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THE DISPERSAL OF ALGAE AND PROTOZOA
BY SELECTED ODONATA
APPROVED*
Major Professor
/y * ' ••
Minor Professor
FT NP< \
M-ys \1ULI Director of the Department of Biology
Dean of the Graduate School
THE DISPERSAL OF ALGAE AND PROTOZOA
BY SELECTED ODONATA
THESIS
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
By
William M. Parsons, B. A,
Denton, Texas
January, 1966
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS v
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Significance of the Problem History of the Problem Statement of Purpose
II. MATERIAL AND METHODS 10
Collection of Insects Preparation of Gross External Washings Washings of Specific Boiy parts
III. RESULTS 17
IV. DISCUSSION 25
Pickup and Deposition of Dissemulee As Related to Odonata Behavior
Internal Transport of Dissemules
V. CONCLUSIONS 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY 33
iii
LIST OP TABLES
Table Page
I. Physical Data, Colorado 15
II. Algae and Protozoa Cultured from Selected 19 Colorado Anisoptera
III. Algae and Protozoa Cultured from Selected 21 Colorado Zygoptera
XV. Percent Frequency of Colorado Algae and 23 Protozoa in Cultures and From Insects. . . .
V. Microorganisms Cultured from Dissected 24 Parts of Libellula auripennis (Hagen). . . .
iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
I. Map of Collection Locations. . . . 12a
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Significance of the Problem
Aquatic ecologists are constantly seeking a better
understanding of the complex interrelationships between
higher aquatic organisms and microscopic forms. One such
relationship that requires further work involves the passive
dispersal of microorganisms across land barriers by insects
and higher animals.
Except for dispersal by stream flow or rain runoff,
the introduction of algae, Protozoa, and other microorganisms
into new or isolated aquatic habitats depends upon some mode
of overcoming land barriers. Known modes of passive, overland
transport include (l) dispersal by wind of suspended dissemules,
(2) dispersal by waterfowl and shore birds, and (3) dispersal
by other animals.
It has been shown that the wind may act as an agent of
disseinule dispersal (l, 5, 6, J, 8, 15/ 16, 18, 19, 22, 23,
28/ 29). As early as 1888 it was shown that waterfowl carry
2
numerous genera of microorganisms on their feet (2, 3# 10,
11, 12, 1J, 14, 16, 21, 25). Viable algae and Protozoa have
also been cultured from the intestinal tracts of selected
waterfowl (l6, 20, 21). Vertebrate animals such as frogs,
toads, salamanders, turtles, raccoons, bears, and others, may
also act as agents of passive dispersal (4, 10, 14, 21, 25,
27).
Knowledge of dispersal mechanisms may have far reaching
implications in the fields of water supply and public health.
The presence of undesirable algae in lakes, reservoirs, and
water supply systems, have contributed to tastes, odors,
coloration, slime formation, and corrosion problems.
Asterionella sp. and Synedra sp. have been reported as in-
hibiting proper floe formation in water clarification (26).
Algae in a raw water supply have induced changes in pH,
alkalinity, hardness, and dissolved oxygen, and these changes
have required additional chemical treatment to purify the
water. Acute and often fatal poisoning of livestock due to
ingestion of water from ponds supporting an algal bloom has
also been reported (9). An awareness of modes of microorgani
dispersal may aid in the construction and maintenance of im-
proved water supply systems.
sm
History of the Problem
The earliest study of aquatic insects as possible trans-
port mechanisms was conducted by W. Migula in 1888 ( 1 7 ) . In
studying a pool thirty centimeters in diameter he found a
single aquatic beetle associated with the algae in the pool.
He concluded that the beetle must have carried the algae to
the pool. He later studied six beetles belonging to three
species from five different habitats, and found twenty-three
species of algae attached or associated with the beetles.
The following genera of algae were noted: Anabaena, Characium,
Synedra, Oscillatoria, Scenedesmus, Navicula, Protococcus,
Cocconeis, Palme11a, Penium, Meridion, Chroococcus, Hapalosiphon,
Fragilaria, and Bncynomena. From the results of his study,
Migula concluded that aquatic insects play a much more signifi-
cant role in dispersal than either water birds or air currents.
