1An Overview of Rice Post-A

8/9/2019 1An Overview of Rice Post-A

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201241

002 MUSTHOFA AFIFI

An overview of rice post-harvest technology: use of small

metallic silos for minimizing losses - D.J. Mejía

Agricultural Industries Officer, Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Service,FAO, Rome, Italy

INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L. is a sta!le food consumed "y over half the #orld !o!ulation. The total#orld !roduction of unmilled rice (!addy is around $%& million tonnes ('t ("ased on theaverage !roduction for & and &). *inety !ercent of this total is gro#n in develo!ingcountries, mostly in Asia, #hile Latin America and Africa !roduce +. and &. !ercent,

res!ectively (FAOSTAT, &).

It is estimated that "y &&$, ) "illion !eo!le #ill de!end on rice as a main food and demand#ill reach a"out 't. 'any Asian countries and international institutions agree to thestrengthening of national !rogrammes for !olicy and financial su!!ort to research, seed

!roduction and e-tension of hy"rid rice (FAO, &). In fact, there has "een an e-!ansion ofarea under highyielding varieties (/01, and in )%% more than % !ercent of irrigated areasin Asia #ere under /01s (Evenson, )%%. 'ethodology on the im!act of the im!rovementof !roductivity on !ostharvest o!erations has "een develo!ed "y FAO for several cro!sincluding rice (2han, )%%. As /01s are increasingly used, the !ostharvest system must "eim!roved, including infrastructure develo!ment and also the dissemination of technologies,allo#ing small and medium farmers to !revent food losses and conse3uently to achieve thefood security #hich is a !riority of FAO in its fight against hunger.

The rice !ostharvest system re3uires im!rovement in the use of resources for research anddevelo!ment, !articularly #ith regard to the level of !ostharvest losses. These losses areattri"uted to a com"ination of factors during !roduction and !ost!roduction o!erations (4e2adua, )%%%.

This !a!er !resents an overvie# of the main !ostharvest o!erations traditionally used "y ricefarmers in develo!ing countries and the im!ortance of !ostharvest technologies for

minimi5ing rice losses. Inade3uately !erformed drying and storage o!erations contri"ute toincreased losses. The advantages of the household metallic silo are discussed and it is !ro!osed as a feasi"le and suita"le alternative highly recommended "y FAO for small andmedium rice farmers. 6hile this study does not address drying o!erations in detail, it should

"e noted that they are com!lementary to storing.

Post-harvest system

The !ostharvest system consists of a set of o!erations #hich cover the !eriod from harvestthrough to consum!tion. An efficient !ostharvest system aims to minimi5e losses and

maintain the 3uality of the cro! until it reaches the final consumer. 6hen food losses areminimi5ed, "oth food security and income increase, and this is of vital im!ortance for small


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and medium farmers, !articularly in develo!ing countries. From a socioeconomic !oint ofvie#, the im!lementation of an efficient !ostharvest system in any community must !rovidee3uita"le "enefit to all those involved in the system (7rolleaud, &).

Post-harvest losses

The traditional conce!t of !ostharvest losses for the main !art 3uantitative losses iscurrently changing. 'any !ostharvest s!ecialists recogni5e that measurement of !ostharvestlosses is a very relative conce!t for various reasons8 for e-am!le, losses could "e determinedas a function of theoretical yield, real yield, soil and fertility conditions, variety etc. Thenthere are the other losses #hich are not normally measured, such as agricultural in!uts, time,manual la"our, lost o!!ortunities etc. In s!ite of the a"ove, #hen !ostharvest losses areassessed #hether in grains, cereals, fruits or vegeta"les the most !ractical a!!roach (andtherefore the norm continues to "e 3uantitative measurement. To o"tain relia"le data of !ostharvest losses, it is nevertheless im!ortant to esta"lish a methodology #hich ta9es into

account a range of factors (cultivar si5e, !lot si5e etc.. 4ata should "e su!!orted "y "asicstatistical analysis in order to understand ho# efficiently a !ostharvest system #or9s(:alverley, )%%;. Li9e#ise, o"servations and ra!id a!!raisal in situ "y an e-!ert may hel! toidentify ho# efficiently a !ostharvest o!eration system #or9s #ithin a rural community andfor a s!ecific cro!.

The !ostharvest system for rice deserves s!ecial attention< rice is a ma=or sta!le food in the#orld and is mostly !roduced in develo!ing countries #here the im!lementation of !ostharvest technologies is urgent in order to !revent food rice losses. It has "een estimated thatrice !ostharvest losses may "e as high as )> !ercent. A study carried out in :hina revealedthat total !ostharvest losses ranged from to &> !ercent, #ith storage and drying the mostcritical o!erations (Ren0ong et al., )%%. )?


