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History of ancient india

Indian culture is an ancient and dynamic entity, spanning back to the very beginnings of human civilization. Beginning with a

mysterious culture along the Indus River and in farming communities in the southern lands of India, the history of the sub-continent is

one puncuated by constant integration with migrating peoples and with the diverse cultures that surround India. Placed in the center of

sia, Indian history is a crossroads of cultures from !hina to "urope, and the most significant sian connection with the cultures of

frica.

Indian history, then, is more than #ust a set of uni$ue developments in a definable process% it is, in many ways, a microcosm of human

history itself, a diversity of cultures all impinging on a great people and being reforged into new, syncretic forms

Indus Valley Civilization.

&he earliest traces of civilization in the Indian subcontinent are to be found in places along, or close, to the Indus river. "'cavations

first conducted in ()*(-**, in the ancient cities of +arappa and ohen#odaro, both now in Pakistan, pointed to a highly comple'

civilization that first developed some ,//-,/// years ago, and subse$uent archaeological and historical research has now furnished

us with a more detailed picture of the Indus 0alley !ivilization and its inhabitants. &he Indus 0alley people were most likely1ravidians, who may have been pushed down into south India when the ryans, with their more advanced military technology

commenced their migrations to India around *,/// B!". &hough the Indus 0alley script remains undeciphered down to the presen

day, the numerous seals discovered during the e'cavations, as well as statuary and pottery, not to mention the ruins of numerous Indus

0alley cities, have enabled scholars to construct a reasonably plausible account of the Indus 0alley !ivilization.

2ome kind of centralized state, and certainly fairly e'tensive town planning, is suggested by the layout of the great cities of +arappa

and ohen#odaro. &he same kind of burnt brick appears to have been used in the construction of buildings in cities that were as much

as several hundred miles apart. &he weights and measures show a very considerable regularity. &he Indus 0alley people domesticated

animals, and harvested various crops, such as cotton, sesame, peas, barley, and cotton. &hey may also have been a sea-faring people

and it is rather interesting that Indus 0alley seals have been dug up in such places as 2umer. In most respects, the Indus 0alley

!ivilization appears to have been urban, defying both the predominant idea of India as an eternally and essentially agriculturalcivilization, as well as the notion that the change from 3rural4 to 3urban4 represents something of a logical progression. &he Indus

0alley people had a merchant class that, evidence suggests, engaged in e'tensive trading.

5either +arappa nor ohen#odaro show any evidence of fire altars, and conse$uently one can reasonably con#ecture that the various

rituals around the fire which are so critical in +induism were introduced later by the ryans. &he Indus 0alley people do not appear to

have been in possession of the horse6 there is no osteological evidence of horse remains in the Indian sub-continent before *,/// B!"

when the ryans first came to India, and on +arappan seals and terracotta figures, horses do not appear. 7ther than the archaeologica

ruins of +arappa and ohen#odaro, these seals provide the most detailed clues about the character of the Indus 0alley people. Bulls

and elephants do appear on these seals, but the horned bull, most scholars are agreed, should not be taken to be congruent with 5andi

or 2hiva4s bull. &he horned bull appears in numerous !entral sian figures as well% it is also important to note that 2hiva is not one of

the gods invoked in the Rig 0eda. &he revered cow of the +indus also does not appear on the seals. &he women portrayed on the seals

are shown with elaborate coiffures, sporting heavy #ewelry, suggesting that the Indus 0alley people were an urbane people with

cultivated tastes and a refined aesthetic sensibility. few thousand seals have been discovered in Indus 0alley cities, showing some

// pictographs6 too few in number for the language to have been ideographic, and too many for the language to have been phonetic.

&he Indus 0alley civilization raises a great many, largely unresolved, $uestions. 8hy did this civilization, considering its

sophistication, not spread beyond the Indus 0alley9 In general, the area where the Indus valley cities developed is arid, and one can

surmise that urban development took place along a river that flew through a virtual desert. &he Indus 0alley people did not develop

agriculture on any large scale, and conse$uently did not have to clear away a heavy growth of forest. 5or did they have the technology

for that, since they were confined to using bronze or stone implements. &hey did not practice canal irrigation and did not have the

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heavy plough. ost significantly, under what circumstances did the Indus 0alley cities undergo a decline9 &he first attacks on outlying

villages by ryans appear to have taken place around *,/// B!" near Baluchistan, and of the ma#or cities, at least +arappa was $uite

likely over-run by the ryans. In the Rig 0eda there is mention of a 0edic war god, Indra, destroying some forts and citadels, which

could have included +arappa and some other Indus 0alley cities. &he conventional historical narrative speaks of a cataclysmic blow

that struck the Indus 0alley !ivilization around (,:// B!", but that would not e'plain why settlements at a distance of several

hundred miles from each other were all eradicated. &he most compelling historical narrative still suggests that the demise and eventua

disappearance of the Indus 0alley !ivilization, which owed something to internal decline, nonetheless was facilitated by the arrival in

India of the ryans.

Acaranga Sutra

&he caranga 2utra, or Book of ;ood !onduct, is one of the sacred books of B!?, also known as ahavira, the ;reat +ero, it contains many of his teachings.

&he rhats @(A . . . of the past, present, and future, all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, e'plain thus6 all breathing, e'isting, living,sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. &his is the pure

unchangeable, eternal law @dharmaA, which the clever ones, who understand the world, have declared6 among the zealous and the not

zealous, among the faithful and the not faithful, among the not cruel and the cruel, among those who have worldly weakness and those

who have not, among those who like social bonds and those who do not6 that is the truth, that is so, that is proclaimed in this.

+aving adopted the law, one should not hide it, nor forsake it. !orrectly understanding the law, one should arrive at indifference for

the impressions of the senses and not act on the motives of the world. +e who is not of this mind, how should he come to the

other9

C C C

Beings which are born in all states become individually sinners by their actions.

&he 0enerable 7ne @*A understands thus6 he who is under the conditions of e'istence, that fool suffers pain. &horoughly knowing

karma, the 0enerable 7ne avoids sin.

&he sage, perceiving the double karma, proclaims the incomparable activity, he, the knowing one% knowing the current of worldliness

the current of sinfulness, and the impulse.

Practicing the sinless abstinence from killing, he did no acts, neither himself nor with the assistance of others% he to whom womenwere known as the causes of all sinful acts, he saw the true state of the world . . .

+e well saw that bondage comes through action. 8hatever is sinful, the 0enerable 7ne left that undone6 he consumed clean food.

Dnowing measure in eating and drinking, he was not desirous of delicious food, nor had he a longing for it . . .

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&he 0enerable 7ne, e'erting himself, did not seek sleep for the sake of pleasure% he waked up himself, and slept only a little, free from

desires . . .

lways well guarded, he bore the pains caused by grass, cold, fire, flies, and gnats% manifold pains.

+e traveled in the pathless country of the Eadhas.@FA . . .

In Eadha natives attacked him% the dogs bit him, ran at him.

Gew people kept off the attacking, biting dogs . . .

2uch were the inhabitants. any other mendicants, eating rough food . . . and carrying about a strong pole @to keep off the dogsA, . .

lived there.

"ven thus armed they were bitten by the dogs, torn by the dogs. It is difficult to travel in Eadha.

!easing to use the stick against living beings, abandoning the care of the body, the houseless, the 0enerable 7ne endures the thorns of

the villages being perfectly enlightened.

s an elephant at the head of the battle, so was ahavira there victorious . . .

&he 0enerable 7ne was able to abstain from indulgence of the flesh . . .

Purgatives and emetics, anointing of the body and bathing, shampooing arid cleansing of the teeth do not behoove him, after he

learned @that the body is something uncleanA . . .

In summer he e'poses himself to the heat, he sits s$uatting in the sun% he lives on rough food6 rice, pounded #u#ube, and beans . . .

2ometimes the 0enerable 7ne did not drink for half a month or even for a month.

7r he did not drink for more than two months, or even si' months, day and night, without desire for drink. 2ometimes he ate stale

food . . .

+aving wisdom, ahavira committed no sin himself, nor did he induce others to do so, nor did he consent to the sins of others.

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+aving entered a village or a town, he begged for food which had been prepared for somebody else. +aving got clean food, he used it

restraining the impulses . . . &he 0enerable 7ne slowly wandered about, and, killing no creatures, he begged for his food.

oist or dry or cold food, old beans, old pap, or bad grain, whether he did or did not get such food he was rich . . .

+imself understanding the truth and restraining the impulses for the purification of the soul, finally liberated, and free from delusion

the 0enerable 7ne was well guarded during his whole life.

&he 0enerable scetic ahavira endowed with the highest knowledge and intuition taught the five great vows.

C C C

&he first great vow, 2ir, runs thus6

I renounce all killing of living beings, whether subtle or gross, whether movable or immovable. 5or shall I myself kill living beings

nor cause others to do it, nor consent to it. s long as I live, I confess and blame, repent and e'empt myself of these sins, in the thrice

threefold way, in mind, speech, and body . . .