In 1910 Scott ( 2 4 ) stated that aquatic beetles and some
of the Hemiptera may be the most efficient agents of transport
because the immature forms develop in the water. During this
time algae and Protozoa may becomi attached to them. Irenee-
Marie in 1938 ( 1 0 ) examined a number of dytiscid beetles and
found members of the genus Closterium in their claws. In
studying a dragonfly of the genus Llbellula, he also observed
4
a number of desmids. Mesikommer, in 19^3, (l6) gave credit
to members of the Anisoptera for dispersing microorganisms
from one body of water to another in a limited locality. He
stated that the dissemules were encysted, but that they may
even be viable in the vegetative state if the dispersal dis-
tance was not too great.
Maguire (13) undertook a more exhaustive study of micro-
organism dispersal by aquatic insects using more refined
techniques. Dragonflies were collected using a .22 caliber
pistol, firing shot type cartridges. The possible contamina-
tion of shot dragonflies by microorganisms when they struck
the ground was apparent. "But", states Maguire, "since the
five or six of them which remained on the leaves where they
were hit carried about the same kinds of organisms, appreciable
contamination seems not to have occurred when they fell."
Maguire collected damselflies by placing them into sterile
vials of filtered pond water with sterile corks. The damsel-
flies had little, if any, chance of being contaminated, and
controls consisted of vials of filtered pond water into which
no insect had been placed. He collected the following aquatic
insectss midges, caddisflies, crane flies, and mosquitoes,
at night by attracting them to a clean lighted sheet, picking
5
them off with sterile forceps, and then placing them in a
vial of filtered pond water. The controls showed that con-
tact between the collecting vial and the sheet did not lead
to significant contamination by microorganisms.
Maguire (14) made a comparative study of passive dis-
persal of microorganisms in Texas and Colorado. Birds and
insects capable of overland transport were collected using
a .22 caliber pistol and dust shot. These were washed with
artificial sterile lake water. Controls consisted of auto-
claved dragonflies which were dropped onto the grass to
simulate their fall to earth after being shot. Twenty-four
dragonflies from the genera Dythemis, Plathemis, Libellula,
Tramea, and Gomphus, were shot and of these twenty showed
positive algal growth. Dragonfly washings were studied
microscopically and the following algae were identified*
Chlarnydomonas, Nannochloris, Chlorococcalian-like alga,
Chlorella, Ankistrodesmus, Phormidium, Lyngbya, and Plectonema,
while the controls were negative. The work of Maguire (12#
15, 1^) definitely established that some aquatic insects
were transport mechanisms for algae and Protozoa.
Purpose
It is apparent that only a minute fraction of the
aquatic species that might serve as transporters of viable
microorganisms have been studied, and that much further
work is ne«ded. Maguire's work (12, 13» 1*0 established
that the Odonata may play an important role in the dispersal
of aquatic microorganisms. This study was designed to (a)
show what dissemules may be carried by selected genera of
Odonata, (b) show where the dissemules may be predominantly
carried on the selected insects, and (c) relate the behavior
of the selected Odonata to frequency of occurrence of micro-
organisms on the insects.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Beger, H., "Beitrage zur Okoligie und Soziologie der Luftlebigen (Atmosphytischen) Kieselalgen," Deutche Botanische Gesellschaft, XL (1927), 585-^07.
2. Darwin, C. R., Origin of Species, New York, Random House, Inc., 1859.
3. de Guerne, J. M., "Sur la dissemination des organismes d'eau douce par lea Palmipedes," Societe de Biologie, VIII (1888), 294-298.
4. Edgren, R. A., M. K. Edgren, and L. H. Tiffany, "Some North American Turtles and Their Episoophytic Algae," Ecology, XXLIV (1953)/ 733-739.
5. Gislen, T., "The Number of Animal Species in Sweden with Remarks of Some Rules of Distribution Especially of the Microfauna," Acta University of Lund, XXXVI (1940), 1-23.
6. ., "Aerial Plankton and Its Conditions of Life," Biological Review, XXIII (1948), 109-126.
