2. MAN-Anthropological Foundations

8/2/2019 2. MAN-Anthropological Foundations

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Darwin believed thatthe human race had

gradually evolvedfrom lower orders of

life as a result ofprogressive adaptationto the environmentthrough the survival

of biological formsbest adapted to acompetitive struggle.

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The idea that man descended from apelike creaturesshocked most people.

However, eventually evolutionist proved that man andliving simians (higher level animals) have many traits incommon which provided rational evidence of theircommon ancestry, but it does not mean that man andapes have one common ancestor.

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Darwin drew his evidence from three main categories:

a) similarities between humans and other primates,

b) similarities in embryological development, and

c) vestigial organs (part of the animal which still develop to somedegree but seemingly have no purpose).

With this three pronged attack Darwin provided very strongevidence for mans common ancestry with the living apes, andthat all human populations were more closely related to eachother than to any living primate; they were the same species.

The most common evidence of evolution is the discovery ofactual remains of the ancestors of predicted and then found javaman, Pithecanthropus Erectus, which is now called HomoErectus.

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- Eanthropus dawsonior "dawn man."Discovered in 1912 by Charles Dawson, a medical doctor and

amateur paleontologist. Dawson found a mandible and a smallpiece of a skull in a gravel pit near Piltdown England. The jawbonewas ape-like but the teeth had human characteristics. The skullpiece was very human-like. These two specimens were combined

to form dawn man, which was supposedly 500,000 years old.

However, the whole thing turned out to be an elaborate hoax. Theskull was indeed human (about 500 years old) but the jaw wasthat of a modern ape whose teeth had been filed to look like

human wear. 7(^^,shar_


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-Hesperopithecus haroldcookii

was discovered in 1922 in the

Pliocene deposits of Nebraska

by Mr. Cook and made famous

by Henry Osborn of the

American Museum of Natural

History

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Ramapithecus lufengensis --

Ramapithecus, thought to havelived between 12 and 14 million

years ago, was first discovered insouthwest Kenya by Louis Leakeyin 1932. At that time, all that wasfound were a few teeth and some

fragments of the upper jaw ormaxilla. Leakey assembled thesefragments so that they fortuitouslyresembled theparabolically archedshape of a human jaw (apes have amore U-shaped form).

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Because of this human-likemaxillary shape and what

were thought to be "human-

like" teeth characteristics, this

creature was long believed tobe the first branch from a line

of apes that eventually

evolved into modern humans.11(^^,shar_


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The earliest and most primitive mammals

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Australopithecus africanus -- The word "Australopithecus" means"southern ape." This name is used because the first fossils werefound in South Africa. Dr. Raymond Dart, professor of anatomyat Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg, was the first tostudy these fossils. In 1924 at Taung in South Africa, Dartdiscovered a fossil skull consisting of a full face, teeth and jaws,and an endocranial cast of the brain. The brain size was410cc. Its age is currently felt to be around two to three million

years old. Dart was convinced that some teeth were man-like and

thus concluded a transition between apes and man. 14(^^,shar_


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Australopithecus afarensis "LUCY" -- In 1974, Donald

Johanson discovered a half complete skeleton (Locality A.L.

288; Ethiopia's Awash Valley) that he named after theBeetle's song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" (LSD). The

specimen was only 1.1 meters tall, estimated to weigh 29

kilograms and look somewhat like a common chimpanzee.

A year later, thirteen similar skeletons were found. 16(^^,shar_


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Homo habilis -- Homo habiliswas discovered in 1959 by Mary

Leakey and dated at about 1.8 million years old. What shefound were some badly fragmented pieces of skull. Herhusband, Louis Leakey, was not impressed at first. Hecommented that it was nothing more than a "damnedAustralopithecine". However, he quickly changed his mindwhen what appeared to be stone tools were found near the site

of Homo habilis. The bones of many of these animals revealedthat they had been butchered and deliberately broken for theirmarrow. Leakey decided, on the basis of this evidence, that hisfossil had been a toolmaker and butcher and thus calledhim Homo habilis or "handy man."

