with traditional knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243.4 Sharing taxonomic information and expertise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.5 Tackling invasive alien species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.6 Spreading sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.7 Communicating biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273.8 Sharing technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4. A CBD checklist for botanic gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5. Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6. References and resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Contents


List of Boxes

Box 1: The International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Box 2: CBD organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Box 3: CBD cross-cutting issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Box 4: The CBD and CITES compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Box 5:Why a new international regime on ABS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Box 6: The other ABS treaty: The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Foodand Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Box 7: GSPC sub-objectives and targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Box 8: China’s National Strategy for Plant Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Box 9: Botanic gardens – mainstreaming the GSPC and its targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Box 10: A regional response: the North American Botanic Garden Strategy for Plant Conservation . . . . . . . . . . 21

Box 11: PlantNetwork Target 8 project: practical horticulture in support of conservation of theflora of Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Box 12: Developing a policy on ABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Box 13: Gardens as cultural crossroads: highlighting indigenous peoples’ heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Box 14: Preventing garden escapes: invasive species codes of conduct and policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Box 15: Technology transfer and the Millennium Seed Bank Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28


1. Introduction

Botanic gardens have developed andflourished through a long tradition ofexchanging, studying, displaying andconserving plants from around the world.They have served as places of serenityand wonder and centres for medicaland taxonomic research, but have alsoplayed a central role in the historicaldistribution of useful plantsworldwide and the development ofnational economies. Now, as plantspecies worldwide are declining dueto a potent mixture of threats –habitat degradation and loss, invasivealien species, overexploitation,pollution and climate change –conservation is becoming a vitalrationale for existing botanic gardensand the development of new ones.

Today, individual botanic gardens placevarying emphases on local or global plantdiversity, public education and outreach,research in botany, ecology and horticulture,in situ conservation initiatives, ex situ conservationtechniques and the investigation of new environmentallysustainable uses of plants. All of these activities fallwithin the scope of the United Nations Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD), an international frameworkconvention that has led to the development of manynew national laws, policies and initiatives around theworld. Botanic gardens provide important bridgesbetween the research and conservation communities,government authorities, local communities andcommercial sectors such as the horticultural andpharmaceutical industries. These links, so valuable tosociety, need to be recognised and considered in thecontext of the CBD.

Gardens exchanging plant material in this newenvironment require a good understanding of the many,sometimes contentious issues that surround access to

genetic resources and the sharing of benefits derivedfrom their use, including the concepts of prior informedconsent and fair and equitable benefit-sharing, eventhough in many cases countries themselves have notyet decided how to put such concepts into practice.The CBD approach – stressing benefit-sharing, scientificand technical cooperation and technology transfer –relies on partnership and communication betweenproviders and users of biodiversity; gardens can providemany inspiring examples of successful partnerships,and should continue to create more. Gardens also needto demonstrate to governments how vital theircontributions are towards implementation of all theCBD’s objectives. It is crucial that botanic gardens


understand the legal, social and ethical implications ofthis global treaty to continue their work constructivelyand reputably.

This booklet summarises the principles and practices ofthe CBD as a reference for botanic gardens. It explainswhy the CBD was developed, how it works and how itdiffers from other conservation-related conventions,such as CITES. It highlights some of the issues andinitiatives most relevant to botanic gardens. It alsosuggests positive measures that botanic gardens cantake to ensure that their work is compliant withdeveloping laws and ideas of best practice in some ofthe more convoluted areas of the CBD, and ways thatbotanic gardens can provide input to the CBD workprogrammes.

The International Agenda for Botanic Gardens inConservation (Wyse Jackson & Sutherland 2000)provides guidance on the development of a garden’sindividual conservation mission, linking actions directlyto the CBD (see Box 1). While botanic gardens arecertainly affected by the many new CBD-inspiredmeasures at national and international levels, they donot need to be just passive respondents. With a goodunderstanding of how the CBD works and what it seeksto achieve, gardens can spearhead initiatives and sendmessages to wide audiences across generations andnational borders. The Global Strategy for PlantConservation was conceived, developed and presentedby the botanical community, and was received gratefullyand uncontroversially by the CBD; the GSPC’s target-based approach is now being rolled out across otherCBD work programmes, and indeed the wholeconvention, in the 2010 Biodiversity Target.

Human beings depend on biodiversity for survival, andthe protection and sustainable management ofbiodiversity is central to the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs), a set ofmeasurable goals and targets adopted by world leadersto be met by 2015. The MDGs focus on poverty

alleviation, health and sanitation, education, equity andsustainability; no single MDG explicitly addressesbiodiversity, but healthy, functioning ecosystems,sustainable food production systems and rich geneticresources for medicines are essential to achieve thegoals. As the primary international instrument coveringthe conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, theCBD provides a framework for action at all levels, and itaids botanic gardens to situate their work in the broaderdevelopment context.

Box 1: The International Agenda for BotanicGardens in Conservation

The International Agenda was developed by and forbotanic gardens in association with BGCI.Published in 2000, it provides a mechanism bywhich botanic gardens can directly contribute to theimplementation of the CBD and undertake a widerange of related conservation and sustainabledevelopment objectives. Over 400 botanic gardensworldwide have adopted the International Agendademonstrating their commitment to securing plantdiversity for the benefit of people and the planet.


2.1 What is the CBD?

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), alsoknown as the Biodiversity Convention, is aninternational framework convention with threeobjectives: conservation of biological diversity,sustainable use of biological resources, and the fair andequitable sharing of benefits derived from the use ofgenetic resources. The CBD was opened for signatureon 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference onEnvironment and Development (the Rio Earth Summit),and came into force on 29 December 1993, 90 daysafter the thirtieth ratification. A country becomes a Partyonce it has ratified the Convention (that is, made itformally valid at the national level, for example bypassing it through national legislation). Over 190countries are now Parties to the CBD.

A number of important conservation-relatedconventions pre-date the CBD, such as the Conventionon Migratory Species (CMS, 1979), the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna andFlora (CITES, 1973), and the Ramsar Convention onWetlands (1971). These taxon-, threat- and habitat-specific conventions play a vital role in conservation,but many experts felt the treaties’ combined coveragewas not sufficient to stem the global decline of speciesand habitats from an increasingly wide range of threats.

In the early 1980s, led by the International Union forthe Conservation of Nature (IUCN), internationalconservationists started working towards developinga new global conservation convention. The task wastaken up under the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) in 1988. The scope of the proposedtreaty was broadened to include the relatively newconcept of sustainable use, in the recognition that itwould provide a greater political, economic and socialrationale for long-term conservation, and to cover alllevels of biodiversity – genes, species and ecosystems.At an early stage, special emphasis was placed on therecognition of countries’ sovereign rights over biological

resources (from the Stockholm Declaration, 1972), andbiodiversity as a common concern rather than commonheritage of mankind.

However, the prototype treaty did not gain wideinternational acceptance until the third objective wasadded: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derivedfrom the use of genetic resources. Many countries withhigh levels of biodiversity are relatively undeveloped andpoor in financial resources. These countries wereconcerned that they would have to bear most of thecosts of conserving their biodiversity, while moredeveloped countries would continue to profit frombiodiversity-based technologies underpinned by freeaccess to other countries’ resources. A fundingmechanism was built in to address the unevenconservation costs, but biodiverse countries pressed formore control over their genetic resources and a directshare in the benefits from their use and relatedtechnologies. Often called ‘the Grand Bargain’, theconcept of benefit-sharing in exchange for access togenetic resources was enshrined in the heart of theCBD, but in practice it remains the most contentiousand ambiguous issue for Parties.

The original CBD text is composed of 42 Articles, whichlay out definitions, provisions and operations of theConvention. Many of the Articles are highly relevant tobotanic gardens, such as those covering identificationand monitoring, in situ and ex situ conservation,sustainable use, research and training, public awareness,and access and benefit-sharing. Since its first meeting in1994, the governing body of the CBD, known as theConference of the Parties (or ‘COP’; see Box 2), hasproduced many Decisions, which also become a part ofthe CBD. Botanic gardens managers should be aware ofrelevant initiatives that have been adopted through theseDecisions, such as the Global Taxonomy Initiative, theGuiding Principles on invasive alien species and, mostcrucially for botanic gardens, the Global Strategy forPlant Conservation. Botanic gardens were key players inthe development of the GSPC.

2. Outline of the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD)


The primary methodology for the CBD, adopted by COPin 2000, is the ‘ecosystem approach’: a strategy for theintegrated management of land, water and livingresources that promotes conservation and sustainableuse in an equitable way and so seeks to balance thethree objectives of the CBD. It is based on the applicationof appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levelsof biological organisation which encompass the essentialstructure, processes, functions and interactions amongorganisms and their environment. It recognises thathumans, with their cultural diversity, are an integralcomponent of many ecosystems.

The CBD’s vast scope covers all levels of biodiversity,though it excludes human genetic resources. To tacklethis breadth, the Convention has divided its work into a

set of thematic work programmes and cross-cuttingissues. The seven thematic work programmescorrespond to major biomes: forests, dry and sub-humidlands, agricultural lands, seas and coasts, inland waters,mountains, and islands. The programmes set out avision, principles, key issues for consideration, plannedactivities, potential outputs and a suggested timetable foraction. The cross-cutting issues (see Box 3), as theirname suggests, are relevant to all thematic programmes.Work on these issues helps to support and link thethematic programmes and to develop implementationtools such as guidelines, principles and databases. TheCOP and SBSTTA periodically review the implementationof the thematic programmes and the cross-cuttingissues. A full list of the CBD’s work programmes andissues is available at www.cbd.int/programmes/.

Box 2: CBD organisation

• The Conference of the Parties (COP) is thegoverning body of the CBD. COP meetings, wherethe Parties make decisions and review progress,take place every two years and are attended bythousands of delegates from Parties and observerssuch as non-Parties, intergovernmentalorganisations, non-governmental organisations,indigenous peoples’ groups, research institutions,industry, and other stakeholder groups.

• Several other CBD bodies have been set up toguide and inform the COP. These include theSubsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical andTechnological Advice (SBSTTA), and variousAd Hoc Open-Ended Working Groups that havebeen convened to tackle particularly complex orcontroversial issues, such as access and benefit-sharing and protected areas. These groups meetbetween the COP meetings and makerecommendations to the COP.

• The Secretariat of the CBD, based in Montreal,Canada, is the administrative body of the CBD,coordinating overall organisation, meetings,documentation and the CBD website.

• The Clearing House Mechanism (CHM), alsocoordinated by the Secretariat, is a mainly web-based agency to promote and facilitate technicaland scientific cooperation between countries andto exchange and integrate information onbiodiversity. The CHM consists of the CBDwebsite, the network of national CHMs, andpartner organisations. See www.cbd.int/chm.

• Each Party is expected to nominate a NationalFocal Point (NFP), an individual or agency that canprovide information on national CBD strategies,legislation, procedures and activities. Countriesmay also nominate other NFPs to handle particularareas of the CBD, for example access and benefit-sharing, the Global Strategy for Plant Conservationand the Global Taxonomy Initiative. National FocalPoints and other country contacts are listed on theCBD website at: www.cbd.int/countries/.


The CBD is a framework convention, designed to allowthe addition of more specific legally-binding protocols toaddress particular issues. As of 2008 only one protocolhas been developed, the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety, which seeks to protect biodiversity frompotential risks posed by living modified organisms(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology, using aprecautionary approach, and establishes an advancedinformed agreement procedure for countries exportingor importing LMOs. Other protocols may be developedin future: current negotiations on access and benefit-sharing could potentially result in a new protocol, andsome Parties seek a protocol on protected areas.