7. Huber-Pestalozzi, G., "Das Phytoplankton des Sussvassers," Die Binnengewasser, XVI (1937)/ 62-72.
8. Hudson, C. T., "Presidential Address," Royal Microscopical Society, (1889), 169-179.
9. Ingram, W. M., and G. W. Prescott, "Toxic Freshwater Algae," American Midland Naturalist, LII (1954), 75-87.
10. Irene'e-Marie, Prere, Flore Dismldiale de la Region de Montreal, Laprairie, Canada, 1938.
11. Klingel, <3. C., Inagua, New York, Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1940.
8
12. Maguire, B., "Studies Concerning the Passive Dispersal of Small Aquatic Organisms," unpublished doctoral thesis, Department of Biology, Michigan State University, Lansing, Michigan, 1957*
13. . ' •/ Passive Overland Transport of Small Aquatic Organisms," Ecology, XL (1959), 312.
14. ., "The Passive Dispersal of Small Aquatic Organisms and Their Colonization of Isolated Bodies of Water," Ecological Monographs, XXXIII (1963)# 161-185.
15. Meier, F., and C. A. Lindbergh, "Collecting Micro-organisms from the Arctic Atmosphere," Scientific Monthly, XL (1935)# 5-20.
16. Messikomer, E. L., "Untersuchunger uber die Passive Verbreitung der Algae, " Schv.eizerische Zeitischrift fur Hydrolog ie, IX (19437".
17» Migula, W. A., "Die Vertreitungsweise der Algae," Biologlsches Zentralblatt, VIII (1888), 514-517.
18. Pady, S. M., "Quantitative Studies of Fungus Spores in the Air," Mycologia, XLIX (1957)> 339-353.
19. Pennak, R. W., Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States, New York, Ronald Press, 1953-
20. Proctor, V. M., "Dispersal of Freshwater Algae by Migratory Water Birds," Science, CXXX (1959)» 623-624.
21. Schlichting, H. E., Jr., "The Role of Waterfowl in the Dispersal of Algae," Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, LXXIX (196oT^ T&0-166.
22 . ., "Viable Species of Algae and Protozoa in the Atmosphere," Lloydia, XXIV (1961), 81-88.
23. • » "Meteorological Conditions Affecting the Dispersal of Airborne Algae and Protozoa," Lloydia, XXVII (1964), 63-78.
24. Scott, W., "The Fauna of a Solution Pond/" Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science, 1910.
25. Tailing, J. P., "The Element of Chance in Pond Popula-tions," The Naturalist, IV (1951), 157-170.
26. Turre, G. J.. "Algae and other Natural Sources of Tastes and Odors in Water Supplies," Taste and Odor Control in Water Purification, West Virginia Pulp and Paper Co., New York Bulletin, 1955-
27- Vinyard, W. C., "Epizoophytic Algae from MollusV-s, Turtles, and Fish in Oklahoma," Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science, XXXIV (1953)/ 6^65.
28. Winchell, A. N., and E. R. Miller, "The Dustfall of March 9, 1918," American Journal of Science, XLVT (1918), 599-609.
29 . "The Great Dustfall of March 19, 1920," American Journal of Science, H I (1922), 349-364."
CHAPTER II
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Collection of Insects
Collecting techniques were kept as aseptic as possible
in order to assure that microorgansims washed from insects
were not the result of contamination due to use of a partic-
ular collecting device or undue exposure to the atmosphere
or other objects. Achieving this necessitated sterility of
collecting devices, vials, and the culture medium.
Damselflies resting on aquatic vegetation were grasped
with sterile forceps, carried into the field in ninety-nine
per cent isopropyl alcohol, then placed directly into the
culture medium. Dragonflies were collected with nylon insect
nets washed thoroughly with Tide commercial detergent prior
to collections on each sampling date. Capture was accomplished
while insects rested on vegetation or while they were in flight.
Captured insects were then grasped with sterile forceps and
transferred to a vial of sterile culture medium. Net controls
were prepared by dipping random portions of the net into vials
of culture medium after use in sampling.
10
11
Preparation of Gross External Washings
Dragonflies and damselflies from 'which washings of the
entire insect were made, were collected from ten ponds, all
located in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado (Fig. l). These
ponds will hereafter be referred to as sampling stations I-IX.
Table I shows physical data, dates and tiroes of samples for
each sampling station.
