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[ 2.2 ] Independence

Learning Objectives

• Explain how Britain’s colonial policies contributed to the growth of self-government in the colonies.

• Identify the major steps that led to growing feelings of colonial unity. • Consider the ways the colonists organized to protest British policies, and the

contributions of significant individuals, including Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Roger Sherman, John Jay, and George Washington.

• Examine the debates and compromises that impacted the creation of the Declaration of Independence.

• Understand the major ideas of the Declaration of Independence, including unalienable rights, the social contract theory, and the right of resistance to illegitimate government.

• Summarize the common features of the first State constitutions and how they were related to documents such as the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution.

[ 2.3 ] First Steps

Learning Objectives

• Describe the debates that impacted the creation of the Articles of Confederation, the structure of the government set up under the Articles, and how that government was influenced by ideas, people, and historical documents.

• Explain why the weaknesses of the Articles led to a critical period for the country in the 1780s.

• Describe how a growing need for a stronger national government led to plans for a Constitutional Convention.

[ 2.4 ] Creating and Ratifying the Constitution

Learning Objectives

• Identify the Framers of the Constitution, the individuals, principals, and ideas that influenced them, how they organized the Constitutional Convention, and their contributions to the creation of the United States Constitution.

• Compare and contrast the Virginia and New Jersey plans for the new government.

• Examine the convention's major debates and compromises. • Identify the opposing sides in the fight for ratification and describe the major

arguments for and against the proposed Constitution.

[ 2.2 ] Independence

Key Terms

• Benjamin Franklin • Confederation • Albany Plan of Union • delegates • duties • Samuel Adams • Roger Sherman • John Jay • George Washington • John Adams • James Wilson • Thomas Jefferson • John Locke • popular sovereignty

British Colonial Policies

“We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately.” Benjamin Franklin is said to have spoken these words on July 4, 1776, as he and the other members of the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. Those who heard him may have chuckled, but they also may have felt a shiver, for Franklin’s humor carried a deadly serious message. In this section, you will follow the events that led to the momentous decision to break with Great Britain. You will also consider the new State governments that were established with the coming of independence.

British Colonial Policies

During the latter 1700s, the British began to implement new policies in its North American colonies. Analyze Charts Who benefited from these British policies?

Growing Colonial Unity

A decision to revolt was not one to be taken lightly—or alone. The colonies would need to learn to work together if they wanted to succeed. Indeed, long before the 1770s, several attempts had been made to promote cooperation among the colonies.

The First Continental Congress

In the spring of 1774, Parliament passed yet another set of laws, this time to punish the colonists for the troubles in Boston and elsewhere. These new laws, denounced in America as the Intolerable Acts, prompted widespread calls for a meeting of the colonies.

The Second Continental Congress

During the fall and winter of 1774–1775, the British government continued to refuse to compromise, let alone reverse, its colonial policies. It reacted to the Declaration of Rights as it had to other expressions of colonial discontent—with even stricter and more repressive measures.

The Second Continental Congress

This chart shows just a few of the key delegates to the Second Continental Congress. Analyze ChartsWhat qualifications did these men have to suit them to the task of leading the colonies?

The Declaration of Independence

Slightly more than a year after the Revolution began, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia proposed to the Congress:

The First State Constitutions

The initial State constitutions had several features in common with America's founding documents. Analyze Charts What features were most common?

The Articles of Confederation

The First and Second Continental Congresses rested on no legal base. They were called in haste to meet an emergency, and they were intended to be temporary. Something more regular and permanent was clearly needed. In this reading, you will look at the first attempt to establish a lasting government for the new nation.

A Demand for Stronger Government !The Articles had created a government unable to deal with the nation’s troubles. Inevitably, demand grew for a stronger, more effective national government. Those who were most threatened by economic and political instability—large property owners, merchants, traders, and other creditors—soon took the lead in efforts to that end. The movement for change began to take concrete form in 1785.

The Framers Meet

This painting, The Signing of the Constitution, by Howard Chandler Christy, depicts the scene on the day the U.S. Constitution was signed after four long months of debate and compromise.

The Framers Meet

The Framers of the Constitution were accomplished men who came from different backgrounds.Analyze Charts How might their experiences have helped the Framers to create the Constitution?

Two Plans of Government

Once the Framers resolved to replace the Articles of Confederation, two major plans were offered for the new government, the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan.

Two Plans of Government

James Madison is called the “Father of the Constitution” because of his leading role at the convention. Also, his careful notes of the debates are the only complete record of the meeting.

Two Plans of Government

Edmund Randolph proposed the Virginia Plan to the convention, but it was written largely by James Madison. Analyze Charts How many branches would the government have under the Virginia Plan?

Debates and Compromises

The disagreement over representation in Congress was critical. The larger States expected to dominate the new government. The smaller States feared that they would not be able to protect their interests. Tempers flared on both sides. The debate became so intense that Benjamin Franklin was moved to suggest that “henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven . . . be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business.”

Debates and Compromises

• The Connecticut Compromise • The Three-Fifths Compromise • The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromise • A “Bundle of Compromises” • The Constitution in its Final Form

Debates and Compromises

During the Constitutional Convention, the southern States had larger populations of enslaved people than the northern States. Analyze Maps To which compromises did this contribute and why?

Debates and Compromises

During the Constitutional Convention, the delegates made many compromises. Analyze Charts Why were these compromises important in creating the Constitution?

The Fight for Ratification

Both the Federalists and Anti-Federalists felt strongly about the proposed Constitution. Analyze Charts What do these comments reveal about the sentiments of the time?

The Fight for Ratification

The battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists continued throughout the ratification process. Analyze Charts In which States was ratification won by only a narrow margin?