The CBD is also a framework in the sense that itsprovisions are legally binding, but national sovereignty iscentral to the CBD: Parties decide individually how toimplement the provisions at the national level. Partiesare expected to develop National Biodiversity Strategiesand Action Plans (NBSAPs) as a starting point.Depending on their existing systems, perceived gapsand priorities, countries may then decide to change ordraft new laws and policies, set up conservationinitiatives (such as designation of new protected areas)and work out how to integrate conservation andsustainable use into relevant sectoral plans (such as

those for energy, transport and trade). Information onmeasures taken, and an assessment of theireffectiveness, is then fed back to the CBD using asystem of standard-format National Reports whichParties are expected to produce at certain intervals.NBSAPs and National Reports are posted on the CBDwebsite, and National Reports can be searched andanalysed issue by issue. They can be very useful to findout whether a country is in the process of developingnew laws that might affect botanic gardens’ work.Gardens should seek and take all opportunities tocontribute examples of CBD implementation to theirgovernments for inclusion in National Reports.

The CBD is funded through several sources. The GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF; funded by the United NationsDevelopment Programme, the United NationsEnvironment Programme and the World Bank) is thedesignated funding mechanism. GEF funds arecontributed by donor countries and are available todeveloping countries and countries with economies intransition. GEF provides co-financing for projects, andfunds ‘enabling activities’ such as development ofnational action plans. GEF projects are driven bycountries, not by international or developed countryinstitutions. Project cycle priorities are guided by theCOP and set out in GEF’s biodiversity strategy. Moreinformation about GEF is available at www.gefweb.org.The work of the CBD Secretariat and other CBD bodies(such as SBSTTA and working groups) is funded bycontributions by developed country Parties, agreed atCOP meetings. The CBD website includes contacts fora range of international financial resources and casestudies of funding from business and foundations.

The concerns of the CBD overlap with those of otherinternational environmental conventions – such asCITES, the Convention on Migratory Species, theRamsar Convention on Wetlands, and the other two Rioconventions, the UN Framework Convention on ClimateChange and the Convention to Combat Desertification –and the conventions actively communicate and worktogether, for example through their support for theMillennium Ecosystem Assessment. However, theirapproaches, organisation and implementation vary.Most botanic gardens have some experience of workingwith CITES, an older treaty with more specific andestablished national and international implementationmeasures, and may be able to better understand andcomply with the CBD’s complexities by comparing thetwo conventions (see Box 4).

Box 3: CBD cross-cutting issues: those mostrelevant to botanic gardens highlighted

• 2010 Biodiversity Target• Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing

• Climate change and biodiversity• Communication, education and publicawareness

• Economics, trade and incentive measures• Ecosystem approach• Global Strategy for Plant Conservation• Global Taxonomy Initiative• Identification, monitoring, indicators andassessments

• Impact assessment• Invasive alien species• Liability and redress – Art. 14(2)• Protected areas• Sustainable use of biodiversity• Tourism and biodiversity• Traditional knowledge, innovations andpractices – Art. 8(j)

• Technology transfer and cooperation


2.2 Cross cutting issues of relevance tobotanic gardens

2.2.1 The 2010 Biodiversity Target

In recent years, the CBD has adopted a target approachin several areas of its work, setting out time-limited andoutcome-oriented goals, with measurable indicators, toshape expectations and stimulate coordinated action byParties and stakeholders. This approach was first pilotedin the CBD by the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation(see below), which focuses on plant conservation andsustainable use. Botanic garden managers should alsobe aware of the overarching 2010 Biodiversity Target: ‘toachieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rateof biodiversity loss at the global, regional and nationallevel as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to thebenefit of all life on Earth’. This target was adopted byCOP in 2002 and endorsed by the World Summit onSustainable Development, and its support by worldleaders relates to the importance of sustainable andequitable use of biodiversity for the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals. In 2004, COP adopted aStrategic Plan that sets out a framework of seven focalareas, each with goals, sub-targets and indicators, to

evaluate progress in implementing the target. The focalareas focus on: reducing the rate of loss of biodiversity;promoting sustainable use; addressing major threats tobiodiversity; maintaining ecosystem integrity; protectingtraditional knowledge; ensuring benefit-sharing; andmobilizing resources. A global initiative, the 2010Biodiversity Indicators Partnership, was established tofurther develop and promote indicators for monitoringand assessment of biodiversity (see www.twentyten.net).The 2010 Biodiversity Target framework covers severalimportant themes, such as benefit-sharing, that are highlyrelevant to botanic gardens.

2.2.2 Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing (ABS)

Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing is one ofthe three objectives of the Convention as well as a cross-cutting issue. The main provisions on Access to GeneticResources and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) are set out in Article15. States have sovereign rights over their geneticresources, and so national governments have theauthority to determine how material is accessed, butshould facilitate access for ‘environmentally-sound uses’.Access should be granted only with the prior informed

CBDRegulates biodiversity conservation, sustainable useand benefit-sharing, addresses all threatsCovers biodiversity at all levels – genetic, species,ecosystemProvides general provisions and goals, but countriesdecide individually how to implement, according tonational priorities and circumstancesGoverning body makes decisions by consensus(sometimes leading to deliberately ambiguous text)Many different national authorities and agenciesinvolvedDepending on country, access involves range ofcollecting and/or export permits and agreements fromgovernment and other authorities/communitiesTerms for access to resources may cover access toand use of specimens in-country and internationally;each user must keep track of original terms asspecimens are transferred between usersNational laws apply; no international monitoring,reporting or trans-border enforcement involving CBDSecretariat or other Parties.

CITESRegulates international trade in endangered species,addresses over-exploitationCovers specific taxa and specified parts andderivatives listed in AppendicesProvides common Appendices and baseline forregulation (though member states may implementstricter legislation)Governing body makes decisions by vote

Countries have Management and ScientificAuthoritiesStandardised permit system of CITES export andimport permits, with flexibility for nationalmodificationOnly cross-border trade regulated; new permitsrequired for next border crossing

Exports and imports monitored nationally, reported toCITES Secretariat and enforced internationally bynational customs authorities in all Parties

Box 4: The CBD and CITES compared, highlighting some differences relevant to botanic gardens

For further information see Stolpe and Fischer, 2004.


consent of providers and requires mutuallyagreed terms between providers andusers. Research should be carried outwith the full participation of, or carriedout in, provider countries, and benefitsfrom use should be shared fairly andequitably. The CBD is not retrospective,so the provisions do not apply toresources acquired before the CBD cameinto force; such material is often describedas being ‘pre-CBD’. ABS provisions alsoappear in several other articles, related totraditional knowledge (Article 8(j)),technology transfer (Article 16.3) andbiotechnology (Articles 19.1 and 19.2).

As with the rest of the CBD, individual governmentsdecide how to interpret and implement these provisions atthe national level, and each country has its own legalsystems, national authorities and stakeholders.Consequently there is wide variation in how countries areimplementing ABS, which can lead to confusion for bothproviders and users of genetic resources. To address thisuncertainty, a working group on ABS was set up in 2001,and in 2002 the COP adopted the voluntary BonnGuidelines on access to genetic resources and fair andequitable sharing of the benefits arising from theirutilisation. This tool provides guidance for governmentsand other stakeholders (such as institutions orcompanies) on the development of domestic laws andpolicies and steps in the negotiation of ABS contracts.They provide some clarification on prior informed consent(including advice on a workable system, and informationusers should provide) and mutually agreed terms (whatshould be included, and examples of typical terms).Valuably for botanic gardens, the guidelines set outexamples of non-monetary as well as monetary benefit-sharing, and remind providers that access for taxonomicwork should be facilitated. The Bonn Guidelines alsoemphasise the need for ABS National Focal Points andCompetent National Authorities, to provide information onnational procedures for access and benefit-sharing;contact details can be found on the CBD website.Many countries and companies are now using the BonnGuidelines, and botanic gardens seeking ABS agreementsshould be familiar with them. However, the voluntaryguidelines are likely to be absorbed into a newinternational regime on ABS under the CBD (see Box 5),following a call from the World Summit for SustainableDevelopment in 2002. Negotiations on this regime, carriedout in the ABS working group, are vigorous and ongoing,due to be completed by COP10 in 2010. Botanic gardens

Box 5: Why a new international regime on ABS?

Despite the provisions of the CBD, the BonnGuidelines and new ABS laws and codes ofconduct, many countries are still not reaping theexpected level of benefits from access to and use oftheir genetic resources. This perceived lack ofbenefit-sharing may be due to various factors,ranging from unrealistic expectations to poorcontracts to outright misappropriation (often called‘biopiracy’). The main complaint is that once userstake resources outside a provider country, they arenot forced to comply with the provider’s nationallaws, because most countries with users under theirjurisdiction have not set up laws to enforcecompliance with other countries’ national laws.Some countries also wish for the scope of the newregime to extend beyond that of the BonnGuidelines and the CBD, for example to coverderivatives of genetic resources, or new uses ofresources collected before the CBD came intoforce. Negotiators are debating what ‘usermeasures’ could be developed in order to promoteand enforce compliance with providers’ nationallaws. One idea under consideration is a system ofinternationally-recognised certificates of origin (orcompliance with national laws) to travel with geneticresources as they are used, to link back to originalmutually agreed terms and providers, withcheckpoints at key stages of use (e.g. at patentoffices). Another is a requirement for researchers todisclose the origin of material when applying forintellectual property rights such as patents. It ispossible that a range of different measures will bedeveloped for use by different sectors.


CBD approachCovers access to all types of genetic resources,except human genetic resources.

Covers genetic resources in countries that areParty to the CBD.

Covers material accessed after the CBD cameinto force (29 Dec 1993).ABS decisions are made bilaterally betweenproviders and users, so terms will vary dependingon the countries, actors and circumstancesinvolved.Access to be ‘facilitated for environmentallysound purposes’ but likely to involve morecomplex processes and/or negotiations. Usersmay need to keep records of use and/or transfers.Prior informed consent and mutually agreed termsmay be set out in different forms, e.g. permits,agreements, letters, institutional Material TransferAgreements.Users to share monetary and/or non-monetarybenefits with providers. The CBD itself does notspecify how benefit-sharing will occur.

ITPGRFA approachThe Treaty itself covers all plant genetic resources for foodand agriculture, but the MLS it establishes is limited to certainplant genetic resources. Does not cover access for otherpurposes (e.g. medicinal use, ornamental display, biofuels).Covers collections that are under the management andcontrol of Contracting Parties and in the public domain,though all other holders are invited to make their materialavailable to the MLS. The MLS also includes Annex I materialheld in the ex situ collections of the Consultative Group onInternational Agricultural Research (CGIAR).No distinction between pre-existing material held andmaterial acquired after entry into force of the Treaty.The MLS sets out standard conditions for access andbenefit-sharing in a Standard Material Transfer Agreement(SMTA).

Access to material listed in Annex 1 is expeditious and free ofcharge at the present (though fees may cover minimal cost);individual accessions do not need to be tracked.

The SMTA sets out the obligations of the provider andrecipient of the material, provides details of the benefit-sharing mechanisms and administers the sharing of benefits.

The Treaty provides for mandatory payment of an equitableshare of monetary benefits back to the MLS when acommercial product is developed using genetic resourcespooled in the MLS, if there are restrictions on further use byothers for research and breeding (e.g. intellectual propertyrights, especially patents). If others may use it, payment isvoluntary.

