Ancient India

Introudction

The ancient civilization of India grew

up in a sharply demarcated sub-

continent bounded on the north by

the world's largest mountain range-

the chain of the Himalayas, which,

with its extensions to east and west,

divided India from the rest of Asia

and the world.

The long sea coasts of India

facilitated the growth of maritime

trade and a large number of

harbours were established through

which trade relations with Rome,

China, Malaya, South East Asian

archipelago were set up. India's

centralised position in Indian Ocean

is also of great strategic and

economic importance.

India is a curious meeting place of

diverse religions, races, manners

and customs. From the point of religion, India is the home of the Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists,

Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in the languages of the Indian people.

From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a

composite population.

In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:-

1. Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the

Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.

2. Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India

3. Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India

4. Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa

5. Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa

The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The

study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as

the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the

Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers

made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the

states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.

The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and

of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around

2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery

they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of

implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited

the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux.

The Mahajanapadas attracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century

BC, Herodotusobserved that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Pre Historic Period

Indus Valley Civilisation

Vedic Age

Rise of Mahajanapadas

Age of Religious Movements

The Mauryas (321 BC - 185 BC)

India after Mauryas

The Sangam Age

The age of Gupta

Transformation From Ancient Phase to Medieval Phase

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book

Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767

Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe

Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist.

Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical

languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816.

Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda

Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the St-

Petersburg Lexicon

James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837. He

was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.

William Jones translated in 1789 Kalidasa's masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into English.

Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

Sources of Ancient Indian HistorySources of ancient Indian History can be described under the following five headings:-

1. Literary Sources:  The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains

no definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no

trace of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The

epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us

with some important historical material with doses of religious messeges.

Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas"

Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which

supply us some historical materials. Gargi Samhita , a book on astronomy,

the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction

of the history of the ancient period of India.

From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of

kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration.

Kautilya's Arthasastra andManusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of

the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta'sMudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and

culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa

in Malvikagnimitram. Among the personal accounts of ancient period,

Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana

as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered

Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya

king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a

description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal.

Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise,

Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka Charita, Hem Chandra's Dwasraya Kavya , Nyaya

Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical

materials.

2. Archaeological Evidence : The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and

skilled examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the pre-

Aryan past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January

1784). General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of

ancient site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham, the Father of

Indian Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the

study of material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established

the post of Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885,

he devoted himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.

In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John

Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second

Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the

biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which

were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro

and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.

In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at

Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of

great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated

from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.

3. Inscriptions :   Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is

called epigraphy . These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or

stone pillars, rocks temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again

are mainly of three types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary

marks, deeds, gift, etc. and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.

Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered.

But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.

James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in

deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor

Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of

Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of

Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India.

4. Coins :   The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have

been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency

system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta

playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has been

possible to understand the contemporary political history. Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins

and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and love of hunting.

5. Accounts of the Foreigners :  A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are

supplemented by the writing of foreigners. 

The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning

the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author Book Subject

Magasthenes(G) IndicaValuable information on administration and

socio-economic of Mauryan India

Ptolemy(G) GeographyGeographical treatise on India in 2nd Century

AD

Pliny(G) Naturakus HistoriaAccounts trade relations between Rome and

India in 1st Century AD

Anonymous(G) Periplus of the Erythrean SeaRecords personal voyage of Indian coasts in

80 A.D.

Fa-Hien(C) Record of the Buddhist CountriesRecords the Gupta Empire in the 5th Century

AD

Hiuen Tsang(C)Buddhist Records of the Western

World

Describes the social, economic and religious

conditions of India in the 5th and 7th Century

AD.

I-tsing(C)

A record of the Buddhists religion as

practised in India and Malay

Archipelago.

Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in

the 7th Century AD.

Hwuili(C) Life of Hiuen Tsang Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

G-Greek,C-Chinese 

Pre Historic Period

Introduction

Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa

dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo

sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone

tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.

Evolution of Man

First Fossile -- Male -Ramapithecus 

                    Female - Shivapithecus             

                    (10-14 million years ago)

These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt range

Homoerectus: Found in Hathnora (Lower Palaeolithic) 10 lakh B.C.

Homo sapiens : Found in Upper Palaeolithic Regions

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as 1776. C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish museums. Lubbock in France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In 1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the manner of compartments or stages. Yet, it is generally classified as follows:- 

Palaeolithic Age

Mesolithic Age

Neolithic Age

Chalcolithic Age

Copper Phase

Iron Age

Pre History

Palaeolithic Age or Mesolithic Age or Neolithic Age orOld stone age Late Stone Age New Stone age(500,000-10,000 BC) (10,000-4,000 BC) (6,000-1,000 BC)

Palaeolithic Age cab be further divided into following:-

Palaeolithic Age

Lower Palaeolithic Culture Middle Palaeolithic Culture Upper Palaeolithic Culture

(5,00,000 - 100,00 BC) (100,000 - 40,000 BC) (40,000 - 10,000 BC)

Pre Historic Phases

Stone Age Primary Culture Major Site Importance

Lower

Palaeolithic

Flakes,Chopper

Chopping Culture

Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except

Sind and Kerala. Main :- Sohan(Punjab),

Singrauli basin (U.P.), Chhotanagpur

(Jharkhand), Assam, Narmada, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka.

- Head axe and pebble

tools, Fossil ofHomo

Erectus from Hathnaura

(Narmada basin) 

- Represented by Sohan

Culture (now in Pakistan.)

Middle

Palaeolithic

Scraper/Booer

Culture

Navasa (Maharashtra), Didwana

(Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (MP), Bankura

and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada

Valley etc.

- Varieties of Blades,

Points, Borer and Scraper

made of Flakes. 

- 200 rock shelters and

caves are located on

Bhimbetka hills having

thousands of paintings.

Upper

Palaeolithic

Blade and Burin

Culture

A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka,

Central MP, Jharkhan Plateau, U.P.,

Rajasthan, Gujrat

- The age of Neanderthal

Man 

- Earlier "Homo Sapiens" 

- Harpoon, blade tools

from Renugunta (A.P.) 

- Bone tools from

Kurnool.

Meslithic

Age

Microliths Culture

or Fluting &

Gometrical tools

Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara),

Gujrat (Langhanj), M.P., Tamil

Nadu,West Benal (Birbhanpur), U.P.

(Sarai Nahar Rai)

- Microlith (a great

technological

development,

introduction of compound

tools) 

- Man still a savage but

pottery maing (Tilwara)

and permanent

habitation found, still a

hunder, fisher.

Neolithic

Ate

Polished tool

culture

Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam

(Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya,

Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, Amri,

Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc

- Earlies Farming

community 

- Kinship became the

basis of social

organisation 

- Pit dwelling houses 

- Food begain to be

cooked by fire 

-Evidence of dogs,

circular huts made of

bamboo, bone-tools,

hand made pottery etc 

- Also called "Neolithic

Revolution" 

-Boat making, spinning

cotton and wool.

Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC)

It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'.

Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases: 

1. Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000 BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice

Age and its characteristic feature is the use of hand-axe, cleaners and choppen

2. Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised

by flakes. The principal tools are variety of blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.

3. Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and

new flint industries; widespread appearance of a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art and

rituals; the appearance of wide range of bone tools, including needles, fishing tools, harpoons,

blades and burin tools.

Palaeolithic Age People :

Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks. 

Facts to Remember

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period.

Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone in India in 1863.

The Palaeolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge

Expedition in 1935 led by Deterra and Patterson.

The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Palaeolithic man in India is

also called"Quartzite Man"

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously founded in Bhimbetka from different periods. The animals depicted in these paintings were mostly bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinocerous, boars etc. and were based on their hunting lives. The upper Palaeolithic art is characterised by red and green colours. 

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths

all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock

Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The

Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has

alo been witnessed from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. 

Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of

fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five

centimeters long. 

Paintings :   At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been

discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found.

Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown

in various poses.

Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing

games and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes. Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow

were used in making these paintings.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)(6,000-1,000 BC)

The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John

Lubbock in 1865.Miles Burkit enumerated four

characteristics of neolithic culture

1. Animal domestication

2. Agricultural practice

3. Grined and Polished stone tools and

4. Pottery manufacture

The discovery of the tools and implements of the

neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar

Pradesh in 1860. Later on, Frasherdiscovered such

objects in Bellary in South India. The people of this age

used tools and implements of polished stone.

Neolithic People : The civilisation and culture of the

Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The

Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as

the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated. The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or

pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now

started roasting it. Besides this, bows and arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of

hunting. They also learnt pottery, at first by hand and then with the potter's wheel. They painted and

decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes

of hunting and dancing. The also learnt the art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury

their dead and construct tombs over them which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.s

Neolithic Tools : The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all

over the tools or at the buttend and working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their

tools out of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate,

chlorite, schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite.

Occupation :   Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat,

barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early stage. Elephant,

rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these

domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished. 

Red, Grey, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Wars are associated with

this culture. 

Tools making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed

needles, bodkins and pierced batons.

Facts to Remember

Sir John Lubbock coined the term Neolithic in his book Prehistoric Teme , first published in

1865. The term refers to an age in which stone implements were more skillfully made and more

varied in form.

It was V. Gardon Childe who defined the Neolothic-Chalcolithic culture as a self sufficient food

economy

Miles Burkit put forward the following four characteristics a culture should fulfil to be called a

Neolithic Culture

1. Agriculture practice

2. Domestication of animal

3. polished and grined stone tools

4. pottery manufacture

Chalcolithic Age

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. Firt metal to be used was copper and

the culture of that time is calledChalcolithic cultre. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase

are extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at

Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the Narmada.

The transition from use of stone to the use of metals is slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that

there was an overlapping period when both stone and metals were used. This is proved by the close

resemblance of metallic tools and implements with those made of stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper

bronze age or stone-copper age of India produced a splendid civilisation in the Indus Valley which

spread in the neighbouring regions.

Occupation:   Their economy was based on subsistence agricultre, stock-raising, hunting and fishing.

Their tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of silicious material like chalcedony and chert.

Copper and bronze tools were present in a limited number. The culture shares the common

characteristic of painted pottery.

Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried

in north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a

fraction of population buried their dead.

Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Largest - Diamabad

Town features at Diamabad and Inamagaon

Town Planning - Inamgaon

Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Balathal

Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund

Stone Dwellings - Ahar

Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found

Microliths have been found from Ahar

Flat, Rectangular copper axe have been found frm Jorwey and Chandoli

Chief Crop Barley

Evidence of Rice has been found from Inamgaon

Fire Altars and Fire Worksip were prevalent

Inner Funeral System

North South direction of burials

East West direction of burials were prevalent in South India

About Pottery and Types  

Pottery Type

Ahar Red Ware

Kayatha Deep Red Ware

Malwa Deep Brown & Black

Saalda Pictographic (Red & Black)

Jorwe Pictographic (Red & Black)

Prabhas Pictographic (Red & Black)

Rangpur Polished Red

The Copper Phase

More than forty hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatches, swords, harpoons, spearheads and human-

like figures have been found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orrisa in the East to Gujrat

and Haryana in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh in the south to Uttar Pradesh in North. The largest

hoard comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper tools and weapons and 102

thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the Ganga-

Yamuna doab. 

All the implements of the copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and were one

of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to settle in a good portion of the doab.

Copper Hoard

Stretched from North-West to East and upto Tamil Nadu

Black copper has been found at these sites

It continued upto 1500 BC

Chief Area - Gangetic Valley

Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibia (UP), Bithur (UP), Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP)

Pottery :   This period was marked by two types of pottery: Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be

roughly placed between 2000 BC-1500 BC on the scientific dating and Black and Red pottery from

about 1000 BC.

Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was discovered during excavatings at Badaun

and Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured (OCP) as it contained a wash of

ochre. The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of

ware are ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between

2000 BC and 1500 BC. The Black and Red Ware (BRW) followed the OCP.

Black and Red Ware (BRW) : Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar Pradesh in the 1960s brought to

light a distinct pottery. The pottery, called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted

Grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age.

Iron Age

In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any case, there were periods of

overlappongs in the use of stone, copper, bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from

copper-bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, cremolechs. These have

been found in wide areas all over India such as Assam, Bihar, Orrisa, Central India, Gujrat and Kashmir.

But by far the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and the Decan. These iron

monuments appear to have belonged to both pre-historic and historic periods. 

Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly district, Coimbatore, Malaba, Penumbur etc.

also show varied stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with copper, bronze and iron

implements have been discovered, making it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from

copper-bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, no definite conclusion in this

regard can be arrived at. Iron age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware. 

Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :It referes to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted

with black designs. The name chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to think this,

as a type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin

clay pots to as high as at temperature as 800 degree celcius.

Pre Historic Findings

Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted Rock Shelters

Nevasa - Evidence of cotton

Atranjikheda - Textile printing

Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane

Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddness

Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture

Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice

Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal

Chirand - Serpant cult

Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

Indus Valley CivilisationIn 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement ofSir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east.

Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history

of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the

pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Controversial Period

Economic Life

Geographical Extent

Political Life

Social and Religious Life

Town Planning

Indus Valley Facts

Name of

Sites

Year of

ExcavationExcavators Region/River Features

Harappa 1921 Daya Ram

Sahni

Montgomery district of

Punjab (Now in Pak) on

the left bank of Ravi

1. City followed grid

planning

2. Row of six granaries

3. Only place having

evidences of coffin

burial

4. Evidence of fractional

burial and coffin burial

5. Cemetery-H of alien

people.

Mohenjo-

daro1922 R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind

on the right bank of

Indus(Now in Pak)

1. City followed grid

planning

2. A large granary and

Great Bath, a college

3. Human skeletons

showing invasiona and

massacre.

4. Evidence of Horse

come from superficial

level.

5. A piece of woven

cotton alongwith

spindle whorls and

needles

6. Town was flooded

more then seven

times.

