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2PL223

Evropská politika

v komparativní perspektivě 

utorok 12:45, KH on ISIS

2 homeworks, not an essay, not paper; read and answer several question, 20% each

final test, grading period, combination of multiple choice, 5 sentences/ answers, not before the Christmas, 50%

activity/oral exam: 10 %

Content of lecture:

comparism: GB, Germany, France – typical political systems e.g. Czech rep. influenced by Germany, Romania influenced by

France

Transition to democracy: models of transition, countries in progress, transition 1975 in Spains, transition in post-communist

countries (Czechoslovakia, Czech Rep., Poland, Russia) social and ecnonomic aspects of transition

Course schedule and content

1.  Introduction to the course (21.9.2010)

Introduction to politics:

2.  Presidential, semipresidential and parliamentary system, political parties (October 5)

3.  Electoral systems, party systems (October 12)

“Old democracies“

4.  Great Britain (October 19)

5.  Germany (October 26)

6.  France (November 2)

Transitions to democracy

7.  Is there any precondition for democracy? Models of transition; (November 9)

8.  Transition to democracy in southern Europe: The case of Spain (November 16)

9.  Social and Economic Aspects of Transition: Petr Vymětal (November 23)

10. Transition to democracy in CEE: The case of Czechoslovakia (November 30)

11. Transition to democracy in CEE: The case of Poland Petr Vymětal (December 7)

12. Transition to democracy in CEE: The case of Russia (December 14)

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Introduction to politics

What are the differences between the presidential system, parliamentary system and semi presidential system?

(Democratic systems)

« Il y a dans chaque Etat trois sortes de pouvoirs : la puissance législative, la puissance exécutrice des choses qui dépendent du droit des gens, et la puissance exécutrice des

choses qui dépendent du droit civil.

Par la première, le prince ou le magistrat fait des lois pour un temps ou pour toujours, et corrige ou abroge celles qui sont faites.  

( =pouvoir législatif, confié à un parlement (ou législateur), à savoir, en France, l'Assemblée Nationale ainsi que le Sénat  ) Par la seconde, il fait la paix ou la guerre, envoie ou reçoit des ambassades, établit la sûreté, prévient les invasions.

(= pouvoir exécutif, confié à un gouvernement composé d'un Premier ministre et des ministres, à la tête duquel se trouve u n chef d'État) Par la troisième, il punit les crimes ou juge les différents des particuliers. On appellera cette dernière la puissance de juger, et l ’autre simplement la puissance exécutrice de l’Etat.

(= pouvoir judiciaire, confié aux juges) […]

Lorsque dans la même personne ou dans le même corps de magistrature, la puissance législative est réunie à la puissance exécutrice, i l n’y a point de liberté   ; parce qu’on peut 

craindre que le même monarque ou le même sénat ne fasse des lois tyranniques pour les exécuter tyranniquement. Il n’y a point encore de liberté si la puissance de juger n’est 

 pas séparée de la puissance législative et de l’exécutrice. Si elle était jointe à la puissance législative, le pouvoir sur l a vie et la liberté des citoyens serait arbitraire : car le juge

serait législateur. Si elle était jointe à la puissance exécutrice, le juge pourrait avoir la force d’un oppresseur. Tout ser  ait perdu si le même homme, ou le même

corps des principaux, ou des nobles ou du peuple exerçaient ces trois pouvoirs : celui de faire les lois, celui d’exécuter les résolutions publiques, et celui de juger les

crimes ou les différents des particuliers. » 

 Montesquieu , De l’esprit des lois (1748), Editions du Seuil, 1964, p.586. 

Presidential system

Presidential republics with a full presidential system are denoted inBlue. Countries with a semi-presidential system are denoted inYellow. Presidential republics with an executive presidency chosen bythe parliament are denoted inLight green. 

  directly elected president, public vote is deciding about the president (executive power)

  parliament/congress is also elected directly

  the same legitimacy, the same positions, they do not affect each other, no one can dismiss the parliament

  total autonomy – president cannot dissolve the parliament, the parliament cannot dismiss president

  president vetoes the law, 2/3 of vote in chamber – over vote the veto  this can work only with deep political countries, strong constitution

  in the case of conflict it is very difficult to say who is stronger-conflict of 2 legitimacies

  another actor would solve the problem: army

  USA: 1995, president Bill Clinton-democrat (year before elections, discussion on budget)

Clinton prepared very socially oriented budget, Congress (republicans) changed, passed very restricted, Clinton

vetoed, republicans did not have 2/3 majority to overpass… never-ending circle started; beginning of December:

no budget, no money, all institutions were closed (federal) embassies, immigrant offices… no people in White

House, only Monica Lewinski… took several days, Clinton accepted the proposal

  president cannot do item veto (accept just law as a whole) governors in partial states can do item veto

  Nixon: opposite situation(republican)-very restrictive, Congress: very social

  not recommended model for young democracies

  no presidential system in Europe

  only president is executive power, ministers are just advisors

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Parliamentary system

Constitutional monarchiesin which authority is vested in a parliament are denoted inred. Parliamentary republics where parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state are denotedin orange. Parliamentary republics where the role of the head of government and head of state are combined are denoted inturquoise.

  all the legitimacy is derived from the parliament

  directly elected parliament

  prime minister/chancellor + cabinet: key executive, is to get vote of confidence by the parliament (in Italy both

chambers are voting) and they can be dismissed by the vote of no confidence

  monarch: authority (not elected, traditions) in Europe mostly only a symbol, with no real power at all (Spain,

Denmark, Sweden, Netherlands, Norway, Monaco, Luxembourg, Lichtenstein, GB)

  president is supposed to be a symbol, he is irresponsible to run parliament, all the responsibility has the primeminister

  CZ: strong power of president, appoint chief of The Central Bank – should be independent

  president is mostly elected by one or two chambers

  key executive are prime minister and the cabinet

Vote of confidence: La motion de censure est un moyen d'exprimer au Gouvernement le fait qu'il n'a plus la confiance qui lui avait permis d'agir jusque là. Dans ce cas, il se doit de démissionner.Dans certains pays, le système est dit de « motion de censure constructive ». En clair, la motion doit prévoir le nom d'un remplaçant au Chef de gouvernement renversé. C'est le cas del'Allemagne, de l'Espagne et de la Belgique.D'autres pays prévoient le principe de la « double censure » : l'adoption d'une motion de censure entraîne la dissolution de la chambre, ce qui peut freiner les ardeurs de certains députés.  