&he second great vow runs thus6

I renounce all vices of lying speech arising from anger or greed or fear or mirth. I shall neither myself speak lies, nor cause others to

speak lies, nor consent to the speaking of lies by others . . .

&he third great vow runs thus6

I renounce all taking of anything not given, either in a village or a town or a wood, either of little or much, of small or great, of living

or lifeless things. I shall neither take myself what is not given, nor cause others to take it, nor consent to their taking it.

&he fourth great vow runs thus6

I renounce all se'ual pleasures, either with gods or men or animals. I shall not give way to sensuality . . .

&he fifth great vow runs thus6

I renounce all attachments, whether little or much, small or great, living or lifeless% neither shall I myself form such attachments, nor

cause others to do so, nor consent to their doing so.

Indian Kingdoms & Indian Empires

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Grom their original settlements in the Pun#ab region, the ryans gradually began to penetrate eastward, clearing dense forests and

establishing tribal settlements along the ;anga H amuna =

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"upta Empire

#efore the "uptas $

8hen the last of the auryan kings was assassinated in (J B!, India once again became a collection of unfederated kingdoms

1uring this period, the most powerful kingdoms were not in the north, but in the 1eccan to the south, particularly in the west. &he

north, however, remained culturally the most active, where Buddhism was spreading and where +induism was being gradually remade

by the Lpanishadic movements, which are discussed in more detail in the section on religious history. &he dream, however, of a

universal empire had not disappeared. It would be realized by a northern kingdom and would usher in one of the most creative periods

in Indian history.

India% "upta and Harsha the classical Age

;upta age - &he !lassical ge refers to the period when most of 5orth India was reunited under the ;upta "mpire =ca. .1. F*/-/?

Because of the relative peace, law and order, and e'tensive cultural achievements during this period, it has been described as a golden

age that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as +indu culture with all its variety, contradiction, and synthesis. &he

golden age was confined to the north, and the classical patterns began to spread south only after the ;upta "mpire had vanished from

the historical scene. &he military e'ploits of the first three rulers--!handragupta I =ca. F()-FF?, 2amudragupta =ca. FF-F>:?, and

!handragupta II =ca. F>:-(?--brought all of 5orth India under their leadership. Grom Pataliputra, their capital, they sought to retain

political preeminence as much by pragmatism and #udicious marriage alliances as by military strength. 1espite their self-conferred

titles, their overlordship was threatened and by // ultimately ruined by the +unas =a branch of the 8hite +uns emanating from

!entral sia?, who were yet another group in the long succession of ethnically and culturally different outsiders drawn into India and

then woven into the hybrid Indian fabric.

Lnder +arsha 0ardhana =or +arsha, r. :/:->?, 5orth India was reunited briefly, but neither the ;upta "mpire nor +arsha controlled a

centralized state, and their administrative styles rested on the collaboration of regional and local officials for administering their rule

rather than on centrally appointed personnel. &he ;upta period marked a watershed of Indian culture6 the ;uptas performed 0edic

sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanicaorthodo'y.

&he most significant achievements of this period, however, were in religion, education, mathematics, art, and 2anskrit literature and

drama. &he religion that later developed into modern +induism witnessed a crystallization of its components6 ma#or sectarian deities

image worship, devotionalism, and the importance of the temple. "ducation included grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics

mathematics, medicine, and astronomy. &hese sub#ects became highly specialized and reached an advanced level. &he Indian numera

system--sometimes erroneously attributed to the rabs, who took it from India to "urope where it replaced the Roman system--and the

decimal system are Indian inventions of this period. ryabhattaKs e'positions on astronomy in )), moreover, gave calculations of the

solar year and the shape and movement of astral bodies with remarkable accuracy. In medicine, !haraka and 2ushruta wrote about a

fully evolved system, resembling those of +ippocrates and ;alen in ;reece. lthough progress in physiology and biology was

hindered by religious in#unctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicianse'celled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting =see 2cience and &echnology, ch. :?.

he Southern 'ivals

8hen ;upta disintegration was complete, the classical patterns of civilization continued to thrive not only in the middle ;anga 0alley

and the kingdoms that emerged on the heels of ;upta demise but also in the 1eccan and in 2outh India, which ac$uired a more

prominent place in history. In fact, from the mid-seventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries, regionalism was the dominant theme o

political or dynastic history of 2outh sia. &hree features, as political scientist Radha !hampakalakshmi has noted, commonly

characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period. Girst, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of

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2anskritization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order. 2econd was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and

landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments. &hird, because of the seesawing of numerous

dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced fre$uent defeats but seldom tota

annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an eighth-century tripartite power struggle among the !halukyas =:->>? of 0atapi, the Pallavas

=F//-JJJ? of Danchipuram, and the Pandyas =seventh through the tenth centuries? of adurai. &he !halukya rulers were overthrown

by their subordinates, the Rashtrakutas, who ruled from >F to )>F. lthough both the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms were enemiesthe real struggle for political domination was between the Pallava and !halukya realms.

1espite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries

&he absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages

and districts. "'tensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the rabs on the west coast and with

2outheast sia. &rade facilitated cultural diffusion in 2outheast sia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art,

architecture, literature, and social customs.

&he interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each otherKs territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the 1eccan and 2outh India

patronized all three religions--Buddhism, +induism, and

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creating, that of preserving, and that of destroying. &he period also saw dynamic building of +indu temples. ll of these temples

contain a hall and a tower.

&he greatest writer of the time was Dalidasa. Poetry in the ;upta age tended towards a few genres6 religious and meditative poetry

lyric poetry, narrative histories =the most popular of the secular literatures?, and drama. Dalidasa e'celled at lyric poetry, but he is bes

known for his dramas. 8e have three of his plays% all of them are suffused with epic heroism, with comedy, and with erotics. &he

plays all involve misunderstanding and conflict, but they all end with unity, order, and resolution.

&he ;uptas tended to allow kings to remain as vassal kings% unlike the auryas, they did not consolidate every kingdom into a

single administrative unit. &his would be the model for later ughal rule and British rule built off of the ughal paradigm.

&he ;uptas fell prey, however, to a wave of migrations by the +uns, a people who originally lived north of !hina. &he +un

migrations would push all the way to the doors of Rome. Beginning in the //Ks, the +uns began to put pressure on the ;uptas. In J/

they con$uered the ;uptas and took over northern India. 8estern India was overrun by //, and the last of the ;upta kings, presiding

over a vastly dimished kingdom, perished in /. strange thing happened to the +uns in India as well as in "urope. 7ver the

decades they gradually assimilated into the indigenous population and their state weakened.

+arsha, who was a descendant of the ;uptas, $uickly moved to reestablish an Indian empire. Grom :/:-:>, he ruled over an empire

in northern India. +arsha was perhaps one of the greatest con$uerors of Indian history, and unlike all of his con$uering predecessors

he was a brilliant administrator. +e was also a great patron of culture. +is capital city, Danau#, e'tended for four or five miles along

the ;anges River and was filled with magnificent buildings. 7nly one fourth of the ta'es he collected went to administration of the

government. &he remainder went to charity, rewards, and especially to culture6 art, literature, music, and religion.

Because of e'tensive trade, the culture of India became the dominant culture around the Bay of Bengal, profoundly and deeply

influencing the cultures of Burma, !ambodia, and 2ri Eanka. In many ways, the period during and following the ;upta dynasty was

the period of ;reater India, a period of cultural activity in India and surrounding countries building off of the base of Indian culture

&his medieval flowering of Indian culture would radically change course in the Indian iddle ges. Grom the north came uslimcon$uerors out of fghanistan, and the age of uslim rule began in ((//.

HA'SHAVA'(HA/A

&he rule of +arshavardhana from =:/:-:>1? being the only consolidated rule after the ;uptas is described in details through

various sources like

&he accounts of pilgrims

7fficial !hinese documents

!oins and inscriptions

8ritings by well known personalities of that period

&he predecessors of +arshavardhana was from &haneshwar. +arshavardhana was the younger son of Prabhakara 0ardhana, Ra#a of

&haneshwar. Prabhakaravardhana died in :/ 1. PrabhakaravardhanaKs daughter Ra#yasri was married to the king aukhari Ding

;rahavarman. 2asanka the king of ;auda, with the help of the king of alwa defeated and killed ;rahavarman of Dannau# and

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imprisoned Ra#yasri. Ra#yavardhan who then ruled Dannau# advanced against 2asanka to avenge his sisters fate. But he was killed by

2asanka. &hus the throne of Dannau# became vacant and +arshavardhana had to ascend the throne. +arshavardhana pursued a policy

of con$uest to consolidate his authority over north India. Pun#ab, Dannau#, parts of Bihar and Bengal formed a part of his kingdom as

a result of his con$uests. By :(* +arshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India. &he problems caused by the smal

independent kingdoms who were engaged in conflicts among themselves was overcome after the sub#ection of these petty state

e'tending from the east to west. In :*/1 +arshavardhana invaded the !halukya kingdom in the 1eccan which was then ruled by

Pulakesin II. But the !halukya resistance proved tough for +arshavardhana and he was defeated. &hus his kingdom in the south was

upto the limit of the 5armada. +is alliance with king Bhaskaravarman the ruler of Damrupa =ssam? also prove advantageous in

establishing a strong rule.

+arshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. &his gives him a position

among the other monarchs of the later period whose role in the construction of the Indian history is significant .

+arshavardhana maintained diplomatic relations with !hina and sent envoys who e'changed ideas of the !hinese rulers and

developed their knowledge about each other.

Prehistoric Period6 ca. F///-(*// B!

ca. F///-*://6 Indus 0alley civilization6 +arappan civilization

*://-*//6 +arappan !ivilization at its height

*///-()//6 +arappan !ivilization collapses

c. (F//6 ryans migrate into the Indus 0alley

c. (///6 ryans migrate into ;anges 0alley

ca. (*//-// B!6 0edic "ra

ca. (*//-)//6 Rig-0eda

ca. )//-//6 Eater 0edas and early Lpanishads

ca. /-(// B!6 Rivals to +induism

ca /6 Birth of ahavira

ca. :F-JF6 2iddhartha ;autama Buddhism !hronology

ca. F**-(J B!6 auryan "mpire

F*(-*)> B!6 !handragupta aurya

ca. *>F-*F>6 soka

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ca. (J-(//6 &he Eaws of anu

ca. 1 F*/-/6 ;upta "ra

ca. F*/-FF6 !handragupta I

ca. FF-F>:6 2amudragupta

ca. F>:-(6 !handragupta II

ca. -//6 +un Invasions

ca. /6 "nd of ;upta 1ynasty

ca. 1 //-(//(6 Period of Political instability

ca. /6 Rise of !halukyas at 0atapi

ca. :/:-::6 +arsha of Danau#

ca. >//-J//6 Buddhism spreads to &ibet and 5epal

>((6 rabs invade 2ind

ca. >/6 Rise of imperial Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas

>:/6 Palas in Bengal

ca. J:6 Rise of !holas and defeat of Pallavis

ca. )>/6 Revival of !halukyas and defeat of Rashtrakutas

(///-(>/6 Period of uslim dominance

(//(6 Raids by ahmud of ;hanzi

(*/:-(*)/6 2lave 1ynasty and Beginning of 1elhi 2ultanate

(*)/-(F*/6 Dhal#i 2ultanate

(F*/-((F6 &ughlug 2ultanate

((-((6 2ayyid 2ultanate

((-(*:6 Eodi 2ultanate

()J6 0asco da ;ama arrives in India

(JF-(>>6 &he ughal "mpire

(/*6 Portuguese establish colony at !ochin

(*:-(F/6 Reign of Babur

(:-(:/6 Reign of kbar

(://6 British "ast India !ompany is chartered

(:/-(:*>6 Reign of 6 Reign of urangzeb

(>-(>J6 8ar between Grench and British

(>/-()>6 India under British Rule

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(J>6 Indian =2epoy? utiny

(JJ:6 Girst eeting of the Indian 5ational !ongress.

()*(6 Girst eeting of the Indian Parliament.

()F/6 ;andhi leads the 2alt arch against British rule.

()F*6 Indian 5ational !ongress is declared illegal% ;andhi is arrested.

()>-present6 &he Indian Republic

()>6 &he British colony of India achieves independence and is divided into India and Pakistan.

())6 Indian constitution is adopted.

()::6 Indira ;andhi is elected prime minister of India.

he Chronology of Kings

&he kingdom of Indraprastha was ruled by Indians for (* generations for a period of (> years, ) months and ( days between the

event of ahabharat and the begining of the ughal era in (()F 1.

F/ generations of Ra#a udhisthir ruled Indraprastha for a total of (>>/ years, (( months and (/ days as follows6

DingMNueen ears onth 1ays

OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

( Ra#a udhisthir F: J *

*. Ra#a Parikshit :/ / /

F Ra#a *F

. shwamedh J* J **

. 1wateeyram JJ * J

:. Dshatramal J( (( *>

>. !hitrarath > F (J

J. 1ushtashailya > (/ *

). Ra#a Lgrasain >J > *(

(/ Ra#a 2hoorsain >J > *(

(( Bhuwanpati :)

(* Ran#eet : (/

(F 2hrakshak : >

( 2ukhdev :* / *

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( 5arharidev ( (/ *

(: 2uchirath * (( *

(> 2hoorsainII J (/ J

(J Parvatsain J (/

() edhawi * (/ (/

*/ 2oncheer / J *(

*( Bheemdev > ) */

** 5raharidev (( *F

*F Pooranmal J >

* Dardavi (/ J

* lamamik / (( J

*: Ldaipal FJ ) /

*> 1uwanmal / (/ *:

*J 1amaat F* / /

*) Bheempal J J

F/ Dshemak J (( *(

0ishwa, the prime minister of Dshemak, killed Dshemak and took over the

Dingdom. Gourteen generations of 0ishwa ruled for // years, F onth and

(> dyas as follows6

( 0ishwa (> F *)

* Purseni * J *(

F 0eerseni * (/ >

nangshayi > J *F

+ari#it F ) (>

: Paramseni * *F

> 2ukhpatal F/ * *(

J Dadrut * ) *

) 2a## F* * (

(/ marchud *> F (:

(( mipal ** (( *

(* 1ashrath * (*

(F 0eersaal F( J ((

( 0eersaalsen > / (

0eersaalsen was killed by his prime minister 0eermaha whose (: generations

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ruled for years, months and F days as follows6

( Ra#a 0eermaha F (/ J

* #itsingh *> > ()

F 2arvadatta *J F (/

Bhuwanpati ( (/

0eersen *( * (F

: ahipal / J >

> 2hatrushaal *: F

J 2anghra# (> * (/

) &e#pal *J (( (/

(/ anikchand F> > *(

(( Damseni * (/

(* 2hatrumardan J (( (F

(F

( +arirao *: (/ *)

( 0eersenII F * */

(: dityaketu *F (( (F

Ra#a 1andhar of Prayaag killed dityaketu of agadh. ) generations of

1handhar ruled Indraprastha for F> years, (( month and *: days as follows6

( Ra#a 1handhar *F (( (F

* aharshi ( * *)

F 2anrachhi / (/ ()

ahayudha F/ F J

1urnath *J *

: Rudrasen > *J

J arilak * (/ J

) Ra#pal F: / /

Ra#pal was killed by 2amant ahanpal who ruled for ( years. Eater ahanpal

was killed by 0ikramaditya of L##ain =called vantika?. 0ikrmaditya ruled for

)F years. +e was later killed by 2amudrapal yogi of Paithan. (: generations

of 2amudrapal ruled for F>* years, months and *> days as follows6

( 2amudrapal * */

* !handrapal F:

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F 2ahaypal (( ((

1evpal *> ( *J

5arsighpal (J / */

: 2ampal *> ( (>

> Raghupal ** F *

J ;ovindpal *> ( (>

) mratpal F: (/ (F

(/ Balipal (* *>

(( ahipal (F J

(* +aripal ( J

(F 2eespal (( (/ (F lso mentioned as Bhimpal in some literature

( adanpal (> (/ ()

( Darmpal (: * *

(: 0ikrampal * (( (F

Ra#a 0ikrampal attacked alukhchand Bohra in the west. 0ikrampal was killed

by alukhchand Bohra =from west? in the war. (: generations of alukhchand

ruled for ()( years, ( month and (: days as follows6

( alukhchand * (/

* 0ikramchand (* > (*

F anakchand (/ /

Ramchand (F (( J

+arichand ( ) *

: Dalyanchand (/

> Bhimchand (: * )

J Eovchand *: F **

) ;ovindchand F( > (*

(/ Rani Padmavati( / /

Rani Padmavati was the wife of ;ovindchand. 2he had no child. 2o her advisors

appointed +ariprem 0airagi for the throne. generations of +arimprem ruled

for / years, / month and (* days as follows6

( +ariprem > (:

* ;ovindprem */ * J

F ;opalprem ( > *J

ahabahu : J *)

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ahabahu took sanyas. +earing the news of his sanyas, dhisen of Bengal

attacked and took over the kingdom of Indraprastha.

( Ra#a dhisen (J *(

* 0ilavalsen (* *

F Deshavsen ( > (*

adhavsen (* *

ayursen */ (( *>

: Bhimsen (/ )

> Dalyansen J *(

J +arisen (* / *

) Dshemsen J (( (

(/ 5arayansen * * *)

(( Eakshmisen *: (/ /

(* 1amodarsen (( ()

1amodarsen mistreated his umrao 1eepsingh who with the help of army

revolted and killed 1amodarsen. : generations of 1eepsingh ruled for

(/> years, : months and ** days as follows6

( 1eepsingh (> ( *:

* Ra#singh ( /

F Ransingh ) J ((

5arsingh / (

+arisingh (F * *)

:

2ultan 2hahbuddin ;auri from ;arh ;azni attacked ra#a ashpal and imprisoned

him in the fort of Prayaag in 0ikram 2anvat (*) =(()F 1?. F ;auri

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generations ruled for > years, ( onth and (> days as documented in most

history books.

