3.1 Introduction - The Department of Infrastructure, … · with anticipated technological developments) of delivering the recommended HSR transport products. ... Figure 3-1 HSR system

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High Speed Rail Phase 2 / 105

3.1 IntroductionThischapterdescribesthedevelopmentoftheservicesrequiredforthepreferredHSRsystem(derivedfromanunderstandingofthetravelmarketprovidedinChapter 2)andhowthesystemwouldbeoperated.Itincludesdiscussionof:• Transportproducts–thetypesofHSRservices

tobedeliveredbythepreferredHSRsystem.Theservicesaredefinedbythejourneytimeandfrequencytobeoffered,thefaresandothersignificantcustomeramenitiessuchasWiFiaccess,businessclass,wheelchairaccessibilityandin-carriageluggagestorage.

• Systemrequirementsandtechnicalspecifications–technicaland/orperformancespecificationsforinfrastructure,equipmentandsystemscapable(orlikelytobecomecapable,withanticipatedtechnologicaldevelopments)ofdeliveringtherecommendedHSRtransportproducts.

Thischapterdescribeshowthetransportproducts,systemrequirementsandtechnicalspecificationsofthepreferredHSRsystemweredevelopedinresponsetothetravelmarketassessmentpresentedin Chapter 2.TheprocessisillustratedinFigure 3-1.

Thischapterdescribes:• ThekeyattributesofHSRproducts

internationallyandsummarisestheresultsofstatedpreference(SP)surveysundertakenforthisstudy.

• AservicepatternthatprovidessufficientcapacitytoservetheHSRdemandforecastinChapter 2.

• Requirementsandtechnicalspecificationsfortrack,powersupply,traincontrol,rollingstockincludingtherequiredfleetsize,depotsandmaintenancefacilitiesthatwoulddelivertheservice.

3. Service and operations

Chapter 3 Service and operations

Figure 3-1 HSR system development

HSR transport productsCustomer attributes

Market assessment

HSR system requirementsPerformance

attributes or outputs

HSR technical specifications

Technical attributes or inputs

HSR system development

• Service types

• Service frequencies and stopping patterns

• Journey times

• Fares

• Other service attributes

• Travel market projections

• HSR success factors

• Maximum and average speeds

• Reliability

• Availability

• Safety

• Maintainability

• Train set capability

• Track geometry

• Control systems

• Power systems

• Maintenance strategy

• The system-wide greenhouse gas and noise emissions that would arise from the operation of HSR.

The requirements and specifications for the HSR stations specifically are discussed in Chapter 5.

In developing the preferred system, this chapter seeks to answer the following questions:• What types of services would best serve the

forecast HSR demand?• What is the expected journey time and

frequency of services between HSR stations?• What requirements – in terms of speed,

reliability and availability – would deliver the desired journey time and frequency?

• What would be the technical specification of the infrastructure to deliver these requirements?

• How would the preferred system be operated and maintained?

• What would be the system-wide impacts of HSR in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and noise, and how could they be mitigated?

3.2 Transport productsThe transport product is defined as the type and configuration of transport services, in planning terms, to be delivered by an HSR system, includingmarket context, pricing strategy and level, the train service frequency/timetable to be offered, and other significant customer amenities.

The transport product translates the demand for HSR identified in the market analysis into the requirements for rolling stock and infrastructure, as shown in Figure 3-1.

Further detail on transport products is contained in Appendix 2A.

3.2.1 Market research and commercial considerationsDevelopment of the market needs and commercial context of a potential HSR service on the east coast of Australia was based on market research in Australia for this study and previous studies of HSR, complemented by a review of international experience in countries where HSR is already operating.


Australian market researchTodevelopanappreciationofthelikelyresponseoftheAustraliancustomertotheintroductionofanHSRserviceinacompetitiveeastcoasttravelmarket,twosourcesofanalysiswereemployed–researchundertakenfortheSpeedrailstudybetween1993and20001 andtheSPsurveyundertakenforthisstudy(describedinChapter 2andAppendix 1D).

SpeedrailwasamajorstudyofthefeasibilityofanHSRlinkbetweenSydneyandCanberraoperatingatupto320kilometresperhour.TheSpeedrailstudymarketresearchincludedin-depthinterviewsandfocusgroupstoidentifyconsumerpreferencesandperceptionsofexistingtravelmodesandHSR.Thisresearchindicatedthattheperceivedadvantagesoftheserviceincludedspeed,convenience,reliabilityandtheabilitytoworkonthetrain.Potentialdisadvantagesincludedfarelevels,theneedto‘keeptoaschedule’andtotravelingroups,andtheneedforacaratadestinationtocompletethejourney.

TheSPsurvey,andtheinitialfocusgroupsthatprecededit,investigatedwhypeoplewouldorwouldnotchoosetouseHSRandwhattheywouldvaluemostaboutHSR.MorethanhalfthetravellersinterviewedintheSPsurvey(travellingbyair,carandstandardrail)didnotconsiderthattherewereanycurrentalternativemodespossiblefortheirpresentjourney.However,givenajourneyinthestudyareathatwouldbeservedbyHSR,81percentrespondedthattheywouldconsiderusingsuchaservice.MostofthosewhowouldnotconsiderHSRwerecarusers,withinconvenienceandtheneedforacaratthedestinationthemainreasonscited.ThesefindingswereconsistentwiththeSpeedrailstudy.

International evidence on HSR transport productsResearchundertakenbyconsultantSDGfortheEuropeanCommunity(EC)in2006reviewedtheeffectivenessofHSRanditscompetitivenesswithairtraveloneightEuropeanroutes,includingLondon-Paris(distanceapproximately500kilometres),Madrid-Barcelona(distanceapproximately620kilometres)andParis-Marseilles(distanceapproximately780 kilometres)2.Thisdatasuggestedthatthemaindeterminantofmarketshare,aslongasHSRhadacompetitiveservicefrequency,wastherailjourneytime.Thetimerequiredforcheck-inandotherprocedurespriortodeparturewasconsideredpartofthejourneytime,andtheconsiderablyeasieraccesstoHSRserviceswasperceivedtobeanadvantage.

AstudybyNashbroadlyconcurredwiththeECreport3.Nashfoundthatjourneytime,reliability,accessibilityofstations(particularlycitycentrestations),airportcheck-intimes(andwaitingtimesgenerally),competitivefares,yieldmanagement4andseatreservationssystemswereallcitedasfactorsinfluencingcustomerchoice.AreviewofthecompetitiveenvironmentforHSRalsofoundthatjourneytimeswerecritical5.BusinesstravellersonHSRsoughtanuninterruptedjourney(withtheabilitytoworkonthetrain),qualityofserviceandaservicefrequencythatallowedpassengersto‘turnupandgo’6.Fares,accessibilityandcheck-inrequirementswerealsocitedasinfluencesonmodechoice.

1 SinclairKnightMerz,Technical Note 1,Speedrailfocusgroupdiscussions,1998.2 SteerDaviesGleave,Air and Rail Competition and Complementarity,EuropeanCommission,2006.3 Nash,HSR Overseas experience report, High Speed Rail Study Phase 1,2011.4 Inthiscontext,yieldmanagementisthestrategybywhichthetravelindustrymaximisesprofitbyvaryingpricesforthesame

product,e.g.offeringdiscountsonseatswhenitappearstheywillotherwiseremainunsold.5 Segal,High Speed Rail – The Competitive Environment,EuropeanTransportConference,2006.6 ‘Turnupandgo’referstohighfrequencypublictransportserviceswherepassengersdonotneedtolookupatimetableaswaiting

timebetweenservicesisshort.


Summary of required service attributesBasedontheAustralianmarketresearchandinternationalanalysis,asuccessfulHSRservicewouldrequire:• Competitivejourneytimes.• Highstandardsofon-boardcomfort

andconvenience.

Theseserviceattributeswouldneedtobecomplementedby:• Convenientstationaccess/egressarrangements.• Convenienttimetabling(frequenciesand

servicepatterns).• Anappropriatefarestructure(including

availabilityofdiscountfaresonundersoldservices).

TheseserviceattributesdefinedtherequirementsofasuccessfulHSRsystem,whichinturnestablishedthetechnicalspecificationstodeliverasuccessfulsystem.Thesearediscussedinthefollowingsections.

3.2.2 Service planningAguidingprincipleoftheHSRstudyisthatHSRmustbesuccessfulinmeetingtravelneedsinAustralia’scompetitivetransportmarket.TheprimarydemandforHSRserviceswouldbefortraveltoandfromtheeastcoastcapitalcities.The2065HSRpatronageforecastis83.6millionpassengers,ofwhich:• 18.8millionpassengersperyearwouldtravel

betweenSydneyandMelbourneCBD(22percentoftotalforecastHSRdemand).