5. 10. 2010

Semi presidential system

 model: directly elected president, directly elected parliament (one or two chambers)

 at the same time we do have prime minister/chancellor + cabinet

 vote of confidence, they do not ask for confidence, at any time parliament can dismiss the prime minister and the

cabinet

 directly elected president has much more power and legitimacy than the one voted by the parliament

 Slovakia: directly elected president, without signature of prime minister president cannot decide  – more less like

parliamentary system (derives from the constitution)

 Poland: very weak position of president, polish political tradition  – low position in foreign affairs;

 other countries: Iceland, Ireland, Finland: strong president, but not a member of any political party

 Russia, post-soviet republic: president has such power  – supra-presidentialism: parliament is very teak, presidentdecides about everything;

 Russia: constitution: president can pass an order that is immediately valid over the country without any permission of 

parliament, the veto power of parliament cannot chase the decision of the president; in the case the parliament is

dissolved, the president still has this power (Jelcin: very weak, afraid of strong prime minister, disown own smissed old

prime minister; new: very loyal to Putin, not able to run own policy, Jelcin: ask for confidence in Dumas – did not want new

prime minister; according to constitution, the president has to come with the second proposal (Mr. Kyrilenko)… Jelcin came

to Dumas with 3.rd proposal; if the third proposal is not accepted, the president can dismiss the parliament, Jelcin came

with the proposal with the new vote system – therefore MPs vřed for Mr. Kyrilenko) 

 Orange revolution: Ukraine  – the role of president is weakened

 W Europe: position of president depends on current political situation

 France: 5.th republic: French president: strongest president in democratic countries in the field of foreign affairs  – the

president can send troops anywhere, parliament approves only budget; general De Gaulle (personal experience): wantedthese competencies due to war in Algeria; internal policy depends on the majority in the parliament, if he has (he is the

leader of this majority – compared to Louis XIV – The state is me) no real vote against the president: majority in parliament;

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if the president does not have majority in the parliament: leader of the opposition, he has to appoint prime minister that

would decide about internal policy(with the majority in the parliament)

Cohabitation: happened during the presidency of Mitterrand (had minority in the parliament), 1986, socialist, had to

ask Jacques Chirac (prime minister)

J. Chirac (elected 1995, for 7 years): tried to make position of president very teak, cut the president from any

informatics, did not last long time, Mitterrand renewed majority, 1993, lost majority, again cohabitation with prime

minister; last cohabitation 1997, president Jacques Chirac, right-wing; 1998: supposed to be regular elections, problem:starting financial reforms, fulfilling Copenhagen criteria to accept euro; socialists were in very deep crisis …“poor socialists“ 

not prepared for reforms, people voted against Chirac, 5 years of cohabitation followed till 2002; 2000: referendum to limit

presidential mandatory to 5 years; 2 months break between presidential and parliamentary elections: the winner wins

twice.

Party and electoral system

  party: from latin „pars“, means part; they do represent a part of society, each party represent different interest – 

conflict is a consequence; the only system that has procedures to solve the conflict 

Ballots (kandidátka), bullets

Definition:

o voluntary organization;

o members have the same view of solving problems – sparing of ideas and values;

o goal: get/share power – to fulfill the program 

o to get the power: usage of political competition 

  civic forum: very broad movement, „parties are for partisans, civic forum is for everyone“ – Vladimír Železný 

  historically: 4 types

o cadre – party of notables: party of elite, aristocracy; formed in 18.th century; almost no contact with the society;

GB: liberals, conservatives; the election: family background 

o mass parties: late 19th century, general suffrage of men; broad possibility to vote; strong: lot of members, social

democratic and Christian democratic parties were borne; chuder had organized free time, common organized

family holidays; to leave the party ment to change the church; families voted the same way for long years;

„common behavior“; Italy: white and red regions  – still today, based on tradition, very strong between wars  

o Catch-all-parties: to get those in the middle (employed workers, small entrepreneurs), what are the problemsinside the society, looking for demands, trying to put those problems in the program, what are the alternatives?

 – possible solutions; high level of volatility: high percentage of voters voting according to previous results; get as

much as possible; prevailing form of political party now

o cartel parties: inside the establishment; supporting sponsors; trying to prevent the others to come, connection

state-party: experts (paid much more than regular employees) have some tasks to solve  

12.10.20104. prednáška = Lecture (conferences)

  left-wing parties: more orientated on role of the state in economy, paternalistic approach

  right-wing parties: individual-total responsibility; conservatives: value questions, more thinking about the role of state    formed during the 19th century, due to cleavages in the society, due to modernization, industrialization, social classes;

cleavage between city and countryside; agrarian parties formed – countryside; cleavage in church – connection

between church and the throne: e.g. Christian democrats – strengthened the role of church

  nationalist parties: core vs. periphery; lot of small nations trying to get political importance, national revolutions  

  Rokkan: swedish political scientist, the basic political parties were formed as a reset of cleavages formed during the

modernization of society, then the system was frozen, parties changed their profile but continued, existed till 60s – 

new parties and movements were born  – the Greens

  The Greens:

o  like a water melon: green – right wing, but then cut, then red – left;

o  Post-materialistic: no interest in taxes, social welfare…o  quality of life is the most important, no more traditional cleavages in the modern society

o

  these parties concentrate on quality of life, environment, question of war and peace, disarmament, tenderequality, tolerance – Western countries, USA

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  silent revolution: financial crisis, standard of living

ITALY:

o  Forca Italia:“go Italy go!“, nowadays modified, now conservative

o  party was formed by man without need of sponsors, party as s „business“, organized from the top – enterprise

o  Berlusconi: hned all private TVs, controlled most printed media

How to study political parties: other criteria: organization of the party, leadership

PARTY SYSTEMSWhat are the parties like, what are the relations among them

  Maurice Duverger: the first who addressed the question of party system

o  two party system: bipartism: there are only two parties to from executive power – e.g. GB (conservative and

labor party, only two parties able to form a cabinet), there is a tendency to be stabilized and supported in

plurality majoritarian system

o  multi party system: multipartism – lot of parties able to participate in the cabinet, strongly supported by

proportions

o  prefered 2 party system: effective, the voter knows who is responsible for positive and negative decisions