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201241

003 BERNADENTA CARECA RADIX

Main post-production operations used by rice farmers

Paddy pre-harvesting operations

The 3uantity and 3uality of final milled rice de!end on the efficiency of farmingmanagement, field o!erations and !ostharvest o!erations. 4ecisions are ta9en from !lantingthrough to consum!tion of the rice cro!. Initial decisions a"out the variety to "e !lanted

determine intrinsically desira"le characteristics and de!end u!on consumer !reference as #ellas the technical ca!acity of the farmers during !roduction and !ost!roduction o!erations.These characteristics in turn "ecome factors #hich influence efficiency, grain loss magnitude,choice of harvesting and threshing technology, rate and 3uality of the drying and dehus9ing

!rocess, and eventually total recovery of the milled rice. Then there are the #rong !ractices atthe !lanting stage #hich can lead to losses< !lanting of red rice admi-ture, attac9s "y rodentsand "irds, !oor #eeding and a harvest maturity date #hich can "e too early or too late.

It is im!ortant to !oint out that the differences in varieties !lanted in certain localities alsoaffect the final milled rice, as the highvalue rice mar9et usually !refers a !ure and singlevariety. *evertheless, for reasons of "iodiversity and more sustaina"le agriculture, !lantingdifferent varieties (although not necessarily in the same field is an e-cellent strategy forim!roved food security. Sometimes, high management is re3uired to monitor !lanting inorder to !revent varieties "ecoming mi-ed8 on the other hand, varieties are sometimesdeli"erately mi-ed to !roduce s!ecial characteristics, such as consistency of flavour, #hichcannot "e found in a !ure variety.

4uring !reharvest o!erations, efficient technology and in!ut management, as #ell astimeliness of activities, are im!ortant, and this a!!lies also to !ostharvest o!erations for goodyield and 3uality and in order to o"tain good !rices for the milled rice and "y!roducts.:orrect timing at harvest is essential to avoid losses incurred "y harvesting too soon or too

late. Immature grains harvested too early result in a high !ercentage of "ro9ens and lo#milling recovery, #hile if harvesting is delayed, the cro! is e-!osed to insects, rodents and "irds, in addition to the ris9s of lodging and shattering. The o!timum harvest time should "echosen de!ending on the variety !lanted (Lantin, )%%@.

Ta"le ) sho#s the losses incurred if the rice is harvested ) #ee9 early and u! to ; #ee9s lateon the "asis of the maturity date of the cro!.

In general, the correct time to harvest is ) #ee9 "efore the maturity date.

Others indicators for o!timum harvesting time for rice are as follo#s


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• 6hen the rice has reached the e-act date of maturity or num"ers of days after heading

(usually &+; days.

• 6hen !ercent of the grains have changed from green to stra# colour.

• 6hen at least & !ercent of the grains at the "ase have a hard dough stage.

• 6hen the grain moisture content is "et#een &) and &; !ercent.

• 6hen the handdehulled grain, as indicated "y daily tests near the !ro=ected harvested

date, is clear and hard.

TALE )Grain losses at ifferent harvesting times !ase on crop maturity

Losses (% .@@ +.+$ $.>+ .>; ;.@ >.;>

/arvesting time (weeks ) B) B& B+ B;

'aturity date

Source: Almera, )%%@. & ?


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201241

004 AMINULLAH IBRAHIM

arvestin!

/arvesting includes numerous o!erations, including< cutting the rice stal98 rea!ing the !anicles8 laying out the !addyonstal9 or stac9ing it to dry8 and "undling for trans!ort.:orrect harvesting and handling o!erations can considera"ly reduce !ost!roduction losses.E-cessive handling creates !ro"lems in terms of "oth 3uality and 3uantity.

The se3uence of manual harvesting, field drying, "undling and stac9ing in traditional systemscan cause losses of "et#een & and @ !ercent (To3uero and 4uff, )%@;. At this stage, losses

can occur #hen secondary tiller !anicles are missed #hen the sic9le cuts > cm a"ove groundin lo#land rice. Also, delayed harvest causes shattering losses during harvesting andtrans!ort.

Harvesting methods

There are a variety of different methods for rice harvesting, #ith traditional manual methods !revailing in develo!ing countries<

Panicle reaping

This is accom!lished "y using a handheld cutting tool (Yatab in the 2hili!!ines, Ani-ani inIndonesia, Kae in Thailand, Espigaora in olivia. The method is used in areas #heretraditional varieties are resistant to shattering. Resistance to shattering is !articularlyim!ortant during handling and #hen trans!orting the "undles of !anicles from field to house.The la"our time re3uired for this method is &; la"ourhoursCha (done mostly "y #omen andolder children, #hich is four times that re3uired #ith the handsic9le method. It remains

!o!ular "ecause of the social custom of chatting #hile #or9ing. In addition, it generatesincome among the landless rural !o!ulation and is suita"le for hilly and terraced areas.

!ong stalk cutting by sickle

This is a #idely used manual method !resenting different styles in the design. It re3uires "et#een and ) la"ourhoursCha. The stal9 is cut a"out ) to )$ cm a"ove the ground or#ith a stal9 length of a"out > to @ cm for easy "undling and threshing. Rea!ing efficiencyde!ends on various cultural !ractices, !lant density and variety, degree of lodging, soilconditions and the s9ill of the harvester. Lodged !addy and saturated soils may considera"lyreduce the cutting rate.