• 10.9millionpassengersperyearwouldtravelbetweenBrisbaneandSydneyCBD(13percentoftotalforecastHSRdemand).

• 5.2millionpassengersperyearwouldtravelbetweenSydneyCBDandperipheralstationsandCanberra(sixpercentofforecastHSRdemand)7.

SydneywouldbethehuboftheHSRnetworkservingtheeastcoastofAustraliatothenorthandsouth:

• 34percentofallHSRtripswouldhaveanoriginordestinationatSydneyNorth,SydneyorSydneySouthstations.

• 21percentofallHSRtripswouldhaveanoriginordestinationatMelbourneNorthorMelbournestations.

• 13percentofallHSRtripswouldhaveanoriginordestinationatBrisbaneorBrisbaneSouthstations.

• SevenpercentofallHSRtripswouldhaveanoriginordestinationatCanberrastation.

In2065,72percentofallpotentialHSRtripsoriginatinginthenorthcoastofNewSouthWalesareforecasttohaveadestinationinoneofthefourcapitalcities(Brisbane,Sydney,CanberraorMelbourne).FortheregionalcommunitiesbetweenCanberraandMelbourne,96percentofallpotentialtripswouldhaveadestinationinoneofthecapitalcities.ThedemandsuggeststheHSRsystemshouldfacilitate:• Highspeedtravelbetweenthecapitalcitieson

theeastcoast.Thiswouldbeachievedthroughinter-capitalexpressservices.Thesewouldprovidenon-stopservicesbetweenBrisbaneandSydney,SydneyandCanberra,SydneyandMelbourne,andCanberraandMelbourne.Someoftheseinter-capitalexpressservicesmayalsocallatcityperipheralstations.

• Highspeedtravelbetweenregionalcommunitiesandthecapitalcities.Asthedemandforecastsshow,thecapitalcitiesaretheprimarydestinationforpassengersusingregionalHSRstationsandinter-capitalregionalservicesareprimarilydesignedtoprovideregularhighspeedlinksbetweenregionalstationsandatleasttwocapitalcities.Regionalserviceswouldalsofacilitatetravelbetweenregionalstations,althoughsomeinter-regionalmovementswithlowdemandmayrequirepassengerstochangefromoneservicetoanotheratanintermediatestationtocompletetheirjourney.

7 Thesearestation-to-stationmovementsandvaryslightlyfromthezone-to-zonemovementspresentedinChapter 2.


The service plans and frequencies (and assumed train sizes) were derived from the HSR demand forecasts. The plans were designed to ensure the average utilisation of each service was 90 per cent in the peak hours and at least 60 per cent over the operating day (these percentages are referred to as ‘loading factors’), while maintaining the supply of HSR capacity so that it matched forecast demand with attractive service frequency.

The HSR service pattern is expected to match the capacity profile in the corridor. For comparison, the 2011 inter-capital aviation market for three selected inter-capital air routes, drawn from Qantas profiles for scheduled domestic flights on a Friday, is shown in Figure 3-2, Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4. These figures show the average weekday seat capacity (expressed as a percentage of the total seat capacity on the route that day) at hourly intervals over a year.

Figure 3-2 Brisbane-Sydney Qantas air services weekday capacity profile

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Source: BITRE, 2011


Figure 3-3 Sydney-Melbourne Qantas air services weekday capacity profile

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

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Source: BITRE, 2011

Figure 3-4 Sydney-Canberra Qantas air services weekday capacity profile

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Source: BITRE, 2011


Alongwithdeparturetimes,thetimeofarrival Thispatternofoperationisconsistentwithatadestinationisimportanttoconsiderina internationalexperience.AreviewofthecurrentcomparisonofHSRandairtravel.ForHSR timetablesforHSRoperationsoverseas(Eurostartobecompetitive,thearrivaltimesneedtobe betweentheUnitedKingdomandFrance,andcomparablebetweenthetwomodes,sothatan ThalysbetweenFrance,BelgiumandHolland,andequivalentorshorterjourneytimebyHSRisnot Taiwan)showsthat:underminedbylessfrequentservicesoralonger • Eurostar(Paris/Brussels-London)journeyexperienceatthebeginningorendofthejourney, timesaretypicallytwoto2.5hours.ServicesforinstancetotravelfromanHSRstationtoa areoperatedbetween5:30amand11.30pm.finaldestination. Fridayisthebusiestdayoftheweekand

weekendservicelevelsareabout70percentofThemorningdeparturepatternineachcaseweekdayservicelevels.indicatespeakarrivalsinthedestinationCBD

(afterallowingforairporttocitytransfers)of • Thalys(Paris-Brussels-Amsterdam)journey8amto10am.Theafternoonandeveningprofiles timesaretypically1.5to2.5hours,butsomeareslightlyextendedanddifferbetweenthe tripsalsooperateto/fromplacesofftheHSRroutesshown,mostlikelyasaresultofairline routewithlongerjourneytimes.Servicesarepassengerstransferringbetweenflights.Inthese operatedbetween6amand11pm.Fridayisthethreeexamples,theeveningdemandextendsto busiestdayoftheweekandweekendservicedestinationcitycentrearrivalsuptoaslate levelsareabout80percentofweekdaylevels.as11pm. • TaiwanHighSpeedRail(Taipei-Taichung-

Zuoying)journeytimesaretypically1.5totwoDatawasalsocollectedontraveltimeforcartrips hours.Servicesareoperatedbetween6:30aminthecorridor,usingnumberplatematching andmidnight.Fridayisthebusiestdayoftheatselectedsitestoidentifythelongerdistance weekandweekendservicesareabout20percartripsinthemarkettobeservedbyHSR. centhigherthanMondaytoThursdayThisinformationisdiscussedinChapter 2. servicelevels.ObservationsofnorthboundtravelontheHume

• AshutdownperiodisneededeverynightinHighwaybetweenMelbourneandSydneyshowordertoundertakeessentialmaintenanceanddeparturetimesfromanovernightlowoflessthanmaintainthereliabilitytargets.twopercentofdailytrafficperhour,buildingup

inthehoursbefore6am.Departuresineachhour Todevelopserviceplansfortheeastcoastbetween10amand8pmarebroadlyintherange ofAustralia,thefollowingassumptionsbetweenfivepercentandsevenpercentofdaily wereusedbaseduponexperienceofHSRtripsdependinguponthetriplength,implying systemsinternationally:destinationarrivalsuptomidnightandbeyond. • Averagepeak-hourloadingfactor(percentageGiventhesemarketcharacteristics,theHSR ofseatsoccupied)of90percent.operationwouldneedtobeavailablefor • Overallaverageloadingfactorof60percent.approximately18hoursperday,withservices • Loadfactorsoverindividualsectionsoflinenottypicallystartingafter5amandfinishingbefore toexceed100percent(i.e.nopassengersaremidnightatthedestinations.Thiswouldallow assumedtoneedtostand).HSRpassengerstoarriveatthestartofthe • Peak-hourdemandof1.5timestheaverageworkingday,withouthavingtostarttheirjourney hourlydemand.unacceptablyearlyinthemorning,andprovidearangeofopportunitiesupto8.30pmtoleaveafterthebusinessdayandstillarriveattheirdestinationbeforemidnight.Thenumberoftrainsoperatedwouldvarybetweenweekdaysandweekends–andpotentiallyalsobetweendaysoftheweek–inresponsetoday-to-daytraveldemandvariations.


• Twostandardtrainconfigurationshavebeenassumed,tomaintainoperationalflexibilityforinter-capitalexpressandinter-capitalregionalservices.

• Peakhourdemandwillbeaccommodatedtosomeextentbyalargertraincapacity,sothatexpectedservicelevelsareonly1.3timesthedailyaverage.

HSRserviceswouldoperatefor18hoursperday,withaslightlyshorteroperatingdayonSundays.TraveltimesbetweenBrisbane/GoldCoastandSydneyandbetweenSydneyandMelbournearelessthanthreehoursfortheinter-capitalexpressservicesandupto3.5hoursfortheinter-capitalregionalservice.Thismeansthatthelasttrainsofthedaytravellingthefulllengthofthenorthernorsouthernrouteswouldneedtodepartby8.30pm.Latertrainscoulddeparttoterminateatanintermediatestation,suchasCanberrafromSydneyorMelbourne.

Thereare16hoursofthedayduringwhichHSRtrainscoulddepartBrisbane/GoldCoast,SydneyorMelbournetotravelthelengthoftheHSRlines.HSRservicesto/fromCanberra,becauseoftheirshortertriptimes,couldofferdeparturesover17hoursandstillcompletetheirtripsbeforetheendoftheoperatingday.