  Jean Blondel: came with a concept of  „2 and half party system“  

o  model described on Germany, late 70s till 1994

o  2 parties: Christian democratic union vs social democrats

o  last elections, both gain 38,5%

o  needed a partner, about 10, 11% - free democrats  – could choose – were in the centre – „kingmaker“ – it was

on them from which party the chancellor would be

o  great opportunity for blackmail; all the time had the minister of foreign affairs

o  Czech Republic: attempt to form this model; attempt to form a small party to have this role

o  2 and half party system cannot last long: 2 or 3 elections, then there is a problem, big parties are trying to

show differences among them; small parties do not have exact opinion (eg fees, abortions) – they do not

know with whom to form coalition; loosing ideas, many back doors, showering their influence: e.g. Germany,them more small parties have approximately 8%, unable to decide

o  Germany: CDU + FDP vs. SPD + Greens – later great coalition; no more 2 and half political party system

  Giovanni Sartori: started to think on party system in different way, what are the ideological differences?

o  moderate pluralism: many parties; in fact all the parties are based more or less on the same values, they have

common ideas, do not want to do a revolutions, radical change of political system; result is just on negotiation 

o  polarized pluralism: many parties, but at the same time you have strong ideological poles that are not

acceptable to form a coalition – there are parties with which no coalition is possible e.g. communists, Nazis – 

German party system before Hitler came to power¨; extremely dangerous, if one party is able to get 30%

votes: opposition; 70%: 50% in the cabinet, 20% the opposition – lot of small parties – no alternative inside

the system; there is the tendency to vote the „pole“ party – Germany before the Hitler 

Italy: since 1946 till 1992, Christian democrats all the time gained plurality in the elections, formed thecabinet, till 1996, at that time no interest in prime minister - co control over stg.; small parties with 2,5 MPs,

started to vote with the opposition – vote of no confidence; average life of Italian cabinet since 1964: 8

months, average life on minister: 12, 15 years; no one supposed there would be a alternative 

total collapse: 600 politicians imprisoned, accused of bribery (corruption), leadership survived,

Berlusconi‘s enterprise was very successful in this stet of collapse 

o  Atomic pluralism: lot of political parties, characteristics are very complicated, beg. of 90s: Russia  – very

difficult to find the relations among the state, parties and each other, strange names of parties, only

Communists and Liberal democrats (neither liberal, nor democrats – V. Zilinovskij, propose to use napalm on

villages) had „normal names“ 

o  the probable outcome: not democratic, dictatorship…. nowadays looks like Russia 

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19.10.2010

Great Britain

  1215: Magna Charta Libertatum, limited powers of monarchs

  17th century: strong conflict with the king  – taxation

  Revolution: Oliver Cromwell, dictatorship 1640-1660, the only constitution restoration of the Stuarts dynasty

  1689 glorious revolution: William III Orange: before the coronation: had to sight “Bill of Rights”; since then – 

constitutional monarchy

  1707: decision of the Scottish parliament to be included to England, until then, personal union – 1707: integration,

country renamed to Great Britain

  1911: House of Lords lost the ability to vote confidence against the parliament

Great Britain:

  NO FEDERATION!, not equal position of states, strong decentralization

  separation of powers: very interconnected, queen is a part executive, legislative: in fact no power; legislative

power: house of lords: 9 members all judges of “Highest court of Repeal”  

  everything based on common law, precedence, changes based on consensus

  all the laws have to be accepted by the present MPs (=Members of Parliament = usually it is members of the lower

chambre) (député)

  sovereignty of the Parliament: no judicial review, court cannot decide about political decisions, only if the case

the law is not in correspondence with Acquits Communitarian

Executive power

  monarch: head of the British Church, symbol of the state, unity; no power – all the powers monarchs historically has

had are now the powers of the Prime minister, cannot be a supporter of a political party

  prime minister: president of the party that has majority in the parliament; if he loses the position of the party

president – has to resign from the post of prime minister - new prime minister named (conservatives: 1979-1997, with

Margaret Thatcher: had to resign – was unable to gain other period in the parliament – lost the post of party

president, new prime minister (John Mayor), Gordon Brown did not repeat the success, prime minister cannot be a

member of House of Lords

  cabinet: appointed by the prime minister, everybody has to be a member of parliament, obligatory

  government: all the chiefs of the less important ministries, agencies, “whips”  – historical position in parliament, before

the voting: responsible to have all the MPs in the hall; now are responsible for all the materials to be prepared, would

be in the house, prepared to be discussed – responsible for the communication of government and the parliament

  Civil servants: high level of independence, bureaucrats, non-political, mostly describing how ang. can be applied, to

somehow predict, conclude, influence how the law will work, “Oxbridge” grandaunts; “quangos” – quasi

nongovernmental organizations; about 10 000 quangos, question if it is really effective 

Legislative

 2 chambers: 

o  House of Commons: lower chamber, cabinet and PM are connected

o  House of Lords: LORDS: 

  800 hereditary peers: because of the family tradition had the right, choose 92 peers out of them, not

any longer 

  200 lifetime lords: queen could appoint lord during his/her lifetime 

  spiritual lords: bishops, from anglican church, question now: whether other can be also spiritual lords 

  lord judges: form “Highest Court of Appeal” 

Two chambers reflect the model of mixed government: since middle ages the idea: all the social groups included in the

government – House of Lords: lords, aristocracy; House of Commons: other; after 1990: reform in House of Lords, principle

ended, British aristocrats gained the voting right for the first time  

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Party system

=> Bipartism - traditional system has finished this year

Conservative party and Liberal Democrats 2010

Conservative party - Tory (1832- reforms - from village to the city)

Leader of the party was chosen by the members of Parliament

Labor Party - was formed in 1906, individual and collective membership, Trade Union,

1979 - Margaret Thatcher was strongly against the Trade Union, reforms

1994 - Tony Blair accepted non liberal policy

2010 - Labor party has lost its position

Liberal party - Whigs - traditionally 17%, it means 3-7% seats

Plaid Cymru

Cleavage - Sinn Fein - catholic radical party, are against the monarchy, they want Northern Ireland be

part of the rest of Ireland, IRA (Irish Republic of Army)