(eccan and South Indian Kingdoms

1eccan Indian Dingdoms6 1uring the Dushana 1ynasty, an indigenous power, the 2atavahana Dingdom =first century B.!.-third

century .1.?, rose in the 1eccan in southern India. &he 2atavahana, or ndhra, Dingdom was considerably influenced by the

auryan political model, although power was decentralized in the hands of local chieftains, who used the symbols of 0edic religion

and upheld the varnashramadharma. &he rulers, however, were eclectic and patronized Buddhist monuments, such as those in "llora

=aharashtra? and maravati =ndhra Pradesh?. &hus, the 1eccan served as a bridge through which politics, trade, and religious ideas

could spread from the north to the south.

Garther south were three ancient &amil kingdoms--!hera =on the west?, !hola =on the east?, and Pandya =in the south?--fre$uently

involved in internecine warfare to gain regional supremacy. &hey are mentioned in ;reek and shokan sources as lying at the fringes

of the auryan "mpire. corpus of ancient &amil literature, known as 2angam =academy? works, including &olkappiam , a manual of

&amil grammar by &olkappiyar, provides much useful information about their social life from F// B.!. to .1. *//. &here is clearevidence of encroachment by ryan traditions from the north into a predominantly indigenous 1ravidian culture in transition.

1ravidian social order was based on different ecoregions rather than on the ryan 0arna paradigm, although the Brahmans had a high

status at a very early stage. 2egments of society were characterized by matriarchy and matrilineal succession--which survived well

into the nineteenth century--cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. &ribal chieftains emerged as kings #ust as people

moved from pastoralism toward agriculture, sustained by irrigation based on rivers, small-scale tanks =as man-made ponds are called

in India? and wells, and brisk maritime trade with Rome and 2outheast sia.

1iscoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to e'tensive 2outh Indian links with the outside world. s with Pataliputra in

the northeast and &a'ila in the northwest =in modern Pakistan?, the city of adurai, the Pandyan capital =in modern &amil 5adu?, was

the center of intellectual and literary activities. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses and

composed anthologies of poems, most of which have been lost. By the end of the first century B.!., 2outh sia was crisscrossed by

overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist and / to :F*

c. >/6 Birth of uhammad

:**6 &he +egira6 uhammad flees to edina

:F/6 uhammad captures ecca

:F*6 uhammad dies.

7rthodo' !aliphate =ecca and edina?6 :F*-::(

7mayyad !aliphate =1amascus?6 ::(->/

:J/6 1eath of uKawiya, who is succeeded by his son, azid.

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:J-:J>6 2hiKite revolt in Ira$.

>((6 !on$uest of 2pain.

>(>->(J6 ttempt to con$uer !onstantinople.

>F*6 Battle of &ours.

bbasid !aliphate =Baghdad?6 >/-(*J

>(6 Battle of &alas6 rabs learn papermaking from !hinese prisoners of war

>:6 school of medicine is established in Baghdad.

>/-J/6 &he Gour orthodo' schools of law are established.

J/-J>6 &he &radition is formalized.

(/(/6 Girdawsi completes his "pic of Dings, the great epic poem of Persia.

(/-(*/6 "'pansion of Islam under the 2el#uks and !hristian responses.

(*J6 ongols sack Baghdad. bbasid !aliphate ends.

>:-(/F(6 7mayyad emirate in 2pain =!ordova?

)(/-((>(6 Gatimid !aliphate in "gypt =!airo?

(F>)-(/(6 &amerlane establishes an empire in Persia, Ira$ and 2yria

(/(-(>*F6 2afavid "mpire in Persia

&he 7ttoman "mpire6 (F/-()(J.

ca. (*F6 &urkish nomads settle in sia inor

(*))-(F*:6 7sman I

(/*6 &amerlane defeats 7ttomans at nkara

(F6 !onstantinople is con$uered.

(*/-(::6 2uleiman II the agnificent

(>(6 &he Battle of Eepanto

(>/F-(>F/6 !ultural revival under hmed III

(>>6 &reaty of Ducuk Daynarca

(J**-(JF/6 ;reek 8ar of Independences

(JF-(J:6 &he !rimean 8ar

(J>:6 &he 7ttoman !onstitution is promulgated

()(6 &he 7ttoman "mpire enters 8orld 8ar I

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2ince it4s founding in the seventh century 1, the religious

he Ka0a1a in !ecca

2ystem Dnown as Islam has come to dominate much of the world. Gollowers of the Islamic faith are referred to as uslims, a titlemeaning, one who submits to the will of llah =;od? or believer. Islam is also referred to by synonymous titles which include

+anifism and ohommedanism, the second attributing credit to the founder of the religion, ohammed. !onsidered the apostle and

final prophet of llah, ohammed is the central human figure of Islam.

ccording to Islamic beliefs, the angel ;abriel visited ohammed in order that ohammed might know and declare the will of llah

&he sacred te't of the uslims, called the Doran, is a record of the meditative utterances of ohammed that his followers complied

after his death in :F* 1. ohammed never claimed to be divine and is not worshipped as such. In fact, the strict monotheism of

Islam will not allow for the worship of any other being but llah. &his monotheistic view took root with braham, the great patriarch

of the nation of Israel who is considered the first uslim. &hough the uslims adhere to the authority of the prophets of

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1uring the 'ial ge, enlightened thinkers, throughout the known world, were developing new e'planations of e'istence, and manKs

place within the order of the universe. In India, the Lpanishads redefined the ryan religious tradition. Eed by ksatriya ascetics, this

new development rebelled against the ritual superiority of the brahman class proliferated during the 0edic period. &his movemen

gradually led to an integral transformation of +indu thought. But, while these new thinkers $uietly transmuted the ryan belie

system, two other luminaries, not only challenged the ritualism of the former tradition, but openly re#ected the rigidity of class

distinction, forming new religions.

2imilar to the seekers, who reformed +induistic thought, the individuals responsible for the growth of these new religions came from

the ksatryia caste that sought a release from the brahmanKs domination of ritual. lso significant, in this $uest for change, were the

members of the vaishya caste. 8ith the collapse of tribalism, India e'perienced great material and economic growth from which this

class, which included an increasing number of merchants, craftsmen, and professional, benefited. any of the vaishya, therefore

resented the privileges afforded the upper two castes, which invariably prepared them for religious ferment.

ost prominent of the two individuals seeking answers to the orthodo' 0edism, and the in#ustice of the caste system was 2iddhartha

;autama=c. :F B!-JF B!? who founded the religion known as Buddhism. lthough this tradition significantly diminished in the

land of its birth, it remained a powerful force in the rest of the world. !entral to Buddhist thought are the Gour 5oble &ruths6 that al

life is suffering =dukkha?% the cause of suffering is desire% escape from dukkha can be attained by ending desire% the path to the

cessation of desire can be achieved through the 5oble "ight-Gold Path comprised by right views, motives, speech, conduct, livelihoodeffort, thought and meditation.

lthough Buddhism became more important because of its spread outside of India,

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!ontrary to the popular perception that Indian civilization has been largely concerned with the affairs of the spirit and after-life

IndiaKs historical record suggests that some of the greatest Indian minds were much more concerned with developing philosophical

paradigms that were grounded in reality. &he premise that Indian philosophy is founded solely on mysticism and renunciation

emanates from a colonial and orientalist world view that seeks to obfuscate a rich tradition of scientific thought and analysis in India.

uch of the evidence for how IndiaKs ancient logicians and scientists developed their theories lies buried in polemical te'ts that are no

normally thought of as scientific te'ts. 8hile some of the treatises on mathematics, logic, grammar, and medicine have survived as

such - many philosophical te'ts enunciating a rational and scientific world view can only be constructed from e'tended referencesfound in philosophical te'ts and commentaries by Buddhist and

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Gor instance, they ridiculed the Brahmanical rituals of animal sacrifice6 If a beast slain in the

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to see all the comple'ities of nature that we are now able =through advanced scientific instruments and centuries of accumulated

knowledge?. &heir errors did not, however, stem from stubborn faith or deliberate re#ection of reality and real-world phenomenon.

In practice, =according to some historians? IndiaKs ancient &antric followers may have also had a largely rationalworld view, which

sprang from a practical mindset and was impaired only by the limited amount of scientific knowledge available to humanity at tha

time. !ritics of the tantrics dismissed them as se'ually obsessed hedonists. But they failed to acknowledge that the early tantrics had

an intuitive scientific streak and their understanding of se'ual reproduction is probably what may have also impelled them to develop

basic agricultural tools and other implements. In that sense, they were IndiaKs early technologists.

&he ge of 2cience and Reason

But even amongst those Indian philosophers who accepted the separation of mind and body and argued for the e'istence of the soul,

there was considerable dedication to the scientific method and to developing the principles of deductive and inductive logic. Grom

(/// B.! to the th ! .1 =also described as IndiaKs rationalistic period? treatises in astronomy, mathematics, logic, medicine and

linguistics were produced. &he philosophers of the 2ankhya school, the 5yaya-0aisesika schools and early

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&he use of the decimal system and the concept of zero was essential in facilitating large astronomical calculation and allowed such >th

! mathematicians as Brahmagupta to estimate the earthKs circumferanceat about *F,/// miles - =not too far off from the curren

calculation?. It also enabled Indian astronomers to provide fairly accurate longitudes of important places in India.