Indicative required service patternsTheHSRservicefrequencieshavebeendeterminedtomatchtheforecastdemand.Inter-capitalexpressserviceswouldmainlyoperatenon-stopbetweentheCBDstations,althoughsomeserviceswouldmakeonecallatoneofthecityperipheralstationstoofferanon-stopservicebetweentheperipheralstationandthedestinationcapital.

Generally,twoservicepatternshavebeendevelopedforinter-capitalregionalservicesbetweencapitalcities.Aregionalservicewouldneedtobeoperatedatleastonceeverytwo hours,sothattheminimumlevelofserviceatany

regionalstationwouldbeaninter-capitalregionaltraineverytwohours(travellingbetweentwocapitalcities).Forexample,theminimumservicelevelatTareewouldbearegionaltraineverytwohourstoBrisbaneandeverytwohourstoSydney.

OneintermediatestationbetweenBrisbaneandSydneyandonebetweenSydneyandMelbournewouldbeservedbyallinter-capitalregionalservices.Thiswouldallowpassengerstravellingbetweenregionalstationstodosowith,atmost,onechangeoftrain.SouthofSydney,theselectedstationcouldbeWaggaWagga,soapassengerwantingtotravelfromtheSouthernHighlandstoSheppartoncouldchangetrainsatWaggaWaggawithonlyashortwaitbetweenservices.TheequivalentstationnorthofSydneycouldbeCoffsHarbour.Althoughthedemandforecastssuggestthatthenumberofpassengersmakingsuchtripswillbecomparativelysmall,thefacilitycouldbeofferedwithoutsignificantimpactonthetripsbetweenregionalstationsandcapitalcities.

NoHSRtrainswouldoperatenon-stopthroughSydney.PassengerstravellingfromstationsnorthofSydneytostationssouthofSydneywouldhavetochangetrainsatSydneyCentral.

Theactualtimetabletobeoperatedforinter-capitalexpressandregionalserviceswouldbedeterminedbytheoperatoronacommercialbasis.However,itisassumedthataregularintervalserviceofHSRtrainswouldrunatthesametimeeachhourofthetrippattern’soperation.ThishasoperationaladvantagesandwouldalsomaketheHSRserviceeasiertomarkettoprospectivepassengers.ThetimetablesforEurostar,ThalysandTaiwanHSRallshowtheseregularintervalcharacteristics.

TheindicativestoppingpatternsbetweenBrisbane-SydneyandSydney-MelbourneareshowninFigure 3-5andFigure 3-6respectively.


Figure 3-5 Brisbane-Sydney indicative stopping patterns in 2065

Service Group Express Regional Regional Regional Regional Trains/day per direction

Brisbane 68

Brisbane South 44

Gold Coast 46

Casino 33

Grafton 33

Coffs Harbour 66

Port Macquarie 33

Taree 33

Newcastle 66

Central Coast 33

Sydney North 90

Sydney 114

Peak frequency (trains/hour per

direction)3 to 4 1 1 2 2

Express services call at the peripheral stations in the AM peak (outbound) and PM peak (inbound).

Some regional services between Gold Coast and Sydney would be extended to start from, or terminate at, Brisbane.

Off-peak frequency (trains/hour per direction)

2 to 3 0.5 0.5 1 to 2 1 to 2

The typical 2065 service patterns shown in Figure 3-5 were developed to provide sufficient capacity to accommodate the forecast peak period demand and comprise:• Two one-stop inter-capital express services

per hour for Brisbane-Sydney, calling at either Brisbane South or Sydney North city peripheral stations.

• One or two non-stop inter-capital express services per hour for Brisbane-Sydney.

• An hourly inter-capital regional service calling at Brisbane South, Coffs Harbour, Port Macquarie, Taree, Newcastle, Central Coast and Sydney North.

• An hourly inter-capital regional service calling at Brisbane South, Casino, Grafton, Coffs Harbour, Newcastle and Sydney North.

• Two regional services per hour for Gold Coast-Sydney calling at Coffs Harbour, Port Macquarie, Taree, Newcastle, Central Coast and Sydney North.

• Two regional services per hour for Gold Coast-Sydney calling at Casino, Grafton, Coffs Harbour, Newcastle and Sydney North.


Figure 3-6 Sydney-Melbourne indicative stopping patterns in 2065

Service Group Express Regional Regional Express Regional Express Regional Trains/day per direction

Sydney 130

Sydney South 94

Southern Highlands 40

Canberra 38

Canberra 19

Wagga Wagga 35

Albury-Wodonga 25

Shepparton 25

Melbourne North 75

Melbourne 111

Peak frequency (trains/hour per

direction)5 1 1 1 2 1 0.5

Express services call at the peripheral stations in the AM peak (outbound) and PM peak (inbound).

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(trains / hour per direction)

4 0.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5

The typical 2065 service patterns shown in Figure 3-6 were developed to provide sufficient capacity to accommodate the forecast peak period demand and comprise:

• Two non-stop inter-capital express services per hour for Sydney-Melbourne.

• Three one-stop inter-capital express services per hour for Sydney-Melbourne, calling at either Sydney South or Melbourne North city peripheral stations.

• An hourly inter-capital regional service calling at Sydney South, Wagga Wagga, Albury-Wodonga, Shepparton and Melbourne North.

• An hourly inter-capital regional service calling at Sydney South, Southern Highlands, Wagga Wagga and Melbourne North.

• One inter-capital express service per hour, calling at Sydney South, for arrival in Canberrabetween 8am and 10am.

• Two inter-capital regional express services per hour for Sydney-Canberra, calling at Sydney South and Southern Highlands.

• One inter-capital express service per hour for Canberra-Melbourne, calling at Melbourne North to provide Melbourne arrivals between 8am and 10am.

• At least one inter-capital regional service for Canberra-Melbourne, calling at Wagga Wagga, Albury-Wodonga, Shepparton and Melbourne North.

The mix of business and leisure travellers on the HSR services would be determined by the service pattern and also by the pricing strategy adopted by the operating company. For this analysis, it has been assumed that the peak services match the business arrival and departure times and that off-peak service levels are broadly constant over the operating day. Peak service hourly demand is assumed to be 1.5 times the average hourly


demand,butinthepeakhours,servicelevelsare Thedemandatregionalstationsisalsoonly1.3 timesthedailyaveragehourlyservice predominantlyfocusedontraveltothecapitallevels,reflectingthehigherloadfactorsassumedto cities.Forexample,the2065forecastsshow:applytopeaktrainoperations.

• ForGrafton,38percentofpassengerswouldTheHSRservicewouldbuildupinstagestothe betravellingtoSydneyand44percentto2065servicepattern,asdescribedinChapter 6 Brisbane/GoldCoast.andasshowninFigure 3-7: • ForNewcastle,47percentofpassengerswould• In2035,withHSRservicesoperatingbetween betravellingtoSydneyand25percentto

SydneyandCanberraandstillintheramp- Brisbane/GoldCoast.upphase,totalforecastHSRdemandis • FortheSouthernHighlands,59percentof2.3 millionpassengersperyear,ofwhich passengerswouldbetravellingtoSydney,1.3 million(57 percent)wouldbetravelling 23 percenttoMelbourneandtwopercentfromSydneyCentraltoCanberraorviceversa. toCanberra.In2035,HSRserviceswouldbeoperated • ForAlbury-Wodonga,69percentofpassengersbetweenSydneyandCanberraonanhourly wouldbetravellingtoMelbourne,12percentbasisthroughoutthedaywithadditionalinter- toSydneyandsixpercenttoCanberra.capitalexpressservicesinthepeakperiodtoaccommodatethisdemand–atotalof38trains TheregionalstationstobeservedbyHSRareperday. describedinChapter 4.

• In2050,withHSRservicesoperatingNewcastle-Sydney,Sydney-Canberra,Sydney-MelbourneandCanberra-Melbourne,totalforecastHSRdemandis39.2millionpassengersperyear,ofwhom11millionwouldbetravellingbetweenSydneyandMelbourneCBDstations(28percentoftotalforecastHSRpatronage).The2050servicepatternwouldbe:– 66trainseachwayperdaybetweenSydney

andMelbourne,ofwhich48wouldbeintercapitalexpressservices.

– 34trainseachwayperdaybetweenSydneyandCanberra.

– 19trainseachwayperdaybetweenCanberraandMelbourne.

– 28trainseachwayperdaybetweenNewcastleandSydney.


Figure 3-7 Future daily HSR service patterns

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3.3 System requirementsThis section describes the key system requirements, namely system operating speed, reliability and availability8.

3.3.1 SpeedThe demand forecasts presented in Chapter 2 indicate that, internationally, HSR can achieve a 50 per cent or higher share of the air/rail market when journey times are about three hours or less. Achieving this journey time for HSR trips between the capital cities on the east coast of Australia would therefore be a principal factor in defining the required operating speed of the railway. This definition is necessary as it determines the design speed, which in turn determines the geometric parameters of the system.