Chanhu-daro 1931

N. Gopal

Majumdar,

Mackey

Situtated in Sind on the

bank of Indus

1. The city has no citadal

2. Famous for bead

makers shop

3. A small pot, possibly

an inkpot

4. Foot prints of a dog

chasing a cat

5. Three different cultural

layers, Indus,Jhukar

and Jhangar

Kalibangan 1953 A. Ghosh Situated in Rajasthan

on the Bank of Ghaggar

1. Shows both Pre

Harappan and

Harappan phase

2. Evidence of furrowed

land

3. Evidence of seven fire

altars and camel bones

4. Many houses had their

own well

5. Kalibangan stand for

black bangles

6. Evidence of wooden

furrow

Lothal 1953 S.R. Rao

Situated in Gujarat on

Bhogava river near Gulf

of Cambay

1. A titled floor which

bears intersecting

design of circles

2. Remains of rice husk

3. Evidence of horse from

a terracotta figurine

4. A ship designed on a

seal

5. Beads & trade ports

6. An instrument for

measuring

angles,pointing to

modern day compass

Banwali 1974 R.S. BishtSituated in Hissar

district of Haryana

1. Shows both Pre-

Harappan and Harppan

phase

2. Good quantity of

barley found here

3.

Surkotada 1964 J.P. JoshiSituated in Kutch (Bhuj)

district of Gujarat

1. Bones of horses, Bead

making shops

Sutkagendor 1927 Stein, R.L.Situated in Baluchistan

on Dast River

1. Trade point between

Harappa and Babylon,

belong to mature

phase

2. Evidence of horse

Amri 1935 N.G. MajumdarSituated in Sind on the

bank of Indus

1. Evidence of antelope

Dholavira 1985-90 R.S. BishtSituated in Gujarat in

Rann of Kutch

1. Seven cultural stages

2. Largest site

3. Three party of city

4. Unique water

management

Rangpur 1953M.S. Vats, B.B.

Lal & S.R. Rao

Situated on the bank of

Mahar in Gujarat

1. Rice was cultivated

Kot Diji 1953 Fazal AhmedSituated on the bank of

Indus

1. Wheel made painted

pottery

2. Traces of defensive

wall and well aligned

streets

3. Knowledge of

metallurgy, artistic

toys etc

Ropar 1953 Y.D. SharmaSituated in Punjab of

the banks of Sutlej

1. Evidence of burying a

dog below the human

bural

2. One example of

rectangular mudbrick

chamber was noticed

3. Five fold cultures -

Harappan, PGW, NBP,

Kushana - Gupta and

Medieval

Balakot 1963-76 George F DalesSituated on the Arabian

Sea

1. Remain of pre

Harappan and

Harappan civilisation

2. The mounds rise to the

height of about 9.7mts

and are spread 2.8 sq

hectare of area

Alamgirpur 1958 Y.D. SharmaSituated on Hindon in

Ghaziabad

1. The impression of cloth

on a trough is

discovered

2. Usually considered to

be the eastern

boundary of the Indus

culture

Controversial Period

We cannot fix a precise date for the beginning of this civilisation, but certain indications synchronize it

roughly with the village cultures of Baluchistan. The site of Rana Ghundai produced a stratification

which showed, in the third phase of the village's history, a type of pottery with bold designs in black on

a red background. From evidence discovered by Sir R.E. Mortimer Wheeler in 1946, it seems that

city of Harppa was built on a site occupied by people using similar pottery. There is no evidence of the

date of the foundation of the other great city of Mohenjo-daro, for its lowest strata are now below the

level of the Indus, whose bed has slowly risen with the centuries; though diggings have reached 30

feet below the surface, flooding has prevented the exacavation of the earliest levels of the city. From

the faint indications which are all the evidence we have, it would seem that the Indus cities rose in the

first half, perhaps towards the middle, of the third millennium BC.

Difference between Pre Harappan and Proto Harappan Cultures : Cultures that preceded

Harappan culture are pre Harappan, while proto Harappan cultures are those pre Harappan cultures

which have some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated

certain essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto Harappan cultures are necesssarily

pre Harappan cultures, but all pre Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto Harappan cultures.

Periodization of Indus Valley Civilization

Date Range Phase Era

5500-3300 Mehargarh II-IV Regionalization Era

3300-2600 Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age)

3300-2800 

2800-2600

Harppan - I(Ravi Phase) 

Harappan 2(Kot Diji Phase,Naisharo 1, Mehrgarh VII)

2600-1900 Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age)

2600-2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo IIO) Integration Era

2450-2200 Harappan 3B

2200-1900 Harappan 3C

1900-1300 Late Harappan (Late Bronze Age)

1900-1700 

1700-1300

Harappan 4 

Harappan 5Localization Era

Economic Life

The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were

undoubtedly "comfort loving" and were prosperous. It also shows great knowledge of crop-pattern and

seasons.

Currency :   Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappans sites but also from

the remains of other world civilisations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing and emblem

and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In

absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods

they need in exchange of their articles.

Agriculture :   The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plain in November, when the flood water

receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.

The Harappans probably used the wooden plough with wooden or copper ploughware.

       The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi, etc. They produced two

typles of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to

this, they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.

Domestication of Animals:   Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a

large scale Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped

bulls were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats

have been noticed. They also kept asses and camels, which were possibly used as beasts of burden.

Elephants were well known to the Harappan, who were also acquanited with the rhinoceros, spotted

dear, sambhar deer, hog deer, wild pig etc. Therefore there is ample evidence to show patrolism of

Harappan people.

Trade and Commerce :The thriving agriculural economy supported a flourishing trade both within

the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those

of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia. The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia. It

seals and produce were also discovered at Sumer. The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants

from Indus actually resided in Mesopotamia. Their chief merchandise were probably cotton exported

from probably Lothal harbour. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations

with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region.

Major Imports by the Harappans

Material Source

Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka

Silver Afghanistan, Iran

Copper Baluchistan and Khetri(Rajasthan)

Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia

Agates Western India

Lead Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran

Coins Copper seals from Lothal and Desalpur

Jade Central Asia

Crafts and Industies :   Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial center. Weaving was probably the chief

industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry.

We should not forgot that harappan pictographical scripts are mainly found on potteries. Harappans

used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but alo to

the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals were well-known to the people of Harappa. They also

attest to a class of mesons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta

manufacturing.

Weights and Measures : The regulations of weights and measures forms the basis of trade and

Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were

known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert,

jasper and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64

then going to 160, 320, 640 and so forth.

Communications :   Transport and communications are a major part of trade and commerce.

Harappans also had good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of

ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport,

they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practicsed navigation on the coasts of

the Arabian Sea. Mohenjo-daro seals bear the picture of ship.

Arts :   The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were

well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze smiths produced images and utensils.

They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely axes, knives and spears. Jewelleries of

Silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.

     The most notable artistic achievement of the Harappans was in their seal engravings, especially

those of animals. The pots were beautifully painted in several colours such as red, black, green and

rarely yellow. The terracotta figuries, both human and animal, and toys prove that the Harappa people,

enojoyed the work of art. Status made of bronze, stone and sandstone repsresent their high sense of

art.