&he science of yurveda - =the ancient Indian system of healing? blossomed in this period. edical practitioners took up the

dissection of corpses, practised surgery, developed popular nutritional guides, and wrote out codes for medical procedures and patient

care and diagnosis. !hemical processes associated with the dying of te'tiles and e'traction of metals were studied and documented.

&he use of mordants =in dyeing? and catalysts =in metal-e'tractionMpurification? was discovered.

&he scientific ethos also had itKs impact on the arts and literature. Painting and sculpture flourished even as there were advances in

social infrastructure. Lniversities were set up with dormitories and meeting halls. In addition, according to the !hinese traveller

+ieun &sang, roads were built with well-marked signposts. 2hade trees were planted. Inns and hospitals dotted national highways so

as to facilitate travel and trade.

IndiaKs rational age was thus a period of tremendous intellectual ferment and vitality. It was a period of scientific discovery and

technological innovation. ccompanied by challenges to caste discrimination and rigidity and religious obscurantism - it was also aperiod of great social upheaval that eventually led to society becoming more democratic, allowing greater social interaction between

members of different castes and e'pandingopportunities for social mobility amongst the population. 2ocial ethics drew considerable

attention in this period. Rules of engagement during war were constructed so as to eliminate non-military casualties and destruction of

pasture-land, crop-land or orchards. &he notion of chivalry in war was popularized - it meant not attacking fleeing or in#ured soldiers

It also re$uired warring armies to provide safe passage to women, children, the elderly and other non-combatants.

&he rational period thus saw progress on several fronts. 5ot only did it create an enduring foundation for IndiaKs civilization to

develop and mature -it has also had itKs impact on the growth of other civilizations. In fact, IndiaKs rational period served as a vital link

in the long and varied chain of human progress. lthough colonial history has attempted to usurp this collective heritage of the plane

and make it e'clusively euro-centric, it is important to note that fundamental and important discoveries in science and innovations in

technology have come from many different parts of the globe, albeit at different times and stages of world civilization. India made

significant contributions in this regard. If India is to fully recover from the depredations of colonial rule, it is imperative that we donKt

forget the achievements of this inspiring epoch.

History of the 3hysical Sciences in India

In all early civilizations, the study of the physical sciences was neither formalized nor separated from other branches of knowledge.

nd at least initially, there were few conscious attempts to study the theory of science independently of the practical innovations and

technologies that re$uired some application of scientific principles. In most cases, technological discoveries took place without any

knowledge of the underlying scientific principles, through hit and trial, and by e'perience. 2ometimes there was a vague orappro'imate awareness of the science, but the predominant focus remained on the utilitarian aspects of the techni$ue, on practical

efficacy, as opposed to howand why something worked or didnKt work.

In India, the earliest applications of chemistry took place in the conte't of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology =such as

manufacture of cement and paints? and in te'tile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, there

alsoemerged a concomitant interest in attempting to describe the basic elements of matter - what they were composed of, and how

they interacted with each other to produce new substances. 5atural phenomenon were studied in the conte't of tides, rainfall

appearance of the sun, the moon and stellar formations, changes in season, weather patterns and agriculture. =Gor instance, 0edic

literature mentions the condensation of water vapour from seas and oceans due to evaporation =caused by the sunKs heat? and the

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subse$uent formation of clouds and rain.? &his naturally led to theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today

studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistryand physics.

3hilosophy and 3hysical Science

8hile it is hard to say which precedes which - theory or practice - clearly there is a dialectical relationship between both, and the

neglect of either leads to the death of science. Religious beliefs, particularly religious taboos and irrational indoctrination towards

mystical or magical phenomenon, or adherence to false superstitions can often pose as serious impediments to the advance of science

and play an important role in whether the why and the how of physical causes can be safely and usefully e'plored.

2ocieties that believed that only the gods knew the secrets of nature, and that it was futile for humans to attempt to unravel the

mysteries of the universe were naturally incapable of making any substantial progress in the realm of the sciences. "ven in societies

where there were no formal religious taboos in understanding real-world phenomenon in a scientific way, the power and the influence

of the priests could serve as an obstacle to scientific progress. Gor instance, in a society where ritual practices alonewere considered

sufficient in achieving desired goals, there would naturally be little scope for serious investigation into the properties and laws of

nature.

8hile ancient India did not generally suffer from the first affliction =of religious opposition to science?, it did suffer from the second

=the proliferation of rituals and superstitions?. &he progress of science in India was thus ine'tricably linked to challenges to the

domination of the priests, and resistance to the proliferation of rituals and sacrifices. It was necessary to at least argue that rituals alone

were insufficient in producing desired results, and that some measure of rational observation of the world was necessary in shaping

human destiny. It is therefore no accident that, by and large, developments in science and technology came in parallel with the

advance of rational philosophy in India. =2ee 1evelopment of Philosophical &hought and 2cientific ethod?.

In the earliest scientific te'ts such has those of the 0aisheshikas =:th ! B! or possibly earlier?, =see Philosophical 1evelopment from

Lpanishadic &heism to 2cientific Realism?, there was a rudimentary attempt at recordingthe physical properties of different types of

plants and natural substances. &here was also an attempt at summarizing and classifying the observations made about natura

phenomenon. Intuitive formulations and appro'imate theories about the composition of matter and physical behavior followed. &hus

although the earliest applications of physics and chemistry in India =as in other ancient societies?, took place without involving much

theoretical knowledge or insight into these branches of science, there were elements of basic scientific investigation and scientific

documentation in these early rational treatises. Primitive and tentative as these steps were, they were neverthelesscrucial to humanity

reaching itKs present stage of knowledge in the fields of physics, chemistry, botany, biology and other physical sciences.

3article 3hysics

lthough particle physics is one of the most advanced and most complicated branches of modern physics, the earliest atomic theoriesare at least *// years old. In India, virtually every rational school of philosophy =whether +indu, Buddhist or

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Qlthough it may be #ust a coincidence, but the development of the

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=l +aytham =b, Basra, worked in !airo, (/th !? who may have been familiar with the writings of ryabhatta, e'pounded a more

advanced theory of optics using light rays, diagrammatically e'plaining the concepts of reflection and refraction. +e is particularly

known for elucidating the laws of refraction and articulating that refraction was caused by light rays traveling at different speeds in

different materials.?

Astronomy and 3hysics

th ! 1, and it appears from some of his definitions that at least some of the concepts he enunciated must

have emerged from a study of planetary motion. In addition to linear motion, Prasastapada also described curvilinear motion

=gamana?, rotary motion =bhramana? and vibratory motion. +e also differentiated motion that was initiated by some e'ternal action

from that which took place as a result of gravity or fluidity.

+e was also aware of motion that resulted from elasticity or momentum, or as an opposite reaction to an e'ternal force. +e also notedthat some types of actions result in like motion, and others in opposite motion, or no motion at all - the variations arising from the

internal and inherent properties of the interacting ob#ects.

Prasastapada also noted that at any given instance, a particle was capable of only a single motion =although a body such as a blowing

leaf composed of multiple particles may e'perience a more comple' pattern of motion due to different particles moving in different

ways? - an important concept that was to facilitate in later $uantifications of the laws of motion.

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In the (/th !. 2ridhara reiterated what had been observed by Prasastapada, and e'panded on what he had documented

Bhaskaracharya =(*th !?, in his 2iddhanta 2iromani and ;anitadhyaya, took a crucial first step in $uantification, and measured

average velocity as vOsMt =where v is the average velocity, s is distance covered, and t is time?.

Gor their time, PrasastapadaKs work, and 2ridhara and BhaskaracharyaKs later elaborations ought to be considered $uite significant

+owever, one of the weaknesses of later Indian treatises was a failure to follow up with further attempts at $uantification and

conceptual elaboration. Gor instance, several types of motion had been earlier assigned to unseen causes. &here was no subse$uent

attempts to solve these mysteries, nor was there the realization that the invisible cause behind various types of motion could beconceptually generalized and formally characterized and e'pressed in an abstract way, through a mathematical formula as was done by

5ewton a few centuries later.

E7perimentation versus Intuition

In fact, the ne't ma#or step in the study of motion was to take place in "ngland, when the ground for scientific investigation was

prepared by the likes of Roger Bacon =(Fth !? who described the great obstacles to learning as regard for authority, force of habit

theological pre#udice and false concept of knowledge. century later, erton scholars at 7'ford developed the concept of accelerated

motion =an important precursor to the understanding that forceOmassCacceleration? and took rudimentary but important steps in the

measurement and $uantification of heat in a rod. 7ne of the hallmarks of British =and "uropean? science thereafter was the fusion of

theory and practice, unlike the generally intuitive approach followed by Indian scientists when investigating fields other than

astronomy.