- Social democrats and Labour party

- Democratic Unionist Party - republicans

- Unionist Party - republicans

Devolution = decentralization - 1979 - referendum - not successful, 1999 - Scottish Parliament and Welsh assembly wasformed - Scotland can have differences in fees, taxes (+/- 3%), Welsh does not have such power Stormont - party? In

Northern Ireland

1916 - Ulster - referendum, Ulster is still the part of Great Britain, rest of the country got

Independence

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  later: accepted as a member of NATO

  Russia needed support and help of western countries

  final results of 2+4 negotiations: Russian troops left EG, WG paid for the transport, social programs for soldiers

  Germany as a whole became a member of EEC

  no protectionist measures for EG industry: competition with WG and the whole European market, extreme collapse,

EG unemployment of about 40 %, the level of productivity was very low, financial support from W to E, nowadays stillthe gap: unemployment, vote: E voting for communists, „ostalgy“, osis vs. wesis

  very problematic, hard to say whether it is still one nation (after 40 years of separation)

  very difficult transition: E had to accept the whole legal system of W; people did not participate in discussion; lawyers

from E totally useless – lost their qualification; very low competition abilities: historical approach to education,

practice, lack of English language skills; but not as high cultural differences (as eg. S Korea vs. N. Korea)

Political system:

  prevent from instability

  parliamentary system with the weak president, strong chancellor  – key person in executive power, elected by the

parliament (Federal assembly – Bundestag)

  chancellor: it is difficult to fire/dismiss, the only possibility: the constructive vote of no confidence: only in themoment in the case of agreement of the majority on new chancellor – one leaving, other coming – stabilizing the

system, no long periods of negotiations

  cabinet: not a collective body, ministers are responsible for their departments – “officers” 

Executive power:

  president: elected by specific org. – members of Bundestag, representatives of 16 federal lands(13 lands and 3 free

cities)

Legislative power:

  Bundesrat: 2 chamber, no one is elected, present are representatives of lands, each land has from 3 to 6 members,

depending on the surface of the land, everybody has to vote according to the will of his/her land  – has to accept a

according to recommendations of the state: not independent in voting  – imperative mandate: hard to say whether it isthe second chamber, can veto laws passed in Bundestag, some laws accepted by both; representation of lands (similar

to Senate in USA)

  advocate: imperative mandate: cannot act without my permission

  Bundestag: representative mandate: deciding according to own opinion

Judicial power:

  high authority

Electoral system:

  proportional system: strictly proportional logics, seats are divided according to proportions

  strong personification: enables to choose some personalities

  officially 598MPs, additional seats according to directly elected MPs; more than 600 MPs: ½: elected like in GB - jednokolovým jednomandátovým systémem

  2 votes: party and his own candidate

  eg. Social democrats: 40% of votes, gain 40% of seats = 240, 120 from first ½, the rest according to the list of names(

polka podľa 1 hlasu, druhú polku podľa kandidátky)

  Theshold: 5%(hranica zvoliteľnosti, ak ho zvolia priamo, dostane ten mandát, ak vyhrá v priamom hlasovaní aspoň vtroch obvodoch, dostane pomerný počet kresiel aj ked nemá 5%)

Party system and political parties

  today: CDU/CSU+ FDP

o  CDU/CSU: Christian democtratic union: almost all lands, except Bavoria, conservative values, CSU: Christian

Social Union: operates in Bavoria – very strong religious identity, based on Christian values, not directlyconnected with church

o  SPD: Social democtrats

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o  FDP: free domocrats, intellectuals, appeal on liberals, personal freedom, personal responsibility, even liberals

have socially oriented ideas: due to the socially orientated economy

o  Greens: the only party unifying E and W: both green parties unified

o  Linke: base from post-communist – party of democratic socialism, was able to get 20% of support in EG;

unified with group of people who left SPD

  Germans are forced to find consensus

  the whole system is to find consensus

  Bundesrat: each year: change of composition due to elections in 3-5 lands

  grand coalition state: different coalitions, changing every year, deep negotiations

  new coalition: CDU/CSU+FDP

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France

  sytsem of fifth republic

  start 1958: De Gaulle

  political culture: government prepares documents and waits / activists protest in the streets / government starts to

negotiate laws

  politicians have lot of mandates

  strong centralization

  semi-presidential system

  president has strong position in foreign policy

  national assembly can vote for non-confidence to PM – has to support parliament

  president: has majority in n. assembly – can appoint PM

  has majority in opposition – cannot influence internal policy – cohabitation

  Sarkozy has majority

Senate: weak position _ 6 years _ senators are voted by electoral college (zoskupenie) – member od national assembly

National Assembly: 2 round electoral system

1.  more than 50%

2.  not only 2 candidates, exception: number of three is possible

This system cannot prevent from extremist groups to get to the parliament

eg.: communists have strong support in industry that enables them to get to the second round and to the parliament

Parties:

Left:

  social party: more traditional _ concurrence with communists

  communists, greens: often coalition with social party

Right:

  neo-Gaullists: strong support in 1.st round of election, but problem with second round

  UDF: strong in 2.nd round, interest in common problems

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Transition to democracy

Is there any precondition for democracy? Models of transition 

  based on individuals

  preconditions: political culture, economy, will of people, religion

1.  economic + social stream: 50s, 60s

Lipset, Barington, Moore: only states with strong economic development and economy as a whole can be

democratized, necessary to be national bourgeoisie: entrepreneurs; modernization, democratization; problem with

the strong class of peasants (Modern slaves)

2.  political culture:

S.Verba, G.Almond

Comparison with the family culture

Participation, decision making

Subcultures: school – open discussions, opinions

family - father culture and authority

church - what is your position

3.  Rustow:

in any country, democratization as a process can start

national unity: acceptance of state

no conflict about national unity

rule of law, procedures (used to solve problems)

16.11.2010

Path dependency: difficult to move in other direction due to the previous path you have made

Spanish transition to democracy

 reconquista: = reconquer, the Spanish king and queen signed the permission to C. Columbus to sail - 1492: city of Granda

was controlled by Muslims

 attitude towards the others, base of the culture formed at that time, those who are Spaniards – no work, no commercial

activity (Jews, maors – Muslims who officially took Christianity to be in Spain)

 colonial empire: when became a further movement, in Spain everything was taken from the colonies, but no investments

 crisis: since 18th

, 19th

; loose of Latin America, fight for independence started; only Cuba and Puertorico rest