Box 6: The other ABS treaty: the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) entered into force on 29June 2004. The objectives of the Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources forfood and agriculture and the equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of their use, in harmony with theConvention on Biological Diversity. The Treaty establishes a Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-Sharing(MLS) that covers a defined list of crops and forages included in Annex I. This annex includes crop genera suchas rice (Oryza), banana (Musa), yams (Dioscorea) and maize (Zea), and certain legume and grass forage species.The 64 crops and forages account for 80 percent of the food derived from plants. As of July 2008, 117 countriesand the European Community had ratified the Treaty. For more information, see www.planttreaty.org.


should ensure they are informed and involved, as the talkscould result in a legally-binding protocol that sets out newinternational rules for users of genetic resources.

Gardens should also be aware that the CBD is not theonly international treaty that governs access to geneticresources and benefit-sharing. The International Treatyon Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture(ITPGRFA) is an innovative treaty negotiated under theFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) that covers allgenetic resources for food and agriculture and facilitatesaccess to a defined list of crop and forages listed in itsAnnex I, in the interests of agriculture and global foodsecurity. It is intended to work in harmony with the CBDbut differs from it in several key respects, set out in Box6. Many botanic garden collections hold some of thespecies covered by the ITPGRFA, and so willsometimes need to follow this treaty’s procedures.

2.2.3 Climate change and biodiversity

The United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC), opened for signature at the RioEarth Summit alongside the CBD, is the primaryinternational treaty that handles climate change.However the issue is also addressed by the CBD, as it isbecoming increasingly clear how dramatically the rateand magnitude of climate change is directly andindirectly affecting biodiversity: according to theMillennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), climatechange is likely to become the dominant direct driver ofbiodiversity loss by the end of the century. Biodiversity isalso involved in climate change mitigation andadaptation. A CBD technical expert group first assessedlinkages between biodiversity and climate change in2001. Following this, in 2006 another technical expertgroup on biodiversity and adaptation developedguidance for promoting synergy among activities toaddress climate change, linking the CBD with theUNFCCC and the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD, the third Rio Convention). COPhas adopted Decisions encouraging Parties takemeasures to manage ecosystems to maintain resilienceto extreme climatic events and to help mitigate andadapt to climate change, highlighting the importance ofintegrating biodiversity considerations into all relevantnational policies and plans on climate change. Currentmitigation activities such as biofuel production and use,and emerging proposals such as ocean fertilisation mayhave tremendous impacts on biodiversity, and debate onthese topics already swamps discussion on manythematic areas of the CBD. As well as technical reportsfrom the expert groups, the CBD’s outputs include web-

based guidance on the integration of biodiversity withinadaptation planning and a database of case studies.The CBD continues to collaborate with the UNFCCCand UNCCD in a joint liaison group.

2.2.4 Communication, education and publicawareness

Biodiversity is central to our lives and its sustainableuse is crucial for our future, and yet many people arenot familiar with these terms and concepts.Furthermore, the work of the CBD can appear confusingand distant to many who are not familiar withinternational laws and treaties. The cross-cutting workprogramme on Communication, Education and PublicAwareness (CEPA), arising from Article 13 of the CBD,seeks to communicate the scientific and technical workof the CBD in accessible ways, to integrate biodiversityinto education systems in all CBD Parties, and to raisepublic awareness of the importance of biodiversity toour lives and its intrinsic value. Working with the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO) and other internationalorganizations, the CBD has developed a Global Initiativeon CEPA. The CEPA initiative involves a huge range ofactors: the CBD Secretariat, Parties, international andnational organizations, businesses, indigenous and localcommunities, universities and scientists, civil societyand children worldwide. It has spawned many projects,including a toolkit to help CBD National Focal Pointsengage stakeholders and mobilize national action,developed in collaboration with the IUCN Commissionon Education and Communication (seewww.cbd.int/cepa/toolkit/index.html). As another tool toraise awareness and understanding of biodiversityissues, the UN has proclaimed May 22nd as theInternational Day for Biological Diversity.

2.2.5 Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC),adopted by the COP in 2002, is a strategic framework forplant conservation action at global, regional, national andlocal levels, linking governmental and non-governmentalpartners and existing programmes. The ultimate andlong-term objective of the GSPC is ‘to halt the currentand continuing loss of plant diversity’ and it sets out 16outcome-oriented targets to be met by 2010 (see Box 7).The targets are gradually being incorporated into thethematic programmes of work of the CBD, and alsooverlap with the work on cross-cutting issues, such asinvasive alien species, Article 8j on traditional knowledgeand the Global Taxonomy Initiative.


Box 7: GSPC sub-objectives and targets

A) Understanding and documenting plantdiversity:

(i) A widely accessible working list of known plantspecies, as a step towards a complete world flora;

(ii) A preliminary assessment of the conservationstatus of all known plant species, at national, regionaland international levels;

(iii) Development of models with protocols for plantconservation and sustainable use, based on researchand practical experience.

B) Conserving plant diversity:

(iv) At least 10 per cent of each of the world’secological regions effectively conserved;

(v) Protection of 50 per cent of the most importantareas for plant diversity assured;

(vi) At least 30 per cent of production lands managedconsistent with the conservation of plant diversity;

(vii) 60 per cent of the world’s threatened speciesconserved in situ;

(viii) 60 per cent of threatened plant species inaccessible ex situ collections, preferably in thecountry of origin, and 10 per cent of them included inrecovery and restoration programmes;

(ix) 70 per cent of the genetic diversity of crops andother major socioeconomically valuable plant speciesconserved, and associated indigenous and localknowledge maintained;

(x) Management plans in place for at least 100 majoralien species that threaten plants, plant communitiesand associated habitats and ecosystems.

C) Using plant diversity sustainably:

(xi) No species of wild flora endangered byinternational trade;

(xii) 30 per cent of plant-based products derived fromsources that are sustainably managed.

(xiii) The decline of plant resources, and associatedindigenous and local knowledge, innovations andpractices that support sustainable livelihoods, localfood security and health care, halted.

D) Promoting education and awareness aboutplant diversity:

(xiv) The importance of plant diversity and the needfor its conservation incorporated into communication,educational and public –awareness programmes.

E) Building capacity for the conservation of plantdiversity:

(xv) The number of trained people working withappropriate facilities in plant conservation increased,according to national needs, to achieve the targets ofthis Strategy;

(xvi) Networks for plant conservation activitiesestablished or strengthened at national, regional andinternational levels.

Stakeholder consultations were held on each target todiscuss how to measure progress, and the leadinstitutions that facilitated the consultations continue toplay an active role. To help countries to meet the targetsand to bring together information on implementation atall geopolitical levels, a consortium of international andnational plant and conservation agencies formed theGlobal Partnership for Plant Conservation (GPPC) in2004. The work of the GPPC is facilitated by BGCI.It has been widely acknowledged that, more than any

other initiative, the GSPC has stimulated theengagement of the botanical and plant conservationcommunities in the work of the CBD.

At the national level, CBD Parties are encouraged todevelop national or regional strategies and targets, andto nominate GSPC National Focal Points to promoteimplementation and monitoring. Developing a nationalstrategy requires countries to draw together ongoingactions and define national priorities. In some cases,


countries have chosen to widen the scope of the GSPC;for example the United Kingdom’s strategy extends tolichens, algae and fungi because of their ecological andcultural importance in the UK. National and regionalprogress is reported back via Parties’ National Reportsto the CBD Secretariat, where the data are collectedand analysed by the GSPC programme officer.The CBD and GPPC websites provide news and furtherinformation.

While the deadline for achieving the existing GSPCtargets is 2010, commitment to the further developmentof the Strategy beyond 2010, including an update of thecurrent targets was confirmed at the 9th Conference ofthe Parties to the CBD in May 2008. This followed a2006 call for action from the Gran Canaria Group (an adhoc group of plant conservation scientists that originallydeveloped and presented the GSPC to the CBD)through its ‘Gran Canaria Declaration on ClimateChange and Plant Conservation’. This declarationargues for a re-definition of the GSPC post-2010 torespond to the realities of climate change. It providesguidelines for action and suggests that priorities should

include development of more detailed climate changemodeling to detect species under threat,implementation of adaptive management systems invulnerable ecosystems, and sustainable management ofexisting natural vegetation and the monitoring of carbonoffset plantings. It identifies the key role played bybotanic gardens as messengers and as insurancepolicies for safeguarding wild plants.

2.2.6 Global Taxonomy Initiative

The CBD recognises that taxonomy is crucial to theimplementation of the Convention, and that progress isobstructed by the ‘taxonomic impediment’: there is notsufficient taxonomic knowledge, and there are notenough taxonomists worldwide. The need for taxonomicinformation is set out in Article 7(a) and in manyDecisions; the Bonn Guidelines on ABS urgegovernments to facilitate access for taxonomy, andGSPC Target 1, a widely-accessible list of known plantspecies, is a taxonomic target. The CBD’s response tothe taxonomic impediment is the Global TaxonomyInitiative (GTI), a cross-cutting issue that reminds

Box 8: China’s National Strategy for PlantConservation

China is one of the world’s most biodiverse countries.Over half of its 30,000 native plant species areendemic, it is the centre of origin for some of theworld’s most important crop, medicinal andornamental species, and it is also contains some ofthe last habitats of relic species such as dawnredwoods and ginkgos. However, around 20% of thecountry’s plants are at risk from habitat destructionand unsustainable collecting, threats that haveburgeoned with China’s rapid development.The Chinese national response to the GSPC, unveiledin 2007, seeks to halt the loss of plant diversity andsafeguard 5,000 threatened species through anambitious, whole-country approach involving threestate agencies, the State Forestry Administration(SFA), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and theState Environmental Protection Administration(SEPA).

The Chinese strategy’s goals follow those of theGSPC but are adapted to the Chinese context.Specific and measurable targets and sub-targetshave been developed for each major goal, asbenchmarks for measuring success. The project

notably includes plans for reversion of almost 15million hectares of farmland to forest within 3 years,calls for a halt to logging in stretches of forest in theupper reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, aban on potentially polluting development projectsnear key areas for biodiversity, and a crackdown onillegal logging and harvesting across the country.The strategy also highlights the need for huge stateinvestment into scientific research and managementof ecological reserves, and exploration of novel ‘eco-agricultural’ methods for more sustainable landmanagement practices. The Chinese strategy seeksto realize the economic potential of Chinesebiodiversity, and features a ‘3R Model’ system(Resources, Research and Resolution) fordevelopment of new economically useful plants.China’s 160 botanic gardens play a central role inimplementation of the strategy and the 3R Model,acting as genebanks for native biodiversityconservation and research centres for breeding, andthe strategy calls for an increase in investment inthese gardens. Part of the revenue from 3R Modelprojects, such as the commercial development of anew variety of golden-fleshed kiwi fruit from wildnative vines, will be fed back into plant conservation.(China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation, 2007)


policymakers that CBD implementation requirestaxonomic knowledge. The GTI work programme’soperational objectives focus on taxonomic needsassessments, building and maintaining capacity,infrastructure and networks for taxonomic collections,facilitating access to taxonomic information (building aglobal checklist of known species), and insertingtaxonomic objectives into the other CBD thematicprogrammes and cross-cutting issues. Lack ofresources is always an issue for the GTI, as countrieshave been slow to identify taxonomy as a conservationpriority, but Parties have recently adopted a set ofoutcome-oriented deliverables for each of the plannedactivities of the work programme, which may giveimpetus and stimulate funding, and a Special Fund isbeing developed under the guidance of BioNET-International. The GTI is steered by a CoordinationMechanism, with members drawn from Parties andleading taxonomic institutions, and Parties areencouraged to set up GTI National Focal Points.Further information is available on the CBD website:www.cbd.int/gti/

2.2.7 Invasive alien species

The spread of alien, or non-native, invasive species isone of the most important direct drivers of biodiversityloss and change in ecosystem services (MillenniumEcosystem Assessment 2005). Invasive species areorganisms that are introduced, either intentionally (byrelease) or unintentionally (for example via transport)into new areas where they can spread and displacenative species and create serious impact, for instanceby dramatically changing the species composition orspreading diseases. The severe impact of invasive alienspecies on native ecosystems causes hundreds ofbillions of dollars of damage per year and irretrievablelosses of habitats and species. Globalisation andclimate change are accelerating the problem.