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Most other investigators, however, were not comfortable with suchan extremely primitive beast being a toolmaker. Like

Australopithecus robustus, Leakey's "Homo habilis" had huge

and very unhuman molars, a very small brain, and a large bony

sagital crest on the top of its skull.

Later, Leaky thought better of the whole idea of his "Homo habilis"

as a tool maker and demoted him to the classification of

Zinjanthropusboisei, which means East African man.19(^^,shar_


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The skull of Zinj is especially robust,

sometimes called, "hyper-robust".

Notice, in the reconstruction of Zinj,

the very wide zygomatic arches,

which project forward in front of the

nasal opening to form a dish-shaped

face (like many apes today).

These outward flaring arches

provided space for huge temporalis

muscles that are used for

chewing. In other words, Zinj had avery powerful bite.

Zinj's teeth are also massive,

sometimes more than 4-times the

size of modern human teeth. 20(^^,shar_


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Turkana Boy -- In July 1984, a nearly complete fossilized skeleton,of an obviously human 12-year-old boy (some say as young as 9

years old), was discovered at Lake Turkana in Kenya. It is themost complete skeleton to date to be included as a Homoerectus. The boy stood 160cm (5' 3'') tall and had a braincapacity of 880cc. It is estimated that in adulthood, the boy

would grow to be 185cm (6' 1'') tall and have a brain capacityof 910cc. The skeleton of this child is like that of a modernhuman in all respects except for certain details of the skull. Hehad a low forehead and pronounced brow ridges.

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Peking Man: The current story is that the remains of Sinanthropuspekinensis, known as Peking Man and dating back to 400,000 BC,were excavated in 1923 at Zhoukoudianzhen near Peking,

China. Peking Man was closely related to Pithecanthropus of Java and"lived during the Old Stone Age."

An almost complete skullcap was discovered in 1929 in a filled-inlimestone cave near Peking, China (now Beijing). This ape-like

skullcap was similar to Java man. Fragments of 14 skulls, 12 lowerjaws and 147 teeth were found.

After hiring a sculptor to model a woman's face from the made-up skull,the result was named "Nellie." The very "attractive" Nellie hasappeared in almost all modern textbooks concerning the evolution of

man. 25(^^,shar_


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:

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(Homo erectus erectus) is the name given

to fossils discovered in 1891 at Trinil-Ngawi Regency on

the banks of the Solo River in East Java, Indonesia, one of

the first known specimens of Homo Erectus.

Its discoverer, Eugene Dubois, gave it the scientific name

, a

name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning

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Generally known as Homo SapiensNeanderthaleasis, noticeably

square, squat and stocky

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The skull is lower, broader, and elongated in

contrast to the higher doming of a modern

skull.

The average brain size (cranial capacity) is

larger than the average modern human byalmost 200 cubic centimeters.

The forehead is low, with heavy brow ridges

curving over each eye.

There is a slight projection at the rear of the

skull (occipital bun).

The cranial wall is thick compared to modern

humans.

The facial architecture is heavy, with the mid-

face and the upper jaw projecting forward

(prognathism).

The nose is prominent and broad.

The frontal sinuses are expanded.

The lower jaw is large and lacks a definite chin.

The body bones are heavy and thick and the

long bones somewhat curved. 30(^^,shar_


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Characterized by low forehead, large bonyridges above the eyes, a retreating chin but ajutting forward of the mouth region, and a

long low brain case.

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Kingdom: ANIMALIA

Phylum: VERTEBRAE

Class: MAMMALIA

Infraclass: EUTHERIA

Order: PRIMATES

Suborder: ANTHROPOIDEA

Superfamily: HOMINOIDEA

Family: HOMINIDAEGenus: HOMO

Species: SAPIENS

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As ANIMALS, man are complex aggregates of cells,

differentiated from plants and from single-celledcreatures.