"oern #ec$anical #et$os

These methods are generally used #hen la"our is scarce8 other#ise, harvesting is generally

still done #ith a sic9le in most develo!ing countries. The use of mechani5ed harvesting


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methods in some areas de!ends u!on the custom and suita"ility of the machine and othersocioeconomic factors. Some e-am!les of these machines are<

• Rea!er "inder< once very !o!ular, it is currently "eing re!laced "y the com"ine. The

machine cuts and "undles stems together and lays them in the field in a single

o!eration.

• :om"ine< very !o!ular, its ado!tion in Da!an, orea and other Asian countries is slo#

only "ecause of its high cost. The "inder can harvest .$ haChour. A similar, largemodel #as develo!ed in Thailand to resolve the !ro"lems of scarcity and cost ofla"our8 1iet *am may also ado!t mechani5ed methods "ecause of economies of scale.Some other Asian countries im!ort secondhand, large com"ines for harvesting the

"asic rice cro!. In commercial rice !roduction, large com"ines are generally used incountries such as ra5il and ruguay in Latin America, in Euro!e and in the nitedStates of America. In Africa, on the other hand, these machines (introduced throughinternational aid !rogrammes have had little im!act "ecause of the lac9 of

maintenance facilities.

• Stri!!er harvester< an innovation from IRRI and an ada!tation of the rotary stri!!ing

com"ine !rinci!le develo!ed "y Silsoe Research Institute in the nited ingdom, it#or9s #ith varieties #hich are nonlodging, medium height, #ith erect !anicles andlo# to medium shattering (*a!hire, )%%@.

There continue to "e constraints for farmers in develo!ing countries to the ado!tion ofmechanical harvesting methods< lo# income, reluctance to move a#ay from traditionalmethods, !oor mechanical a!titude, the desire to save stra# for offfarm uses, lac9 of access

to the field, e-cessive moisture content, uneven ri!ening etc. Other limiting factors are thehigh cost of im!orted e3ui!ment and the fact that machinery management must "ecom!etitive #ith the relatively lo# cost of la"our (IRRI, )%%@. +?


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201241

005 HERY SETIYONO

Transport

In develo!ing countries, trans!ortation of !addy from the field to !rocessing areas is !erformed mainly "y humans and animals, and sometimes using mechanical !o#er. In hillyareas #here !addy fields are terraced (e.g. hutan, *e!al, some !arts of the 2hili!!ines andIndonesia the !addy is trans!orted in !anicles or "undles of long stal9s using human oranimal !o#er. These traditional methods of trans!ort, #hich are related to the harvesting andfield drying activities, very often result in high grain losses. Small and familysi5ed volumesof !addy are generally trans!orted in "ags from the house storage to the small rice mill onfoot, in "ulloc9 carts, "y "icycle, using small vehicles or #ith !u"lic trans!ort #hatevermeans is availa"le and afforda"le. Other methods of trans!ort include don9ey, "uffalo andeven "oat.

In some !laces, the !ractice is to #indro# the cut !addy in the field to dry for + to @ days,de!ending u!on the #eather conditions. Losses are even greater, es!ecially if harvesting isdelayed #ith res!ect to the cro! maturity date. In addition to the losses incurred in cutting,#indro#ing, sundrying, collecting and "undling of the cut cro!, there are those #hen the

"undled !addyinstra# is loaded onto the !ersonGs "ac9 to "e carried to the house.

7rain then falls en route, es!ecially #ith the trans!ortation of shattering varieties, and also#hen the carrier (usually a #oman sto!s to rest. *evertheless, some farmers !refer thismethod for "oth cultural and !ractical reasons, as the stra# can "e used as animal feed.

The large losses incurred are the !rinci!al dra#"ac9 to manual trans!ort. Threshing of the !addy in the field and trans!ortation in "ags (;@$ 9g can minimi5e grain losses, ho#ever.Sundrying of the !addy can also "e done in the yard of the house rather than on stal9s in thefield. The normal !ractice in Asia is to "ring the !addy from the field to the roadsidemanually or using animal !o#er8 it is then trans!orted to the drying area or rice mill "y motor vehicle (e.g. tricycle, !o#er tiller #ith trailer, tractor #ith trailer, truc9 or lorry. The loadingand unloading of the "ags re3uire additional la"our costs, and these are normally assumed "ythe "uyer.

In develo!ing countries and advanced develo!ing countries, the !addy is harvested "y

com"ine and is handled and trans!orted in "ul9. The !addy is unloaded from the com"ine "yan auger conveyor and loaded into a #aiting lorry or tractortrailer located on the field road(!art of the infrastructure for mechani5ed rice !roduction. The !addy is then unloaded fromthe lorry or trailer onto a floor ho!!er in the rice mill area to "e conveyed to a mechanicaldryer. Finally, commercial rice is "agged at the rice mill and normally trans!orted to#holesale and retail mar9ets "y means of vehicles. This mechani5ed !rocedure results inmuch lo#er losses (Lantin, )%%@. ;?


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201241

006 AKBAR ADI PRIYONO

Threshin!

4uring threshing the !addy 9ernel is detached from the !anicle, an o!eration #hich can "ecarried out either "y Hru""ing, Him!act or Hstri!!ing. Ru""ing may "e done #ithtram!ling "y humans, animals, truc9s or tractor8 ho#ever, the grain "ecomes damaged.'echanical threshers ado!t mainly the im!act !rinci!le, "ut there is also a "uiltin stri!!ingaction.

