6. Perception & Attribution

8/22/2019 6. Perception & Attribution

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Meaning of : Understood act of seeing what is there to be seen

which is influenced by the individual, the object and

the situation.

Definition -

Perception includes all those processes by which anindividual receives information about the

environment seeing ; hearing : feeling : tasting and

smelling.study of these perceptual processes shows

that their functioning is affected by three classes ofvariables ; the objects or events being perceived ;the

environment in which perception occurs and the

individual doing the perceiving

PERCEPTION MEANING AND

DEFINITION


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Confusion about sensation and perception not

synonymous :

Sensation :

Study of sensation is concerned with the initial

contact between organisms and their physicalenvironment.

Focuses on various forms of sensory

stimulating and how these inputs are registered by

our sensory organs.Raw sensory inputs are of no consequence need to

be processed and interpreted.

PERCEPTION AND SEMANTICS

Cont...


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Perception :

Job perceptionis to process and interpret Sensation

and other steps constitute total perception process

Inherited or Learnt :

Innate or learnt at early stage e.g. child on a table

(Glass).


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FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Situational FactorsPhysical, Social /

OrganiSational Setting

Individuals

Perception

Perceivers

Characteristics: Needs

: Experiences

: Values

: Attitudes: Personality

Characteristics

of Perceived: Nature

: Size

: Appearance

: Location


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FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

StimuliExternal & Internal

OrganisingOrganism receives stimulithru five sensory organs,tasting, smelling, seeing,

hearing, touching.

Selective AttentionExternal Internal FactorsNature LearningLocation Needs

Size AgeContrast InterestRepetition AmbivalenceNovelty ParanoidFamiliarity Perception

Ambiguous figures, figure

ground, Grouping,Constancy

Response

Covert OvertAttitudesMotivating Behaviorfeelings

InterpretingPerceptual set ,attribution,stereotyping halo effect,

defence, projection


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Confusion about sensation and perception not

synonymous :

Sensation :

Study of sensation is concerned with the initial

contact between organisms and their physical

environment.

Focuses on various forms of sensory

stimulating and how these inputs are registered by

our sensory organs.Raw sensory inputs are of no consequence need to

be processed and interpreted.

RECEIVING STIMULI


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Process of filtering information received by our senses

is called Selecting Stimuli or selective attention.EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION

NATURE :

Visual or auditory animate objects and audio effect.

LOCATION :

Strategic to draw attention e.g. headlines / front page

news.

COLOUR :

Attracts attention and portrays realism colors also

have psychological impact some stimulate others act

as depressant

SELECTING STIMULI

Cont...


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SIZE : Large attracts. CONTRAST :

Contrast principle states that external stimuli which

stands out against the background. MOVEMENT :

Principle of motion states moving or jets attractmore attention

REPETION :

Repeated external stimulus attracts more attentione.g. TV AD repeated flashed

NOVELTY AND FAMILIARITY : Either a novel or a familiar external situation draws

attention also new objects in familiar or familiarobjects in new settings . Job rotation maintains interest and stimulated

Novel ideas pictures also stimulate interest.


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LEARNING : A cognitive factor influences perception

creates expectancy people perceive what the want to

e.g. bird in the hand.

PERCEPTION : Past experience influence perception

executive decisions are subject to such influences.

PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS : Needs play asignificant role in perceptual selectivity, unreal things

seem real because of needs - e.g. mirage.

Psychic energies expended satisfying basic

psychological needs, like esteem ,unconsciouslyinteract only with those who fill this.

Only when psychological need filled he can appreciate

others.

INTERNAL FACTORS

INFLUENCING SELECTION

Cont...


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AGE DIFFERENCES :

Generation gap contributes to difference in perception.

E.g. Morale also reaction to change.INTEREST :

Perception unconsciously influenced by interests of

perceiver e.g. architect passing buildings.

Influence on perception interests cannot be

distinguished from needs e.g. person with a particular

interest needs to meet it.

Once satisfied most needs no longer influence

perception.

E.g viewing the world through a lens see world not as it

but how we perceive it.Cont...


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AMBIVALENCE :

Ambivalence affects perceptions e.g. opinion about a

college. Selectively perceive only what is desired ignoring

negative qualities to worn off the repressed feeling

surfaces.