To achieve a journey time of three hours between Sydney-Melbourne and between Brisbane-Sydney would require operating speeds of up to 350 kilometres per hour. This would enable the train to attain an average speed of approximately 300 kilometres per hour for the overall journey, after allowing for negotiation of the terrain and operating environment between these cities. This capability would be consistent with the latest practice for HSR systems being planned and implemented, for example, in the USA, Italy and China.

The design speed for the HSR system infrastructure would exceed the maximum operating speed, to allow for later improvements in rolling stock that may be able to operate safely at higher speeds. The maximum design speed for this system would be 400 kilometres per hour.

8 A fuller description of the requirements is provided in Appendix 2B.


3.3.2 Reliability and availabilityTheinfrastructurewill,duringitswholelifecycle,needtomeetrequirementsconcerningreliability,availabilityandmaintainability.

Internationalbenchmarkingexperiencesuggeststhat99.7percentofplannedjourneysareachievableonaclosedHSRsystem,asdemonstratedfortheTaiwanHSR,whichhasservicesthatachievedepartureswithinoneminuteofthetimetabledschedule,andwithinfiveminutesonarrival9.

Conversely,whereHSRservicesshareinfrastructurewithconventionalpassengerandfreighttrains,theserviceavailabilitydiminishesconsiderably,duetoavarietyofoperational,reliabilityandmaintenancefactors.

TheexistingrailinfrastructureinandaroundBrisbane,SydneyandMelbourneiscurrentlyoperatingclosetocapacity.TheoptiontosuperimposetheHSRtrainrequirementsontopofthepredictedservicesanticipatedtobeoperatinginfutureontheexistinginfrastructureisconsideredimpractical.ThegeometryofexistinginfrastructurewouldrequireverysignificantmodificationtoallowHSRoperationalspeedstobeattained.ThisisdiscussedinChapter 4.

Toachievetherequiredjourneytimesandreliability,theHSRsystemwouldrequirededicatedinfrastructurefortheentiresystem.AsystemmixingHSRserviceswithconventionalpassengerandfreightrailservicesonsharedinfrastructurewouldnotbecapableofdeliveringcompetitiveHSRjourneytimesattherequiredlevelofservicereliability.

Freightserviceshavenotbeenincludedintheserviceplanning.InternationalexperiencedemonstratesthattheonlyfreightcarriedondedicatedHSRnetworksistransportedinvehiclessimilartohighspeedpassengerrollingstock.‘Lightfreight’trainscarryingitemssuchashigh-value,parcel-typegoodsmayhavesomepotential,althoughtherewouldbesomeadditionalcostinvolvedtocaterfortheseservices.Additionally,freightservicesontheHSRlinewouldhave

ramificationsforspeedandalsofortrackwearfromheavyhaulage.Overall,thisopportunityisminorwhencomparedtotheHSRpassengerservicesandhasnotbeenconsideredaspartofthepreferredHSRsystem.TheremovalofanyconventionalpassengertrainservicesduetotheintroductionofHSRcould,however,relievecapacityontheconventionalrailnetworkforadditionalfreightoperations.

3.3.3 SafetyTheentirerailwaywouldneedthreemetre-highsecurityfencingonbothsidestopreventaccessbypersonsandanimals.Provisionforthis,anditselectronicsurveillance,hasbeenmadeinthecosts.Suitabletrackcrossingsforstockandfauna,eitherbyunderpassesorbridges,arealsoprovidedforinthecosts.Specificcrossingsforfauna,includingforarborealmammalssuchasgliders,wouldbedesignedatthedetailedstagewhenaccurateinformationonfaunacorridorswouldbeavailable.

3.4 Technical specifications

3.4.1 Technical componentsAnHSRsystemcomprisesanumberoftechnicalcomponentsthatcombinetodeterminesystemperformance.Thesecomponentsinclude:• Trackinfrastructure.• Tunnels.• Powersupplyandtransmission.• Traincontrolandcommunicationssystems.• Rollingstock.• Stations.• Operationsandmaintenancefacilities.

InselectingthetechnicalcomponentsforapotentialHSRsystemontheeastcoast,provenwheel-on-railtechnology,whichisalreadyinserviceinternationally,hasbeenspecifiedtoensurethatthesystemachievesthedefinedrequirements.Magneticlevitation,or‘maglev’,technologyisnotproposedfortheAustralianeastcoastHSR.Thetextboxbelowpresentstheargumentsconsidered.

9 TherecentlycompletedHSRrailwayinTaiwanreportsachievementofreliabilitytargetsof99.7percentandabove(Taiwan High Speed Rail Annual Report 2011).


Magnetic levitation (maglev)Maglevisarailsystemthatusesmagnetstosuspend,guideandpropelvehiclesalongafixedtrack,ratherthanthemechanicalmethodsusedforconventionalandHSRtrainsystems.ThefirstcommercialsystembeganoperatingatBirminghamInternationalAirport(UnitedKingdom)in1984,runningat40 kilometresperhour,butitclosed11yearslaterduetomaintenanceproblemsandcosts.Morerecently,twonewprototypesystemsoperatingathigherspeedshavebeencommissionedinJapanandChina.TheChinesesystem(openedin2004)operatesatupto400kilometresperhour(andisdesignedfor500kilometresperhour)overa30.5kilometreshuttlelinebetweenShanghaiandPudongAirport.ThebasesystemcostaboutUS$1.2 billiontobuild–approximatelytwicetheanticipatedaveragecapitalcostperkilometreofwheel-on-railHSR.

WhilemaglevcouldpotentiallyoffergreaterspeedsandthereforeshorterjourneytimesforHSRthanconventionalsystems,ithasanumberofdisadvantages,including:• Construction:Noexistingmaglevroutesare

over30.5kilometreslongandthechallengesofbuildinga1,700kilometreroutearelikelytobesignificant.MaglevisalmostcertainlymorecostlytobuildthanaconventionalHSRsystem,withtotalcostsverydifficulttoestimatewithprecision.

• Maintenance:Thelong-termmaintenanceissuesandassociatedcostsarealsolargelyunknown.Whilethemechanicalaspectsofmaintenancehaveimprovedinrecentyears,thecivilandgeneralinfrastructuremaintenanceandrepaircostswillonlymaterialiseafteraminimumoperatingperiodof20years.

• Practicality:AstudycommissionedbytheBritishGovernment(UnitedKingdomGovernmentWhitePaper,Delivering a Sustainable Railway,24July2007)rejectedmaglevforfutureplanning,concludingthatmaglevisnotprovenforanythingotherthanshort-distance‘airportpeople-mover’orshuttle-typeoperations,andthatwhendevelopmentriskistakenintoaccount,itcouldcostbetweenfourandfivetimesmorethanconventionalHSR.

• Operations:Maglevcannotcurrentlybeusedatmulti-platformstations,whichwouldberequiredatallmajorcitystations,asitcannotrunonconventionalrailtracks.

ThereareclearlymajortechnologicalandcostrisksinadoptingmaglevanditwasnotconsideredaspartofthepreferredHSRsystem.

3.4.2 Track infrastructure

Track geometryHSRrequiresaspecificanddemandingsetofparametersgoverningtrackgeometryandtracktype.Thegeometryneedstomaintainthecomfortofpassengerswhileenablingthetraintotravelathighspeed.Thisisensuredbyrestrictingthedegreeofhorizontalandverticalcurvatureofthetrackandlimitinghowmuchverticalacceleration/decelerationispermitted.AcomparisonofthegeometriesrequiredforconventionalrailandHSRisprovidedinChapter 4.

ParametersandtracktypesforexistingHSRsystemsinEurope,China,TaiwanandJapanaswellasforproposedHSRsystemsintheUnitedKingdom,CaliforniaandNorwaywereconsideredinthesystemselectionprocess.ThestandardsadoptedaredescribedinAppendix 2B.Thealignmentwouldgenerallybetwintrack,exceptatstationswhereadditionaltrackswillberequired.

Regionalandcity-peripheralstationswouldhavetwoadditionaltrackstoserveplatforms.Thiswouldimprovethesafetyandamenityofthesestationsbyallowingnon-stoptrainstobypassthestationitself.ApproachestoterminalstationswouldhaveextratrackstoprovidesufficientcapacityandaccesstoallHSRplatforms(forillustrationsseeChapter 5).


Track gaugeTheproposedgauge(1,435millimetres)isthestandardusedonHSRnetworksthroughouttheworld.Usingastandardgaugewouldenableprocurementofstandardrollingstockandotherequipment,therebyminimisingtheriskandadditionalcostassociatedwithnewprototypes.