The culture medium used throughout this research was
soil water extract. Schlichting (9) has shown that this
medium is desirable when attempting to grow a wide spectra
of microorganisms. This medium was prepared by mixing one
hundred and fifty grams of loam soil with one liter of dis-
tilled water and allowing to stand overnight. The supernatant
was then refiltered through an autoclaved Millipore Filter
Apparatus (Millipore Filter Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts),
using an HA type membrane filter with a . 4 5 p o r e size. The
receiving filter flask was fitted with a graduated syringe
dispenser. A final pH of between 6.5 and 7*0 was desired,
and a suitable soil was chosen to yield this value. The pre-
pared extract was then dispensed in sixteen milliliter volumes
into autoclaved, non-absorbent cotton stoppered, thirty-two
dram shell vials. The vials were transported in the field in
12
an iced polyfoara cooler to prevent excessive heating of the
cultures of insect washings. Fox each collecting date, two
vials of culture medium were retained in a plant growth chamber
as controls on sterility. As a result there were thirty-tvo
medium controls for the fifty total insect washings.
Vials containing collected dragonflies and damselflies
were returned to the laboratory within six hours and agitated
on a Vortex Jr. Mixer (Scientific Industries, Inc., Queen's
Village, New York) to dislodge dissemules from the insect.
Sterile forceps were used to withdraw insects from the
vials. Insects were preserved or pinned for identification.
External washings thus obtained were then placed in a plant
growth chamber with a sixteen hour photophase and operating
at a temperature of 22°-26°C.
Two weeks after being placed in the culture chamber,
the cultures (external washings) were examined microscopically
by the drop method (8) to determine if growth had occurred.
Subsequent examinations were made at two to three week intervals
for six weeks. The culture vial was stirred using a Vortex Jr.
Mixer and a sample which consisted of one drop/washing/date,
was taken using a sterile pipette. Three horizontal and three
vertical transects were then examined for each drop sample.
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Algal Identifications at the generic level were made
using Palmer (5)# Prescott (6, J), Smith (10), and Starr (11)/
while Jahn (2), and Kudo (3)# were used to identify Protozoa.
Dragonflies and d&mselflies were identified to species where
possible using Borror and DeLong (l), Needham and Westfall
(4), and Usinger (12).
Washings of Specific Body Parts
Washings of dissected external body parts were made
from ten specimens of Libellula aurlpennis (Burmeister)
collected from a pond near the Sabine River in Orange
County, Texas, on July 25 and August 5/ 1965- Each body
part was detached using microdissection scissors soaked in
ninety-nine per cent isopropyl alcohol. The head, legs,
and wings were placed in separate labeled vials of sterile
soil water extract. The abdomen and thorax of each insect
were placed in empty labeled vials, packed in ice, and re-
turned to the laboratory.
The fore- and midgut, and hindgut, were excised from
the thorax and abdomen using aseptic instruments. The
contents were placed in separate labeled vials of culture
medium. The abdomen and thorax were then placed in separate
vials of soil water extract.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Borror, D. J. and D. M. DeLong, An Introduction to the Study of Insects, New York, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Co., 1964.
2. Jahn, T. L., How to Know the Protozoa, Dubuque, Iowa, Wm. C. Brown Co., -19857
3. Kudo, R. R., Protozoology, Springfield, Illinois, Charles C. Thomas Inc., 1954.
4. Needham, J. G., and M. Westfall, Jr., Dragonflies of North America, Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1955*
5. Palmer, C. M., Algae in Water Supplies, U. S. Public Health Publication No. 657' 1959.
6. Prescott, G. W,, Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area, Dubuque, Iova, Wm. C. Brown Co., 1964.
7. ., How to Know the Freshwater Dubuque# Iowa, Wm. C. Brown CoTi1964.
8. Schlichting, H. E., Jr., "A Modified Method for the Quantitative Analysis of Phytoplankton Samples by the Drop Method," unpublished paper, Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 1954.
9 . • i "The Role of Waterfowl in the Dispersal of Algae, Lloydla, LXXIV (i960), 160-166.