As CHORDATES, man have dorsal nerve cord.

As VERTEBRATES, this cord is encased in a hard, body

spine.

As MAMMALS, men are warm-blooded, with hair; and

females nourish their young with milk.

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As EUTHERIANS, or fully placental mammals, men bringforth young alive and fully formed, but in totally

defenseless condition.

As PRIMATES, men enjoy prehensile hand with opposablethumbs and have keen stereoscopic vision which they

rely more on hearing and smelling.

As ANTHROPOIDS, men are erect; normally move bipedal.

Legs are longer than arms; feet adapted to walking; faces

almost vertical, little projections of jaws.

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1. Man walks erect on two feet. Other animals walk

on four feet and their bodies are horizontal to the

ground.

2. Man has two free hands used for handling things.

Animals except apes have no free hands.

3. Man has a more complex brain than animals.

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1. Man is rational. He has the power of reasoning. Usingthis, he knows what is right and what is wrong.Animals are not rational.

2. Man has complex techniques of producing, procuring,and preparing and cooking food. Animals just roamaround and procure their food with their mouths or

claws and eat their food raw.

3. Man has social, educational, economic, andgovernmental organizations. Animals do not have these.

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4. Man has a system of religious beliefs and practices.Animals do not have these.

5. Man communicates by means of complex language,oral and/or written. Animals communicate by meansof simple sounds and gestures. They have no writing.

6. Man makes tools, weapons, and other gadgets andartifacts, constructs strong and comfortable shelters,and has fast means of land, sea, and air transportationand communication. Animals do not have all of these.

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A local geographic or global human population

distinguished as a more or less distinct group by genetically

transmitted physical characteristics.

A group of people united or classified together on the basis

of common history, nationality, or geographic distribution

A genealogical line; a lineage.

Humans considered as a group. 40(^^,shar_


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Johann Friedrich Blumenbach divided the human

species into five races in 1779, later founded oncrania research (description of human skulls),and called them (1793/1795):

1. the Caucasian race or white race

2. the Mongolian or yellow race

3. the Malayan or brown race4. the Ethiopian/Negroid or black race

5. the American or red race.41(^^,shar_


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The term Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, orEuropoid) has been used to denote the general physical typeof some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa,the Horn of Africa, Western Asia (the Middle East), Central

Asia and South Asia.Historically, the term has been used to describe the entire

population of these regions, without regard necessarily toskin tone.

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Skin varying from a pure white to a rich

brown.

Hair all shades, from blonde to black.

Beard full, soft and flowing.

Caucasian noses extend slightly upward. Nose

high and thin.

Lips medium.

Caucasian cheekbones protrude upward.

Caucasian brow bones tend to be deeper, with

eyes more sunken.

Caucasian eyes are rounder.Caucasian foreheads are usually slightly more

narrow.

Caucasian faces tend to have longer and

sharper chin lines. 44(^^,shar_


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The Mongolian Race or Mongoloid is a term sometimesused by forensic anthropologists and physicalanthropologists to refer to populations that share certaintraits such as epicanthic fold and shovel-shapedincisors and other physical traits common in East Asia,Southeast Asia, the Americas and the Arctic.

The word is formed by the base word "Mongol" and thesuffix "-oid"which means "resembling".

It was introduced by early Racial science to primarilydescribed various central and east Asian populations, oneof the proposed three major races of human kind.

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They are related to the American Indians who


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yare believed to have come to America by wayof the Bering Strait 20,000 years ago.

They are usually small, slender, and remarkablefor their agility and skillful manipulation;excelling in taste and execution, rather thaninvention.

Skull small and narrow, with rather flat sides,forehead low and retreating, skin a yellowishtawny, eyes narrow and almond-shaped, hairlong, black, and straight, beard very scanty.