Track type Therearetwogenericchoicesoftrackstructuretype:ballastandslabtrack.Traditionally,atrackstructureconsistsoftherailsandsleeperswithtopandbottomballast(typicallycrushedstone).Withslabtrack,thetrackstructurecomprisesaseriesofconcreteslabswiththerailseitherembeddedinitorfastenedtoit,insteadoffastenedtosleepersembeddedinballast.

Ballastedtrackhastheadvantageofbeingrelativelyquicktoinstallandcanbemaintainedbyafleetofspecialistplant.However,thenatureofballasttrackmeansthatthetrackcanandwillmoveunderload,whichresultsintheneedforongoingmaintenancetorestorethelineandlevelandfortheballasttobecleanedorreplaced.Thereissomeexperience(FrenchTGV)wheretheuseofballastathighspeed(morethan300kilometresperhour)hasbeenfoundtoproducefineparticleswhicharedepositedontherailsurfaceandcausedamagetotrainwheels.

Withconcreteslabtracksystems,theballastisreplacedbyarigidconcreteslabtrack,whichtransferstheloadandprovidestrackstability.Slabtracksystemsrequirelittleroutinemaintenance.Consequently,fewerpossessionsofthetrackarerequired,increasingtheavailabilityofthetrackforrunningtrains.Aninspectionregimeisnecessary,but,becausethetrackisfixedinposition,thereisnorequirementforregularrealignmentoftherails.ConcreteslabtrackisusedbytheJapaneseHSRnetworkandincreasinglythroughoutmainlandEuropeaswellasinChina.

TherecommendationforAustraliaisfortheuseofslabtrack.

Manyslabtracksystemsrequirelessconstructiondepththantheequivalentballastedsystem.Embeddedrailsystemsandresilientbaseplatetracktypesrequiretheleastdepth.Thereducedconstructiondepthmeansreduceddeadloadonstructuressuchasbridges,makingtheirconstructionlesscostly.Slabtrackisfixedinpositionandwillnotmoveoutoflineorlevelunderload.Concreteslabtrackalsooffersagreaterdegreeoftrackbedstabilitythanballastedtrack,meaningthathigherrunningspeedsareachievable.Resilienceisintroducedintothetracksystembymeansofpads,bearingsorsprings,dependingonthetypeofslabsystem.

Slabtrackcanbedesignedtosuitparticularrequirementsandtomeettherequiredperformancecriteriaintermsofnoiseandvibration.Withineachgenericsystem,theresilientcomponentscanbeselectedtooptimisethebalancebetweenacousticperformanceandrailstability.

Anestimateofdesignlifefortraditionalballastedtrackisaround15years,afterwhichtheballast requiresrenewal.Thisisanoisyandtime-consumingactivityifperformedduringnon-operationalhoursand,giventhelonglengthsoftrackinvolved,wouldrequirealargelabourforceworkingcontinuously.Aconcreteslabtrackistypicallyconstructedwithadesignlifeofatleast60yearsandcanbedesignedtowithstandatemperaturerangeof−10to50degreesCelsius.

Althoughthecapitalcostofslabtracksystemsisusuallyhigherthantheequivalentballastedtrack(about20to30percenthigherinitialoutlay),thelongdesignlifeandminimalmaintenancerequirementforslabtracksystemsmeansthatoveralltheirwholelifecostislowerthanthatoftraditionalballastedtrack.

SlabtrackhasbeenusedsuccessfullyonanumberofHSRprojectsaroundtheworld,asshowninTable 3-1.


Table3-1 Internationalexamplesofslabtrackuse

Project Country

Shinkansen Japan

High Speed Line HSL-Zuid TheNetherlands

Cologne-Frankfurt High Speed Line Germany

Nuremberg-Ingolstadt High Speed Line Germany

Taiwan High Speed Railway Taiwan

Eje Atlantico Spain

TGV Méditerranée France

Channel Tunnel Rail Link Phase II UnitedKingdom

3.4.3 TunnelsChapter 4containsasummaryoftherationalefortunnellingonsectionsofthealignment.Thissectiondiscussesthevariousconfigurationsandconstructionmethodsthatcouldbeapplied,althoughtheactualconfigurationofeachtunnelwouldonlybedeterminedatamoredetailedstageofdesign.

Tunnel configurationsHSRtunnelconfigurationsarecommonly:

• Singleboredoubletracktunnels(e.g.Japan,Taiwan,shortertunnelsinSpain).

• Twinboresingletracktunnels(e.g.Germany,andlongertunnelsinSpainandtheUnitedKingdom).

Theuseofathirdtunnelforservices/emergencyegresshasalsobeenadoptedonsomesystems(e.g.BrennerBase,ChannelTunnel),butismorerelevanttotunnelswithoutpracticallocationsforintermediateaccess.

Thefollowingcomponentsneedtobeaccommodatedwithinatunnel:• Railtrackform.• Rollingstockstructuregauges.• Emergencyegress(i.e.walkways).• Emergencyandoperationsaccess.• Tractionpowersupply.

• Signallingandcommunications.• Tunnelutilities(includingthepossibilityof

utilisingtunnelsfornon-HSRservices).• Tunnelventilation.• Tunnellining/support.

Inadditiontotheabovespace-proofingconsiderationsforHSR,thetunnelwouldneedtobesizedtomeetaerodynamicpressurerequirements.

RecentlyconstructedtunnelsinEuropeandAsiashowastrongcorrelationbetweenthefreetunnelareaandtrainspeed.Asthespeedincreases,sodoesthetunnelarearequiredtominimiseadversepressuresandshockwaves.Theseeffectsarecalculatedfromwhatistermedafreearearatio.Inordertominimisetheimpactsofpressure(comfort,trainstructuralstrengthandfatigue)andenergyconsumption(friction),tunnelsarebuiltprogressivelylargertoaccommodateincreasesinoperationalspeed.Thefreeratioistheproportionoftheunfilled,or‘free’,tunnelcross-sectionalarearelativetotheoccupied(traincross-sectionalprofile).Othereffectsassociatedwithchangesinfreearearatioincludenoise,heatgenerationandenergyefficiency.

Forthepurposesofthisstudy,thevarioustypesoftunnelweredevelopedforcostingbeforeestablishinganaveragecostperkilometreforuseinthealignmentmodel(Quantm)andthecapitalcostestimate(seeAppendix 4B).


Tunnel constructionTunnelswouldnormallybeconstructedbytunnelboringmachinesorminedtunneltechniques,dependingongroundtype.Becauseoftheirdisruptiveeffectsatgroundlevel(requiringanystructureabovetobedemolishedandlandtobeoccupiedforlongconstructionperiods),cut-and-covertunnelswouldonlybeconstructedinexceptionalcircumstances,forexampleatthefinalapproachtoCentralstationinSydney,asthetunnelsemergetothesurface.

Tunnelboringmachineswouldachievefasterproductionratesandeconomiesofscaleinlongertunnelscomparedwiththeothertechniques,butarerestrictedtocirculartunnelshapesofconstantsize.Whiletherelativelyhighcapitalcostandlongmanufacturingtimeoftunnelboringmachinesmakesthemexpensiveandimpracticalovershortlengths,theyarewellsuitedtothefullrangeofgroundandgroundwaterconditionsexpectedthroughoutthestudyarea.

Shortertunnelsareusuallymoreeconomicalwhenconstructedbyminedtunneltechniques,duetothelowercapitalcostsofplant.Overlongertunnels,theadditionalworkcyclesrequiredinthesemethodsmakethemlesscompetitiveunlessmultipleexcavationscanbeestablished.

3.4.4 Power supply and transmissionThetractionpowersupplysystemistherailwayelectricaldistributionnetworkusedtoprovideenergytohighspeedelectrictrains.Itcomprisesthreetypesoftractionpowerfacilities–tractionpowersubstations,switchingstations,andparallelingstations,inadditiontoconnectionstotheoverheadcontactsystemandtothetractionreturnandgroundingsystem.

A2x25kilovolt(KV)autotransformerfeedconfigurationhasbeenproposedforthetractionelectrificationsystem.Although1x25kVtractionpowersupplysystemshavebeenusedsuccessfullyforelectrifiedmainlinerailwayformanyyears,2 x25kVautotransformerfeedsystemshavebecomethemodernstandardformainlineelectrification,especiallyforHSR.

Intotal,therearemoretractionpowerfacilitiesrequiredfora2x25kVautotransformerfeedsystemthanfora1x25kVsystem,buttherearefewersubstations,withtheirassociatedHVutilitycircuits,HVtransformersandHVswitchgear.Theelectromagneticinterferenceemittedduetotheloadcurrentinthecatenarysystemandrunningrailsisconsiderablyreduced.FortheAustralianHSR,forthepurposeofcostestimationithasbeenassumedthatthetrackpowersupplywouldbeprovidedbytwo25kilovolt50hertzautotransformerseverytenkilometreswithtractionpowerfeederstationstypicallyevery60kilometres.