10. Smith, G. M., Freshwater Algae of the United States, New York, McGraw Hill Books, 1950.
11. Starr, R. C., A Comparative Study of Chlorococcum Meneghini and other Spherical, Zoospore-Producing Qenera of the Chlorococcales, Bloomington, Indiana, University of Indiana Press, 1955•
15
16
12. Usinger/ R. L., Aquatic Insects of California, Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1965-
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
External washings of thirty-three dragonflies belonging
to six species and fifty-three damselflies belonging to five
species produced a total of fifty positive cultures. Data
are shown in Tables II and III.
The dragonflies Aeshna palmata (Hagen) and Erythemis
collocata (Hagen) were found to be carriers of sixteen and
thirteen genera of algae and Protozoa, respectively. Sympetrun.
fasciatum (Walker), atripes (Hagen), Libellula _sat_urat_a
(Uhler), and Tarnet rum corruptum (Hagen), carried seven,
five, four, and two genera, respectively.
Thirty-three specimens of the damselfly Enallagma
cyathigerum (Hagen) carried ten genera of microorganisms.
Six genera of algae and Protozoa were cultured from nine
specimens of Lestes unquiculatus (Hagen). Enallagma civile
(Hagen), Coenagrion sp. (Kirby), and Enallagma sp. ( Charpentier),
carried lesser numbers of genera.
In most cases sample size for a given insect species
appeared to greatly influence the number of different genera
17
18
of algae and Protozoa that were shown being carried by that
species. Where the sample number for a species was small,
fewer genera of microorganisms were cultured in the washings.
Pleuronema sp. was identified in one net control culture
planted August 15/ 1964. This protozoan could have come from
the net or from a previously collected insect. No other micro-
organisms were observed in either net or medium controls at
any examination time.
Frequency of occurrence for each alga and protozoan is
shown in Table IV. These data are separated according to
per cent from a total of fifty cultures and from eleven insect-
species collected.
Chlorococcum sp. appeared in twenty-six per cent of the
cultures and from seventy-two per cent of the insects collected,
while Chlorella sp. appeared in twenty-two per cent of the
cultures and from forty-five per cent of the insects.
The blue-green alga Phormidium sp. was found in sixteen
per cent of the cultures and from forty-five per cent of the
collected insects. Euglenoids were found at relatively low
frequencies on the insect species checked during this study.
The diatom Navicula sp. appeared in six per cent of the cultures
and from nineteen per cent of the insects. Actinosphaerium sp.
19
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22
was found in twenty-two per cent of the cultures and from
fifty-five per oamt of the insect species, while Amoeba sp. i
appeared in sixteen per cent of the cultures and from thirty-
six per cent of the insects. Other protozoans were found at
lesser frequencies.
These results indicate that filamentous Cyanophyta
were not carried with as great a frequency as the unicellular
Chlorophyta. Fhormidlum sp. was an exception, its having the
same frequency from insect washings as Ghlorella sp.
The results from washings of dissected external body
parts and alimentary tracts are given in Table V. The leg
and wing washings contained ten and eight genera respectively,
more than any other parts washed. No algae or Protozoa were
found in the alimentary tract of Libellula auripermis, although
fungal spores were present. Only one net control of a series
of ten showed evidences of contamination, in which Navicula sp.
was identified after four weeks of culturing. This would in-
dicate that (l) contamination occurred during dissection, (2)
that Navicula sp. came from a previously collected insect, (3)
that the diatom came from the net, or (4) that contamination
occurred during examination procedures.
TABLE IV 23
PER CENT FREQUENCY OF COLORADO ALGAE AND PROTOZOA OCCURRING
IN FIFTY CULTURES AND FROM ELEVEN INSECT GENERA
Organism % Frequency in Cultures
% Frequency from insects
Division Cyanophyta Anabaena jya. Arthrospira sp. Aulosira sp. Calothrix Chroococcus sp. Nostoc sp. Phormidium sj
Division Chlorophyta Chlaroydontonaa sp. Chlorella sp. Chlorococcum sp. Cosmarium sp. Nannochloris ®£* Protococcus sp. Scenedesmus Spirulina sp. Stichococcus S£. Ulothrix sp.
Division Euglenophyta Euglena sp. Euglena-like
Division Chrysophyta Gomphonema sp. Navicula S£.