 1898 Spain lost of Cuba and Puertorico due to the war; generation of 1898: frustration...

 very complicated development in 19th

century, 5 revolutions

 pronunciamiento: some generals/colonels – criticism towards the government, if more supporting this idea  – leads to the

government change – if not, PM and the government survives

 strong influence of the army – not active – basic political tradition

 1873: republic, 1875: go back to dynasty – king

 several attempts to modernization – by non-democratic

 1922: Primo de Riviera 

 1930: municipal elections, the groups of young liberals decided to declare republic  – left wing socialists, communists, 2nd

 

republic, against the influence of catholic church (99% of Catholics), modernization

 1936: uprising organized by general Franco; troops going from Morocco; civil war, supported by German and Italian Nazis

 1939: end of civil war, Franco became caudillo=leader of the state, centralization of power, went against any

national/ethnic minorities- persecution (eg. basques... ) national emancipation punished strongly, last execution in 1975

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  Don Francisco Franco (1892-1975) 

 WW2: neutral state, no defeat, no change in regime in 1945

 Franco supported by monarchists, but did not want monarch, fighting against republicans  – therefore no republic  – question what the form of state will be

 Juan, Duke of Barcelona, sent son Juan Carlos to be educated – Franco controlled his education (army, navy, air force)

Juan Carlos I 

 “monarchy” without monarch, caudillo as a regent, F. governing till his death, would declare next king

 paternalistic state: till 60s, state took all the guarantee of all the enterprises

 late 60s: Opus Dei: technocrats prepared economic reforms, opening of Spain towards the market, but no political

opening, “liberalization” of Spanish economy

 1969: Juan Carlos is a successor ,; falanga ideology: based on fascist ideology – was a part of the F. system

 coronation: 2 days after F. death, Juan Carlos - speech: mentioned F., father, he would like to be king of all Spaniards nov 1975: JC even as a king could do nothing  – no troops to support him, but later dismantled the F. regime 

(rozmontovať) 

 opposition was illegal, JC started to organized meetings with them; started to prepare the transition from authoritarian

regime to democracy

Restoration of the monarchy:After dictator Franco's death, King Juan Carlos I quickly instituted reforms, to the great displeasure of Falangist and conservative (monarchist) elements,especially in the military, who had expected him to maintain the authoritarian state. He appointed Adolfo Suárez, a former leader of the Movimiento Nacional,as Prime Minister of Spain.On 15 June 1977, Spain held i ts first post-Franco democratic elections. In 1978, a new Constitution was promulgated that acknowledged Juan Carlos as rightfulheir of the Spanish dynasty and King.

Impatient with the pace of democratic political reforms in 1976 and 1977, Spain's new King Juan Carlos, known for his formidable personality, dismissed CarlosArias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. 

After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution.  The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy.

The Duke of Suárez

 visit to USA: press conference: declaration: change of political regime in Spain

 PM “blackmail”, resignation; accepted the resignation, Suarez: communication inside the parliament

 Suarez became new PM

 cabinet prepared the law on political reform, very gently written; elections will be, legalization of political party

 parliament was francoist, approved the law on political reform

 opposition was very radical: no step-by-step; single break, against monarchy, do not realized JC as a competent

 JC: referendum, ,opposition concentrated to go against: “do not go and vote” – most of them supported the law on

political change

 Suarez formed own political party

 won the elections, formed a commission for the new constitutions, all the relevant political troops included

 Basques: the only troop that rejected

 socialists, communists: republish

 Suarez, post-francoists: monarchy

 final form: king as a symbol, limited responsibilities, JC accepted

 1981: party of Suarez lost influence, next elections in 1982 would be gained by socialists

 last pronocianmiento: done by colonel Fejero, one troop with guns going to the parliament; declared: in the name of 

king, asking for absolute rule of the king, Fejero: big authority

 1981: S. entered NATO socialists campaign in early 1982: strongly criticizing the membership in NATO

 Solana: campaign against sp. participation, later the chief of NATO

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 1982: socialists came to power, new system was accepted, long socialist government till 1996

 1996: change, Popular Party (peoples party – in fact post-francoists, leader Asar), lost power in 2004

 march 2004: terrorist attack in Madrid, 2 weeks before the elections, PP supposed to be winner  – made a mistake  – 

started to argue that this attack was done by Basques (in fact it was the Muslims who made the attack)  – resolution

against the Basques

PSOE=Partido Socialista Obrero Español (= The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party: Since the Spanish legislative election, 2004 on March 14, 2004 it has been thegoverning party 

ETA basque = Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (=Basque Homeland and Freedom: is an armed Basque nationalist and separatist organisation )

 mobilization of public: PP totally lost the elections, socialists came to power again

 PM Zapatero: more women than men in the cabinet

 Spain: passed the law of autonomies  – 2 levels: strong autonomy for Galicia, Catalonia... other regions will have lower

level of autonomy

The basic institutional law of the autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the denomination

of the community according to its historical identity, the limits of their territories, the name and organization of the institutions of governmentand the rights they enjoy according the constitution. 

 17 parliaments, 17 governments, central government has to negotiate with them

 successful transition – experience from past:

o  no one wanted to repeat the civil war;

o  carnation revolution in Portugal: similar regime than F.s – totally collapsed – looking across the border; strong

mobilization in public  – the only party communist party  – radical attempt to change the regime into

communist one

o  no investigation from the past, last execution happened in September 1975

o  files of secret police, given to national archive as a national heritage  – no political misuse

Currently Head of State: King Juan Carlos I, since 22 November 1975Currently Head of Government: Prime Minister of Spain (Spanish Presidente del Gobierno literally President of the Government ): José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, elected 14 March 2004.

José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero 

23.11.2010

Transition of CEE

Starting point

 underdevelopment and low economic growth

 low competitiveness of the economy

 high official and hidden deficits and indebtedness

 hidden inflation

 orientation towards heavy industry

 almost no income differences

 distorted prices and the structure of economy (plans for 5 years)

 low rate of modernization, big state monopolies

 high burden to environment due to preference of heavy industry

 low level of both political and economic freedom orientation to East and soft uncompetitive markets

 lagging the W world

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 1989: collapse of communist regimes in Europe, velvet revolution

 Problem: transition to what? only democracy?; market economy

 Are we at the end of history?