Alltrainshavebeenassumedtouseregenerativebrakingtoreducetractionpowerrequirementsbyeighttotenpercent.ThisisshownandquantifiedinAppendix 2B.

HSR power demand from the national power gridItisestimatedthatHSRpowerdemandwouldprogressivelyincreasefromapproximately540 megawattsinyear2035toapproximately820megawattsinyear2050,andwouldrequireapproximately1,800megawattsfromthenationalpowergridalongitslengthby2065.The2035HSRpowerdemandof540megawattscomparestothecurrenttotalnationalgenerationcapacityof72,000 megawatts,ineffectlessthanonepercentofthecurrentgridcapacity.Asimilarpercentageisestimatedby2065.WhiletheHSRsystemwouldbeasignificantuserofelectricity,itisestimatedtoconsumeasmalloverallpercentagewithinthelikelygrowthofthenationalelectricitysupplysystem.

3.4.5 Train control and communications systemsAbi-directionaltransmission-basedtraincontrolsystemwouldbespecifiedthroughoutthelengthoftheroute,providingtheabilityfortrainstocontinuetooperateatfulllinespeed,ineitherdirection,oneithertrackwithouthavingservicesinterruptedbyunscheduleddisruptions.Theoperationoftherailwaywouldbecontrolledfromanoperationscontrolcentre,withanidenticalstandbycontrolcentrelocatedincloseproximity


toallowforthetransferofoperationalstaffifrequired.AsSydneywouldbeatthehuboftheHSRoperation,ithasbeenassumedthatbothcontrolcentreswouldbeinSydney.Thereisnoneedforthecentrestobephysicallylocatedontherailwaysopreciselocationshavenotbeenspecified.

3.4.6 Rolling stockAlargenumberofhighspeedtrainsareinservicearoundtheworld.Severalwellknowninternationalsuppliersofrollingstockhavetrainsintheircurrentproductrangethatmeettherequirementsofa350 kilometreperhouroperationalspeedfortheexpressservices.

Thereareanumberofhighspeedtrainsdesignedtoprovideavarietyofcustomeramenityoptions,suchasachoicebetweenbusinessclassandeconomy,cateringandWiFi.Businessclasswouldoffermorespaceandahigherlevelofcomfortandamenitytothepassenger,including‘atseat’catering.

Trainswouldbetypically200metreslongatthecommencementofoperation,increasingovertimeinaccordancewithmarketrequirements10.Thelongesttrainsetenvisagedfortheeastcoastmarketinthisstudyis300metres,andallcityterminalstationshavebeenspecifiedtoaccommodatetrainsofthislength.Table 3-2listssomeoftheitemsrequiredfortherollingstock.

3.4.7 Operations and maintenance facilities

Operations facilitiesTheHSRwouldbeoperatedfromoneoftwomanagementcontrolcentres(onemainandonestandby)locatedinSydney.Thecontrolcentrewouldcontainalltheoperationalfunctionsincluding:• Managementoftrainoperations.• Signallingandtrainmovementcontrol.• Electricalcontrol.• Managementofservicedisruption.• Managementofoperationalincidents.• Managementofcustomers(andothermembers

ofthepublic)andoperationalstaff.• Managementandmaintenanceoffleet.• Managementofinfrastructure,the

infrastructurecontroller,plantandpremises.• Managementofaccidents,majorincidents,

emergenciesandotherreportableincidents.

Theoperationofthemainandstandbycontrolcentresisnotanalysedinthisstudy.Thereareoptionsfortheuseofthesefacilitiestobeusedindualoperatingmode(i.e.onelineoperatedfromeachcentre)withtheabilityforcompetitiveoperationofthetwolinesandpossiblytoprovidebettercontinuityintheeventofanemergencytransferofcontrol.

10 Differentsuppliershavedifferentconfigurationsandnumberofcarstocreateatrainset.Thepassengercapacityhasthereforebeenspecified,notthenumberofcars.


Table3-2 Highspeedexpressrollingstockspecification

Item Requirement

Design life 30years

Standards EuropeanTechnicalSpecificationforInteroperabilityorequivalent11

Recyclability 98%oftraintoberecyclablefollowingdisposal

Modular design Facilitatingfuture-proofingforlayoutflexibility

Maintainability Adesignthatfacilitateseaseofmaintenance

Train reliability 200,000km/technicalbreakdown

Fleet size 203520502065

–––

6x200msetsCombinationofCombinationof

3472

xx

200200

mm

setssets

andand

2556

xx

300300

mm

setssets

(59intotal)(128intotal)

Maximum operating speed

350km/h

Braking system Electricalregenerativebrakingtoimproveenergyefficiency

Configuration BusinessandeconomyclassComfortableseatingforallclassesCateringfacilitiesToiletineachcarriageWheelchair-accessiblecarriageentranceoneachtrainsetWiFiandpowersocketsavailableforallclassesLuggagestorageineachcarPassengerinformationprovidedinallcars

Train length 200mand300m

Seating capacity 520seats(200msets)and780seats(300msets)

Security InlinewithcurrentoperationaldomesticHSRrailways,nospecificsecuritymeasuresareassumedatthestations.PassengerassistanceandCCTVinallcars

Seat reservation Automaticsystemtobeprovidedforeachseat

Maintenance facilitiesBasedonthecurrentevaluationofmaintenancestablingforthetrainfleet,ithasbeendeterminedthatthefollowingfacilitiesarerequired:

• TwomainmaintenancedepotsandstablingyardslocatedclosetoboththeNewcastleandCanberrastations(atLenaghanandGoulburn

respectively),capableofundertakingheavymaintenanceactivitiesandeachwithadequatestablingfortherespectivestations.

• OnestablingyardclosetoeachoftheBrisbane,SydneyandMelbournestations(atGreenbank,HolsworthyandCraigieburn).

11 SpecificationsadoptedbytheEuropeanCommissiontoensureinteroperabilityofthetrans-Europeanrailsystem.Theyrelatetoinfrastructure,energy,rollingstock,controlandsignalling,andmaintenanceandoperation.


The configuration for maintenance depot and stabling yard locations has been established and addresses the productivity, reliability and availability of the HSR fleet. A segmented approach to the system has been taken to accommodate the distribution of trains on the network during peak service operation. These segments are:• Brisbane-Newcastle (including Gold Coast).• Newcastle-Sydney.• Sydney-Canberra.• Canberra-Melbourne.

The busiest segments would be Sydney-Canberra and Newcastle-Sydney. Locating a depot close to the segment with highest service frequency would reduce the movement of empty trains and provide increased operational flexibility in managing the fleet to return trains to the depot for maintenance.

Figure 3-8 shows the location of depots and stabling facilities.

Figure 3-8 Location of depots and stabling facilities

Coffs Harbour(Major infrastructure depot)

Holsworthy(Stabling facility)

Lenaghan(Rolling stock maintenance depot including stabling facility)

Albury–Wodonga(Major infrastructure depot)

Craigieburn(Stabling facility)

Goulburn (Rolling stock maintenance depot

including stabling facility)(Major infrastructure depot)

Greenbank(Stabling facility)

BRISBANE

GOLD COAST

NEWCASTLE

SYDNEY

CANBERRA

MELBOURNE

CONTROL CENTRES


3.5 System-wide environmental impacts during operationTheconstruction,operationandmaintenanceofthepreferredHSRsystemwouldgenerategreenhousegasandnoiseemissions.Thissectiondescribeshowestimatesoftheseemissionswerederivedandthemeasuresavailabletomitigatetheirimpact.

3.5.1 Greenhouse gas emissionsAccordingtotheGreenhouseGasProtocol12,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)andAustralianGovernmentGHGaccountingandclassificationsystems,GHGemissionsarereportedastonnesofcarbondioxideequivalent(tCO2-e),categorisedintothree‘scopes’:• Scope1emissions,alsocalled‘directemissions’,

aregenerateddirectlybytheproject,e.g.emissionsgeneratedbytheuseofdieselfuelbyconstructionequipmentonsite.

• Scope2emissions,alsoreferredtoas‘indirectemissions’,aregeneratedoutsidetheproject’sboundariesbutprovideenergytotheproject,e.g.theuseofpurchasedelectricityfromthegrid.

• Scope3emissionsincludeallindirectemissions,otherthanthoseincludedinscope 2,associatedwithupstreamordownstreamactivities,e.g.emissionsassociatedwiththeextraction,productionandtransportofpurchasedconstructionmaterials.