Phylum Protozoa Agtlnoaphaerlum sp. Actlnophrys ap. Amoeba sp.
8 2 2 2
14 12 16
6 22 26
2 2
10 6 2 4 6
4 12
2 6
22 4
16
^6.2 9 . x 9 - 1 9 . 1
36.2 9 . 1
4 5 . 4
2 7 . 2 4 5 . 4 72.6
9 . 1 9 . 1
18.2 5 4 . 5
9 . 1 18.2 18 .2
9 . 1 1 8 . 9
9 . 1 1 8 . 9
3 4 . 5 9 . 1
36.2
TABLE V
MICROORGANISMS CULTURED FROM DISSECTED
PARTS OF LIBELLULA AURIPEMNIS (HAOEM)
24
Structures Algae and Protoaoa
EXTERNAL
Abdomen Anabaena sp., Phormidium sp.
Thorax Chroococcus sp., Navicula sp.
Legs Chlorella sp., Anabaena sp., Chlorococcum sp., Dictyo-sphaerium sp., unclassified encysted Protozoa, Hormidiop-sis sp., Lyngbya sp., Oocystis sp., Protococcus sp., Spongio-chloris sp.
Head Unclassified fungal spores, Chlamydomonas sp., Protococcus sp., Chlorella sp.
Wings Unidentified fungal spores, Chlamydomonas sp., Chlorella sp., Chroococcus sp., Meristnopedia sp., Scenedesmus sp., Synedra sp.
INTERNAL
Fore- and midgut
No organisms discerned
Hindgut Unclassified fungal spores
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
Although the collecting net was detergent washed prior
to use in the field, random washings of the net into culture
media were made as controls in order to elucidate the possible
contamination by microorganisms from the net. When dragon-
flies resting on twigs or branches close to the pond or lake
surface were collected, care was taken so the net made no
contact with the water. Possible contamination of the net
could be minimized by the use of a light monofilament, easily
cleaned, fast drying net. Secondly, the use of a number of
nets, each washed and wrapped in cellophane or plastic, could
be used to collect dragonflies, using one net per insect.
When the problem of microorganism dispersal by selected
Odonata was formulated, it was thought that the use of a
medium with a capability of growing a broad spectrum of
microorganisms should be used, and for this reason soil water
extract was chosen. Schlichting (5) has shown that this medium
will grow more species of algae and Protozoa than any other
single medium.
25
26
Due to the short interval of time in which populations
of some microorganisms rise and decline, especially the
Protozoa, various microorganisms could have been overlooked
as a result of the time intervals between examination of
cultures. However, Schlichting (3) has shown that the decline
for Protozoan populations does not usually occur until after
a two week duration.
Pickup and Deposition of Dissemules As
Related to Odonata Behavior
Resting Habits
Many Odonata prefer to rest on damp soil or twigs
during periods of inactivity. Needham and Westfall (1)
refer to Libellula luctuosa (Hagen) as "resting occasionally
on reed tips and hanging by their feet inches above the water."
Both Sympetrum atripes (Hagen) and Sympetrum fasciatum
(Walker) were collected while they were resting on damp soil.
Libellula saturata (Uhler) and Tarnetrum corruptum (Hagen)
were collected on damp twigs, as were Enallagma cyathigerum
(Charpentier) and Lestes ungulculatus (Hagen). All carried
algae which may exist in a damp, terrestrial environment.
27
Srythemls collocata (Hagen) was also observed resting on damp
soil and twigs, vhich possibly accounted for the appearance
of terrestrial algae such as Protococcas sp., Chlorococcum sp.,
and Phormidlum sp. The greater number of genera in cultures
from washings of _L. auripennis (Hagen) has indicated that
contact between legs and damp soil or twigs may effect dis-
semulization* In addition, resting on emergent twigs short
distances above the water may hare increased the chances of
being "splashed" by waves and therefore resulting in retention
of algae and Protosoa on the insect.
Feedings Habits
Dragonflies and dnmselflies are carniverous insects,
and may prey upon gnats or mosquitoes in flight, or obtain
their food by catching neustonic insects on the surface of
the water* A dragonfly or damselfly which feeds upon these
neustonic insects makes frequent contact with the water,
thereby effecting pickup and deposition of microorganisms.