 Why to transit?

 From who to learn? Latin America???

 How costly it would be?

 What methods and tools to use?

 Who should be competent to do it?

 Assistance of western countries?

 Prediction of results?

o  Klaus Offe: the end of 1980s, German sociologist,

3 processes:

  redefinition of state

  political transformation

  economic transformation

Reformulation after the collapse of the communist regime

How could work capitalism without capitalists? – use the assistance of western countries...

o  Ralf Dahrendorf : transformation would take some time

  area of creating law: 6 months

  area of economic transformation: 6 years

  area of establishing civil society: 3 generations

  transition and consequences:

o  political changes: taken relatively quickly

  freedom and liberty

  new political parties

  free elections

  new parliaments

  impact of interest groups (nomenclature)  – very strong position, political connections, able to start

privatisation quickly  – “tunneling” – to steal very liquid assets from companies, not broad dialogue,

less political experience and almost no political culture

o  Economic transition

  no blueprint for transition

  recommendations from international organizations – IMF, US government

o  macroeconomic stabilization

o  liberalization and deregulation (prices, inner and foreign trade)

o  privatization

  missed the target of creating institutional and legal framework (structure) 

Two different scenarios:

o  shock therapy: radical change

o  gradualism: slow change

Economic transition:

  complicated and long-run problem

  overemphasizing of spontaneous development and neo-liberalization

o  underestimated:

  complexity of change

  important role of time

  long run of social adaptations

  heritage of the past and the role of nomenclature

  institutional framework

  the process of privatization was not clear

  clientelism

  financing of pension system

  unresolved property claims of church

  unfinished restitution claims of nationalized property

  different type of capitalism

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o  Civil society

 differentiation: communists x dissidents x rest of the societyThe term dissident  was used in the Soviet Union during the period of 1965 –1985. It was attached to citizens who criticized the practices orthe authority of the Communist party. The people who used to write and distribute non-censored, non-conformist samizdat  literature werecriticized in the official newspapers. Soon, many of those who were dissatisfied with the Soviet Bloc began to self-identify as dissidents. 

 social capital (contacts, networks, nomenclature, dissidents) x economic capital (high communists, shadow

economy) x political capital (dissidents, negative political capital: communists) x skills

 income differentiation: some became rich very quickly

 social status: changing due to the qualification, education

 optimisms (young people) x pessimism (old communist generation)

 belief in any hierarchies – high level of bureaucracy until now

 opening the market, democratization of countries, within the region, within the country, freedom of choice

Doubts about the success

 dissatisfaction

 high bureaucracy, slow decision processes, courts

 complicated rule of law

 disparity between income and social status

 minorities and their problems

 formation of minimum government coalitions

 Increase in preferences of post-communist parties – coalition potential?

 extremism: Nazism, anarchy

 two crucial problems: corruption and civil society Civil society 

“space between the family and the state in which citizens come together for the purpose of initiation independent actions to uphold 

civil liberties, a bill of rights, freedom, and justice; it serves as an informal system of checks and balances on the regime”  

 before 1948: 40 000 organizations, in 1989: 2 000, mostly hobbies

 ecological org.: not a threat to communist regime, due to the heavy industry orientation, “opposition” to theregime – repair of what the party did

Totalitarian state

 power of the state: local autonomy

 total monopoly of one party everyone member of something

 duality: glorification of private family life and devaluation of public sphere and politics (immoral, stigmatising),

active private life; the opposite in public sphere, work

 culture, recreation - holidays, housing, education and environmental associations prevail

Transition period

 civil society not established from above

 atomization of civil society

 2 roots of civil society:

o originating from the dissident movement

o radical opposition: Charta 77, Solidarity(Poland) - incompetent in the field of democratic and capitalistic reform

 democratic derivate: reinforcing the civil society

 reestablished or still reestablishing civil society is flat and infant:

 mistrust towards communist organization

 persistence of informal friendship networks

 disillusion, disappointment, frustration

 cultural and civilization barrier – deeply rooted stereotypes, infant democratic society

 A. Giddens: “Access point” destroyed 

30.11.2010

The case of Czechoslovakia 

  Czechoslovakia: almost no processes of liberalization before the collapse of regime  normalization: formed in 1969 (after Prague’s spring), gerontocracy: the same people for 20 years

The Prague Spring (Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar ) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during theera of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II. It began on 5 January 1968, when reformist Slovak Alexander

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Dubček came to power, and continued until 21 August when the Soviet Union and members of its Warsaw Pact allies invaded the country to halt the reforms.The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubček to grant additional rights to the citizens in an act of partial decentralization of the economy anddemocratization. The freedoms granted included a loosening of restrictions on the media, speech and travel. After national discussion of separating the countryinto a federation of three republics, Bohemia, Moravia and Slovakia, Dubček oversaw the decision for two, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.This was the onlychange that survived the end of the Prague Spring.

  unable to do something; reforms not acceptable; no criticism towards perestroika

  govern of legitimacy doctrine

  society: waiting for something, leaders did nothing

  very fast collapse – very weak regime in fact – no defense

  East Germany: 10 weeks, we did in 10 days  – very dangerous – according the theory the collapse of one regime is very

bad staring position for building the new one  – forms power vacuum  – those criticizing are taking power - taking

responsibility - question whether those people are capable of governing – new apparatus – not enough competencies,

experience due to the total exchange of powers

  taking power without completed program – big problems due to big expectations

  not successful transition – new type of authoritarian regime

  founding elections: giving legitimacy of new regime, June 1990 – enough time to form program, prepare candidates

  December 1989 V. Havel was elected president (by communist parliament); understood as the guarantee of all the

changes in politics, society

Václav HavelHe was the tenth and last President of Czechoslovakia (1989 –92) and the first President of the Czech Republic (1993 –2003)On 29 December 1989, while leader of the Civic Forum, he became president by a unanimous vote of the Federal Assembly. This was an ironicturn of fate for a man who had long insisted that he was uninterested in politics.

  CZ: Civic Forum

  SK: Public Against Violence 

The Civic Forum (Czech: Občanské fórum - OF) was a political movement in the Czech part of Czechoslovakia, established during the Velvet Revolution in 1989.The corresponding movement in Slovakia was called Public Against Violence (Slovak: Verejnosť proti násiliu - VPN). 