PARANOID PERCEPTION :

State when a persons perception is so selective that he

does not find common grounds of communication.

Quality of emotionally disturbed person whoseperceptual field differs from reality and personalized

interpretation.

Self concept poor and insecure leading to inflexibility.


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Perceptual organization is the process by which people

group stimuli into recognizable patterns :selectiongives way to organizing e.g. object made of wood with

four legs seat and back - as a chair.

So much to learn about how the human mind

assembles organizes and categorizes information.Certain factors in perceptual organisation help in

under standing factors are.

Figure background.

Grouping. Constancy.

Ambiguous figures.

PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION


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AMBIGUOS FIGURES :

Perceptual organization becomes difficult whentheir is disorganized or on fusing stimuli in the

external background e.g. (Fig 6.8 and 6.9 P130).

We see two images, ultimately whole image.

FACTORS PTUAL ORGANISATIONS


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Considered most basic form of perceptual

organization.Relationship of the target to its background

influences perception e.g. Chameleon.

Perceived objects stand out as separable from

background.

In a noisy restaurant you are able to hold meaningful

conversation with a colleague due to capacity to

distinguish sight and sound of colleage (figure) and

other people and noise (background) e.g. fig 6.11

FIGURE BACKGROUND

Cont...


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What we see depends on what we see as the figure and

what as the background.Major purpose of studying OB is to caution the reader

about important stimuli.

Key theories and concepts like motivation and

leadership call attention to variables that affect

organisational performance.

Trained manager capable of distinguishing between

figure and background.


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Object of similar shape size or colour are grouped

together.In an org all employees who wear whiter collar

perceived as a group when reality each is a uniqueindividual.

Although principle of uniformity is helpful in making

sense of environment it has negative impact ofperceptual stereotyping. (6.12 fig.)

PRINCIPLE OF PROXIMITY :Underlines tendency to perceive stimuli which are

near one another as belonging together.Several workers working on a machine perceived asone group and collectively he responsible foroperation or failure.

PERCEPTUAL GROUPINGS (GASTALT)

Cont...


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PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE :

Perceive a whole when none exists.

Persons perceptual process closes gaps which are

unfilled from sensory inputs.

Principle demonstrates perceivers ability to perceive

a whole object when only a part evident.

In an org a manager able to understand complex

issues issues with a part of information missing.

Based on experience and imagination manager fills

in missing pieces to make a decision.

Cont...


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PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUTY :

Tendency to perceive objects as continuing patterns.

Continuity is a useful organizing principle also has

negative aspects e.g. inability to detect change and

perceive uniqueness.

In business forecasting a continuity error is to

assume that the future will simply reflect current

vents and trends.

Principle of continuity differs from closure in that

closure supplies missing stimuli and continuity aperson tends to perceive continuous lines or

patterns.

Cont...


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PRINCIPLES OF AREA :

When one part of an area depicting an ambiguous

figure is smaller in size than remainder small areaseen as figure rest as background.


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A subtle part of perceptual organisation.

Ability to perceive certain characteristics of an objectas remaining constant despite variations in the stimuli

that provide conflicting information.

Such constancy amidst change is indispensable to

adjust to the world different aspects of constancy are.

SIZE :

As an object is moved further away we tend to view

it more or less invariant in size.

E.g. football player own / far side appear same size

despite distance and image on retina.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY

Cont...


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COLOUR :

Familiar objects perceived as same colour undervaried conditions.

Owner of a blue car sees it blue under sunlight /

dark.

Constancy gives a person a sense of stability in a

changing world otherwise chaos.

E.g. of a maintenance mechanic choosing correct

tool under different conditions.


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Certain circumstances constancy does hold ground.

What we see appears to be quiet different from whatwe know to be true these manifestations are called

illusions.

An illusion can be understood as a reliable perceptual

error.

It is stable not due to a hasty or careless exploration or

processing of stimuli on our part.

Examples of perceptual continuity tuitions fig. P-135

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY - ILLUSONS


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After data received and organized the perceiver

interprets or assigns meaning to the information

Perception said to take place only after date has been

interpreted

PROCESS OF INTER PRATING

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO


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PERCEPTUAL SET :

Previously held beliefs influence perception of

similar objects.

Manager developed a general belief all workers as

laze wanting to gain from organisation not give their

best.