Gor instance, right up to the (:th !, Indian scientists continued to record useful scientific observations, but without serious attempts a

$uantification, or deeper investigation into the physical and chemical causes of what they observed. agnetism is referred to by

Bho#a =(/th-((th !? as well as by 2ankara isra later. Ldayana =(/th-((th !? recognized solar heat as the heat-source of all chemica

changes, and also that air had weight in a discussion of balloons in his Diranawali. 0allabhacharya =(Fth !? in his 5yaya-lilavatpointed out the resistance of water to a sinking ob#ect, but did not go on to discuss the principle any further. 2ankara isra =(th-(:th

!? noted the phenomenon of electrostatic attraction after he had observed how grass and straw were attracted by amber. But the cause

was deemed adrishta =unseen cause?. +e also recorded some awareness of the concept of kinetic energy and in his Lpaskara dwelt on

the properties of heat, and tried to relate the process of boiling to evaporation. In the same treatise, 2ankara isra also gave e'ample

of capillary motion citing the ascent of sap from root to stem in a plant and the ability of li$uids to penetrate porous vessels. +e also

wrote about surface tension, and posited sandrata =viscosity? as the cause behind the cohesion of water molecules and the smoothness

of water itself.

he Social !ilieu

et, unlike in astronomy, where many Indian scientists got very intensely involved, and were driven to work towards a considerable

degree of accuracy, no such compulsions appeared to guide Indian scientists in other fields. 8hereas Indian astronomers were

compelled to develop useful mathematical formulae and e'plore the mysteries of the universe in greater depth - in other fields of

scientific investigation, Indian scientists seemed to remain content with intuitive and general observations, tolerating a far greate

degree of vagueness and imprecision. &he answer to this apparent inconsistency may lie in the social milieu. &he study of astronomy

was triggered partly by practical considerations such as the need for accurate monsoon prediction and rainfall mapping, but perhaps

even more so, by the growing demand for good astrologers. &he obsession with astrological charts - both amongst the royalty and

mercantile classes led to considerable state patronage of intellectuals who wished to pursue the study of astronomy. Patronage was

also available for alchemists - for those attempting to discover the eli'ir of life. But support for modern scientific research as was

beginning to take shape in (th ! 7'ford was generally lacking.

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It may also be noted that in terms of pedagogy, the standard 8estern te'ts are not always as useful. 7ften, the teaching of physics and

chemistry becomes too esoteric for the average student. &here is e'cessive abstraction in most te't books, and undue theoretica

comple'ity is thrust upon relatively young students. In contrast, the Indian approach with itKs stress on observation of natura

phenomenon, and epistemological approach to understanding each field are much easier to grasp for beginners and intermediate

students. 7nce the student understands the basics, and develops a good intuitive way of perceiving scientific phenomenon - the

comple'ities and mathematical abstractions can follow - and the world of the physical sciences can be opened up to more than #ust the

few who are able to transcend the comple'ities and difficulties that accompany the study of these branches of science today.

History of !athematics in India

In all early civilizations, the first e'pression of mathematical understanding appears in the form of counting systems. 5umbers in very

early societies were typically represented by groups of lines, though later different numbers came to be assigned specific numeral

names and symbols =as in India? or were designated by alphabetic letters =such as in Rome?. lthough today, we take our decima

system for granted, not all ancient civilizations based their numbers on a ten-base system. In ancient Babylon, a se'agesimal=base :/?

system was in use.

he (ecimal System in HarappaIn India a decimal system was already in place during the +arappan period, as indicated by an analysis of +arappan weights and

measures. 8eights corresponding to ratios of /./, /.(, /.*, /., (, *, , (/, */, /, (//, *//, and // have been identified, as have

scales with decimal divisions. particularly notable characteristic of +arappan weights and measures is their remarkable accuracy.

bronze rod marked in units of /.F:> inches points to the degree of precision demanded in those times. 2uch scales were particularly

important in ensuring proper implementation of town planning rules that re$uired roads of fi'ed widths to run at right angles to each

other, for drains to be constructed of precise measurements, and for homes to be constructed according to specified guidelines. &he

e'istence of a gradated system of accurately marked weights points to the development of trade and commerce in +arappansociety.

!athematical Activity in the Vedic 3eriod

In the 0edic period, records of mathematical activity are mostly to be found in 0edic te'ts associated with ritual activities. +owever

as in many other early agricultural civilizations, the study of arithmetic and geometry was also impelled by secular considerations.

&hus, to some e'tent early mathematical developments in India mirrored the developments in "gypt, Babylon and !hina . &he system

of land grants and agricultural ta' assessments re$uired accurate measurement of cultivated areas. s land was redistributed or

consolidated, problems of mensuration came up that re$uired solutions. In order to ensure that all cultivators had e$uivalent amounts

of irrigated and non-irrigated lands and tracts of e$uivalent fertility - individual farmers in a village often had their holdings broken up

in several parcels to ensure fairness. 2ince plots could not all be of the same shape - local administrators were re$uired to convert

rectangular plots or triangular plots to s$uares of e$uivalent sizes and so on. &a' assessments were based on fi'ed proportions of

annual or seasonal crop incomes, but could be ad#usted upwards or downwards based on a variety of factors. &his meant that an

understanding of geometry and arithmetic was virtually essential for revenue administrators. athematics was thus brought into the

service of both the secular and the ritual domains.

rithmetic operations =;anit? such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, fractions, s$uares, cubes and roots are enumerated in the

5arad 0ishnu Purana attributed to 0ed 0yas =pre-(/// B!?. "'amples of geometric knowledge =rekha-ganit? are to be found in the

2ulva-2utras of Baudhayana =J// B!? and pasthmaba =:// B!? which describe techni$ues for the construction of ritual altars in use

during the 0edic era. It is likely that these te'ts tapped geometric knowledge that may have been ac$uired much earlier, possibly in the

+arappan period. BaudhayanaKs 2utra displays an understanding of basic geometric shapes and techni$ues of converting one

geometric shape =such as a rectangle? to another of e$uivalent =or multiple, or fractional? area =such as a s$uare?. 8hile some of the

formulations are appro'imations, others are accurate and reveal a certain degree of practical ingenuity as well as some theoretical

understanding of basic geometric principles. odern methods of multiplication and addition probably emerged from the techni$ues

described in the 2ulva-2utras.

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Pythagoras - the ;reek mathematician and philosopher who lived in the :th ! B.! was familiar with the Lpanishads and learnt his

basic geometry from the 2ulva 2utras. n early statementof what is commonly known as the Pythagoras theorem is to be found in

BaudhayanaKs 2utra6 &he chord which is stretched across the diagonal of a s$uare produces an area of double the size. similar

observation pertaining to oblongs is also noted. +is 2utra also contains geometric solutions ofa linear e$uation in a single unknown

"'amples of $uadratic e$uations also appear. pasthambaKs sutra =an e'pansion of BaudhayanaKs with several original contributions

provides a value for the s$uare root of * that is accurate to the fifth decimal place. pasthamba also looked at the problems o

s$uaring a circle, dividing a segment into seven e$ual parts, and a solution to the general linear e$uation.

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to develop the notion of logarithms. &erms like rdh ached , &rik ached, and !hatur achedare used to denote log base *, log base

F and log base respectively. In 2atkhandagama various sets are operated upon by logarithmic functions to base two, by s$uaring and

e'tracting s$uare roots, and by raising to finite or infinite powers. &he operations are repeated to produce new sets. In other works the

relation of the number of combinations to the coefficients occurring in the binomial e'pansion is noted.

2ince

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&his also led to the e'change of te'ts on astronomy and mathematics amongst scholars and the transmission of knowledge from one

part of India to another. 0irtually every Indian state produced great mathematicians who wrote commentaries on the works of other

mathematicians =who may have lived and worked in a different part of India many centuries earlier?. 2anskrit served as the common

medium of scientific communication.

&he science of astronomy was also spurred by the need to have accurate calendars and a better understanding of climate and rainfal

patterns for timely sowing and choice of crops. t the same time, religion and astrology also played a role in creating an interest in

astronomy and a negative fallout of this irrational influence was the re#ection of scientific theories that were far ahead of their time.7ne of the greatest scientists of the ;upta period - ryabhatta =born in >: 1, Dusumpura, Bihar? provided a systematic treatment of

the position of the planets in space. +e correctly posited the a'ial rotation of the earth, and inferred correctly that the orbits of the

planets were ellipses. +e also correctly deduced that the moon and the planets shined by reflected sunlight and provided a valid

e'planation for the solar and lunar eclipses re#ecting the superstitions and mythical belief systems surrounding the phenomenon.

lthough Bhaskar I =born 2aurashtra, :th !, and follower of the smaka school of science, 5izamabad, ndhra ? recognized hi

genius and the tremendous value of his scientific contributions, some later astronomers continued to believe in a static earth and

re#ected his rational e'planations of the eclipses. But in spite of such setbacks, ryabhatta had a profound influence on the

astronomers and mathematicians who followed him, particularly on those from the smaka school.

athematics played a vital role in ryabhattaKs revolutionary understanding of the solar system. +is calculationson pi, the

circumferance of the earth =:*JF* miles? and the length of the solar year =within about (F minutes of the modern calculation? wereremarkably close appro'imations. In making such calculations, ryabhatta had to solve several mathematical problems that had no

been addressed before including problems in algebra =bee#-ganit? and trigonometry =trikonmiti?.