The behavior of Aeshna palmata (Hagen) closely resembles
that described in the previous paragraph* This insect makes
frequent contact with the surface of a pond while feeding.
Microorganisms may be retained in the water droplets remain-
ing on the insect after splashing the water.
28
Oviposition Habits
Modes of oviposition of female dragonflies and damsel-
flies may aid in explaining microorganism pickup and depo-
sition. The female A. palmata deposits eggs on the submerged
portion of emergent reeds and grasses. Cyclotella sp.,
Gomphonema sp., Cymbella sp., and Navicula sp., were washed
from this insect. These are usually epiphytic, and could
adhere to the legs, thorax, or abdomen of the insect as it
leaves the water. Both Sympetrum atripes and fasciatun
oviposit by submerging their abdomens and depositing egqs
directly into the water or on the submerged portions of
emergent vegetation, thus assuring contact with aquatic-
microorganisms. Observations of ovipositing Erythemis
collocata (Hagen) revealed that the female contacts the
surface of the water at intervals of six to eight feet.
This behavior may account for the appearance of aquatic
algae and Protozoa.
The adults of the genus Lestes frequent the margins of
ponds, bogs, marshes, and other areas where there is emergent
vegetation. Although these were not observed ovipositing,
Usinger ( 5 ) states that members of this genus "oviposit above
the water in standing plants such as Typha, Sciripus, Sparganium,
29
willows, and grasses.." Splashing due to waves, or contact
with damp soil, rocks or twigs, could account for the presence
of algae and Protozoa in the cultures of washings of L.
unguiculatus.
Internal Transport of Dissemules
Culturing of the gut contents of auripennis indicated
that viable algae and Protozoa may not be carried internally
in a viable state by this species. However, studies by
Stewart and Schlichting (4) have shown the presence of highly
resistant fungal spores and of Nostoc sp. cultured from the
gut contents of Gomphus externis (Hagen). Additional cultures
of gut contents of other dragonfly species are needed to
further elucidate this aspect of the problem.
Significance of Odonata Migration
That aquatic insects do migrate has been established by
Pennak (2) who has stated that, "adult aquatic insects capable
of flight easily migrate overland, often in what appears to be
a completely random fashion, and come to occupy suitable new
areas." He goes on to say, "anyone who follows the biological
development of a new, man-made reservoir is bound to be im-
pressed with the promptness with which the reservoir becomes
colonized with aquatic animals."
50
Dragonfly migrations have been reported from Germany,
East Prussia, Egypt, Sudan, Tanganyika, Uganda, Southwest
Africa, British Honduras, Danzig, and China (6). Libellula
quadrimaculata (Linnaeus) was observed in North Wales "literally
in thousands, and appeared to be flying slowly eastward from
11 AM to 4 PM." (6). A report from Kenya stated "for two
days since October 2, or possibly earlier, we have had a
constant stream of dragonflies coming over the house from the
direction of Lake Victoria," (6). The species were later
identified as Pantala flavescens (Fabricius).
The nature and extent of dragonfly and damselfly migration
has been limited to scattered reported observations. More re-
fined techniques have been, and are being, sought in order to
further elucidate this problem. This knowledge is of impor-
tance in explaining geographical distribution- of algae and
Protozoa in isolated bodies of water.
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
1. Data presented established that aquatic insects
sampled carry viable dissemules of algae and Protozoa.
2. The validity of results obtained depend on the use
of aseptic methods of collection, culturing techniques, and
the examination of the cultured washings.
J. Although soil water extract is the best single
medium for growing algae and Protozoa, it may have restricted
the growth of some dissemules.
4. Some microorganisms may have been overlooked due
to the examination time interval.
5. Results indicate that the legs and wings of the
Odonata sampled play a major role in pickup and deposition
of dissemules.
6. Pickup of dissemules probably occurs while on damp
•oil or twigs, or on emergent twigs close to the surface of
the water.
31
32
7. Frequent contacts with water during feeding or
oviposition may result in pickup or deposition of micro-
organi sms.
8. Data indicated that algae and Protozoa were not
transported in a viable state in the gut of the ten speci-
mens of L. auripennis sampled.
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