Subsequent perception influenced by this and view

behavior according to his mental set.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Cont...


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ATTRIBUTION :

Process by which an individual assigns causes to the

behavior he/she conceives.

People interested not only in observing but knowing

cause of behavior of an individual in an

organisation.Evaluation and reactions to others behavior

influenced by perception that other are responsible

for their behavior.

Production of plant increases, the manager will beevaluated less favorable it attributed to new

machine.

Cont...


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STREOTYPING :

Tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on

basis of a category to which that person belongs.

Broad stereo types are doctors lawyers etc.

Stereo typing is not prejudice which is type of

stereotype that refers to change when presentedwith information that stereotype is inaugurate :

stereotype can be helpful but prejudice never

helpful.

However can also lead to negative or inaccurateconsequences - stifle innovation poor utilization of

resources.

Cont...


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FOUR STEP PROCESS :

Categorizing people into groups.

Assume all people in same category possess sametrait.

Form expectations of others and interpret behavior

as per our stereotypes.

Finally maintaining stereotypes by overestimatingstereotype behaviors exhibited by others incorrectly

explaining behaviors to others and differentiating

minorities.

Cont...

HALO EFFECT :


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HALO EFFECT :Refers to the tendency of perceiving people in

terms of good or bad based on liking.Attributing good qualities to a person liking and

ascribing bad qualities to persons not liked.E.g. professor evaluating students communication

from VIP or common individual.Halo not always attributing positive qualities,person

may be down rated on basis of behavior I.e. horn

effect.In organisations halo effect occurs when superiors

rate subordinates in appraisal assumes good in onedimension must be good in others.

Halo effect may be responsible for finding co-

elations between ratings given to people on variousdimensions.

When this occurs resulting evaluation lacksaccuracy and quality of evaluation is compromised.

Cont...


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PERCEPTUAL CONTEXT :

Context in which an object is placed influences

perception.Org culture and structure provide the primary

context in which workers and managers do their

perceiving.

Thus a memo, verbal order, new policy, takes specialmeaning when placed in context of a work situation.

Cont...


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PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE :

Tendency to put up defense when confronted with

conflicting unacceptable or threatening stimuli.

Defense mechanism put up by receiver may put up.

: Out right denial.

: Modification of data received.: Change in perception but refusal to change.

: Change in perception itself.

Whatever form of perceptual defense likely to play

a useful role in understanding union management

and supervisor subordinate relationships.

IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES


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In judging and making inferences perceptions

influenced by belief that certain traits are associatedwith one another e.g. honesty with hardworking.

PROJECTION :

See in another person traits they possess.

Project own feelings motivates into judgment ofothers.

Particularly true regarding undesirable traits which

perceiver possesses, fails to recognize in himself.

Person not very energetic may also see others as lazy

or lack of achievement due to unwillingness to work

hard.

IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES

PROCESS OF CHECKING


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After data has been received and interpreted

perceiver tends to check whether right or wrongOne way is introspection or check veracity of inter-

pretation with others.

PROCESS OF REACTING :

Last phase of perception is reaction.

Perceiver will indulge in some action in relation to

the perception.

Action depends weather favorable or unfavorable

A worker responds favorably to motivational

intentions of the manager provided understanding

of manager is favorable and vice versa.

PROCESS OF CHECKING

ATTRIBUTION THEORY -


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Attribution relatively new to the field of OB impacts

perception ,leadership, and motivation. Process of attribution is based on perceptions of

reality, these perceptions may vary widely amongindividuals.

Theory posits that behaviors of others can beexamined on the basis of its. Distinctiveness :

Degree of similar behavior in different situations. Consistency :

Degree of engaging in same behavior at different time. Consensus :

degree to which other people engaging in the samebehavior.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY -

HEIDER AND KELLY

Cont...

As a result of various combinations of above three


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As a result of various combinations of above three

aspects we form impressions our of our attributions

and causes of behavior.

Behavior is caused internally forces within (ability)orexternally, forces in persons environment (task).

Consistency

High or Low

Attribution of

Causes Internal /

External

Observation

of Behavior

Distinc TivenessHigh or Low

Consensus High

or Low

ATTRIBUTION PORCESS

Cont...


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Under conditions of high consistency distinctiveness

and high consensus perceiver attribute behavior to

external causes.