Article 8(h) of the CBD determines that Parties shouldprevent the introduction of, control or eradicate thosealien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats orspecies. Invasive alien species have pervaded thethematic programmes of work, and a cross-cutting workprogramme has been developed. GSPC Target 10 andsub-targets 6.1 and 6.2 of the 2010 Biodiversity Targetconcern the need for control and management plans formajor alien species. In 2002, COP6 adopted GuidingPrinciples for the prevention, introduction and mitigationof the impacts of alien species. This guidance can beused by governments and organisations to developeffective strategies to prevent the introduction andminimise the spread and impact of invasive species.

Many national governments have now launchedinvasive species programmes and developedlegislation. The Global Invasive Species Programme(GISP) is the international focal point for this issue andcoordinates the Global Invasive Species Strategy;among its many scientific, educational and capacity-building activities, GISP has developed a toolkit for bestpractice. The GISP website links to invasive speciesdatabases worldwide, including the Global InvasiveSpecies Database developed by the IUCN/SSC InvasiveSpecies Specialist Group as part of the GISP-led globalinitiative. There is also a joint programme of workbetween the CBD and the International Plant ProtectionConvention, a plant health treaty under the Food andAgriculture Organisation. IPPC is currently developingguidance in the area of plants for planting, particularlyas related to ornamental plants and horticulture.

2.2.8 Protected areas

Protected areas are widely regarded as one of thecornerstones for biodiversity conservation and are vitalto the achievement of the 2010 Biodiversity Target andthe Millennium Development Goals; in the CBD theyform an important element of almost every thematic andcross-cutting work programme. However, the conceptregularly faces challenges from those that perceive theCBD’s involvement as a threat to national sovereigntyand consider protected areas as lost opportunities forother more profitable uses, and concerns about therights and loss of livelihoods of indigenous and localcommunities living in or around such areas. Marineprotected areas are especially controversial because itis unclear how the CBD process relates to areas outsidecountries’ boundaries.

The provisions in Article 8 on in situ conservationinclude the establishment of protected area systems,development of guidelines for their management,regulation of biological resources inside and outsideprotected areas, promotion of protection ofecosystems, natural habitats and viable speciespopulations in natural surroundings, and promotion ofenvironmentally sustainable development in areasadjacent to protected areas. Most countries have nowset up systems of protected areas, but they do not yetoffer adequate coverage of ecosystems and species,and so in 2004 the COP adopted a cross-cutting workprogramme with the objective of supporting theestablishment and maintenance of comprehensive,effectively managed and ecologically representativenational and regional protected areas that togethercontribute to achieving the 2010 target - by 2010 forterrestrial areas and by 2012 for marine areas. The work


programme presents a framework for action at nationaland regional levels, organized under four interlinkedprogramme elements (planning and management,governance and equity, enabling activities andstandards and monitoring), with 16 goals andcorresponding targets as well as indicators andactivities. As with the GSPC, countries candevelop national and regional targets andimplement them according to their nationalneeds and priorities. A working group onProtected Areas has been set up to furtherprogress in this challenging area of the CBD.

2.2.9 Sustainable use of biodiversity

The sustainable use of biological resources is apillar of the CBD: it is one of the convention’s threeobjectives. Article 2 of the convention provides thefollowing definition of sustainable use: ‘Sustainable usemeans the use of the components of biological diversityin a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintainingits potential to meet the needs and aspirations ofpresent and future generations’.

The components of biological diversity can be dividedinto ecosystems, species and genetic material.Sustainable use, as understood in the context of theCBD, can, therefore, involve the use of each of thesecomponents. Using biodiversity in a manner thatmaintains its potential to meet current and future humanneeds and aspirations and to prevent its long termdecline, is also an effective tool for achieving theMillennium Development Goals, eradicating extremepoverty and hunger and ensuring environmentalsustainability. Sustainable use can also generateincentives for the conservation and restoration ofbiodiversity because of the social, cultural andeconomic benefits that people derive from it.

Article 10 sets out that countries should integratesustainable use into national decision-making, adoptmeasures to avoid adverse impacts to biodiversity,protect and encourage sustainable customary use inaccordance with traditional cultural practicescompatible with conservation, support actions by localpopulations to restore degraded areas, and encouragecooperation between government authorities and theprivate sector to develop methods for sustainable use.Adopted in 2004, the Addis Ababa Principles andGuidelines for the sustainable use of biodiversity lay out14 practical principles and operational guidance. Theecosystem approach and the focus on fair andequitable benefit-sharing at the heart of the CBD place

emphasis on participation of local communities anddevelopment of resources in situ, in countries of origin.This is in contrast to the approach traditionally taken byCITES, which has leaned towards ex situ solutions toproblems caused by unsustainable levels of use, suchas artificial propagation and captive breeding initiativesoften far from countries of origin. However theconventions are drawing closer together.

One of the challenges ahead for the CBD’s activitiesunder the theme of sustainable use is to develop a set ofcritical indicators for the monitoring of sustainable use ineach category of use, both at the local and global levels.

2.2.10 Tourism and biodiversity

Biodiversity draws tourists, but it is seriously impactedby poorly-planned and unsustainable tourism. Well-planned and managed tourism can contribute fundstowards biodiversity conservation, provide livelihoodsfor local people and give countries strong incentives forconservation and sustainable use. The CBD hasproduced international Guidelines on Biodiversity andTourism Development to support responsible planningand sustainable management, using the ecosystemapproach. The tool provides guidance on impactassessment and engaging the participation of a widerange of stakeholders, including indigenous and localcommunities, NGOs and the private sector. The CBD

has also produced a user’s manual to help implementthe guidelines. The manual and other resources areavailable from the Biodiversity and Tourism Network, aweb-based platform created by the CBD and the WorldTourism Forum for Peace and Sustainable Developmentto disseminate information on use of the guidelines andto exchange knowledge. Visitors can use the website tofind out about sustainable tourism destinations. Thewebsite is located at http://tourism.cbd.int/.

2.2.11 Traditional knowledge, innovations andpractices – Article 8(j)

The global community is belatedly recognising the valueof the knowledge and skills built up by indigenous andlocal communities that lead traditional lifestyles closelydependent on local biological resources, even as thesecultures fight for survival. At the same time, manytraditional peoples are increasingly concerned about themisuse of their knowledge by the outside world,provoked by cases of companies using traditionalknowledge to develop patented products but sharingfew or no benefits with the knowledge holders in return.

The protection of traditional knowledge is one of themost complex cross-cutting issues in the CBD. Article8(j) sets out that, subject to national legislation, theknowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous andlocal communities relevant for conservation andsustainable use should be respected, preserved,maintained and promoted, with the approval andinvolvement of the knowledge holders, and that benefitsfrom use should be shared equitably. The CBD’sapproach faces difficulties: CBD dialogue is mainlyintergovernmental, and fair representation ofcommunities is problematic in the CBD. Nationallegislation may not reflect the wishes of knowledgeholders, as relations between governments andindigenous peoples are strained in many countries.Traditional knowledge is difficult to define, generallyintangible, and may span national borders. Traditionalsocieties’ customary laws may be difficult to integratewith national legal systems. The CBD working group onArticle 8(j) attempts to address these issues and toinvolve more traditional peoples. It is working on severalmeasures to retain and protect traditional knowledgeand developing implementation tools, such asguidelines for documenting traditional knowledge, andan ethical code of conduct to ensure respect for thecultural and intellectual heritage of indigenous and localcommunities relevant to biodiversity conservation andsustainable use. The CBD website’s TraditionalKnowledge portal provides extensive information,resources and links.

2.2.12 Technology transfer and cooperation

Technology transfer and cooperation are importantmeans of achieving equitable benefit-sharing andimproving countries’ abilities to carry out their ownresearch and development. The issue appearsthroughout the CBD. Article 16 directly addressestechnology transfer and technical cooperation, settingout the need for facilitated access to and transfer oftechnology on fair and most favourable terms fordeveloped countries, the involvement of the privatesector and the importance of respecting intellectualproperty rights but ensuring that those rights aresupportive of the CBD and do not run counter to itsobjectives. Article 18 sets out the needs for capacitybuilding and technical cooperation with developingcountries, and also mentions cooperation for thedevelopment of indigenous and traditional technologiesand promotion of joint research and technologydevelopment programmes. Additionally, Article 12covers research and training, Article 15 on ABSmentions development of research in countries of originand sharing results of research and development,Article 17 concerns information exchange and 19covers effective participation in and benefit-sharingfrom biotechnological research. Technology transferand cooperation was adopted as a work programme in2004, to provide guidance in four areas: technologyassessments, strengthening of information systems,creation of enabling environments (putting newframeworks in place and removing barriers), andcapacity building. The programme identifies main actorsand timelines, but much of the work must be country-driven. Its implementation is intended to contribute tothe achievement of the 2010 Biodiversity Target and theMillennium Development Goals. In 2008, COP adopteda strategy for practical implementation, to explorevoluntary means and strategic activities to enable andfacilitate technology transfer, and plans for a newBiodiversity Technology Initiative are being considered.The CBD website hosts a Technology Transfer andCooperation database that links to case studies,documents and other initiatives.



3.1 Action on GSPC targets

Botanic gardens were central players in thedevelopment of the GSPC and they help to guide it (viainvolvement in the Global Partnership for PlantConservation and through national and regionalinitiatives). Gardens are at the forefront of implementingmany of the GSPC targets, particularly those on ex situconservation, taxonomy, development of protocols forconservation and sustainable use, education and publicawareness and capacity-building. The GSPC has beenparticularly effective in allowing botanic gardens toengage with the work of the CBD and many gardenshave now mainstreamed the GSPC targets within theirongoing work programmes (see Box 9). Furthermore,a number of botanic gardens act as national GSPC focalpoints.

The 2010 Botanic Garden Targets, finalised in 2005,were developed as a contribution towards the GSPCand to help measure the achievement of the objectivesof the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens inConservation. Gardens can use these targets to focustheir activities and to report their progress on bothinitiatives to their GSPC National Focal Points,BGCI and national botanic garden networks.

Some national and regional botanic garden networkshave developed their own strategies and projects underthe GSPC, for example the North American BotanicGarden Strategy for Plant Conservation (see Box 10),or the PlantNetwork Target 8 project that encouragesall British and Irish botanic gardens to develophorticultural protocols for certain threatened nativeplants (see Box 11).