Thisstudyhasconsideredallemissions,althoughscope3estimateswerederivedthroughbenchmarkingofotherstudiesassomeoftheinformationnecessarytocalculatethemwasunavailable.Scope1andscope2emissionsassociatedwiththeconstructionofHSRandsubsequentinfrastructurerenewal(throughtheuseofelectricity,fuelandmaterialsandtheclearanceofvegetation)amountto11.4milliontonnesofCO2-e.Themajorityofthisisattributabletothedieselfuelconsumedbyconstructionvehiclesassociatedwithearthworks,togetherwiththepowerconsumedduringtunnellingoperations.FurtherdetailisprovidedinAppendix 5G.Benchmarkingofscope3emissionssuggeststheyusuallyaccountfor50to80percentofoverallconstructionemissions.Thiswouldmeantotalconstructionemissionsof22.8to57.1 million t CO2-e.

OperationandmaintenanceofthepreferredHSRsystemwouldconsumeenergyandgenerateGHGemissionsoverthelifeoftheinfrastructure,primarilyinrelationtotheconsumptionofelectricitytorunthetrains.However,theHSRsystemwouldalsoenablepassengerstoswitchfrommoreGHG-intensivemodesoftransport(e.g.airtravel),whichwouldproducecountervailingreductions.

TodeterminetheactualGHGimpactsofHSR,theinitialstepwastoderiveemissionfactorsforelectricityandeachfueltypeusedbythenon-HSRmodesfromwhichtripsarediverted.ThesewerederivedforthisstudyusingenergyandcarboncontentparametersfromtheAustralianTreasury13andtheNationalGreenhouseAccounts(NGA)Factors14,takingintoaccountprojectedchangesintheparametersoverthestudyperiod.FulldetailsareprovidedinAppendix 5G.

12 WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainableDevelopment(WBCSD)andWorldResourcesInstitute(WRI),2004,Greenhouse Gas Protocol.

13 AustralianTreasury,2011,Strong Growth, Low Pollution - Modelling a Carbon Price,CommonwealthofAustralia,Canberra.14 DCCEE,2012,National Greenhouse Accounts Factors July 2012,Canberra.


Theemissionfactorswerethencombinedwith Theoverallincreaseinemissionsisinfluencedforecastfuelconsumptionsandoccupanciesforair, significantlybytheassumptioninthereferenceroadandrailtoderiveunitemissionsperpassenger casethatthereisnoadditionalaviationcapacityinkilometreovertheevaluationperiod. Sydney.ThislackofadditionalaviationcapacityTable 3-3showstheaverageemissionsper suppressesgrowthintravelinthestudyarea,passengerkilometreofeachmode,calculated whichreducesgrowthinGHGemissionsinthefromthetotaloperationalemissionsandpassenger basecase(withnoHSR).WhereHSRprovideskilometresforeachmodeovertheoperational greateropportunityfortravel,bymeetingthisperiod.ItillustratesthatcoachandHSR suppresseddemandandthroughinduceddemand,travelhavethelowestemissionsperpassenger overallemissionsincrease.Thisisinspiteofkilometre,whileaviationandbusinesscaruse theemissionsperpassengerkilometretravelledhavethehighestemissions.Notetheemissions declining,asHSRhasloweremissionspertotalsforHSRincludetheoperationofboththe kilometrethanmostothermodes.infrastructureandtrains,whereastheemissionsforothermodescompriseonlytheoperationofthevehicles(aircraft,coaches,trains).

TheextenttowhichHSRwouldchangethelevelofGHGemissionswasthencalculatedbycombiningthenumberofpassengersexpectedtodivertfromeachofthenon-HSRmodeswiththeunitemissionratesincludedinTable 3-3.

Table 3-4andFigure 3-9 comparethedifferenceinemissionsbetweenthebasecase(withoutHSR)andthereferencecase(withHSR).ThereductioninemissionsastheresultofmodaldiversionareshowningreeninFigure 3-9,whilethenewemissionsassociatedwithHSRconstructionandoperation,andfromsuppressedaviationdemandinSydney,areshowninred.Thereisanetincreaseinemissionsinthereferencecaseofapproximately22milliontonnesofCO2-eovertheassessmentperiodfrom2035-2085.ThecostsassociatedwiththeseemissionsareincludedintheeconomicappraisalprovidedinChapter 8.


Table3-3 Operationalemissionsperpassengerkilometre2035-2085

Transport Mode

Aviation(1)

Emissions (Mt CO -e)2

Passenger km (billion)

Emissions per passenger km (tonnes CO -e / 1000 pkm)2

0.112(2)197 1,765

Coach 3 171 0.018

Car – business 18 186 0.097

Car – leisure 93 1,613 0.058

Rail 6 166 0.036(3)

HSR 56 1,981 0.028

(1) Doublingofaviationemissions(duetoradiativeforcing)applied.(2) Includesallowanceforimpactofnon-CO2gasesreleasedataltitude(seeAppendix 5G).(3)Estimatefornon-urbanrailserviceswhichwouldbedirectlyaffectedbyHSR.

Table3-4 Totalemissionsoverevaluationperiod(milliontonnesCO2-e)

Emissions source Base case (No HSR) (Mt CO -e)2

Reference case (with HSR) (Mt CO -e)2

Change (Mt CO -e)2

Aviation 232 116 -116

Aviation – additional emissions due to suppressed demand in Sydney

- 81 81

Coach 4 3 -1

Car – business 21 18 -3

Car – leisure 97 93 -4

Rail 9 6 -3

HSR – transferred - 35 35

HSR – induced - 21 21

Construction - 11 11

Total 362 384 22

Notes:Totalsmaynotsumduetoroundingdifferences.


Figure 3-9 Savings in GHG emissions arising from the operation of HSR in the reference case Av

iatio

n

Coa

ch

Car

– b

usin

ess

Car

– le

isur

e

Rai

l

HSR

– tr

ansf

erre

d

HSR

– in

duce

d

Tota

l

Con

stru

ctio

n

Avia

tion

- add

ition

al

emis

sion

s du

e to

su

ppre

ssed

dem

and

Reduction in emissions Increase in emissions Change in emissions

-50

0

50

100

150

Em

issi

ons

(Mt C

O2-

e)

Note: Positive numbers denote a reduction in emissions, while negative numbers denote an increase.


Figure 3-10 Savings in GHG emissions arising from the operation of HSR in the additional aviation capacity sensitivity test

Avia

tion

Coa

ch

Car

– b

usin

ess

Car

– le

isur

e

Rai

l

HSR

– tr

ansf

erre

d

HSR

– in

duce

d

Tota

l

Con

stru

ctio

n

Em

issi

ons

(Mt C

O2-

e)

Reduction in emissions Increase in emissions Change in emissions

0

50

100

150

Note: Positive numbers denote a reduction in emissions. In this scenario, there are also additional emissions from aviation travel which are larger than the net reduction shown.

The impact of assuming additional aviation capacity in Sydney is shown in Figure 3-10. Under this scenario, it is assumed that there is sufficient aviation capacity within the Sydney region to meet demand, i.e. there is no suppressed demand. The emissions in this scenario, without HSR, are therefore higher, as there is more travel by air than in the constrained scenario. The overall outcome is a net reduction in GHG emissions of approximately 55 million tonnes of CO2-e over the assessment period from 2035-2085, due to travel shifting from air to HSR. Emissions per passenger kilometre are lower with HSR than in the additional aviation capacity base case.

Appendix 5G outlines 13 sensitivity tests in addition to the aviation capacity test, and documents their estimated impact on GHG emissions. These show that HSR only results in reduced overall GHG emissions compared with the base case where aviation capacity in Sydney is assumed to be unconstrained.

There would also be emissions associated with the construction of additional aviation capacity in the unconstrained aviation sensitivity tests, but these would apply both without and with HSR and were not included in the calculations.


Figure3-11 NoiselevelsforanHSRtrainoperatingat350kph

3.5.2 NoiseAnindividualHSRtrainwouldbeslightlylouderthananexistingpassengertrainoperatingonAustralia’srailnetworktoday,althoughgivenitsgreaterspeedthedurationofthenoiseimpactofasingleHSRtrainwouldbeshorter.However,thefrequenciesofHSRtrainsdescribedinsection 3.2aresignificantlygreaterthancurrentservicelevels,leadingtoapotentiallygreaternoiseimpactoverall.AnassessmentofthenoisethatwouldbegeneratedbytheHSRservicewastherefore

undertakentoestablishthemitigationthatwouldlikelyberequired.Thecostofthemitigationisincludedinthecommercialandeconomicappraisalsprovidedin Chapter 7andChapter 8.

TwotypesofoperationalnoisegeneratedbyHSRwereassessed:• Airbornenoiseemittedbymovingtrainsacross

openspace.• Groundborneorregeneratednoisetransmitted

throughthegroundarisingfromthepassageofmovingtrainsonthetrackform.