When distinctiveness and consensus low attribute

behavior to internal causes.

EXAMPLE


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Divya fared poorly in third semester expressesconcern to professor.

Professor tries to understand possible behavior forpoor performance.

If does poorly in other courses (low distinctiveness)poorly in earlier tests (high consistency) and otherstudents also do poorly the same test (low consensus)

reason attributed to intern al causes (i.e. lack ofmotivation / poor work habits ).

ORHigh in other courses (high distinctiveness)well in

same subject earlier courses (low consistency ) otherstudents also fared poorly in the same test (highconsensus) cause can be attributed to external factors(paper setting correction)

RULES OF ATTRIBUTION


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RULES OF ATTRIBUTION

Internal

attribution

high

attribution

DistinctivenessDoes the person

behave in

similar fashion

in other

situations

Yes Low

distinctiveness

On High

distinctiveness

ConsistencyDoes the

person behave

in the same

manner at

other times

Yes High

Consistency

On Low

consistency

ConsensusDo other

persons

behave in

this same

manner

No Low

consensus

On High

consensus

Cont...


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Attribution theory has important implications for

managers.

If poor performance attributed to internal factorscertain strategies can be adopted to improve.

Similarly for external factors.

One can also make attribution to oneself if one

attributes pay raise to hard work than continue toreinforce same.

WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS


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Perception is the starting pointof human behavior.

Through perception process an individual selects

organizes and interprets this forms basis for behavior.

Way we perceive people affects way we behave with

them.

If we stereotype people in a negative way we do nottake interest in them, if see only from our frame of

reference we would be at constant conflict.

Some biases affecting perception are illustrated below.

BIASES OF ATTRIBUTION


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FRAME OF

REFRENCE

SELECTIVE

EXPOSUREINTEREST

PROJECTION

EXPECTATIONS

STEREO TYPE

PERECTION

Attribution theory itself an instance of perceptual failure

An important byproduct of the theory is identification of

biases that distort attritionCont...


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FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR :

Underestimate importance of external factors and

overestimate importance of internal factors whenmaking attribution about behaviors of others .

Example of a shop floor supervisor who attributes

high injury rate to employee carelessness (internal)

not possibility of equipment malfunction (external)below.

Cont...

SELF FULFILLIMG PROPHECY :


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Pygmalion effect is that peoples expectations of beliefs

determine their behavior and performance thus

serving to make their expectations come true. Another dimension is that our expectations of others

person causes that person to act in a way consistent

with those expectations e.g.

Supervisor expects new employee will not be able todo the job ,this expectation influences supervisors

behavior and cause new employee to fare poorly

To fight these negative self fulfilling prophecies firms

need to fight negative stereotypes ,and avoid firstimpressions.

Cont...

ILLUSIONS :


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Perceptions often provides false interpretation of

sensory information such cases are known as illusions

two types of illusion. Physical processes :

Illusions due to distortions of physical conditions e.g.

mirages.

Cognitive processes :

Result in many illusions most common are shape

illusions e.g.

Poggendorf illusions in which a line disappears at an

angle behind a solid figure reappearing at the other

side at what seems to be an incorrect position. Incorrect perceptions often lead to personnel and

management problem.

PERCEPTIONS AND OB COMPLEX


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Perception is a complex cognitive process a unique

interpretation of a situation, not exact recording.

Recognition of difference between perceptual andworld,imp to study of OB.

Typical example that subordinate always want

promotion, contrary true.

Specific applications of perception in organisations are

analysed in following / below.

Interview suitability of a candidate, how his behavior

perceived by others, impression formed initially

remains.,

Hiring new employees the problem of unrealisticexpectations.

Acquires set of expectations during interview process.Cont...


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Not unusual these to be inflated during selection

process.

Leads to premature resignations whereas realisticexpectation leads to less turnover.

REALISTIC JOB EXPECTATIONS :

Favorable and unfavorable information of the job.

Expectations realistic less disappointment andturnover.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL :

Perception has significant relevance.

Assessment can be realistic in quantifiable jobsotherwise subjective evaluation is carries out.

Subjective are judge mental and subject to biases.

Future in an ore affected.

SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENTS -


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Attitude vs performance.

LOYALTY TO THE ORGANISATION : Loyalty by one decision maker perceived disloyal by

other and caring and concerned by others.