Gardens also need to look to the future, and shouldconsider how they can act on the suggestionspresented in the Gran Canaria Declaration on ClimateChange and Plant Conservation for revising the GSPCtargets to recognise the impact of climate change.

3. Botanic gardens and practical CBDimplementation

Box 9 Botanic gardens – mainstreaming theGSPC and its targets

Missouri Botanical Garden, USA, focuses its workon seven of the 16 GSPC targets. These includetaxonomic and inventorying activities, identificationof centres of plant diversity and endemism to aidconservation priority setting, working with localcommunities to develop models for sustainableplant use, public education and awareness raisingand training and capacity building. (www.mobot.org)

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, hasmainstreamed the GSPC within its Corporate Planand this provides the focus and specific targets forits work both in the UK and internationally. Globally,Kew plays a leading role in the implementation ofTarget 1 and provides significant input into efforts toconserve threatened species ex situ awaitingrecovery and reintroduction (Target 8). Kew’sactivities also have a major impact on six furtherGSPC targets (Targets 2, 11, 13, 14, 15 and 16).(www.kew.org)

The Oxford Botanic Garden, UK, has ensured thatthe GSPC has been incorporated into the teachingin all years of the Biological Sciences degree courseat the Oxford University. The Strategy itself hasbecome the syllabus for a module in the PlantConservation course. Every one of the 12,500school children who visits this Garden is shownhow they can contribute to at least one of thetargets of the GSPC. Every visitor to the Gardenis given a guide to the GSPC that takes thevisitor through each of the 16 targets.(www.botanic-garden.ox.ac.uk)


Box 10: A regional response: the North AmericanBotanic Garden Strategy for Plant Conservation

Recognising that effective conservation requires jointaction, and that plant distributions do not followpolitical boundaries, botanic garden associations inthe United States, Canada and Mexico have launcheda comprehensive, continent-wide strategy based onthe GSPC targets. The North American BotanicGarden Strategy for Plant Conservation (NABGS)was developed by the American Public GardensAssociation, the Asociación Mexicana de JardinesBotánicos, Botanic Gardens ConservationInternational, the Canadian Botanical ConservationNetwork and the Centre for Plant Conservation,over three years of consultations and discussions.The group also reached beyond the botanic gardencommunity to others in the plant conservationcommunity, such as non-governmental organizations,government agencies and university researchers.

The NABGS recognizes that the botanic gardens inNorth America hold some of the most diversecollections of plants from around the world, and alsothat many gardens have the expertise, knowledge andresources to expand their plant conservation effortsbeyond North America and assist in conserving non-

native species in the countries of origin. Prior to theNABGS, there was a botanic garden strategy inMexico, but no country-specific botanic gardenframeworks in the U.S. or Canada; the NABGS seeksto address the three countries’ priorities, strengthsand gaps.

The NABGS adopts the GSPC’s five sub-objectives asits goals (adding a sixth, building support for theNABGS). Specific and measurable targets and sub-targets have been developed for each goal, adaptedfor the North American context and settingbenchmarks for measuring success, and action plansto meet the targets are being developed cooperatively.Many of the sub-targets offer gardens a more detailedand tailored framework than the GSPC targets tostructure their actions – for example the sub-targetson invasive species management and education callfor 80% of botanic gardens to develop an invasivespecies policy and to endorse the voluntary codes ofconduct in the St. Louis Declaration on Invasive PlantSpecies, and for more botanic gardens to provide thepublic with opportunities to become involved inactions to combat invasive species. The strategy is adynamic document and will be revisited and furtherdeveloped as progress is assessed. More informationon the NABGS is available at http://www. plants2010.

As well as helping to deliver messages aboutconservation and sustainable living to their visitors,gardens can become involved by adapting their ex situconservation activities to embrace species that arepotentially threatened by climate change. Furtherinformation on the impacts of climate change on plantsare provided by Hawkins et al (2008), includingrecommendations for actions by botanic gardens andother conservation organisations.

3.2 ABS in practice

Botanic gardens are arguably more affected by theCBD’s ABS provisions, and national responses to them,than by any other part of the Convention. Gardens needto understand and follow several key steps in order toacquire new plants under the CBD’s terms. They needto get prior informed consent (PIC), that is, explain tothe provider(s) of genetic resources how the plants willbe used - not just by the collector but by others in the


botanic garden or university - so that permission isinformed. New PIC may be needed for new uses.Gardens also need to find out whose PIC is needed.Even if a governmental permit is sufficient for legalcollection, it is good practice also to seek the consentof local communities and other stakeholders who wouldbe affected by the fieldwork and research. Mutuallyagreed terms for use and benefit-sharing need to beset out in some form (e.g. permits or agreements), andthese terms must be kept with the material as it movesfrom one collection or user to another. Mutually agreedterms are often set out in a material transfer agreement(MTA), which may be as simple or comprehensive asneeded for the individual project or collaboration.Gardens will need to work out, with providers, how bestto share benefits, which may be non-monetary ormonetary. All of these steps take time, planning andcommitment. Gardens are advised to examine theircurrent practices, procedures and partners in the lightof international CBD developments, and to developpolicies that are appropriate for their institutions’ needsand situations (see Box 12).

The first step for a garden wishing to collect or work inanother country is likely to be finding a partnerinstitution in that country that can collaborate andbenefit from the work, and help find out aboutnecessary procedures and other relevant stakeholdersthat might need to be consulted or involved. Gardenscan find out about countries’ ABS laws and procedures

by contacting the ABS National Focal Point orCompetent National Authority, checking the CBDwebsite for information on national ABS laws, andconsulting colleagues with recent experience of (legally)working in the country, as well as by asking localpartners. Some indigenous groups have now developedcodes of practice for researchers who wish to work ontheir lands. Gardens should be aware that sometimesthere are different access rules for country nationals andforeigners, and it is essential to follow the appropriaterules – especially if plant material will be exported to anoverseas collection.

Access may be simplified if the provider is another exsitu collection. Depending on national laws, an ex situprovider may be able to provide its own PIC, but besure to check if other authorisation is needed to exportmaterial. Remember that even if benefit-sharingexpectations from other collections are lower, there maybe obligations from the original in situ provider, andthese terms must always be transmitted and respected.Botanic gardens are increasingly using institutionalMTAs when they supply material, to set out terms forpermitted general or specific uses, non-commercialisation, transfer to third parties andbenefit-sharing (such as acknowledgement, copies ofpublications). Note that gardens supplying materialcovered by Annex 1 of the International Treaty on PlantGenetic Resources for Food and Agriculture forpurposes related to food or agriculture must use the

Box 11: PlantNetwork Target 8 project: practicalhorticulture in support of conservation of the floraof Britain and Ireland

The PlantNetwork Target 8 project is a useful exampleof a regional botanic garden network’s response to theGSPC. The aim is for member gardens to grow thethreatened plants of Britain and Ireland ex situ and tolink them to conservation work in situ. The objectivesare to build horticultural expertise and knowledge ingrowing the native flora; to involve member gardens inpractical in situ conservation partnerships; to collectthe germination and cultivation protocols into adatabase; and to raise public awareness about thethreatened flora of Britain and Ireland.

In keeping with the GSPC approach, emphasis isplaced on partnership. Participating gardens areencouraged to find out about and liaise closely with insitu conservation organisations and projects to assist

species recovery efforts. After selecting one or moretarget species, and using an appropriate source forseeds and propagules (consulting with relevantauthorities to avoid damaging declining wildpopulations, and potentially using seedlings from theMillennium Seed Bank), gardens record details ofgermination trials, growth and flowering and fruitingand keep track of the successes and failures of eachpropagation method used. Data entry protocols areprovided by PlantNetwork, which coordinates theproject. Results are communicated to the GSPCnational focal points in the UK and Republic of Ireland.Gardens are also expected to promote their projectactivities and the work of plant collections in supportof conservation, through interpretation panels (generictemplates are provided by PlantNetwork) and otherimaginative means.

More information about the project is available atwww.plantnetwork.org/projects/target8.htm.


Standard Material Transfer Agreement rather than an in-house MTA if they are located in a country that is Partyto the ITPGRFA and their collection is in the publicdomain (see section 2.2.2/Box 6).

Regardless of whether plants were acquired pre- orpost-CBD, gardens should consider how they can sharebenefits with countries of origin. The Bonn Guidelinesset out some practical examples of possible monetaryand non-monetary benefits that might arise, but benefit-sharing is limited only by the imagination. A gardendoes not need to be large and involved in well-fundedinternational capacity-building projects in order to sharebenefits from using plants. Gardens might considerwhether they could share taxonomic information,horticultural protocols or educational materials; donategarden tools; lend a staff member to, or host acolleague from, a garden in a country whose plantspecies are showcased. A collection box could beplaced in front of a particularly popular plant.

Botanic gardens need to be clear about whether or notthey make plants in their collections available for sale orfor commercially-oriented research. Commercialisationcan generate useful tangible, financial benefits, but apoorly-designed scheme could damage a garden’sreputation and its future capacity to work with countriesof origin. For post-CBD material, gardens will need PICfrom the original provider (preferably in the country oforigin) and to agree upon the process and benefit-sharing. It is also advisable for gardens to considerconsulting with countries of origin and sharing benefitsfrom commercial use of pre-CBD material. Gardens maywish to deal with commercial enquiries by directingthem to contacts in the country of origin (such as theCBD National Focal Point, or an in-country garden orresearch institution). Or gardens may choose to becomeactively involved in a commercialisation project, workingwith trusted partners in the country of origin andcommercial sector.

Box 12: Developing a policy on ABS

A policy should ideally set out how the gardenacquires, uses, curates and supplies plant material,how it will share benefits and how it will handle ‘pre-CBD’ material. It should also be clear about anycommercial activities, such as plant sales orcommercially-oriented research (directly or through auniversity or industry partner). A policy on ABS helpsa garden to clarify its priorities, improve itsprocedures, educate its staff and communicate itsintentions to partners and policymakers.

Botanic gardens were among the first ABSstakeholders to take action and develop guidelinesfor best practice. Two schemes have been adoptedby many gardens, the Principles on Access toGenetic Resources and Benefit-Sharing (thePrinciples) and the International Plant ExchangeNetwork (IPEN).

The Principles, developed by an international groupof gardens from developed and developing countries,provide a framework for gardens and herbaria to usewhen developing their own individual policies, tocover different types of material (e.g. living plants andseeds, herbarium specimens, DNA samples) and uses(potentially including commercial uses). They addressacquisition (from in situ and ex situ sources), use and

supply of material, curation and tracking, benefit-sharing and commercialisation. The Principles arewell-suited to gardens that conduct fieldwork, have awide range of collections and research activitiesand/or active links with universities and commercialsectors.

IPEN establishes a system of facilitated exchange fora network of gardens that have signed up to acommon Code of Conduct on ABS. The IPEN systemonly covers non-commerical use of living collections,and is particularly well-suited to gardens that obtainmost of their material through traditional seedexchange. It cannot currently be used for theexchange of herbarium or other preservedcollections. A documentation system has beendeveloped to keep track of information on terms ofuse and country of origin, and to simplify transfersbetween IPEN gardens, and a common non-commercial Material Transfer Agreement is used fortransfers outside IPEN.

An institution can choose both to endorse thePrinciples (to develop a policy that covers all of itsactivities) and to join IPEN to be able to use itsexchange mechanism for suitable living material fornon-commercial use. More information on bothschemes is available from the BGCI webpages onABS (www.bgci.org/abs).