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The Malay race, a concept that was proposed by Germanscientist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, refers to those ofbrown colored people who inhabit the Malay Peninsula andportions of neighboring islands of the Southeast Asia,

including the coast of Borneo, Philippines, Sumatra and

other smaller islands within these areas.

American anthropologists H. Otley Beyer proposed that

Filipinos were Malay migrants from Malaysia and Indonesia.

It is classified as the brown race.

The term Malay race was commonly used in the late 19th

century and early 20th century to describe the Austronesian

peoples. 48(^^,shar_


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Blumenbach writes:

Malay variety. Tawny-colored; hair black, soft, curly, thickand plentiful; head moderately narrowed; foreheadslightly swelling; nose full, rather wide, as it werediffuse, end thick; mouth large. upper jaw somewhatprominent with the parts of the face when seen in profile,sufficiently prominent and distinct from each other. This lastvariety includes the islanders of the Pacific Ocean, togetherwith the inhabitants of the Marianne, the Philippine, theMolucca and the Sunda Islands, and of the Malayan peninsula.I wish to call it the Malay, because the majority of the men of

this variety, especially those who inhabit the Indian islandsclose to the Malacca peninsula, as well as the Sandwich, theSociety, and the Friendly Islanders, and also the Malambi ofMadagascar down to the inhabitants of Easter Island, use theMalay idiom.

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Negroid is a term used to refer to individuals andpopulations that share certain morphological andskeletal traits that are generally associated with BlackAfrican ancestry.

The term has both Greek and Latin etymologicalroots. Not a derogatory term, it literally translates as"black resemblance" from negro/niger (black), and -oeids, equivalent to -o- -o- + -eids having the form

of, derivative of edos form.

The earliest recorded use of the term "Negroid" camein 1859.In modern use, the term is associated with"the division of mankind represented by the

indigenous peoples of central and southern Africa" 51(^^,shar_


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Their most striking characteristics are the jetty blackness ofskin, black, crisp, curly hair, low forehead, high cheek-bones, flat, broad nose, broad and small chin, strong, whiteteeth. The skull is deficient in all the higher intellectualmanifestations.

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This race occupied the whole of the two Americas and theneighboring islands; although there were manifest

differences in the people of the North and those of the

South.

The North American Indians are tall and straight,

forehead low and broad, nose aquiline, eyes black and

deeply set, full lips, skin a warm, coppery red, hair long,black, and straight. They show rather a lack of disposition

than of ability to become proficient in the arts of

agriculture and manufacture.53(^^,shar_


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MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE: Write X if the statement is TRUEand O if the statement is FALSE. If the statement is false,underline the word(s) or phrase(s)that made it false.

1. Man thought to have evolved from lower forms of lifemeans that man and apes have one common ancestor.

2. The most common evidence of evolution was the discoveryof the Homo erectus erectus.

3. Ramapithecus is the earliest and most primitive mammal.4. Man belongs to the Order Mammalia.

5. Man is composed of complex cells as differentiated fromplants which are unicellular.

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MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE: Write X if the statement is TRUEand O if the statement is FALSE. If the statement is false,underline the word(s) or phrase(s)that made it false.

6. Man (females) nourishes their young with milk secretedfrom their breasts.

7. As vertebrates, man has a dorsal nerve cord.

8. Man is a Eutherian, meaning man is a warm-blooded

being.9. Man can use his thumb against each fingers in delicate

manipulation.

10. A group of people united together due to common history,

nationality, or geographic distribution is termed as race. 56(^^,shar_


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ESSAY:

1. What are the most significant differences between man

and animals? Give all the factors that differentiate man

from other forms of animals.

2. Many people are shocked when Darwin introduced his

theory of evolution. Why? Briefly explain his theory.

3. Blumenbach provided 5 common geographical races. Giveall five races and at least a brief description of each.

4. In your opinion, are all races equal? Why or why not?

5. Is the term negro or niger derogatory?

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2. MAN-Anthropological Foundations