Geographical Extent

The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilisation in area(geographical extent),

including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind), but also northern Rajasthan and the region of

the Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the the centers of authority

were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far are

distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor in

Baluchistan; Alamgirpur in Merrut district (Uttar Pradesh) in east; and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu

and Kashmir) in north, covering an area of almost 1600 km, east-west and 1400 km in north south. The

total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of

Egytian and more than 12 times of the area of about 12,50,000 sq.km. Harappan settlements are

mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati.

Some New Findings

Site Location Discovered by

Ganverivala Pakistan Rafeeq Mughal

Rakhi Garhi Jind (Haryana, India) Rafeeq Mughal

Political Life

There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were

more concerned with commerce that with conquests, and Harappa was possibly ruled by the a class of

merchants. Accroding to Amaur De Riencourt : "All the evidence points to a high degree of

standardization and organization, implying strong centralisation with full control over production and

distribution and probably a high efficient system of taxation". Evidences, like drainage, town planning,

trading items suggests that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to look after the

civil amenities of the people.

Relation with other Civilizations  

The indus valley civilization had a direct contact with many of the contemporary world civilizations:

Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenia, Oman and Bahrain. Harappan shells and carnelian beads have been

found iin Mesopotamian royal burials, Mesopotamian clay tahlets refer to wood, gold and lapis lazuli

coming from Meluha, the ancient Akkadian name for the Indus region. Harrapan Seals and other

objects have been excavated in several Mesopotamian cities, such as Sura, Kish, Nippur and Ur.

Evidence of a direct relationship between Harappan culture and Egypt in fragmentary and

inconclusive. There are evidences of Harappan artfacts, such as etched carnelian beads and ivory, in

Bahrain.

Decline and Disappearance  

The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800 BC. Afterwards, the culture began to decline. There

is no unanimity among historian on the exact reason of the decline of this urban civilization. Different

theories of decline have been put forward by different scholars. 

The following table gives the important theories and their profounders as regards decline of the Indus

culture. 

Decline of Indus Valley

Theorists Reasons of decline

Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot External Aggression

H.T.Lambrick Unstable river system

K.U.R.Kenedy Natural calamity

Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh Climate change

R. Mprtimer Wheeler Aryan invasion

Robert Raikes Earthquake

Sood and Aggarwal Dryness of river

Walter Fairservis Ecological imbalance

Social And Religious Life

The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories :-

1. Class : It is not proved if there existed any classes or caster as the Aryan's verna system.

Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the

occupation of the people, probably priestly class and general people.

2. Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything

definitely, because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two

types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of

status and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular

among both men and women.

3. Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:o The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a

yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four

animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow

deers appear at his feeto The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various

forms to please fertility Goddess.o There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone

symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been

discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.o The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and

Harappa.o Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals

(unicorn etc)o They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.

4. Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic

but waslogosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered,

overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from

left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.

5. Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music

were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities

show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles

our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were

well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.

6. Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead

bodies yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by

burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of

Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.

7. Town Planning8. The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and

urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the

west of each a citadel built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class

existence. It was defended by walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this

citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other

streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both

sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks.

At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house

had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and

staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings. Most of the houses had

wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground

drain of the steet.

Town Associated with Different Industries

Levan Stone tools factory

Sukar Stone tools factory

LothalStone tools factory 

Factory for metallic finished goods

Balakot Factory for pearl finished goods, Bangle's factory

Chanhudaro

Beads Factory 

Pearl finished goods factory 

Metallic finished goods factory 

Bangle's factory

9.

Evidence from Chief Sites

Cemetery H & R-37 Harappa

Prepared Garments Mohenjodaro

Lower fortified town Kalibangan

Port town Lothal

Evidence of Rice Lothal, Rangpur

Coffin Burial Harappa

Horse Bone Surkotada

Fire Altar Kalibangan & Lothal

Temple like palace Mohenjodaro

Horse's Tooth Rana Ghundai

Pashuptai Seal Mohenjodaro

Goddesses Mohenjodaro

Copper Rhino Diamabad

Copper Chariot Diamabad

Copper Elephant Diamabad

Granery Mohenjodaro & Harappa

Bronze Female Dancer Mohenjodaro

Granery outside fort Harappa

Beads Factory Chanhudaro, Balakot

Copper ox Kalibangan

Bangles Factory Chanhudaro, Balakot

Graveyard Harappa, Lothal

Phallur Worship Harappa

Bronze Bufallo Diamabad

Evidence of Earthquake Kalibangan

Evidence of Plough Kalibangan

Copper dog Lothal

Camel's Bone Kalibangan

Stone Covered Grave Surkotada

Canals Malavan

Woodenn Drainage Kalibangan

Indus Valley Facts

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance

The state which has accounted for highest

number of Harappan sites after

independence : Gujarat

Three Harappan sites that have yielded

three stages of Harappan Civilization (Pre-

Harappan, Harappan and post-

Harappan : Rojde, Desalpur and

Surkotada )

Most commonly engraved animal on

Harappan seals : Humpless bull or

unicorn

Site which have yielded evidence of a pre-

Harappan settlement: Kot-Diji,

Kalibangan and Harappa

Major Harappan cities that acted as

ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor

and Allahdin (Pakistan)

The Harappan city with most impressive

drainage system : Mohenjo-daro

Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has

been traced from Harappa, paddy from

Lothal

Harappans had trade relations with

Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.

Largest Harappan site in India is situated in

Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is

Dholavira in Gujarat.

Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width

-5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4 2:1

Harappan wheels were axeless

Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road.

In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi

the Granery is outside the fort.

In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard

which is 216 meters in length and 37

meters in breadth

Sukotada is the only Indus site where

remains of a horse have actually been

The geometric shape of the region

covered by the Indus

civilisation : Triangle

Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of

Sumerians

Lions have not been found anywhere in

Harappa.

Mother goddess was not worshipped at

Rangpur.

A Kushana period Stupa has been found

from Mohenjo-daro

found.

Terracoota seals found

at Mehargarh were the earliest

precussors of Harappan seals.

Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot.

Most common materials used for the

Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone

and steatite

Time span of the Harappan civilization as

fixed on the basis of radio-carbon dating:

2300 BC - 1750 BC.

Vedic Age

Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the

coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly

to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The

relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe

was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.

Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the

best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and

sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely,Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva

Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda

Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th

Mandala

Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda

Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana

Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala)

Varna - Rigveda

Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

10th Mandala

Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Upanishada

War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda

Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka

Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana

Wife and Husband are complementary -

Satapathabrahmana

Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)

Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala

Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana

Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada

Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda

Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana

Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa -

Katha Upanishada

Origin of Aryans

Aryans arrival in India

Rig Vedic Polity

Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Rig Vedic Gods

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Later Vedic Society

Religion in Later Vedic Period

Vedic Literature

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

Origin of Aryans

                                   

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar,

believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived

somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region

known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and

the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing

into a number of tribes migrated in search of

pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to

India. By that time, they came to be known as

Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names

mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC

and the Mitanniinscriptions of the fourteenth

century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from

Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans

Region Theorist

Asia

Central Asia Max Muller

Tibet Dayanand Saraswati

Pamirs Mayor

Turkistan Hurz Feld

Bactria J.C. Rod

Steepes Brandstein

Europe

Germany Penka and Hert

Hungry Giles

Southern Russia Nehring

West Baltic Mach

Arctic Region B.G. Tilak

Russian Steppes Prof. Belfy

India

Central India Rajbali Pandey

Kashmir L.D. Kala

Sapta Sindhu A.C. Das

Himalayan Foothills Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-

Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people

residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the

historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.

Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of

Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-

economic context.

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people

who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous

inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the

defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda

represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was

called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus.

The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.

Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata

and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and

North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians.

On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards.

Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans

The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.

The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate.

The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the

Brahmavarta)

The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they

called Dasas or Dasyus

The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to

1000 BC)

The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be

known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC)

The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with

them.

Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the

centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by

the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its

cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and ganamentioned in the Rig

Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended

the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were

the sabha and samiti

In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important

functionary seems to have been thepurohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time

of Rig Vedawere Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani.

Princes received from the people voluntary offering calledbali.

There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were

employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the

pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads

of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing

arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different

tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana

However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies

Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest.

These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.

The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature

and less exclusive than Sabha.

Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.

A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to

the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda

isvis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the

gramas clashed with one another, it causedsamgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned

rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by

termgriha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had

not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family

headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.

Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of

primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig

Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied

Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was

established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the

indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans,

were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors,

priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig

Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was

not very sharp.

Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary

occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse

played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of

agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an

interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions

such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This

indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that

metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People

Gold Hiranya

Iron Shyama

Copper Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about

sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part

in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an

exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat

(yava), vegetables and fruit.

Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor,

called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly

acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the

chants appropriate for the ceremonies.

Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is

mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the

practice is beyond doubt.

Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda

Rig Vedic Name New Name

Gomati Gomal

Krumi Kurram

Kubha Kabul

Suvastu Swat

Sindhu Indus

Drishadvari Ghaghar/Chitang

Satudri Satluj

Vipas Beas

Parushni Ravi

Asikni Chenab

Vitasta Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda

Word Times Mentioned Word Times Mentioned

Pita 335 Rajya 1

Ashva 315 Kulpa 1

Jana 275 Ganga 1

Mata 234 Samudra 1

Indra 250 Sabha 8

Gau 176 Samiti 9

Vish 171 Grama 13

Vidata 122 Vidatha 122

Brahmana 14 Yamuna 3

Surya 10 Rashtra 10

Kshatriya 9 Krishi 33

Yamuna 3 Sena 20 Approx.

Raja 1 Rudra 3

Sudra 1 Vrihaspati 11

Vaishya 1 Prithavi 1

Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of

prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle)

and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God

Did not believe in idol worship

Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God

Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial

Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi,

Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male

Gods.

People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare ofPraja & Pashu

Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part

of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods

Indra

He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan

soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda.

He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various

names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam

AgniHe was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200

hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.

Varuna He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.

Soma He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.

Yama He was the guardian of the world of dead.

Surya Similar to that of the Greek God Helios

Savitri The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri

Pusan Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.

Vishnu A relatively minor God at that time.

Vayu Wind God

Dyaus Father of Heaven

Aditi Goddess of Eternity

Maruts Storm Spirits

Gandharvas Divine Musicians

Ashvins Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art

Ribhus Gnomes

Apsaras Mistresses of Gods

Rudra An archer of God, whose anger brought disease

Vishvadeva Intermediate Deities

Aranyani Goddess of Forest

Usha Goddess of Dawn

Prithvi Goddess of Earth

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared.

The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no

longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The

formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become

territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed

the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the

asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran

uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was

made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king

officer called sangrihitri. 

Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times

of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from

the same plate.

Regions and Kings

Eastern King Samrat

Western King Suvrat

Northern King Virat

Southern King Bhoja

King of middle country Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani Supreme Commander of army

Vrajapati Officer-in-Charge of pasture land

Jivagribha Police Officer

Spasas/Dutas Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers

Gramani Head of the village

Kulapati Head of the family

Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes

Bhagadugha Revenue collector

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Mahishi Chief Queen

Suta Charioteer and court minstrel

Govikartana Keeper of games and forests

Palagala Messenger

Kshatri Chamberlain

Akshavapa Accountant

Sthapati Chief Justice

Takshan Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age

Kingdom Location

Gandhar Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab

Kekaya On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom

Uttar Madra Kashmir

Eastern Madra Near Kangra

Southern Madra Near Amritsar

Kushinagar Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh

Panchal Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh

Kashi Modern Varanasi

Koshal Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater

scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants

were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was

also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an

important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.

New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather

workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.

Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware,

Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by

the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in

northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both.

These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.

Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-

Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of

circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was

a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called

the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras, each varna was assigned with its duty.

Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at

the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war,

and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into

conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy.

Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared

one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or

investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of

the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside

the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.

According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker

of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for

being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called

the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such as rathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher

status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagara appears for the first time

showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some

women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation

rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age

Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals

Daiva Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.

Arsa A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.

Prajapati Marriage without dowry and bride-price.

GandharvaMarriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it

was swayamvara or self choice.

Asura Marriage by purchase.

PaisachaIt is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be

called a marriage.

Rakshasa Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman,

Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were

religious marriages and were indissoluble.

Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the

sacred texts.

Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her

own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen

or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a

mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto

unrelated people. People began to practisegotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between

persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In

the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or

householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world.

But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-

established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely

eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal

usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish

and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at

least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.

Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment

and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female.

Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used.

Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.

Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of

veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and

gambling were other sources of amusement.

Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get

education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to

women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female

teachers were also there. 

The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military

science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand

Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of

animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and

protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice

signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to

the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi

(Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The

mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the

dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both

public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The

priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and given dakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests

The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:-

1. Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda

2. Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda.

3. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda

The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people calledBali

Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which

was supposed to confer supreme power on him.

Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the

area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end

of which horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was

made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was

believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from

the position to raja of that of samrat

Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women

Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child

Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.

Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year.

Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher

varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS

Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

"Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special

class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns

1. Karnataka - Jaiminga

2. Gujarat - Kanthun

3. Maharashtra - Ranayaniya

Sung by Udgatri

Rigveda

Collection of hymns

Oldest of all vedas

Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028

Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.

Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra

II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas

I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.

The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added

later.

Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.

Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj,

Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

Yajurveda

Book of sacrifical prayers

Rituals of yajnas

Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the

Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the

time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path"

Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Prose text

Atharvaveda

Mantras for magic spells

Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

Collection of 711/731/760 hymns

Not included in 'Trai'

Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

Provides freedom from evils spirits.

Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti 

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means

'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda,

Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas,

which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

i. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed

ii. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed

iii. the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give

precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and

explain the secret meaning of the later. 

Vedas and their Brahmanas

1. Rigveda Aitereya and Kaushitaki

2. Samaveda Tandya and Jaiminiya

3. Yajurveda Tattiriya and Satpatha

4. Atharvaveda Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites,

rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of

soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe. 