Bhaskar I continued where ryabhatta left off, and discussedin further detail topics such as the longitudes of the planets% con#unction

of the planets with each other and with bright stars% risings and settings of the planets% and the lunar crescent. gain, these studies

re$uired still more advanced mathematics and Bhaskar I e'panded on the trigonometric e$uations provided by ryabhatta, and like

ryabhatta correctly assessed pi to be an irrational number. mongst his most important contributions was his formula for calculating

thesine function which was ))S accurate. +e also did pioneering work on indeterminate e$uations and considered for the first time

$uadrilateralswith all the four sides une$ual and none of the opposite sides parallel.

nother important astronomerMmathematician was 0arahamira =:th !, L##ain? who compiled previously written te'ts on astronomy

and made important additions to ryabhattaKs trigonometric formulas. +is works on permutations and combinations complemented

what had been previously achieved by th century, Brahmagupta did important work in enumerating the basic principles o

algebra. In addition to listing the algebraic properties of zero, he also listed the algebraic properties of negative numbers. +is work on

solutions to $uadratic indeterminate e$uations anticipated the work of "uler and Eagrange.

Emergence of Calculus

In the course of developing a precise mapping of the lunar eclipse, ryabhatta was obliged to introduce the concept of infinitesimals

i.e. tatkalika gati to designate the infinitesimal, or near instantaneous motion of the moon, and e'press it in the form of a basic

differential e$uation. ryabhattaKs e$uations were elaborated on by an#ula =(/th !? and Bhaskaracharya =(*th !? who derived the

differential of the sine function. Eater mathematicians used their intuitive understanding of integration in deriving the areas of curved

surfaces and the volumes enclosed by them.

Applied !athematics9 Solutions to 3ractical 3ro1lems

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1evelopments also took place in applied mathematics such as in creation of trigonometric tables and measurementunits

ativrsabhaKs work &iloyapannatti=:th !? gives various units for measuring distances and time and also describes the system of infinite

time measures.

In the )th !, ahaviracharya = ysore? wrote ;anit 2aar 2angraha where he described the currently used method of calculating the

Eeast !ommon ultiple =E!? of given numbers. +e also derivedformulae to calculate the area of an ellipse and a $uadrilatera

inscribed within a circle =something that had also been looked at by Brahmagupta? &he solution of indeterminate e$uations also drew

considerable interest in the )th century, and several mathematicians contributed appro'imations and solutions to different types ofindeterminate e$uations.

In the late )th !, 2ridhara =probably Bengal? provided mathematical formulae for a variety of practical problems involving ratios

barter, simple interest, mi'tures, purchase and sale, rates of travel, wages, and filling of cisterns. 2ome of thesee'amples involved

fairly complicated solutions and his Patiganita is considered an advanced mathematical work. 2ections of the book were also devoted

to arithmetic and geometric progressions, including progressions with fractional numbers or terms, and formulas for the sum of certain

finite series are provided. athematical investigation continued into the (/th !. 0i#ayanandi =of Benares, whose Daranatilaka was

translated by l-Beruni into rabic? and 2ripatiof aharashtra are amongst the prominent mathematicians of the century.

&he leading light of (*th ! Indian mathematics was Bhaskaracharya who came from a long-line of mathematicians and was head of

the astronomical observatory at L##ain. +e left several important mathematical te'ts including the Eilavati and Bi#aganita and the

2iddhanta 2hiromani, an astronomical te't. +e was the first to recognize that certain types of $uadratic e$uations could have two

solutions. +is !hakrawaat method of solving indeterminate solutions preceded "uropean solutions by several centuries, and in his

2iddhanta 2hiromani he postulated that the earth had a gravitational force, and broached the fields of infinitesimal calculation and

integration. In the second part of this treatise, there are several chapters relating to the study of the sphere and itKs properties and

applications to geography, planetary mean motion, eccentric epicyclical model of the planets, first visibilities of the planets, the

seasons, the lunar crescent etc. +e also discussed astronomical instruments and spherical trigonometry. 7f particular interest are his

trigonometric e$uations6 sin=a T b? O sin a cos b T cos a sin b% sin=a - b? O sin a cos b - cos a sin b%

he Spread of Indian !athematics&he study of mathematics appears to slow down after the onslaught of the Islamic invasions and the conversion of colleges and

universities to madrasahs. But this was also the time when Indian mathematical te'ts were increasingly being translated into rabic

and Persian. lthough rab scholars relied on a variety of sources including Babylonian, 2yriac, ;reek and some !hinese te'ts

Indian mathematical te'ts played a particularly important role. 2cholars such as Ibn &ari$ and l-Gazari =Jth !, Baghdad?, l-Dindi

=)th !, Basra?, l-Dhwarizmi =)th !. Dhiva?, l-Nayarawani =)th !, aghreb, author of Ditab fi al-hisab al-hindi?, l-L$lidisi =(/th

!, 1amascus, author of &he book of !hapters in Indian rithmetic?, Ibn-2ina =vicenna?, Ibn al-2amh =;ranada, ((th !, 2pain?, l

5asawi =Dhurasan, ((th !, Persia?, l-Beruni =((th !, born Dhiva, died fghanistan?, l-Razi =&eheran?, and Ibn-l-2affar =((th !

!ordoba? were amongst the many who based their own scientific te'ts on translations of Indian treatises. Records of the Indian origin

of many proofs, concepts and formulations were obscured in the later centuries, but the enormous contributions of Indian

mathematics was generously acknowledged by several important rabic and Persian scholars, especially in 2pain. bbasid scholar l

;aheth wrote6 India is the source of knowledge, thought and insightU. l-aoudi =): 1? who travelled in 8estern India also

wrote about the greatness of Indian science. 2aid l-ndalusi, an ((th ! 2panish scholar and court historian was amongst the mos

enthusiastic in his praise of Indian civilization, and specially remarked on Indian achievements in the sciences and in mathematics. 7

course, eventually, Indian algebra and trigonometry reached "urope through a cycle of translations, traveling from the rab world to

2pain and 2icily, and eventually penetrating all of "urope. t the same time, rabic and Persian translations of ;reek and "gyptian

scientific te'ts become more readily available in India.

he Kerala School

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lthough it appears that original work in mathematics ceased in much of 5orthern India after the Islamic con$uests, Benarassurvived

as a center for mathematical study, and an important school of mathematics blossomed in Derala. adhava =(th !, Dochi? made

important mathematical discoveries that would not be identified by "uropean mathematicians till at least two centuries later. +is series

e'pansion of the cos and sine functions anticipated 5ewton by almost three centuries. +istorians of mathematics, Ra#agopal

Rangachari and )? complained of the cost of these and other lu'ury commodities

that were imported from India. 5ot a year passed in which India did not take fifty million sesterces away from Rome, wrote Pliny

&his trade surplus gave rise to prosperous urban centres that were linked to an e'tensive network of internal trade. Eiterary records

from that period paint a picture of abundance and splendour . &he 2ilappathikaarum =&he nkle Bracelet?, a &amil romance =roughly

dated to the late second century 1?, provides a glimpse of the maritime wealth of the cosmopolitan cities of 2outh India. 2et in the

prosperous port city of Puhar =Daveripattanam?, the story refers to ship owners described as having riches Kthe envy of foreign kingsK

Puhar is portrayed as a city populated by enterpreneurial merchants and traders, where trade was well regulated6 &he city of Puhar

possessed a spacious forum for storing bales of merchandise, with markings showing the $uantity, weight, and name of the owner.

&he 2ilappathikaarum suggests that the markets offered a great variety of precious commodities prized in the ancient world. 2pecia

streets were earmarked for merchants that traded in items such as coral, sandalwood, #ewellery, faultless pearls, pure gold, and

precious gems. 2killed craftspeople brought their finished goods such as fine silks, woven fabrics, and lu'urious ivory carvings

rchealogical finds of spectacular burial #ewellery in southern India appear to corroborate such accounts. 5orthern India also had its

flourishing urban centres. &his can be inferred from descriptions of an archealogical site in ancient &a'ila. 0ladimir Vwalf =in /// years - +ugh &ait, "ditor? notes6 &he site has yielded magnificent and well-preserved gold #ewellery, notably necklaces, ear-

pendants and finger-rings, characterised by a mastery of granulation and inlay. 8hile most ornaments from that period have no

survived, sculpture from several sites shows heavy adornment. Patliputra =now Patna? during the auryan period was described by

travellers as one of the grandest cities of that period.