Many botanic gardens that carry out no commercialresearch do have regular plant sales. Plant sales are aform of commercialisation, and so must be consideredcarefully – new PIC may be needed to sell some plants!Most plants sold will probably end up in the hands ofamateur gardeners, but there is potential for plants tobe acquired by the commercial sector, so gardens mustcheck the terms on any plants (and national laws, fornative plants) before putting them in a plant sale, andcommunicate any restrictive terms to buyers (such asterms prohibiting export or further commercialisation).An alternative is to buy in plants from commercialsuppliers. Gardens also need to consider how to sharebenefits arising from plant sales. One possible option isto set up a ‘benefit-sharing trust fund’, pooling apercentage of profits for use in specific capacity-building activities – useful where the individual profitsper plant and per country would be dwarfed by thetransaction costs.

The BGCI webpages on ABS provide examples ofbotanic garden policies, MTAs and examples of CBD-friendly commercialisation projects and plant salesprocedures (www.bgci.org/abs).

3.3 Working with traditional knowledge

Botanic gardens help to tell the public about howpeople have always depended on plants for survival andwellbeing, the contributions made by traditionalknowledge to modern society and the importance ofprotecting cultural diversity. Some gardens work withindigenous and local communities to create gardens-within-gardens that showcase their ancient andcontinuing bonds with biodiversity (see Box 13). Othershave formed partnerships with healers, traders, localauthorities and commercial nurseries to developmedicinal plant gardens. Some gardens conductethnobiological field programmes, involving close,

Box 13: Gardens as cultural crossroads:highlighting indigenous peoples’ heritage

Botanic gardens can provide contemplative andinspiring spaces for cultures to learn about each otherand increase tolerance and understanding throughshowcasing human and plant diversity andinterdependence. Some excellent examples areemerging of gardens working in close partnershipwith indigenous groups.

The First Nations Garden is a 2.5 hectarecontemporary garden at the heart of the JardinBotanique de Montréal, Canada, that presents theclose bonds that Amerindians and the Inuit have withthe plant world and provides opportunities for sharingknowledge and building cultural understanding. Thebotanical garden and a committee of First Nationsrepresentatives worked together to developguidelines and criteria to integrate into the projectdesign. The diversely-planted but natural setting isdivided into five zones (hardwood and softwoodforest, an arctic zone, a pavilion and gathering place)and highlights Native peoples’ traditional knowledgeand activities such as food and medicine gathering,crop-planting and house construction. The learningand communication tools used include interpretationpanels, interactive terminals, visitor activities andshows, guided tours by Native interpretation staff, a

website with links to various communities’ sites anda gift shop selling Native art and handicrafts.

The Botanic Gardens Trust, Sydney, Australia, hasworked together with local Aboriginal communities todevelop a wide range of themed gardens anddisplays, educational programmes, guided tours,publications and community outreach programmes atthe three gardens governed by the Trust, recognisingthe traditional owners of the lands and thesignificance of the lands to Aboriginal people. Forexample, the First Encounters display, at RoyalBotanic Gardens in Sydney interprets the Aboriginalcultural heritage of area and provides insights into theinteraction 200 years ago between the traditionalinhabitants and the new European arrivals, focusingon their different environmental perspectives. Eachbotanic garden has developed lessons withAboriginal themes for schoolchildren, linked tocurriculum requirements, covering topics such asAboriginal bush foods, encounters with Europeans,and current social issues. Aboriginal educationofficers lead many of the lessons.

More information on these examples is available atwww2.ville.montreal.qc.ca/jardin/en/premieres_nations/premieres_nations.htm (Jardin botanique de Montréal)and www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/welcome_to_bgt/quick_links/aboriginal_heritage (Botanic Gardens Trust).


long-term work withcommunities and the systematiccollection of traditional knowledge, while otherscarry out fieldwork for rapid botanical inventories whereplant uses may be recorded to help assess conservationvalue. Article 8(j) is relevant to all gardens that work withindigenous and local communities and their knowledge.Several of the concepts discussed under ABS apply.

Gardens that wish to collect traditional knowledgeassociated with genetic resources need to specify thisinterest when they are seeking prior informed consent,and will require the consent of knowledge holders, notjust government permits to collect. As traditionalknowledge is generally (by its nature) held bycommunities, not individuals, getting PIC will involvegaining an understanding of how communities arestructured, how many communities need to be contactedand who is entitled to give permission; customaryprocesses may be complex and unfamiliar. All of thispreliminary work will take time, resources (forinterpretation and repeat visits), perseverance, and aboveall, respect for the values of the communities concerned.

Researchers also need to be clear about how theyintend to use and disseminate the information theycollect. Even if the research itself is non-commercial,published information enters the public domain where itthen may be used for commercial purposes by others,so indigenous and local community organisations areincreasingly wary about how information is released.Communities may enthusiastically welcome outsideassistance to document their knowledge as long as theyretain some control over its use: researchers may findthat they are only permitted to publish certain subsets

or levels of information (such as broadplant usage categories). Botanists shouldalso be cautious about putting traditionalknowledge information on specimenlabels. Broad usage categories can stillbe used to indicate resource value forconservation management, withoutbroadcasting sensitive information tothe wider world. Some groups mayregard publication positively, andexpect co-authorship as a form ofbenefit-sharing. Appropriate benefitsneed to be discussed withcommunities from the start as part ofproject planning.

Luckily, good practice guidance isavailable for gardens planning to work

in this complex area. Principles and codesof conduct are being produced by an

increasing number of indigenous peoples and localcommunities and also professional societies (such asthe International Society for Ethnobiology), internationalagencies, NGOs and the private sector; see the CBDTraditional Knowledge portal for links. Additionally,some guides to ABS practice provide advice on workingwith associated traditional knowledge. The CBDworking group on Article 8(j) is currently developing acode of ethics which may help to provide overarchinggeneral guidance.

3.4 Sharing taxonomic information andexpertise

Botanic gardens with active taxonomic researchprogrammes can contribute to GTI implementation.To provide direct national input, they can contact theirGTI National Focal Point – or potentially offer theirservices as a NFP if one has not been designated.Gardens can contact BioNET-International (www.bionet-intl.org), a global networking initiative dedicated topromoting taxonomy, to find out about how to link intothe regional and national locally owned and operatedpartnerships (LOOPs). Gardens can also contributebiodiversity information and images to the GlobalBiodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), which is buildingan interoperable network of biodiversity databases andinformation technology tools. GBIF seeks todisseminate primary biodiversity data held in institutionsfor global use, contributing to the information baseneeded by the GTI, GSPC and the Global InvasiveSpecies Programme. International organisations canbecome GBIF participants, or gardens can participatethrough their government’s membership.


Other initiatives linked to GTI and GBIF include Species2000 and the Integrated Taxonomic Information System(ITIS). For further information visit www.sp2000.org.

3.5 Tackling invasive alien species

The invasive species issue is highly relevant to botanicgardens. Most invasive plants have been introduced asornamental plants and therefore owe their introductionto gardens and nurseries. The ornamental horticulturetrade is responsible for many unfortunate deliberateintroductions and subsequent spread; for instance,about half of North America’s 300 worst plant invaderswere introduced to gardens and parks – (Wittenberg andCock, 2001). In a number of cases, botanic gardenshave taken the first step, sometimes by showcasingnew exciting but invasive species (for exampleHeracleum mantegazzianum). Gardens need to preventfuture accidental or intentional introductions from theircollections, and some may also face problems withinvasive species in habitats they manage. On thepositive side, botanic gardens are perfectly positionedto show leadership and send powerful messages out tothe public and to the horticultural trade.

Botanic gardens can take a number of actions to tackleinvasive species. They should find out aboutinternational and national laws, strategies and initiatives(such as eradication programmes or codes of practice),to see how they can contribute skills and efforts to theirimplementation. Ideas of best practice are beginning toemerge from the botanic garden community, andseveral codes and policies have been developed (seeBox 14), which provide valuable guidance. First andforemost, botanic gardens need to identify knowninvasive species in their collections and considercarefully whether they should continue to grow orexchange them. Whether or not to supply is a complexquestion, as plants may be harmless in the garden’sregion but highly invasive in other areas: botanicgardens might choose to supply known invasive speciesonly to other scientific institutions, with printed warningson the shipping labels or transfer agreements, and notto supply to the private sector. Where possible, theyshould work to use alternative non-invasive and nativeplants. If the decision is made to keep certain knowninvasives, they should be tightly controlled to preventtheir escape - for instance by cultivating them ingreenhouses or under nets, removing flowers or youngseeds, and preventing transport by air or by animals.Ideally they should be interpreted to raise publicawareness of the issue. Staff need to be educated andto stay alert to signs of potential invasiveness in the

Box 14: Preventing garden escapes: invasivespecies codes of conduct and policies

Codes of conduct can provide a useful frameworkfor gardens to develop comprehensive policies totackle invasive species and prevent new invasions.One of the first codes proposed was ‘the Chapel HillChallenge’ issued by the North Carolina BotanicalGarden in 1999, setting out 7 simply-wordedactions that botanic gardens should consider. The2001 St Louis workshop on Linking Ecology andHorticulture to Prevent Plant Invasions developed aset of voluntary professional codes of conduct forfive different plant user sectors: botanic gardensand arboreta, the nursery trade, landscapearchitects, government and the gardening public.These codes provide detailed suggestions foreffective practical measures. The codes of practiceand further information can be found on the Centerfor Plant Conservation website(www.centerforplantconservation.org/invasives/).

The Chicago Botanic Garden has developed apolicy based on these concepts of best practice tocover its wide-ranging activities, includingexpeditions abroad to collect species of horticulturalmerit. Its work links to the 2010 targets for botanicgardens and the International Agenda. The first stepinvolved gathering a team of ‘stakeholders’ fromacross the garden, to ensure that the policy wouldbe accepted by staff. Important regional invasive,and potentially invasive, species were identified,and species in the garden are checked against thislist. Problem species are removed, phased out orevaluated, depending on the perceived risk.Incoming plants are screened against the list, andrisk assessments are carried out for new species.The garden has chosen to discontinue its IndexSeminum because of the risk of introducinginvasives. The policy is distributed to staff in alldepartments and to the education team, and theinvasive team checks plants in the plant sales andgift shops. More information about the garden’spolicy, and useful suggestions for how the publiccan help, is available on the CBG website(www.chicagobotanic.org/research/conservation/invasive/policy).


unique opportunities for people to learn about and enjoybiodiversity. Botanic gardens generally include a widerange of diversity – both native and exotic, wild andmanaged, and they attract a broad range of visitors.Most botanic gardens consider biodiversity education tobe a core activity, and thus many have established closelinkages with local schools and educational groups.Increasingly teachers are being encouraged to usebotanic gardens as ‘open-air classrooms’ and botanicgarden educators work with teachers to raiseawareness and understanding of the importance ofbiodiversity amongst school children. Despite this,levels of understanding remain low. With over 200million visitors each year, the world’s botanic gardensmust ensure that every opportunity is taken to engagewith and inform the public about biodiversity.

3.8 Sharing technology

Gardens make use of many technologies in theirscientific and horticultural work. Glasshousetechnologies and irrigation systems vary from the simpleto the highly computerised. Herbarium climate and pestcontrol systems can involve a range of equipment andchemicals. Data collection and management requireinformation systems. Certain ex situ conservationtechniques such as seed banking and micropropagationgenerally require specialised facilities and tools.

plants they grow, especially those that are not yetrecognised as invasive, and should communicate thisinformation to the botanic garden community, relevantnational authorities, or invasive species initiatives suchas GISP. They also should examine their horticulturalpractices to see where potential risks lie (such as inplant disposal and composting).