6ith a !addy thresher, the unthreshed !addy may "e either held or thro#n in. In the Hholdon ty!e, the !addy is held still in the cylinder #hile s!i9es or #ire loo!s !erform im!act

threshing. In a Hthro#in machine, #hole !addy stal9s are fed into the machine and a ma=or !ortion of the grain is threshed "y the initial im!act caused "y "ars or s!i9es on the cylinder.

In a conventional threshing cylinder, stri!!ing may also "e used for !addy threshing8im!ulsive stri!!ing normally occurs #ith im!act threshing. In a thro#in thresher, largeamounts of stra# !ass through the machine and some designs use stra# #al9ers to initiallyse!arate the loose grain from the "ul9 of the stra# and chaff (Lantin, )%%@.

IRRI develo!ed the 1ote- Ricefan thresher. A !orta"le machine, as #ell as "eing suita"le for "oth !addy !anicles and !addy stal9s, it may "e ada!ted for #heat, corn, soy"ean and "eans.The 1ote- Ricefan thresher has "een #idely acce!ted among olivian !addy farmers (TerJn,)%%> and may "e either manually or !o#ero!erated.

'anual threshing is !edalo!erated and involves< treading8 "eating the !anicles on a tu",threshing "oard or rac98 or "eating the !anicles #ith a stic9 or flail device. The thresherconsists of a rotating drum #ith #ire loo!s #hich stri! the grain from the !anicle #hen the

!addy is fed "y hand. This e3ui!ment is !orta"le, can "e used in hilly areas and is easilyo!erated "y #omen.

In !o#er threshing, the harvested cro! is tram!led "y tractor or truc9 tyres in develo!ingcountries. The grain is se!arated from the stra# "y hand and then cleaned "y #inno#ing.

Losses may occur during threshing for various reasons<

• In manual threshing "y "eating, some grains remain in the "undle !anicles and a

re!eat threshing is re3uired.

• 7rain is scattered #hen the "undles are lifted =ust "efore threshing.

• 7rain can stic9 in the mud floor.

• irds and domestic fo#ls feed on the grain (Lantin, )%%@. $?


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201241

009 SITI KHOIROTUN NISA'

Dryin!

2addy as a living "iological material a"sor"s and gives off moisture de!ending on< !addymoisture content, relative humidity of the air and tem!erature of the surrounding atmos!here.The res!iration of the !addy is manifested in various #ays< decrease in dry matter #eight8utili5ation of o-ygen8 evolution of car"on dio-ide8 and the release of energy in the form ofheat. /o#ever, res!iration is negligi"le #hen the moisture content is "et#een )& and );

!ercent.

y and large, !addy is harvested #ith moisture content of &; to &> !ercent (higher in therainy season and lo#er in the dry season. It has a high res!iration rate and is susce!ti"le toattac9s "y microorganisms, insects and other !ests. The heat released during the res!iration

!rocess is retained in the grain and in the "ul9 due to the insulating effect of the rice hus9,resulting in losses in terms of "oth 3uantity and 3uality. Therefore, harvested grain #ith highmoisture content must "e dried #ithin &; hours< to ); !ercent for safe storage and milling, orat most ) !ercent for tem!orary storage of & #ee9s #hen it is not !ossi"le to dry any faster.4elayed drying may result in nonen5ymatic "ro#ning (stac9"urning, micro"ial gro#th andmycoto-in !roduction in !ar"oiled rice (*RI, )%%).

S3uare areas () - ) m of concrete have "een successfully used for sundrying in ruralcommunities of rice farmers in olivia (TerJn, )%%>. Small rural farmers in these regionsalso use tar!aulins for !addy sundrying. The main constraint of sundrying is the de!endenceon good #eather conditions, #hich can "ecome a serious !ro"lem, !articularly in tro!icalrainy countries.

Losses due to "ad drying !ractices range from ) to $ !ercent and it is mainly the 3uality#hich is affected. 7ood drying is crucial for minimi5ing !ostharvest losses, since it directlyaffects safe storage, trans!ortation, distri"ution and !rocessing 3uality.

A tem!erature of ;+K: is recommended for drying !addy for seeds and this can "e achieved#ith shade drying. /igher tem!eratures can lead to !hysicochemical disorders in the grain(heng et al., &. The chea!est drying method is sun or solar drying, !ractised "yfarmers, coo!eratives, commercial millers and government grain agencies in most develo!ing

countries. et#een @ and % !ercent of the field harvest retained in the farm is sundried,#ith the #or9 generally !erformed "y #omen and children. 4rying usually ta9es !lace on !aved areas ne-t to the #arehouse and rice mills8 the !aved areas slo!e slightly so that #atercan drain a#ay during the rainy season.

Early harvesting #hen moisture content is high hel!s minimi5e shattering losses in the field.In cro!s of highyielding varieties it is necessary to dry large 3uantities of #et grain in theshortest time so as to minimi5e rice s!oilage. An artificial or mechanical dryer s!eeds u! thedrying !rocess, reduces handling losses, maintains grain 3uality and gives "etter controlduring drying.