The Velvet Revolution (Czech: sametová revoluce ) or Gentle Revolution (Slovak: nežná revolúcia) (November 17  – December 29, 1989) was a non-violentrevolution in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the communist government.On November 17, 1989, a Friday, riot police suppressed a peaceful student demonstration in Prague. That event sparked a series of popular demonstrations fromNovember 19 to late December. By November 20 the number of peaceful protesters assembled in Prague had swollen from 200,000 the previous day to anestimated half-million. A two-hour general strike, involving all citizens of Czechoslovakia, was held on November 27.With the collapse of other Warsaw Pact governments and increasing street protests, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia announced on November 28 that itwould relinquish power and dismantle the single-party state. Barbed wire and other obstructions were removed from the border with West Germany and Austria inearly December. On December 10, President Gustáv Husák appointed the first largely non-communist government in Czechoslovakia since 1948, andresigned. Alexander Dubček was elected speaker of the federal parliament on December 28 and Václav Havel the President of Czechoslovakia on December 29,1989.

  from the beginning of the transition, two party systems, no single party that would be accepted both in CZ an SK  – 

possible reason of split (scission) of Czechoslovakia

  very brought, similar movements, tried to unify all the people against the communist regime; central coordination

centre, not like a typical political party

  elections early after the collapse of regime: old leaders – having structure

  1990: it was decided that founding elections only for 2 years  – considered as very democratic decisions  – to give time

to form new political parties, time to prepare federal constitution

  reasons of disintegration:

  1990-1992: disintegration of Civic Forum, Public Against Violence, unity could not existed any more

  Slovakia, Bohemia, Moravia. totally different results

  Civic Forum: ODS (Klaus, conservative, noble in economic sense, “Tacher” party, close to British conservatives) 

  VPN: HZDS with Mečiar formed; more populist, more left-wing orientated, mostly thinking about the role of the state

in the economic development, impact on the economic reforms, non-liberal approach)

  SK: 13% unemployment in 1993, industrialised after WW2  – soviet model – heavy industry – difficult to orientate such

industry towards the markets

  Bohemia, Moravia: highly industrialised in 19th

century, 3% unemployment, possible transformation to market

orientation

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  nationalism present: SNS gained 10% in 1992, wanted independence of SK; national question much more important for

SK, Czech: not many problems with statehood

  only Christian democrats were little possibility to unify

  CZ: wanted federation with strong federal government, not connected with language, economic policy

  SK: confederation, even demand for two national banks

  disintegration in very peaceful way, “velvet divorce” 

  elections: ODS vs. HZDS: totally impossible to govern together: 2 strong leaders, totally different program, 2 weeks

after elections – disintegration – Klaus PM, Mečiar PM

  problem: constitution, any change of borders... has to be approved by referendum  – BUT majority was for the old

system, not the split  – lead to change in constitution  – federal assembly decided in November 1992, in one vote

constitutional law passed - disintegration

  1993: separate CZ and SK, question of division of state property (central bank) problem with borders

Further development

  problem: no single law connected with private property, entrepreneurship

  privatization: only old management of socialist enterprises  – know how  – wanted to use it; no single capitalist, no

capital

1) oligarchs: typical feature of post-communist politics: mainly Russia

2) corruption: paradox in system; less regulation, less corruption – lead to opening space for corruption;

1997: crucial moment, right-wing coalition with Klaus lost position due to corruption scandal (sponsors: someone from

Mauritius (never heard of Czech Republic), Hungarian (address cemetery Budapest, died 10 years before)  – actually one

sponsor – privatisor; end of basic period of transformation

  legal framework: connection of politics and economics – political affiliation

  2006: deep crisis, 100 MPs right-wing, 100 MPs for left-wing

  2010: attempt to go against some corrupted politicians

07/12/2010

The case of Poland

Polish political system

- Chaos, political instability, comlicated wy to democracy  

  3 institutional changes – 3 laws on election

  Semipresidential (close to parliamentary)

  Two chambers

Sejm Senate

  4 years trerm   4 years term

  Proportional electoral system   majoritarian logic – in each constituency 2-4

senators, voter has 2-4 votes, those getting

plurality get the seats

  5% treshold (460MPs)   week position of the Senate  Vote of confidence or constructive vote of 

non confidence to the cabinet

  Both elections: simultaneosly, at the same date

President

  5 years term

  directly elected

  can dissolve parliament

  can veto the laws (can be overridden by 2/3 majority)

  most of his decisions need signature of PM

Development

  1947-1956: Stalinism, communists did not win elections,

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  since 1956: emancipation of church (important rule of church), emancipation of peasants (after WW2: almost 40%

of population: peasants)

  1960s: emancipation of intellectuals – no continuance in communists ideology in Poland

  very relaxed regime, regime was restored, one of the most liberal communist regimes ever

  1979/1980: Solidarity established - independent trade union, connection to church, to be independent in civil society

area, free associations, freedom of speech, freedom ...???, 1/3 of population, even the communists  1970s: emancipation of workers – connections to catholic church, Karol Wojtyla  – pope

  1981: Martial law, founder of Solidarity sent to jail, to calm down the situation – prevet from Warsaw pact army

  1988: strikes, communists started to negotiate with Lech Walesa – founder of Solidarity

  Jarusalsky asked for second martial law, refused, Breznev dead, Gorbacov  – perestrojka -open dialogue with western

countries – you can follow own way of socialism  – reasons of refusal

  Since 1989: round-table discussions

  Spring 1989: negotiations: Communist Party leaders, Solidarity leaders, representatives of Church

  Conclusions: legalization of Solidarity, semi-free elections (Senate: 100 senators, free elections; Sejm: 1/3 of seats free,

2/3 from the Communist party; president: pre-negotiated to be only one candidate, if the Russians have problems with

the situation, the only person able to negotiate was Jaruzelski, by both chambers

  Elections: June 1989, results: total failure of communists; Senate: 99 seats for Solidarity, 1 independent; only 2/3 seats

in Sejm; Only 53% majority: representatives of communist, lot of liberal communists changed the affiliation  – nomajority of communists

  September 1989: Mazowiecki: PM + 15 ministers(12+3) – first non-communist cabinet in E. Europe 