3.6 Spreading sustainability

Botanic gardens can be powerful advocates forsustainable use of plant diversity in several ways: byadopting sustainable management practices, byconducting research on potential sustainable uses ofplants, and by raising public awareness of the issuegenerally. Botanic gardens can work as nodes toconnect different stakeholders such as nurseries,conservation authorities, traders, herbalists andtraditional communities. By working closely with localcommunities, botanic gardens can help to documentindigenous and local knowledge about plant resourcesand incorporate this knowledge into initiatives forsustainable plant use. The horticultural expertise andresearch capacity in botanic gardens can be used todevelop propagation protocols, allowing species thatare under threat from over-harvesting in the wild to becultivated instead of directly harvested, thus taking thepressure off wild populations.

With their large visitor numbers and potential to influencepublic opinion, it is important that botanic gardensthemselves are models of sustainability. Of particularimportance is the need to ensure that all plant-basedmaterials used in the gardens come from sustainablesources – for example, using timber only from certifiedsources – and ensuring that visitors are aware of this.

Many botanic gardens have gift shops whichprovide an ideal outlet for sustainably-producedplant-based products. Skilful production andmarketing of such products can not only serve toraise awareness of sustainability issues with thepurchasing public, but can also provide valuablelivelihood support for the producers of theproducts.

3.7 Communicating biodiversity

With over half the world’s population living inurban areas, increasingly cut off from nature,spreading the biodiversity message becomes anever increasing challenge. As the majority of botanicgardens are located near urban centres, they offer

Scientific and technical knowledge, understanding andskills are needed to design and manage appropriatesystems, solve problems and develop newmethodologies. Botanic gardens with expertise in theseareas can help to implement the CBD’s provisions ontechnology transfer by offering technical advice, trainingopportunities, or funds for equipment and renovationto other gardens (see Box 15). Obviously it isimportant to consider a garden’s particularneeds and constraints: the most advancedtechnologies are not appropriate if they arenot sustainable, for example if energy orwater supplies are erratic or long-termsupport is not available. Gardens canalso exchange information about low-cost solutions and innovative protocols.


Box 15: Technology transfer and the MillenniumSeed Bank Project

The Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSBP), based atthe Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, is an internationalcollaborative plant conservation initiative that aims tosafeguard 10% of the world’s seed-bearing plants(around 24,000 species) against extinction by 2010.The project explicitly addresses the three CBDobjectives of conservation, sustainable use and fairand equitable benefit-sharing, and one of theproject’s objectives is technology transfer: toencourage plant conservation throughout the worldby facilitating access to and transfer of seedconservation technology. The MSBP is based onpartnerships and collaborations with otherorganisations around the world. The project workswith partners to develop their technical infrastructureand so build capacity for ex situ conservation. Seedbanking of wild, rather than crop, species is arelatively recent and specialised area of technology,demanding use of both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ technologies.Soft technology involves knowledge andunderstanding of species variation in, for example,seed viability or resistance to desiccation, and

working out appropriate methodologies to increasesuccess. Examples of hard technology involved inseed banking include databases and geographicalinformation systems to manage collection andstorage data and track specimens; drying facilities toreduce seed moisture content; X-ray machines toassess proportions of damaged seeds; aspirators toseparate mature seeds from other material;hermetically sealed containers for seed storage;hygrometers for non-destructive measurement ofwater content; cold rooms; and incubators forgermination testing. Each partner’s needs, capacitiesand priorities are different and sometimes moretraditional technologies or inexpensive commercialalternatives can be used. The MSBP also providestechnical advice and training opportunities such asseed banking workshops, courses and studentships.The project has created an international network thatencourages technology transfer between partners.More information about the MSBP and its work ontechnology transfer is available atwww.kew.org/msbp/index.htm and on the CBDtechnology transfer and cooperation database atwww.cbd.int/doc/case-studies/tttc/tttc-kew-en.pdf.


The following checklist may help to define an individualbotanic garden’s policy and procedures and enablemore active contribution to national CBDimplementation.

National context

• Contact your CBD National Focal Point, find outabout your country’s National Biodiversity Strategyand Action Plan and consider how your garden canactively contribute to national CBD implementation.

• Offer information on your garden’s activities onconservation, sustainable use, access and benefit-sharing to the NFP for inclusion in National Reports.

• Urge your garden’s overseas partners to inform theirCBD National Focal Points about collaborativecontributions to national CBD implementation.

• Consider ways to improve communication withgovernment and other CBD stakeholders, forexample by hosting visits and participating instakeholder meetings.

• Take opportunities to participate in the nationaldelegation to CBD meetings (such as SBSTTA).

• Does your country have a GSPC National FocalPoint? If not, and your garden is very active in plantconservation measures at a national level, consideroffering to become the GSPC NFP.

• Does your country have a GTI National Focal Point?If not, and your garden has a strong taxonomicresearch programme, consider offering to becomethe GTI NFP. Consider how to contribute informationand skills to national and international taxonomicinitiatives.

Garden engagement

• Find out about and participate in regional andnational botanic garden network initiatives for GSPCimplementation.

• Use the 2010 Botanic Gardens targets to focusgarden activities, and report progress to GSPCNational Focal Points, BGCI and national botanicgarden networks.

• Publicise the value and obligations of CBD and yourrole in its implementation through plant conservationand sustainable use displays, exhibits, educationalmaterials and leaflets, and press releases.

• Distribute information about CBD and relatedinstitutional policies to all your staff, volunteers andmembers of your governing board (e.g. Board ofDirectors) and ensure they understand what isrequired of them. Consider a staff trainingprogramme.

Access and benefit sharing

• For plants and specimens collected post-CBD (Dec1993): always obtain the appropriate documentsshowing prior informed consent and mutually agreedterms (e.g. collecting permits, export permits, lettersof permission from landholders and/or materialtransfer agreements) – in addition to any necessaryCITES and/or plant health documentation.

• Ensure that no illegally collected or acquired plantscome into your collections ‘through the back door’.

• Assess the range of your garden’s collections (livingand preserved; from in situ and/or ex situ sources),activities and research interests, and the principalusers of the collections, as a first step towardsdeveloping an institutional policy on access andbenefit-sharing.

4. A CBD checklist for Botanic Gardens


• Develop and implement a policy that addresses howyour garden will acquire, use and supply plants, howbenefits will be shared, how your garden will treatpre- and post-CBD material, and your garden’sposition on commercialisation.

• Adapt existing procedures or develop newprocedures so that information on prior informedconsent and terms of use (from permits andagreements) is kept linked with plants and specimensas they are used and transferred between users.Assign clear staff responsibility for curation andtracking issues.

• Check terms on plants from your collections beforeyou supply or sell them to others outside the garden,to ensure that you are legally able to do so.

• Use an institutional Material Transfer Agreement(MTA) when supplying plants from your collections toresearch/commercial users outside the garden, to setout terms for use and benefit-sharing.

• Ensure that public plant sales only include plantswhose terms allow for sale and that any restrictions(e.g. non-commercialisation) are communicated tobuyers, for example on seed packet labels.

• Consider buying in plants from commercial sourcesto sell in public plant sales.

• If your garden contains collections in the publicdomain that are covered by the International Treatyon Plant Genetic Resources for Food andAgriculture, use the ITPGRFA Standard MTA forsupplying specimens when appropriate.

• Consider what benefits your gardengenerates from its use of plants, andhow these can be shared withcountries of origin, for examplethrough sharing information, skills,protocols and tools.

• Consider endorsing the Principleson Access to Genetic Resourcesand Benefit Sharing (the Principles)and joining the International PlantExchange Network (IPEN).

Traditional knowledge

• If your institution collects and works with traditionalknowledge, ensure that researchers are aware of andcomply with relevant codes of practice and nationaland customary laws, and that research is carried outwith the approval and involvement of localcommunities. Agree on whether and how informationcan be disseminated and what benefits can be shared.

• When working with traditional knowledge in thepublic domain, consider opportunities foracknowledgement of the original knowledge-holders,and benefit-sharing.

Invasive species

• Find out about relevant international and nationallaws and policies in your area and establishprecautionary measures to avoid introducing invasivespecies.

• Develop a policy towards invasive species thataddresses display, supply, plant disposal and plantsales.

• Consider risk-assessment procedures whenaccepting new plants; consult relevant internationaland national invasive species databases or lists.


• Avoid planting known invasive species except forpublic awareness or scientific purposes (e.g. forresearch on control measures).

• If known invasive species are planted for suchpurposes, take suitable measures to avoid theirspread.

• Look out for signs of potentially invasive behaviour inestablished plants, and share your experiences, e.g.by informing other botanic gardens and your nationalauthorities.

• Build public awareness of invasive species, forexample through interpretation, exhibits andeducation modules, and consider how your gardencan work with stakeholders such as local nurseriesand landscapers to promote non-invasivealternatives for public use.

Sustainable use

• Ensure that all plant-based products used in thegarden come from sustainable sources.

• Consider using the retail outlets (café, restaurant,shops etc.) to market sustainably-produced products(including fair-trade products) that support locallivelihoods.

• Develop programmes with local communities thatmake use of the garden’s horticultural expertise tosupport the sustainable use of local plant diversity.

Communication, education and publicawareness

• Develop interpretation materials that provideinformation about the importance of biodiversity forall visitors.

• If they don’t already exist, consider developinglinkages with local schools and provide opportunitiesfor children to experience nature first-hand.

• Try to influence national education departments toinclude biodiversity education in national curricula –and develop supporting materials for such courses.

• Consider celebrating International Biodiversity Day(May 22nd) at your garden.


5. Abbreviations and acronyms

ABS Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharingCBD Convention on Biological DiversityCEPA Communication, Education and Public AwarenessCHM Clearing House MechanismCOP Conference of the PartiesGBIF Global Biodiversity Information FacilityGPPC Global Partnership for Plant ConservationGSPC Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

GTI Global Taxonomy InitiativeITPGRFA International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

MAT Mutually agreed termsMDGs Millennium Development Goals

MS Multilateral System (of the ITPGRFA)MTA Material Transfer Agreement

NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action PlanNFP National Focal PointNGO Non-governmental organisationPIC Prior informed consent

SMTA Standard Material Transfer Agreement (of the ITPGRFA)UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeWSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development


References cited in the text of the manual

China’s Strategy for Plant Conservation EditorialCommittee (Comp.), 2007. China’s Strategy for PlantConservation: Guangdong Press Group. Guangzhou,510075 China. This document provides details ofChina’s response to the Global Strategy for PlantConservation, providing an action plan to give overallnational guidance on plant conservation activities inChina. A summary of the Strategy is available online at:www.bgci.org/worldwide/1917/.

Gran Canaria Group, 2006. The Gran CanariaDeclaration II on Climate Change and Plants. JardinBotanico Canario “Viera y Clavijo” and Botanic GardensConservation International, Gran Canaria, Spain.Available online at: www.bgci.org/policy/gcdccpc/.

Hawkins, B., Sharrock, S. and Havens, K., 2008.Plants and climate change: which future? BotanicGardens Conservation International, Richmond, UK.Available online at: www.bgci.org/files/Worldwide/climate_change.pdf. This report documents andanalyses the latest scientific evidence of the impactclimate change is having on the conservation of wildplant diversity and provides a number ofrecommendations for action based on the targets ofthe Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystemsand Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. WorldResources Institute, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Availableonline at: www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx. A report ofthe Millennium Ecosystem Assessment interpreting itsfindings on biodiversity, including major changes andtheir causes.