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The tem!erature for drying !addy should not "e higher than $;.;K: for food grain using thedry "atch system. Lo# tem!eratures hel! !reserve the rice aroma !rinci!le &acetyl)

!yrroline (Itani and Fushimi, )%%>.

The choice of a drier system de!ends on several factors< drying ca!acity re3uirement, ease of

installation and o!eration, !orta"ility, full heat source and the initial cost of !urchase. A #iderange of drying e3ui!ment and methods are availa"le for rough rice, and com!uter modelshave "een develo!ed to assist agricultural research #or9ers or farmers in their selection ofdryers for a given cro! and situation (4issanaya9e, )%%).

The ado!tion of an artificial drying system "y rice farmers has numerous constraints<

• /igh fuel costs.

• Small farmers !roducing a small volume of !addy can easily use sundrying.

• It is !o!ular "elief that the "leaching effect of sundried !addy results in #hiter grains

than artificially dried !addy.

• Lac9 of ca!ital for investing in artificial dryers.

• Lac9 of 9no#ho# a"out the drying technology (Andales, )%%>.

The main causes of losses during drying are as follo#s<

• 7rains shattering from stal9s or s!illing out from "ags during trans!ort.

• irds and domestic fo#ls.

• S!illout outside the drying area.

• Overdrying, es!ecially during sundrying.

• 4elayed drying or no grain aeration, resulting in stac9"urning. >?


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201241

011 ARI NUR HIDAYAT

Paddy cleanin!

This is an im!ortant o!eration and highly recommended not only on a large and mediumcommercial scale, "ut also on a small scale. It consists of the se!aration of undesira"lematerial, such as #eed seeds, stra#, chaff, !anicle stems, em!ty grains, inmate and damagedgrains, sand, roc9s, stone, dust, !lastic and even metal and glass !articles. The degree ofcleanness of the !addy reflects to some e-tent the care a!!lied during harvesting, threshingand handling.

In develo!ing countries, farmers clean the !addy straight after manual threshing. First, theyuse handra9ing and sifting to remove stra#, chaff and other large and dense materials, then#inno#ing, i.e. ma9ing the grain fall do#n to "e collected on a surface such as tar!aulin or a

nylon sheet. The method de!ends on air natural conditions and is very slo#.

A hand or !edalo!erated "lo#er may "e used #ith a cleaning ca!acity of &$ 9gChour.Alternatively, an engine!o#ered fan is used and can simultaneously !erform "otho!erations< grading and cleaning. The latter is e-!ensive "ut has the advantages of "eingfaster and re3uiring less la"our (!articularly #omenGs la"our.

A versatile model from IRRI, 9no#n as H7:@ and #ith a ca!acity of ) tChour for !addy and+ tChour for mai5e, #as #idely acce!ted "y olivian farmers (:IAT, )%%>. The mainadvantage of this model is that it can "e manufactured in develo!ing countries in local metal#or9sho!s.

:leaned !addy demands a higher !rice than noncleaned !addy an incentive for cleaning the !addy. In contrast, lac9 of cleaning often results in a higher concentration of contaminants inthe milled rice. Another consideration is that stones and other hard !articles shorten the life of the milling e3ui!ment. Finally, milling recovery is lo# #hen !addy is not cleaned (Lantin,)%%@.

"tora!e

2addy may "e !roduced once a year or throughout the year. 2roductivity has increased duemainly to the use of /01s in irrigated areas. :onse3uently, it is im!ortant to im!rove ande-!and the !ostharvest infrastructure for "etter handling, !rocessing and storage of the

!addy. Storage is a critical o!eration and losses can easily occur if !reventive measures arenot ta9en.

In Asia, "et#een @ and % !ercent of farm!roduced !addy remains in the farms and the restis de!osited in or sold to agricultural coo!eratives or sold to the !rivate sector. A!!ro!riatestorage is therefore re3uired, "oth for rice for consum!tion (milled or !addy and for rice forseed !ur!oses. The storage structure must !rotect the !addy from< e-treme heat or cold8moisture, #hich causes micro"ial and fungal gro#th8 and insect !ests and rodents #hich

consume or damage the rice. In olivia, small metallic silos #ith a ca!acity of ))$ 9g have "een successfully used "y small rice farmers (:IAT, )%%>.


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At farm household level, storage is essential for food security or as a commodity "an9 forconversion into cash #hen re3uired. nfortunately, smallscale or marginal farmers oftenlac9 the resources to store large amounts of grain and do not have a large storage structure8they therefore are o"liged to sell their !addy to traders or "uyers immediately after harvest.They carry out no further !rocessing (drying, cleaning and grading "ecause of the immediate

need for cash, and there is a lac9 of incentive to dry, as there is no significant difference in !rice "et#een #et and dried !addy. The !addy is only dried for safe storage, and then onlythe amount necessary for consum!tion or a little more for cash conversion or to sell at a

"etter !rice.