Airborne noiseRecentresearch15reviewingthenoisesourcesassociatedwithhighspeedraildefinedthefollowingcomponents,allcontributingtotheoverallnoiselevels:• Bogienoise,createdbythewheel/rail

interaction.• Aerodynamicnoisefromthefrontofthetrain.• Aerodynamicnoiseemittedfromthe

pantographsprovidingelectricalpowertothetrain.

Figure 3-11illustrateshowthedifferenttypesofnoisecontributetotheoverallnoiselevelsforatraintravellingat350kilometresanhourinaruralarea.ThecalculationsarebasedontheslabtrackdesignassumedforthepreferredHSRsystem,andthenoiselevelsarethosereceivedatapoint25 metresfromthecentrelineoftheHSRtrack.

AirbornenoiseismeasuredindB(A)units.LAeqistheequivalentcontinuousnoiselevel.ForHSRairbornenoise,thenoisepeaksarisingfromallthetrainsinagivenperiodarecombinedtodefineanLAeq.

TheperiodusedforassessmentofdaytimenoiseinAustraliannoisestandardsis15hours.TheLAeq(15hr)standardinNSWandVictoriais60dB(A)andthiswasadoptedfortheassessmentofmitigationrequirementsonthehighspeedrailstudy.

HSRtrainsareassumedtooperatebetween5amand11pmandwithinthatthe‘daytime’periodfornoiseassessmentwasassumedtobe7amto10pm.TheassessmentwasundertakenusingtrainfrequenciesbetweenSydneyandCanberra,themostintensivelyusedsectionoftheHSRsystem,whichwouldcarrythehighestnumberofHSRtrainsperhour.

NoiseemissionsfromHSRtrainswereplottedagainstdistancefromthetrackwithandwithoutmitigation.Theassessmentwasrepeatedforurbanareas,assumingaloweroperationalspeedof250kilometresperhour,andalsofor‘urban’and‘transitional’areasontheapproachestotownsandcities.

TheresultsareprovidedinTable 3-5,whichshowsthedistancefromthecentrelineoftherailwayatwhichcompliancewiththeadoptedstandardisachieved.

Table3-5 Noisecomplianceoffsetdistances

Scenario Compliance offset distance

Rural area 230m

Transition area with 2 m mounding 70m

Transition area with 3 m mounding 51m

Urban area with 2 m noise wall, 7 m from track centreline 25m

Urban area with 2 m noise wall, 4 m from track centreline 21m

Urban area on viaduct with 2 m noise barrier 21 m

Note1:Ruralareashavebeenassumedtocomprisepredominantlysinglestoreyreceivers(e.g.dwelling,office,school).Note2:Urbanareashavebeenassumedtocomprisepredominantlytwostoreyreceivers.Note3:Viaducthasbeenassumedtobepredominantlyelevated,resultinginasimilarheightasasecondstoreyreceiver.

15 K.Nagakura&YZenda,PredictionModelofaWaysideNoiseLevelofShinkansen,2004. PBellingradetal,Experimental Study of Noise Barriers for High Speed Trains,2012. CMelletetal,‘HighSpeedTrainNoiseEmission:Latestinvestigationoftheaerodynamic/rollingnoisecontribution’,Journal of

Sound and Vibration,2006. DJThompsonetal,Application of a Component-Based Approach to Modelling the Aerodynamic Noise from High-Speed

Trains,2012.


TheresultssummarisedinTable 3-5indicatethattheindicativeoffsetdistancesatwhichreceiverswouldbeaffectedrangefrom21metresto230 metres,dependingonthelocationandnoisemitigationprovided.Noisebarrierswouldberequiredforallbuilt-upareastoensurethatreceiverswerenotadverselyaffected.Mitigationforreceiversinsparselypopulatedareaswouldgenerallycomprisearchitecturaltreatmentssuchasmechanicalventilation,upgradeddoorsandwindowseals.WhilefurtherinvestigationofspecificmeasureswouldberequiredatalaterstageifanHSRwereprogressed,thisassessmentshowsthatappropriatenoisemitigationcouldbeincludedinthedesigntoensurethatimpactscomplywithadoptedstandards.ThemeasuresrequiredtoachievethisoutcomeareincludedintheHSRcapitalcostestimatesprovidedinChapter 7.

Regenerated noise Regeneratednoiseiscreatedwhenvibrationsproducedbytrainsrunningintunnelstravelupthroughthegroundandintobuildings,causingflatsurfacesinthebuildingtovibrate.Thevibrationisnotgenerallystrongenoughtobefelt,butmaycreateanaudiblenoiseinsidethebuilding.

Theanalyticalprocedureusedtopredictrailrelatedvibrationandregeneratednoisereliesonempiricaldataforinputparameterssuchastrainvibrationlevels,trackattenuationandvibrationattenuationthroughground.

Mitigationforgroundbornenoiserequiresvariationtothetypesoffastenerusedtoconnectthetrackwiththepadontheslabtrackuponwhichitrests.Avarietyoffastenersandpadscouldbeemployeddependentonthespecificlocation,buttheoffsetdistancerequiredat250 kilometresperhour(themaximumtunnelspeed)variesfromlessthanfivemetresto57metres,dependingontheformofmitigationadopted.ThisindicatesthatHSRcouldbedesignedtoensurethatsensitivereceiversarenotadverselyaffectedbyregeneratednoise.Thesamemeasuresarepredictedtoprovidesufficientmitigationpotentiallyarisingfromground-bornevibrationaswellasregeneratednoise.

3.6 ConclusionTheeastcoasttravelmarketthatHSRwouldattractisheavilyinfluencedbythecapitalcities,whichwouldbeeithertheoriginordestinationofthemajorityofHSRtravel.Furthermore,travelbetweenthestatecapitalswouldbeparticularlystrongandwiththecontinuedgrowthforecastovertheevaluationperiod,wouldrequiretrains300 metreslongoperatingfourtofivetimesduringpeakhoursby2065.

Thisleadstothedefinitionoftwotypesofproduct.Inter-capitalexpressserviceswouldconnectthestatecapitalswithjourneytimeslessthanthreehours,whichasshowninChapter 2,internationallyhasledtoHSRattractingmarketsharesintheregionof50percent.Theseserviceswouldstoponlyatperipheralstationsontheoutskirtsofmetropolitanareastopickuptheoutboundcityresidentmarket.Additionally,inter-capitalregionalserviceswouldconnectthestatecapitalswithmorefrequentstopsatregionalpopulationcentres.

Therequiredjourneytimesandfrequencyoftheseservicescouldbeprovidedthroughatwin-trackwheel-on-railsystemusingtechnologyprovenonotherHSRsystemscurrentlyinoperationoverseas.Thiswouldassistwithmanagingsystemcostandenableprocurementofcomponentsfromcurrentlyavailablesources.Itwouldnot,however,ruleoutadoptionoffurtherdevelopments,forinstanceinthenextgenerationofsignallingtechnology,duringtheperiodoffurtherplanningthatwouldberequiredforanAustralianHSRprogram.

ThepreferredHSRsystembetweenBrisbaneandMelbournewouldbeasubstantialoperationthatwouldrequireafleetofsome128trainsby2065.SydneywouldbethehubofthepreferredHSRsystemandwouldbethelocationoftheHSRoperationscentre.Withservicesoperatingtothenorthandsouth,maintenancefacilitieswouldberequiredtoservebothlines.LocationsatLenaghan(nearNewcastle)andGoulburn(betweenSydneyandCanberra)havebeenidentifiedassuitableforthesefacilities.


HSRwouldgeneratelowerGHGemissionsperpassengerkilometrethanothermodesfromwhichdemandwoulddivert,i.e.aviationandtheprivatecar.Inthereferencecase,thecircumstancesof‘noexpansionofairportcapacityintheSydneyregion’resultinapreferredHSRsystemthatwouldgenerateanoverallnetincreaseof22 milliontonnesofCO2-eovertheperiodfrom2035to2085.IntheaviationcapacitysensitivitytestthereislesspotentialforaviationcapacityreleasedthroughdiversionofsomejourneystoHSRtobetakenupbyaviationdemandnotpreviouslycateredfor.TheoutcomeofthesensitivitytestisanetreductioninGHGemissionsofabout55milliontonnesofCO2-eovertheperiodfrom2035to2085,associatedwiththeintroductionofHSR.

TheimpactofnoiseemissionsfromHSRoperationshasbeenconsideredtodevelopnoisemitigationforanHSRsystemthatwouldbecompliantwiththeadoptednoisecriteria.AdequatemitigationforbothnoiseandvibrationcouldbeincludedinthedesignofafutureHSRprogramtoensurethatcomplianceisachievedforaffectedreceivers.Themitigationhasbeenincludedinthecapitalcostestimates.

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3.1 Introduction - The Department of Infrastructure, … · with anticipated technological developments) of delivering the recommended HSR transport products. ... Figure 3-1 HSR system