Aranyaka

Literarily, it means 'Jungle'

Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy

Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles

Give stress on meditation

Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all,

the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad,

Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

1. Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to

their disciples

2. Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

3. They are also called "Vedanta"

4. Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"

5. Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.

6. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.

7. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas

8. Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani

9. Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-

Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping

subjects:-

a. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to

the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the

ritual canon, including thedharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy,

(iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v)Nirukta or etymology

(vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)

b. The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha',

Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

c. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and

often extended to the Puranas.

d. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the

superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in

number 

The Eighteen Puranas

1 Brahma Purana 2 Vishnu Purana

3 Shiva Purana 4 Padma Purana

5 Shrimad Bhagwat Purana 6 Agni Purana

7 Narad Purana 8 Markandey Purana

9 Bhavishya Purana 10 Ling Purana

11 Varah Purana 12 Vaman Purana

13 Brahm Vaivertya Purana 14 Shanda Purana

15 Surya Purana 16 Matsya Purana

17 Garuda Purana 18 Brahmand Purana

e. Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics,

archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and

were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.

f. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian

Buddhist scholars

g. Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.

h. Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally

confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the

'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and

the Ramayanaare the two great epics of this period. 

Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes

theMahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and

had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and

augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in

the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya.Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to

before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it

received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD

250. 

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18

paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if

such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only

about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The

rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary

history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best

known is the Bhagavad Gita

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established.

They are as follows: 

Darshans AuthorsYear of

Beginning

Original

BookTheme

Nyaya Gautama 6th BC Nyaya Sutra

It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the

material power Maya,with the help of God,

becomes the universe.

Vaisheshik Kanada 6th BCVaisheshik

Sutra

It aims is to receive happiness in this life and

finally ultimate liberation through the

attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.

Sankhya Kapila 6th BCSankhya

Sutra

It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to

eliminate all kinds of physical and mental

pains and to receive liberation.

YogaMaharishi

Patanjali2nd BC Yog Sutra

It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of

evidences for determining the aim of life.

Purva

MimansaJaimini 4th BC

Purva

Mimansa

Sutra

It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme

and at the same time, the classification of its

issues.

Vedanta

(Uttara

Mimansa)

Maharishi

Vyasa4th BC

Uttara

Mimansa

Sutra

It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that

person who has a real deep desire to know

God. True liberation could only be attained by

lovingly surrendering to Him.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda

Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th

Mandala

Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda

Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana

Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala)

Varna - Rigveda

Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

10th Mandala

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana

Wife and Husband are complementary -

Satapathabrahmana

Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)

Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala

Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana

Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada

Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda

Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Upanishada

War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda

Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka

Upanishada

Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana

Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa -

Katha Upanishada

Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations

changed its identity and gradually shifted to the

territorial identity, and the area of settlement were

now regarded as janapadas or states. In transition

from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential

democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea

of government through an assembly representing

the tribes. These states consisted of either a single

tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc. The people

in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were

outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated. There

was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure

land of the Aryans called Aryavarta. Each janapada

tried to dominate and subjugateother janapadas to

become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations

Gandhara TaxilaCovering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in

North Western Province.

Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir

Asmaka PotanaCovering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank of

River Godavari

Vatsa Kaushambi Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur

Avanti UjjainCovering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya

Pradesh.

Surasena MathuraLocated in the Mathura region at the junction of the

Uttarapath & Dakshinapath

Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Budelkhand area

Maila Kushinara, PawaModern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern

Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom

Kurus Hastinapur/IndraprasthaCovering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west

of River Yamuna

Matsya Virat NagariCovering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in

Rajasthan

Vajjis Vaishali

Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was

the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of

which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also

members.

Anga Champa

Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in

Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into

Magadha.

Kashi BanarasLocated in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar

Pradesh.

Kosala ShravastiCovering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda,

Bahraich, etc.

Magadga Girivraja/RajgrihaCovering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of

Shahabad.

Panchala

Ahichhatra (W.

Panchala),

Kampilya (S. Panchala)

Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar

Pradesh.

Alexander Invasion

Persian Invasion

Effects of Greek Invasion

Rise of Magadha

Socio-Economic Conditions during Mahajanapadas

Important Republics: The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajapandas of

Vriji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like

Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an

Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. ThisGana-Parishad had the supreme authority in the state.

All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. Again, the republics were basically of two

types: (a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the Mallas,

and (b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the Vrijjis.

Difference between Republics and Monarchies

In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the monarchies,

the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues.

In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own little

army under his senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintaind his regular standing army. He did

not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries.

Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy

functioned under the individual leadership of the king.

The Brahamanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they

were relegated to the background in the republics.

Alexander Invasion

In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The Greek

ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he marched to India,

obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among the

rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose kingdom

lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul,

from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to

the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in India for 19

months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting. He had barely any time to organize his of the

conquest. Still, he made some arrangements. Most of the conquered states were restored to their

rulers who submitted to his authority. But his own territorial possessions were divided into three parts,

which were placed under three Greek governors.

Alexander Invasion

Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC

His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers

In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey.

In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

Persian Invasion

The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan kings,

took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius,

penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.

He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the most

populous province of the Persian empire. According to Herodotus, Punjab and Sindh satrapy (province)

was the twentieth in the Persian empire. It was considered to be the richest and the most popular

province of the Persian empire. Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust. The

Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier since then uptil about 4th century AD. On the

eve of Alexander's invasion, the hold of Persian emperors on their Indian provinces had become weak.

Chronology of Foreign Invasions

518-486 BC King Darius or Darus invaded India

326 BC Alexander invaded India

190 BC Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India

90 BC Sakas invaded India

Ist century AD Pahalavas invaded India

45 AD Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India

Effects of Persian Invasion

Introduction into India the Araminc form of writing, which later developed into the Kharoshthi

alphabet.

Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade

Geographical exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea, leading to opening of a new water

route.

Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art.

Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.

Effects of Greek Invasion

Effects of Greek Invasion

The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between north west and Wester India

Eastwards trade went through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern Burma and south along

the east coast.

Guilds (Shreni) came into existence

Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of copper cast have been

discovered.

Introduction of money facilitated the trade.

Divided his army during the last expedition at Patala and appointed Niyarkas as head of Navy.

Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land sea paving way for increased

trade and cultural contacts between the two regions.

Establishments of more Greek settlements in north-western region

Ashokan pillars were also influenced by Greek Art.

Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of the

Euphrates.

Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due to destruction of local

powers by Alexander

India and Greek established trade contact.

Coins of India non inscribed on 'Uluk Model' of the Greeks

Many Greek scholars came to India with Alexander and wrote on Indian history which are

relevant in constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspect.

Rise of Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present day Bihar) became the most

powerful Mahajanapada. The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership

ofBimbisara (542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by

marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the

sister of Prasenajit. His second wife Chellana was a Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife

was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different princely

families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha

westward and northward.

The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time. It was

surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made

Rajgir impregnable.

Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). Ajatasatru killed his father and seized

the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.

Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because he built the fort

upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of

the Magadhan kingdom.

The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the

capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its

capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.

The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful

rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not

dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering Kalinga

from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took place in the reign

of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other

ruling princes.

The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta

Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.

Causes for the rise of Magadha

Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic

locations.

Abudance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective

weapons.

The alluvial soil of the Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for

agriculture produces.

Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princess could levy

tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.

Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.

Unorthodox character of Magadhan society

Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.

Ambitious rulers and their policies.

Socio Economic Conditions During Mahajanapadas

Besides, the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased

prosperity and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its growth

of foreign trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries of Asia.

There were several trade routes and roads connecting different parts of India in all directions. One

trade route was from Kosambi, through Gangetic plain, to Punjab and then Taxila joining the routes to

Iran, Central Asia, European countries and several countries of Asia. Another route started from

Rajagriha and, passing through Kosambi and Ujjaini, was connected with the port of Baroach from

where the trade was carried on with western countries through sea-route. One important route passed

through the entire Gangetic plain and reached the boundary of Burma and yet, another route

connected northern plain with the sea-coast of south-east. These routes developed because of

increased trade and, in turn, helped in enhancing internal as well as external trade.

The increased prosperity of the Indian affected their social structure as well. Towns became not only

the centers of trade but centers of industries as well. Various goods were produced on a large scale to

feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time, Indian rulers

had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and growth of

industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated transactions.

The growth of trade and industry formed rich trading and industrial communities which concentraded

themselves in towns. We find existence of different guilds formed by traders and industrialism during

this period. It created various organised and consciously awakened groups in towns which, finally,

resulted in the formations of several sub-castes.

Age of religious movements: Jainism, Buddhism and others

In Post-Vedic

times, society

was clearly

divided into

four varnas:

1.

Brahmanas

2. Kshatriyas

3. Vaisyas and

4. Shudras

Each varna was assigned well-defined functions, through it was emphasised that varnas was based on birth and higher varnas were given some privileges. 

Naturally the varna divided society seems to have generated tensions. TheKshatriyas, who acted as rulers reacted against the domination of priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed various privileges. It was one of the causes of the origin of new religions.Vardhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, andGautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the kshatriya clan, and both disputed the authority ofbrahmanas. 

But the real cause of the rise of these new religions lay in the introduction of a new agriculture economy in the North East on India. The further sighted rise of a large number of cities in the north-eastern India. The earliest coins belong to the fifth century BC and they are called punch marked coins. The use of the coins naturally fascinated trade and commerce, which added to the importance of the vaisyas. 

The trade of moneylending was established in the Vedic age. The practice of providing loans on

interest was also legal but the trade was generally looked down upon a brahmans. The vaisyas who practised this trade wanted or raise their social position and in the eyes of religion. So the vaisyas standard support to both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. 

The vedic actness of killing cattle in rituals was inimical to the emerging agriculture economy. Besides the Sanskrit language was the knowledge of a chosen few while the common masses spoke Prakit. 

Significant Persons In World History During The Six Century BC

Zoraster(Persia) founder of Zorastrianism

Isaiah (Palestine) the preacher

Confucius(China) the philosopher

Laotse (China) the philosopher

Selone (Greece) the philosopher

Mahavira (India) 24th Thirtankara of Jainsim

Buddha (India) founder of Buddhism

Jainism Facts

Bhuddism Facts

Jainism Facts

Jainism: The founder: Rishabha, who was the father of king Bharata, the first Chakravarti king of India,

founded Jainism. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Gita describe Rishabha as an incarnation of

Narayana. Risabha was succedded by 23 other Tirthankaras. 

Parsvanatha (850 BC) was the 23rd Tirthankara. Jainism became a major religion under Vardhamana

Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara. 

Jainism in the past

The name of Jaina Tirthankaras Rishabha is found in the Rig Veda

The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabhu as an incarnation of Narayana.

The mail nude toro discovered from the Indus Valley culture has something to do with the

tirthankaras.

There were 24 tirthankars, all kshtriyas and belonging to the Royal family. Parsavanath was the

23rd tirthankara.

24 Tirthankaras

Name Symbol Name Symbol

1 Rishabha Bull 13 Vimalnath Boar

2 Ajitnath Elephant 14 Ananthnath Falcon

3 Sambharanath Hose 15 Dharmnath Vakra

4 Abhiaandam Swamy Monkey 16 Shantinath Deer

5 Sumathinath Curlew 17 Kuntunath He-Goat

6 Padamprabhu Red lotus 18 Arnath Fish

7 Suparaswanath Swastik 19 Mallinath Water port

8 Chanraji Prabhu Moon 20 Muniswasth Tortoise

9 Suvidhinath Crocodile 21 Naminath Blue Lotus

10 Shitalnath Srivatsa 22 Neminath Conch Shell

11 Shregansnath Rhinoceros 23 Parswanath Serpent

12 Vasupujya Buffalo 24 Mahavir Lion

Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father who was the head of a famous kshatriya clan (Inatrika), and his mother a Lichachhavi princess. At the age of 30 he became an ascetic. He kept on wandering for 12 years from place to place. He attained perfect knowledge for kaivalya at the age of 42. Through kaivalya, he conquered misery and happiness. Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina. 

Teaching of Jainism Jainism taught five doctrines:

1. Do not commit violence.

2. Do not speak a lie.

3. Do not steal.

4. Do not acquire property.

5. Observe continence (brahmacharya).

It is said that only the fifth doctrine was edited by Mahavira, the other for being taken over by him from Prasavanath.

Three Gems or Ratnas of Jainism

According to Jainism, attainment of moksha or nirvana was the most important human desire. It says

that moksha can be attained through ActiveSync the three following ratnas or gems:

1. right faith(samyak Vishwas) in the Lord Mahavira

2. right knowledge (samyak jnan) of the doctrines of Jainism

3. right conduct (samyak karma)

Jain Sect: Although Parsva, the predecessor or Mahavira, had asked his four overs to cover the upper

and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked with them to discard clothes completely. On account of this, in later times, Jainism was divided into two sect:Svetambaras or those who put on white press, and Digambaras for those who keep themselves naked. 

Some More Jaina Sects

Yapaniyan - Karnataka, impact of Tantricism 

Came out of Swetambara 

Finds mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI

Pujiramat - came out of Swetambara

Terapainthi - Came out of Swetambara

Sammiya - Came out of Digambara

Bispanthi - Came out of Digambara - Supported idol worship

According to Svetanvaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in 14 old texts called Purvas, which were passed orally and were compiled later as twelve Angas. 

12 Angas Of Jainism

1 Achranga

2 Sthananga

3 Vakyaprainapti

4 Upaska-Adyananga

5 Amuttarapada Kanga

6 Vipakasutranga

7 Sutrakruthanga

8 Somavayanga

9 Dharma-Kathanga

10 Anthakrudasanga

11 Prashnavyakaranaka

12 Drustipravadanga

Jaina Councils by the end of fourth century, there was a serious famine in the Ganges Valley leading to great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India along with bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic Valley after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha, was Sthalabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of the followers of Sthalabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras(sky-clad or naked) and Svetambaras(white clad) 

First Council: First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas. 