The traditional storage structure used "y farmers in Asia is a container made of #oven "am"oo, !alm leaves or #ood. 2ro"lems occurring include< s!oilage due to high grainmoisture, rain, storms or flooding8 dirt contamination8 losses due to insects, rodents and eventheft8 colla!se of the structure (Lantin, )%%@.

The main causes of losses during storage are<

• Attac9 "y insects, rodents and "irds as a result of inade3uate !rotection.

• Longterm storage #ith ); !ercent or higher moisture content, or more than & #ee9sG

storage #ith ) !ercent moisture.

• Theft and !ilferage in the #arehouse.

The !addy retained for storage is sundried several times and cleaned "efore loading into thestorage container. The farmer determines the dryness re3uired for storage on the "asis of

e-!erience. 4ryness is measured "y !ressing a "unch of grains hard into the hand or "itingseveral grains< a fully dried grain is hard. 2addy is usually stored #ith a moisture content of); !ercent or less. 2addy is normally stored in a )tonneca!acity container for > to )&months. Losses in farm storage have "een estimated at a"out >.& !ercent (Ren0ong et al.,)%%. @?


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201241

013 SHOVIATUN NIKHMAH

Millin!

2addy or the rice grain consist of the hull or hus9 ()&M and the caryo!sis or "ro#n rice(@&&M. ro#n rice consists of< an outer layer (!ericar!, tegmen and aleurone layerscalled "ran (>@M8 the germen or em"ryo (&+M8 and the edi"le !ortion (endos!erm %%;M (:hen et al., )%%. The rice milling o!eration is the se!aration of the hus9 (dehus9ingand the "ran (!olishing to !roduce the edi"le !ortion (endos!erm for consum!tion.Although a theoretical mill recovery #ould "e "et#een @) and @+ !ercent, in !ractical termsit is !ossi"le to o"tain "et#een > and @ !ercent from a good variety of !addy. 'illinglosses can "e reduced "y ado!ting smallscale modern ru""er roll sheller and introducing

!ar"oiling of !addy "efore milling. Ta"le & sho#s the advantages and disadvantages of !ar"oiled rice.

TALE &"ome avantages an isavantages of par!oile rice

Advantages 4isadvantages

'illing or dehus9ing is easier and costs less ran removal is more difficult and costs more

'illed rice has fe#er "ro9ens and is nutritious :annot "e used in starchma9ing or "re#ing

Increased head and total rice outturn 4ou"les the total !rocessing cost

Rice is more resistant to storage insect !ests Rice easily "ecomes rancid

ran contains more oil Re3uires large ca!ital investment

Less starch lost in coo9ing and9ee!s longer

Source: Lantin, )%%@ (ada!ted.

The e-tent of losses in the edi"le !ortion of the grain de!ends on a variety of factors,including< variety of !addy8 condition of !addy during milling8 degree of milling re3uired89ind of rice mill used8 the o!eratorGs s9ills8 and insect infestations. The milling o!eration

!roduces< hus9, milled rice, germ, "ran and "ro9ens, coming out as mi-ed !roducts,de!ending on the rice mill used. The ideal moisture content for milling is ); !ercent, as #et


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15/23

201241

016 AYU SUCI HARISTIN

Post-harvest losses

As mentioned !reviously, Hloss is a conce!t #hich is difficult to define. Nuantitative losses,ho#ever, eventually !rovide a "road !icture of #here the losses occur and their relative scale,and ho# a s!ecific cro! is handled during !ostharvest o!erations. Losses are estimated onthe "asis of the !ostharvest losses in each stage and assuming that each loss found is a

!ercentage of the amount remaining from the !revious stage. Other#ise, if losses aredetermined on the "asis of the original #eight of the cro!, the figure may "e overestimated.

Ta"le + sho#s the results of a study carried out "y FAO in )%%; on total !ostharvest losses insi- rice country !ro=ects in Asia.

TALE +#omparison of total recore project losses

O!eration Sri Lan9a Thailand 'yanmar Indonesia angladesh *e!al

:utting .> ).) &.) . &.+ ).%

Field drying (including "undling .$ ).& .; .@ ).%

Trans!ort ).& .; .$ .$

Stac9ing, !rethreshing &. ).;

Threshing (including cleaning .$ .% .; ).; &.&

4rying &.% &.+ ).>

2ar"oiling ).%

Storage @.$ +.& .% >.+

'illing ;.; +. ;.;


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Average total losses $% $&.' $%.% $(.% $'

Source: :alverley, )%%;.

It may "e inferred that total !ostharvest losses average around ); !ercent, #hile the averagelosses in storage alone are around ;.$ !ercent. In fact, !oor storage !ractices are one of themain causes of losses in the various stages of the !ostharvest system.

An economic rationale is a!!lied on the "asis of the total rice !roduction in Asia in &),according to #hich around S@% "illion are lost (Ta"le ;.

TALE ;)conomic rationale for total rice post-harvest losses in eveloping countries* %++$

4escri!tion Estimate 't

6orld rice !roduction )M $$

2roduction in develo!ing countries %M $&>

6orld !roduction "y small and medium scalefarmers (assuming M in develo!ing countries

M ;&)

E-!ected rice !roduction in develo!ing countries "y small and medium farmers.

)M ;%

Real glo"al rice !roduction among small andmedium farmers.