E:I5ES

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&he anti$uity of Indian te'tile e'ports can be established from the records of the ;reek geographer 2trabo =:F B! - 1 */? and from

the first century ;reek source Periplus, which mentions the ;u#arati port of Barygaza, =Broach? as e'porting a variety of te'tiles

rchaeological evidence from ohen#o-1aro, establishes that the comple' technology of mordant dyeing had been known in the

subcontinent from at least the second millennium B !. &he use of printing blocks in India may go as far back as F/// B.!, and some

historians are of the view that India may have been the original home of te'tile printing. &he e'port of printed fabrics to !hina can be

dated to the fourth century B !, where they were much used and and admired, and later, imitated. - = 2tuart Robinson6 K +istory of

Printed &e'tilesK?. &he thirteenth-century !hinese traveller !hau /(. =5ot all te'tile producing centres were

associated with ports. 2everal te'tile producing centres that catered to the internal market, and to the overland international trade were

located in 5orthern and !entral India, in the kingdoms of the Ra#puts and the ughals, each with their own uni$ue specialization.

8hile Dashmir was well known for its woollen weaves and embroidery, cities like Benaras, L##ain, Indore and Paithan =near

urangabad? were known for their fine silks and brocades. Ra#asthan specialized in all manner of patterned prints and dyed cloths

Gine collections of Indian &e'tiles can be seen in the !alico useum in hmedabad and in the !rafts useum in 1elhi?

CA'3ES

ccording to te'ts dating from the Buddhist era, woolen carpets were known in India as early as // B.!. References to woven mats

and floor coverings are not infre$uent in ancient and medieval Indian literature. By the (:th century, carpet-weaving centreswere

established in all the ma#or courts of the sub-continent. +owever, it is the output of the ughal period that is now attracting

international attention. 1ismissed by earlier scholars as mechanical derivatives of Persian carpets, Indian carpets of the ughalperiod

are slowly gaining recognition as the most technically accomplished classical carpets of all times.

1aniel 8alker, curator at the etropolitan useum of rt =5ew ork? has described pile-woven carpets of the ughal era as among

the most beautiful works of art ever created. +e suggests that the large-scale production from the imperial workshops of kbar set

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HE 'E"I4/A5 KI/"(4!S

8hile much is known of the oghuls, less is known of the regional kingdoms who were e$ually cultured, and also made their mark in

manufactures and trade. 2usan 2tronge - =&he 2ultanates of the 1eccan, rts of India, (/ - ()//? writes6 8ith the e'ception of

architecture, little of the artistic production of the sultanates has survived, and that which has is usually uninscribed and

undocumented. 5evertheless, the superb $uality of some of the surviving artefacts provides a tantalising glimpse of a world of courtly

splendour and cultural refinement, others indicating traditions which, though less elevated, are lively and appealing. Eike thei

ughal counterparts, the 1eccani 5awabs were great patrons of the arts and music, and in portraitures are often depicted with fine

#ewellery and fine silks. 8hat is of particular interest today is the secular administration of these sultanates. In their patronage o

Ragamala paintings, the 1eccani nawabs shared the tastes of the Ra#puts, and later rulers of the Pun#ab hills and Pun#ab plains. Based

on the romantic folk-lore of popular traditions, the ragamala painting became a highly sophisticated art form - its lyrical and

e'pressive style appealing to +indhu, uslim and 2ikh patrons alike. sad Beg, who chronicled the court of Bi#apurKs Ibrahim di

2hah II =(J:-(:*>?, mentions that dil 2hah spoke arathi and his Ditab-i-5auras, a collection of songs in 1eccani Lrdu were set to

different ragas, some paying homage to uslim saints, others recalling the +indhu deities 2araswati and ;anesha. ccording to sad

Beg, under Ibrahim 2hah, +indhus had access to positions of political importance and economic power. Eike kbar, one of his most

trusted officials was ntu Pandit. nother +indhu, Ram#i, was head of the Bi#apuri guild of#ewellers and court adviser on matters of

#ewellery purchase and selection. nd like in the KkarkhanasK of kbar, skilled +indhu craftsmen, were #ust as likely to find

employment as skilled uslims. Both courts strived towards perfection in their manufactures, and could not afford religious

discrimination.

SHI33I/" A/( /AV B.! had even at that time, an actual Board of dmiralty, with a 2uperintendent of 2hips at its head.

References to it can be found in DautilyaKs rthasastra. Grom their voyages of con$uest and trade, we can infer that although much

later, the Pallavas, Pandyas and !holas of 2outh India must also have had an efficient naval organization. Prior to colonial rule, the

most significant 5avy in the Indian 7cean, was that of the ughals. t its peak, during the reign of kbar, it had over F/// vessels

and was concentrated in the Bay of Bengal, although a good proportion of the fleet was also based in ;u#arat. 1escribed in the yeen

i-kbari =!hronicle of the Reign of kbar?, the 5avy controlled shipbuilding, conducted naval surveys, collected customs duties and

ensured ade$uate crew recruitments. 1uring urangzebKs reign, the ughal fleet functioned only in the Bay of Bengal, and wa

heavily used against "uropean traders =particularly the Portuguese? who challenged the ughal authority and tried to avoid customs

payments. In the Bay of Bengal, the kingdom of ssam had its own fleets, while the arathas had theirs on the 8est coast. In this

period, the trade within sia was still largely conducted by sians. &he merchants of 2urat, who relied upon ships built by the 8adia

of Bombay =who had not taken long to copy prevailing "uropean designs? were particularly rich - one of them 0ir#i 0ora =who died in

the beginning of the (Jth century? left a fortune of ** million gold francs. ccording to certain travellers, 2urat was then the mos

beautiful city of India. 7ne small detail will give an idea of the unparalleled lu'ury that prevailed there6 certain streets were paved

with porcelain. Grancois artin in his emoires calls it Ka real BabylonK.KK - =uguste &oussaint in K+istory of the Indian 7ceanK.?

HE (EC5I/E I/ 'A(E 'EVE/=ES

+owever, such prosperity was not to last long. In that same period, as the revenues to the ughals from the overland trade dwindled

due to heightened competition from the "ast India !ompany =which undercut prices for Indian e'ports offered by the 7ttomans of

&urkey?, the ughal state after urangzeb crumbled, and the strength of the Indian 5avy diminished as a conse$uence. =lthough the

sea route around the frican !ape was much longer than the overland route, the indirect profits from the frican slave trade tha

accrued to the "ast India !ompany allowed it to out-compete the 7ttomans and thus draw away badly needed revenues from theughal treasury?. lthough the kingdoms of 7udh and Bengal thrived for a while, by (>*( the "ast India !ompany had been

prohibited from importing Indian te'tiles into "urope. &his was a ma#or economic blow for the entire sub-continent% in particular, the

Bengal 5awabs, who were unable to invest sufficiently in maintaining an ade$uate 5avy. t the same time, the "ast India !ompany

had turned its attention to the contraband 7pium &rade with !hina, which re$uired military cover, for which contingents of the British

Royal 5avy were sent to the Indian 7cean and the 2outh !hina 2ea, enhancing British military power in the Bay of Bengal. &he rapid

depletion of the ughal treasuries, thus started a chain reaction. Lnable to supervise the vast regions under its authority, the ugha

state disintegrated. !raftspeople employed in the ughal KkarkhanasK sought patronage from the regional courts of wadh and Bengal

or Ra#putana and Pun#ab, or the arathas of !entral India, all of whom e'perienced a short-lived, but often brilliant cultura

renaissance. ughal and +indhu =or 2ikh? styles were fused in the regions, producing several uni$ue and syncretic traditions

+owever, after the te'tile bans and inability to enforce customs collections, the smaller Indian states simply lacked the economic and

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military means to resist the onslaught of the now richer and more poweful "ast India !ompany. &he defeat at Plassey in (>> was thus

a monumental turning point in history. nation that had long en#oyed a trade surplus from its manufactures was soon to be reduced to

penury. R. uker#i describes this process in K&he Rise and Gall of the "ast India !ompanyK, noting that the defeat of the oghuls and

the political ascendance of the "ast India !ompany was accompanied by a decline of the Indian mercantile bourgeoisie. &he great

merchants of India, who had earlier derived protection from the ughals, and had benefited from the naval patrols of kbar and

urangzeb, were by the end of the eighteenth century, practically e'tinguished in Bengal and elsewhere. lthough it took another

century for the con$uest of India to be consolidated, and although a third of India escaped direct colonial rule, a long era had come to

a close. &he crafts of that era were either to be obliterated, or survive precariously. Remunerated at a much lower rate, they were

unlikely to gain the prestige and respect they once en#oyed. It is important to note this difference between the British colonizers and

earlier con$uerers who made India their home. 8hereas earlier con$uerers had taken full advantage of IndiaKs manufacturing skills

and either steered them in different directions, or attempted to augment and refine them, for the British, IndiaKs manufacturing

strengths were unnecessary competition, and were best snuffed out, or left to languish . &hose who attempt to treat the British as no

different from IndiaKs previous Islamic rulers do great in#ustice to this ineffaceable reality. 2everal of IndiaKs previous rulers came as

foriegners - as invaders and con$uerers - but they lived and died in India. !onse$uently, the monuments they built, the artefacts they

commissioned, the culture that they sponsored - all of it, is now the legacy of the people of the sub-continent. &he riches that they

ac$uired were recycled in the same land, but what the British took away may never be returned. "ven in its faded glory, IndiaKs Islamic

legacy has more authenticity than colonial rule. s Indians look to the future, they may