Stolpe, G. and Fischer, W., 2004. Promoting CITES-CBDCooperation and Synergy. Proceedings of a workshopheld 20-24 April 2004, Isle of Vilm, Germany. BfN,Konstantinstr. 110, D-53179 Bonn, Germany. Availableonline at: www.cites.org/common/cop/13/inf/vilm.pdf.

Wittenber R. & Cock, M. (eds.), 2001. Invasive alienspecies: A toolkit of best prevention and managementpractices. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.228pp. Available online at: www.gisp.org/publications/toolkit/Toolkiteng.pdf

Wyse Jackson, P.S. & Sutherland, L.A. 2000.International Agenda for Botanic Gardens inConservation. Botanic Gardens ConservationInternational, United Kingdom. Available online at:www.bgci.org/policy/international_agenda.

References to the Convention

CBD, 2001 and updates. CBD Handbook. Secretariatof the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal,Canada.This handbook includes the full texts of the Conventionand the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, the decisionsadopted by the Conference of the Parties, and a guideto ongoing activities in relation to CBD Articles andcross-cutting issues. Available online athttp://www.cbd.int/handbook.

CBD, 2006. Global Biodiversity Outlook 2. Secretariatof the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal,Canada.This report assesses current status and trends of globalbiodiversity and provides an overview of CBDimplementation, progress towards the 2010 BiodiversityTarget and its contribution to the achievement of theMillennium Development Goals. Available online atwww.cbd.int/gbo2.

6. References and resources


Glowka, L., Burhenne-Guilmin, F. & Synge, H. incollaboration with McNeely, J.A. & Gündling, L. 1994.A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity. IUCNEnvironmental Law and Policy Paper No. 30. IUCNGland, Switzerland and Cambridge, United Kingdom.Reference guide to the original text of the CBD,providing background and rationales for the Articles.

Williams, C., Davis, K. & Cheyne, P. 2006. The CBD forBotanists: an introduction to the Convention onBiological Diversity for people working with botanicalcollections. Version 2. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,United Kingdom. Available on CAPS 2006 BiodiversityConventions for Botanists CD-ROM with CITESpublications, and online at www.kew.org/data/cbdbotanists.html. A guide and training presentationthat introduces the CBD, outlines its relevance tobotanical collections and offers suggestions forpractical implementation, with a substantial resourcessection including references to codes of conduct forABS and traditional knowledge. Also available in Frenchand Spanish.

Further references on selected issues

Global Strategy for Plant ConservationCBD, 2002. Global Strategy for Plant Conservation.The Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity. Montreal, Canada. Available online at:www.bgci.org/policy/gspc/

Cheffings, C., Harper, M. & Jackson, A., 2004.Plant Diversity Challenge - The UK's response to theGlobal Strategy for Plant Conservation. Joint NatureConservation Committee, Peterborough, UK.Available online at: www.jncc.gov.uk/page-2494.

Willis, C. K. (ed.), 2006. Conserving South Africa’splants: a South African Response to the Global Strategyfor Plant Conservation. SANBI Biodiversity Series 1.South African Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, SouthAfrica. Available online at: www.sanbi.org/biodivseries/1strategyplantcons.htm.

Access and benefit-sharingBiber-Klemm, S. & Martinez, S. 2006. Access andBenefit Sharing: Good practice for academic researchon genetic resources. Swiss Academy of Sciences,Bern, Switzerland. A simple ABS handbook forresearchers, including case studies, frequently askedquestions and checklists for prior informed consent,mutually agreed terms and benefit-sharing.Available in English, French and Spanish online athttp://abs.scnat.ch/downloads/ABS_Brochure.pdf.

International Plant Genetic Resources Institute 2005.Law and Policy of Relevance to the Management ofPlant Genetic Resources: Learning module with reviewof regional policy instruments, developments andtrends. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute,Rome, Italy. Available online at www.bioversityinternational.org/Information_Sources/Training_Modules/Law_and_Policy/PolicyTrainingModule/index.htm.A training resource designed for professionals workingwith plant genetic resources for food and agriculture,containing training materials and an extensive review ofregional laws and policies in four regions. Also availablein French and Spanish.

Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO),2007. ABS-Management Tool: Best Practice Standardand Handbook for Implementing Genetic ResourceAccess and Benefit-sharing Activities. InternationalInstitute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg,Manitoba. Available online at www.iisd.org/abs/.Best practice standard and handbook that providesguidance and tools on ABS practice to help companies,researchers, local and indigenous communities, andgovernments comply with ABS requirements.A useful resource for institutions undertaking acommercialisation project; also contains a standardand guidance for working with traditional knowledge.The website also provides an ABS Fact Sheet.

ten Kate, K. & Laird, S.A., 1999. The Commercial Useof Biodiversity. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London,United Kingdom.An overview of commercial sectors that use biodiversity,including the horticultural trade. An updated (2005)study by S.A. Laird and R. Wynberg is available from theCBD website at www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/abs/abswg-04/information/abswg-04-inf-05-en.pdf

Traditional knowledgeLaird, S.A. (Editor) 2002. Biodiversity and TraditionalKnowledge: Equitable Partnerships in Practice. Peopleand Plants International series. Earthscan PublicationsLtd., London, United Kingdom.A wide-ranging and practical guide to a complex topic,with case studies and examples of ethical policies,codes and agreements.

McManis, C., 2007. Biodiversity and Law – Intellectualproperty, biotechnology and traditional knowledge.Earthscan, London UK. 484pp.This publication aims to address the complex questionof how we can promote global economic development,while simultaneously preserving local biological andcultural diversity.


Invasive alien speciesRandall, J.M & Marinelli, J. (Editors) 2001. Invasive Plants:Weeds of the Global Garden. Brooklyn Botanic Garden.21st Century Gardening Series. Brooklyn Botanic Garden,Brooklyn, New York, USA. Handbook containing practicaladvice on invasive species control and an encyclopaediaof horticultural invasive species in North America.

Weber, E., 2003. Invasive plant species of the world.A reference guide to environmental weeds.CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 548pp.

Web Sites

CBD Home Page: Official site of the CBD Secretariat.The CBD website provides a comprehensive source ofinformation on all aspects of the CBD, including the textand decisions, national contact details, NBSAPs andNational Reports, ABS laws and policies, meetingdocuments, publications (such as the CBD TechnicalSeries), principles and tools, news headlines and theclearing house mechanism. Much of the content is alsoavailable in French and Spanish. Hard copies ofpublications can also be obtained on request.CBD Secretariat413 Saint Jacques Street, Suite 800Montreal QC, H2Y 1N9, CanadaTel: +1 514 288 2220, Fax: +1 514 288 6588Email: [email protected]

Countdown 2010: This is a network of active partnersworking together towards the 2010 biodiversity target.Each partner commits additional efforts to tackle thecauses of biodiversity loss. The secretariat – hosted bythe International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)– facilitates and encourages action, promotes theimportance of the 2010 biodiversity target and assessesprogress towards 2010. www.countdown2010.net

Botanic Gardens Conservation International: Globalnetwork linking botanic gardens to preserve andpromote plant diversity for people and the planet. Thewebsite provides information and resources for plantconservation and sustainable use, an education portal,plant and garden databases and policy tools includingGSPC documents and guidance on ABS. www.bgci.org

IUCN- the International Union for Conservation ofNature: The world’s largest professional conservationorganisation. IUCN brings together governments, non-governmental organisations, institutions and individualsto help nations make the best use of their naturalresources in a sustainable manner. www.iucn.org.

Global Partnership for Plant Conservation: Bringstogether international, regional and nationalorganisations to contribute to GSPC implementationand provides links to national GSPC initiatives.www.plants2010.org

Global Invasive Species Programme: An internationalpartnership programme that facilitates and assists theprevention, control and management of invasive speciesworldwide. www.gisp.org.

BioNET-INTERNATIONAL: Works with governmentsand scientists around the world to establish localpartnerships for taxonomy. www.bionet-intl.org

Global Biodiversity Information Facility: Membershiporganisation of participating governments,organisations, institutions and individuals building anetwork of databases to openly and freely sharebiodiversity data. www.gbif.org

International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources:Provides text of the treaty and the Standard MaterialTransfer Agreement as well as information onmembership, the multilateral system, funding strategyand farmers’ rights. Also includes training materials.www.planttreaty.org

Earth Negotiations Bulletin: Tracks the majorenvironmental negotiations as they happen andprovides background. Also extensive archive materialand lots of photographs of the meetings. www.iisd.ca

Science and Development Network (SciDevNet):Provides news, views and information about science,technology and the developing world. Dossiers areavailable on issues including biodiversity, climate changeand indigenous knowledge. Users can sign up for emailalerts of news on selected topics. Includes content inFrench, Spanish and Chinese. www.scidev.net

GRAIN: International non-governmental organisation(NGO) that promotes the sustainable management anduse of agricultural biodiversity based on people’scontrol over genetic resources and local knowledge.The website contains up-to-date information onbiodiversity laws. www.grain.org/brl/

UN Millennium Development Goals: A set of 8 goalsto respond to the world’s main development challenges,agreed by all the world’s countries and leadingdevelopment institutions, to be met by 2015.www.un.org/millenniumgoals

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: A majorinternational scientific initiative, carried out 2001-2005,to assess the consequences of ecosystem change forhuman well-being and the scientific basis for actionneeded to enhance the conservation and sustainableuse of those systems. The website contains the fullreports, synthesis reports and useful links.www.millenniumassessment.org

Biodiversity and Tourism Network: Web-basedplatform created by the CBD and the World TourismForum for Peace and Sustainable Development todisseminate information on use of the guidelines and toexchange knowledge. http://tourism.cbd.int

CABI: Not-for-profit intergovernmental organizationspecialising in scientific publishing, research andcommunication that is active in the area of invasive alienspecies and is currently developing an Invasive SpeciesCompendium. www.cabi.org/invasives

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC):A plant health treaty, under the Food and AgricultureOrganisation, that focuses on actions to prevent thespread and introduction of pests of plants and plantproducts, and to promote appropriate measures fortheir control. www.ippc.int

UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre:The specialist biodiversity information and assessmentcentre of the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) run cooperatively with WCMC 2000, a UKcharity. UNEP-WCMC’s mission is to evaluate andhighlight the many values of biodiversity and putauthoritative biodiversity knowledge at the centre ofdecision-making. www.unep-wcmc.org.

Species 2000: Aims to create a validated checklist ofthe world's species (plants, animals, fungi andmicrobes). The programme, which operates inpartnership with the Integrated TaxonomicInformation system (ITIS) of North America, currentlyproduces the Catalogue of Life. This is used by theGlobal Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) andEncyclopedia of Life (EoL) as the taxonomic backboneto their web portals. www.sp2000.org

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations: Leads international efforts to defeat hunger,helping developing countries and countries in transitionmodernise and improve agriculture, forestry andfisheries practices and ensure good nutrition for all.www.fao.org.


Botanic GardensConservation International

Descanso House, 199 Kew Road,Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K.

Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956E-mail: [email protected]: www.bgci.org

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A CBDmanualfor botanicgardens · 2019-04-10 · 06 ACBDmanualforbotanicgardens 1.Introduction Botanicgardenshavedevelopedand flourishedthroughalongtraditionof exchanging,studying,displayingand