>M ;&)

Total !ostharvest losses );M >%

,otal economic post-harvest losses Assuming a cost of

$++ "/t

"'0

!illion

9


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201241

019 NASHIROTUS SAADAH

"TOR#$% PO"T-#R&%"T 'O""%"

As storage is one of the most critical !ostharvest o!erations, it deserves s!ecial attention inorder to estimate the economic magnitude of its negative im!act. Ta"le $ !resents a rationale

"ased on the data collected in Ta"le + (!addy !roduction, &), #ith ;.$ !ercent of lossesresulting from "ad storage !ractices and a loss of around S&+ "illion.

TALE $)conomic rationale for storage rice losses in eveloping countries* %++$

4escri!tion Estimate 't

6orld rice !roduction )M $$

6orld rice !roduction in develo!ing countries %M $&>

6orld !roduction "y small and medium farmers(assuming M in develo!ing countries

M ;&)

E-!ected #orld rice !roduction #ithout storelosses

)M ;;)

E-!ected #orld rice !roduction. %$.$M ;&)

Losses only during storage ;.$M &

)conomic losses as a result of poor storage Assuming a cost of

$++ "/t

"%+

!illion

# technolo!y for rice loss prevention in-store( householdmetallic silo

A valua"le structure highly recommended "y FAO for small and medium rice farmers is the

small metallic silo (2late ). The small metallic silo can !lay an im!ortant !art in the fight for food security and against hunger in develo!ing countries. Its effectiveness for safe storage


18/23

has "een !roven since the )%s. The technology #as introduced as !art of the S#isscoo!eration for develo!ment in :entral America, since #hen more than &+ smallmetallic silos #ith a ca!acity of "et#een .$ and & tonnes have "een introduced to !reventfood loss. It has "een estimated that more than & million !eo!le currently "enefit from thistechnology in :entral America. An FAO !ro=ect in olivia on the !revention of food losses,

7:2ColC+&C*et, has successfully introduced more than & small metallic silos in thelast $ years.

2LATE )A silo

Source: FAO, &&.

Advantages and characteristics

The silo is a sim!le storage technology, it is relatively easy to im!lement and hel!s !reservegood 3uality grains and cereals. It hel!s strengthen food security in communities as it

!rovides daily livelihood and economic su!!ort for small and mediumscale farmers.

The most im!ortant advantages of the metallic silo are as follo#s<

•

It is hermetic and allo#s effective fumigation.

• It re3uires only a small s!ace.

• M loss of grain stored.

• Sur!lus grains can "e sold at a higher !rice.

• 7ood conservation.

• The family home "ecomes free of rodents and the diseases they transmit.

• It eliminates the use of insecticides and !ermits the use of nonresidual fumigants.


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• A sim!le technology, it lasts )$ years and has a lo# cost.

• Its ca!acity is sufficient for small and mediumscale farmers (), +>, $;, ), )+$ and ) ) 9g.

• A local technology, it is made and serviced "y the community.

• It is easy to "uy and !rofita"le.

• It reduces !rice fluctuations, strengthening the farmer !roducer against middlemen

traders.

• It hel!s #omen #ith their #or9.

• Technology transfer is sustaina"le8 entre!reneurs, craftsmen and others may "e

em!loyed in rural areas.

• Storage "ecomes decentrali5ed.

• It ma9es a remar9a"le im!act in the fight against !overty.

• The technology has already !roved successful in several countries (:OS4E, &.

)?


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201241

026 SRI SETIA!AN BUDI SANTOSO

Requirements for successful adoption of the silo

• Nualified !eo!le and s!ecial tools are re3uired to "uild the metallic silos.

• 7rains should "e dried to a ma-imum moisture content of ); !ercent "efore storing. If

cro! drying and storage are not !ro!erly done, losses can "e as high as ) !ercent.

Cost of the silo

The cost of the technology varies de!ending u!on the si5e of the silo and the country #here itis introduced (Ta"le >. For e-am!le, in the recent #or9sho! !re!ared "y the AgroIndustryand 2ost/arvest 'anagement Service (A7SIFAO in :am"odia, the cost of the silo #asseen to "e lo#er than in olivia or *icaragua.

TALE >#ost of the silo

oliviaa

Si5e (kg )& &$ $ )

:ost (S& & +$ > %&

*icaragua "

Si5e(kg ) +> $; ) ) +$ )

:ost(S& && & ;; $) >; )

:am"odiac

Si5e(kg )& &$ $ )

:ost(S& ) & & ;$


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a 'e=Pa, )%%. " :. 7Qme5, !ersonal communication.c unthy, &).

Im!lementation of the silo creates a !ositive critical mass im!act in rural communities, as it

increases economic activity and generates em!loyment (e.g. for the village tinsmith #ho mustsatisfy the hard#are re3uirements.

)#O "TR#T%$I%" )OR TR#N")%RRIN$ T% "I'OT%CNO'O$*

• SouthSouth coo!eration using technicians from the !ro=ect 7:2COLC+&C*ET.

• Training #or9sho! for trainers<

time< &; #ee9s8

!rimary target grou!< $)$ !ostharvest technicians from nationalagricultural authorities8 and

secondary target grou!< farmers, tinsmiths, technicians from *7Os andothers.