  December 1990: presidential elections: Lech Walesa 

  October 1991: parliamentary elections, proportional system with no treshold, fragmented parliament  – 29 political

parties, Solidarity split into many parties (S. was not a party, just movement)  – due to the change of electoral law  – 

done of purpose – to ensure the Solidarity parties would win elections

  Conflict between Walesa and Mazowiecki, Walesa if elected president: would veto all laws proposed by Mazowiecki

  Tyminski: populist politicians, finally 15% support, stared his campaign, “if you vote for me, than in 5 years we would

reach the economic level of Japan” 

  PM: resigned after few months, unable to pass a single law  – if possible  – Walesa would veto (very conservative, old

school)

  1993: preterm elections: proportional system, 5% threshold (seuil), cabinet: Post-communists and People s party; manypost-solidarity lost the possibility to get to the parliament

  1995: regular presidential elections, Alexander Kwasniewksi  – member of post-communist party, opponent to Walesa,

no one elected in first round, second round: Walesa found out that Kwasniewski had never passed an university (few

days before the defention of thesis named as minister of tourism), Kwasniewski won, Walesa asked the constitutional

court not to accept the results

  1997: parliamentary elections, post-solidarity cabinet – AWS: Electoral Action System 

  2000: A. Kwasniewski: elected president, beat Walesa in first round

  2001: parliamentary elections, economic problems, cabinet: Party of Democratic Left + Union of Labor (post  – 

solidarity)

  Decrease in GDP, problems with privatization, Rywin affair: popular polish film producer, 2002 journalists found out

that he offered 75mil USD to change the media law

  Government: resignation, corruption affairs everywhere, deep crisis, party system/construction: unstable situation,

growth of radical political parties  – anti-European (Party of Polish Families- very conservative; Self Defense  – A.Lepper

 – xenophobic, populist, leave EU structures…) 

  September 2005: parliamentary elections, victory of right-wing: Law and Justice, Civic Platforms and radical right

  Minority government, resignation

  October: presidential elections, R. Tusk 36%, Lech Kaczynski 33%, A. Lepper 14%

  July 2006: Jaroslaw Kaczynski PM

  2007: constant crisis of coalition cabinet, low style of political debate, populist and very conservative, Samoobrana?

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The case of Russia 

Vladimir Lenin 

La révolution d’Octobre en Russie, aussi connue sous le nom de révolution bolchevique, fait référence à la révolution qui a commencépar le coup d'État mené par Lénine et les bolcheviks le 25 octobre 1917 C'est la seconde phase de la Révolution russe dans son ensemble, après la révolution de Février de la même année. La révolution d'Octobrea renversé le gouvernement provisoire et a donné le pouvoir aux bolcheviks. Elle a été suivie par la guerre civile russe, puis par la création del'URSSen 1922. 

The February Revolution forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the  October Revolution, ledby Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first socialist state. The Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote, hence their name. They ultimately became the  Communist Party of the SovietUnion.[4] The Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and foundedthe Soviet Union. 

  Show trials developed by Stalin

The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic together with three other Soviet republics formed the Soviet Union, or USSR, on 30December 1922.

Joseph Stalin 

Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin, an elected General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to put down all oppositiongroups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands.The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge, a period of mass repressions in 1937 –38, in whichhundreds of thousands of people were executed, including military leaders convicted in coup d'état plots.The government launched a planned economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivization of its agriculture. During thisperiod of rapid economical and social changes, millions of people were sent to  penal labor camps (or Gulag) including many political convicts,and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.

WWIIThe Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, including East Germany. Dependent socialist governments were installed inthe Eastern bloc satellite states. Becoming the world's second nuclear weapons power, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact alliance andentered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States and NATO, which became known as the Cold War. 

Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced the cult of personality of Stalin andlaunched the policy of de-Stalinization. =>Secret speech // the XXth congressAt a speech On the Personality Cult and its Consequences  to the closed session of the Twentieth Party Congress of the CPSU, February 25,

1956, Khrushchev shocked his listeners by denouncing Stalin's dictatorial rule and cult of personality.Given momentum by these public renamings, the process of de-Stalinization peaked in  1961 during the 22nd Congress of the CommunistParty of the Soviet Union. 

In the same moment=> Suez crisis=> The Hungarian Revolution

=> The Berlin Wall=> The Cuban Missile Crisis

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The conspirators, led by Brezhnev, Aleksandr Shelepin, and KGB Chairman Vladimir Semichastny, struck in October 1964, while Khrushchevwas on vacation at Pitsunda, Abkhazia. On October 14, 1964, the Presidium and the Central Committee each voted to accept Khrushchev's "voluntary" retirement from his offices.Brezhnev was elected First Secretary (later General Secretary), while Alexei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev as premier. 

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until  Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. Kosyginreform, aimed into partialdecentralization of the Soviet economy and shifting the emphasis from heavy industry and weapons to lightindustry and consumer goods, was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership. The era of 1970s and the early 1980s became known

as Brezhnev stagnation. => Nomenclature

Perestroika meaning "restructuring" was a political movement within the Communist Party of Soviet Union widely associated withthe Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachev.

"Sinatra Doctrine" was the name that the Soviet government of Mikhail Gorbachev used jokingly to describe its policy of allowingneighboring Warsaw Pact nations to determine their own internal affairs. The name alluded to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way" —the SovietUnion was allowing these nations to go their own way. 

The New Economic Policy (NEP): economic policy proposed by Leninto prevent the Russian economy from collapsing. Allowing someprivate ventures, the NEP allowed small businesses or shops, for instance, to reopen for private profit while the state continued to controlbanks, foreign trade, and large industries.There were also disputes between Leon Trotsky and Stalin as Trotsky believed in a more internationalist approach when revamping theeconomy. Stalin, on the other hand, believed that the NEP was a patriotic and nationalizing mission which would further Soviet grandeur in theinternational system.

 

Mikhail Gorbachev

Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin 

In August 1991, an unsuccessful military coup, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to itscollapse and the end of socialist rule. The USSR was dissolved into 15 post-Soviet states in December 1991.Boris Yeltsin was elected the President of Russia in June 1991

Vladimir Putin

He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when president Boris Yeltsin resigned in a surprising move. Putin won the 2000presidential election and in 2004 he was re-elected for a second term lasting until 7 May 2008.