Not whether employer right in demanding loyalty but

they do and are highly judgmental.

When assessing loyalty we are involved with persons

perception.

PERCEPTION BIAS

DEPENDENCE ON THEORY


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Many managerial practices depend on these for

assumptions on employees. Theory X assumes man inherently lazy and

irresponsible needs controlling authority.

Theory Y assumes orientation of man for his

creativity and contributions.

Both adopt many sets of perceptual processes that

influence managerial behavior.

X OR THEORY Y

Cont...


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IMPRESSIONIST MANAGEMENT :

Process involves calculated efforts to influenceimpression.

May use direct by to project oneself favorably or

making others feel better about themselves.

Impression is management influences others superior

better disposed who project betted image .

Negative side that true image not disclosed .

Even org practice this called Corporate Image.

SUPERVISORY AFFECT ON PERFORMANCE


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1

2

3

4

5

6

High supervisory expectancy produces better

leadership (arrow) which leads employees to high self

expectancy (2) higher expectations lead to motivation(3)-boosting performance (4) boosting employers

expectancy (5)and also employees (arrows 6 ).

PERFORMANCESUPERVISORY

EXPECTANCYLEADERSHIP

SUB ORDINATES

SELF EXPECTANCYMOTIVATION

R i h th t ti l t i

MANAGERS SPECIFICALLY NEED TO DO


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Recognize everyone has the potential to increaseperformance.

Instill confidence in oneself.

Set high performance goals. Positively reinforce employees for a job done well. Provide constructive feedback when necessary. Help employees advance through organisation.

Introduce new employees as if they have outstandingpotential. Become aware of personal prejudices and non verbal

messages that may discourage others. Encourage employees to visualize successful execution of

tasks. Help employees to master skills and tasks. Attribution biases lead to inappropriate man agerial

actions incl promotion increments.

MANAGING PERCEPTION PROCESS


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Successful managers understand importance of

perception as influencing factor on behavior and act

accordingly.

Tools possessed by managers skilled in perception

processes.

POSSESES HIGH LEVEL OF SELF AWARENESS

Individual needs experience and expectation can affect

perceptions.

Applies correction when such tendencies a identified.

Cont...

SEEK VERIFICATION FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES


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Minimizes biases of personal perception by seeking

others viewpoint.

These insights used to gain additional perspective on

problems.

BE EMPATHETIC

Different people view same situation differently

Rise above personal impression and see others point of

view

INFLUENCE WRONG PERCEPTION OF OTHERS

People act based on perceptions.

Rectify wrong perceptions to interpret work situations

correctly.Cont...

AVOID PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS THAT BIAS


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VIEWS OF PEOPLE / SITUATIONS :

Stereotype or halo effects distort views or situations

Are self disciplined / self aware to minimize distortionAVOID INAPPROORATE ATTRIBUTION :

Everyone has a tendency to explain way / how events

happiness.

Successful manager careful to establish real reasons

and avoid in appropriate actions.

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES :

With globalization diversity management assumes

importance.

Challenge is to leverage this diversity Minimize perceptual and behavioral problems that

tend to accompany heterogeneity.Cont...

UNOW YOUR SELF :


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Apply the Johari window to know real self

Powerful way to minimize biases is to know and

become more aware of ones values beliefs and

prejudices.

SOCIAL PERCEPTION :

Forces of combining integrating and inter pratinginformation about others to gain accurate

understanding of them same as perception but focus is

on people.

P ti i th f i i ti li l ti

SUMMARY


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Perception is the process of receiving stimuli selecting

grouping understanding and reacting to external

stimuli. Perception is influenced by the object perceiver and

situation.

Perceptual process comprises five important stages

Receiving Selecting

Organizing

Interpreting

Reacting to stimuli

Early stage in perceptual process is influenced by

several factors.

Cont...

Attribution is a collorary of perception a process to


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attributing causes to behavior of others .

Attribution has implications for perception leadership

and motivation. Perception plays spoil sport with human behavior

biases like stereo typing halo effect projection

attribution and self full filing prophecy .

Perception has implications in such areas likeemployee selection training performance evaluation

and deciding on appropriate managerial practices .

Being an important variable in individual behavior

perception needs to be managed effectively. Social perception is the process of understanding

people accurately.


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6. Perception & Attribution