• Facilities for rotatory credits to hel! farmers ac3uire the silo.

•

2u"licity< demonstrations, radio, video films, leaflets and "rochures, ne#sletter etc.

• /ighlight that the silo technology involves critical mass develo!ment among

agricultural and livestoc9 farmers, middlemen, hard#are stores, tinsmiths etc.

CONC'U"ION" #ND R%COMM%ND#TION"

• Rice !ostharvest losses are high in develo!ing countries ();)>M.

• Suita"le technologies are re3uired to reduce !ostharvest losses follo#ing a survey in

situ.

• Storage is a critical o!eration for rice, re!resenting "et#een ; and > !ercent of total

!ostharvest losses.

• The small silo technology is a feasi"le and valua"le alternative highly recommended

"y FAO for small and medium rice farmers to !revent food losses.

• The im!act of this technology causes a !ositive socioeconomic and critical mass

effect in agricultural communities.

• FAO has !ositive e-!erience in the transfer of the silo technology through the

Training for Trainer !rogramme.


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• The drying o!eration is considered critical during !ostharvest and it is

com!lementary to storage8 resources and efforts must therefore "e used to im!lementthis technology, !articularly in humid and tro!ical countries. ))?

1)2)1)3#)"

Almera. )%%@. 7rain losses at different harvesting times "ased on cro! maturity. 'n Lantin, R. (ice post$arvest operation. Availa"le online at ###.fao.orgCin!hoCinde-e.htm.

Anales* ".#. )%%>. Proble#s an priorities o) grain rying in t$e P$ilippines. 2roceedingsof an International :onference on 7rain 4rying in Asia, FAO Regional Office for Asia andthe 2acific, ang9o9, Thailand, )@& Oct. )%%$. 'n :ham!, .R., /ighley, E. Dohnson,7.I. eds. A*'A( Proceeings +o. ,, !. ;>$+. :an"erra, Australia, A:IAR.

#alverley* D.J.4. )%%;. Progra##e )or t$e prevention o) )oo losses: A stuy o) eleven proects in Asia concerne wit$ rice. Final re!ort, FAO.

#hen* 5.* "ie!enmorgen* ,. 6 Griffin* 7. )%%. Nualitycharacteristics of longgrain ricemilled in t#o commercial systemscereal. *$e#istry,(@$;$>$.

#8A,. )%%>. (eco#enaciones t/cnicas para el cultivo el arroz , !. @)@+. Santa :ru5,olivia, :IAT.

De 9aua* D. )%%%. (ice post-$arvest $anling in Asia. Availa"le online at###.fftc.agnet.orgCli"raryCarticle.

Dissanayae* A.7. )%%). *o#puter #oel )or selecting roug$ rice rying syste#s. ang9o9,Thailand, Asian Institute of Technology.

)venson* 1. )%%. :ro! genetic im!rovement and agricultural develo!ment. In *$arting t$e*0'A(1s )uture - a new vision )or 233. 'idTerm 'eeting &, 4resden, 7ermany, 'ay&)&>, !. &.

2A;",A,. &). FAO Statistical 4ata"ases. Availa"le online at ###.devtest.fao.orgCcgi "inCn!hd".!l. Accessed Fe". &&.

2A;. &). 4orks$op on policy support )or rapi aoption o) $ybri rice on large-scale

prouction in Asia, /anoi, 1iet *am, &&&+ 'ay. FAO Final Re!ort, !. ).

Grolleau* M. &). Post-$arvest losses: 5iscovering t$e )ull story overview o) t$e p$eno#enon o) losses uring t$e post-$arvest syste#. Rome, FAO.

8118. )%%@. '((' rice )acts. Los aos, 2hili!!ines, IRRI.

8tani* ,. 6 2ushimi* ,. )%%>. 'n)luence o) pre-an post-$arvest conitions on 2 acetyl-- pyrroline concentration in aro#atic rice. 2roceedings of the Second Asian :ro! Science:onference, Fu9ui, Da!an, &)&+ Aug. )%%$.

7unthy* ". &). 4orks$op on #anu)acturing o) #etallic silo )or grain storage6 in*a#boia. Final re!ort, :am"odia, FAOA7SI.

http://www.fao.org/inpho/index-e.htmhttp://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/articlehttp://www.devtest.fao.org/cgi-bin/nph-db.plhttp://www.devtest.fao.org/cgi-bin/nph-db.plhttp://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/articlehttp://www.devtest.fao.org/cgi-bin/nph-db.plhttp://www.devtest.fao.org/cgi-bin/nph-db.plhttp://www.fao.org/inpho/index-e.htm


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. 8ecnologa poscosec$a en arroz para pe;ue.2. 6 Duff* 4. )%@;. Survey o) postprouction practices a#ong rice )ar#ers in

*entral !uzon. 2roceedings of Saturday Seminar 2a!er. Los aos, 2hili!!ines, IRRI
http://www.fao.org/inpho/index-e.htmhttp://www.fao.org/inpho/index-e.htm

Documents

1An Overview of Rice Post-A