Second Council: Second counselling was held at Valabhi in the fifth century A.D. under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshmasramana and resulted in the final compilation of 12Angas and 12 Upangas. 

Spread of Jainism: in order to spread the teaching of Jainism Mahavira organised and order of his followers admitted what men and women. It is said that his followers counted 14,000. Since Jainism did not very clearly marked itself out from the brahmanical religion, it failed to attract masses. Despite this Jainism gradually spread into South and West India. According to relate tradition the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC) the Emperor came in Jaina, gave up his throne and spent the last years of his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic. 

Spread Of Jainism

Jains built stupas with railing, pillars and gateways. The Hathi Gumpha, Udaigiri and Khandagiri

caves of Orrisa contain Jain relics

Mathura became a centre of Jain art during the Kushan period

the statue of Gomatesawara and Karkala testify to the excellence of jain architecture

Dilwara temple at Mt Abu and temples a Ranakpur are example of suberb workmanship

Impact Of Jainism

Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of varna order and ritualistic vedic

religion

the early jaina discarded the Sanskrit language mainly patronized by Brahmans and adopted

Prakit language

their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi and the texts were finally compiled in the

sixth century A.D. in Gujrat (Vallabhi)

The Jains composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first

grammar.

Five categories Of Siddhas

Tirthankara- who has attained salvation

Arhat - who is about to attain Nirvana

Acharya - the head of ascetic group

Upadhyaya, teacher or saint

Sadhu - which includes the rest

Decline of Jainism: Various factors contributed to the decline of Jainism in India. It had to company treat with both Hinduism and Buddhism. Absence of popular religious preacher after the death of Mahavira, its division into two important sect, absence of protection by later rulers and the revival of Hinduism all contributed to the decline of this religion. Besides, it also was unable to spread to any considerable extent behind the limits of India.

Buddhism Facts

Gautama Buddha: Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in

563 BC in a Shakya(kshtriya) family in Lumbini near Kapilvastu, which is situated in Nepal. Gautama's

father (Shudhodana) seems to have been elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed the Republic clan of

the Shakyas. His mother(Mahamaya) was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty. From his early

childhood, Gautama showed a meditative kind of mind. 

Alara Kama was teacher of meditation. He was married early, but married life did not interest him. At

the age of 29 he left home. He kept on, wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge

at the eight of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time on words, he began to be called the

Buddha or the The Englightened. 

Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons at Saranath in Banaras. Gautama Buddha passed away at

the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in the district

of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. 

Five Great Events In Buddha's Life And Their Symbols

Birth Lotus and bull

Great renunciation Horse

Nirvana Bodhi tree

First sermon Wheel (Dharma Chakra)

Parinirvana/Death Stupa

Teachings Of Buddha: Buddha said that the world is full of sorrows and people suffer on account of desires. If desires are conquerred, nirvana will be attained. He recommended an Eight-fold Path (astangika marga) for the elimination of human misery. It comprised: Right observation, Right determination, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right exercise, Right memory and Right meditation. Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The main items in this social conduct are:

1. do not take the property of others

2. do not commit violence

3. do not use intoxicants

4. do not tell a lie

5. do not indulge in corrupt practices.

The Buddha (The Englightened), Dhamma(The Doctrine) and Sangha(The order) are the three jewels of Buddhism.Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and soul(atma). It particularly warned the support of lower orders as attacked the Varna system. 

Division in Buddhism   : Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced division. It was divided into three main sects:

1. Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle :

1. Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.

2. Distraught individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

3. They did not believe in the Idol worship.

4. Hinayana is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.

5. Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.

6. Pali, the languages of the masses, was used by Hinayana Buddhists.

7. Ashoka Patronised Hinayanaism.

2. Mahayana or Greater Vehicle :

1. Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.

2. It believes in the Idol worship.

3. Mahayana had two Chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and Yogachara.

4. Sanskrit, the language of scholars was used by Mahayana Buddhists.

5. Kanishka patronised Mahayanism. Later Harsha supported it

3. Vajrayana or Vehicel of Thunder Bolt :

1. Its followers believed that salvation be best attained by acquiring the magical power,

which they called Vajra.

2. The chief divinites of this new sect were the Taras.

3. It became popular in eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

4. It was a form of Buddhism, which appeared in eastern India in the eighth century and

was finally established in Tibet in 11th century, as a result of mission sent from the

great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila.

Buddhist Scriptures:

1. The Vanaya Pitaka :1. It mainly deals with the rulers and regulations, which the Buddha

promulgated. 2. It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sangha. 3. An account of

the life and teachings of Buddha is also given.

2. The Sutta Pitaka :1.IT consists of discourses delivered by Buddha himself on different

occasions. 2. Few discourses delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others are also

included in it.

3. The Abhidhamma Pitaka :1. It contains the pro-find philosophy of Buddha's teachings. 2.

Investigates mind and matter, to help the understanding of things as they truly are.

4. The Khandhakas :1. They contain regulations on the course for life in the monastic order and

have two sections-the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The third part, the Parivara, is an

insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.

The Important Buddhist Writers

Asvaghosha : Contemporary of Kanishka. He was poet, dramatist, musician, scholar and debator.

Nagarjuna : He was a friend of contemporary of Satvahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra.

Asanga and Vasubandhu : Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century

A.D. Asanga was the most important teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school founded by his guru

Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu's greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still considered an important

encyclopaedia of Buddhism.

Buddhaghosa : Who lived in the fifth century A.D. was a great Pali scholar.

Dinnaga :The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, also well known as the founder of the

Buddhist logic.

Dharmakirti : Lived in the seventh century A.D.; was another great Buddhist logician, a subtle

philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Buddhist Councils

No Venue (Year) Presiding Priest King Major Outcomes

First

Satparni

Rajagariha(483

BC)

Mahakassapa Ajatashatru

Upali, recited the Vinaya Pitaka, Which

contains the rules of the Buddhist order;

Anand, the other discipline of Buddha, recited

Suttapitaka, containing the great collection of

Buddha's sermons on matters of doctrine and

ethical beliefs.

SecondVaishali (383

BC)

Split of Buddhist border into

theSthaviravadins orTheravadins and

mahasanghikas over small points of monastic

discipline.

ThirdPataliputra(250

BC)

Mogaliputta

Tissa (also

known as

Upagupta)

AshokaEstablishment of Sthaviravada School as an

orthodox school.

FourthKundalvana,

Kashmir(72 AD)

Vasumitra;

Asvaghosha

was the deputy

of Vasumitra

KanishkaDivision of Buddhism into

the Mahayana and Hinayana sects

Spread of Buddhism: The use of Pali, the language of the people, contributed to the spread of Buddhism. It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines among the common people. Gautama Buddha also organised the sanghafor the religious order, whose doors work Open to everybody, irrespective of caste and sex. 200 years after the death of Buddha, the famous Maurya King Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his agents, Asoka spread Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka , and thus, transformed it into a world religion. King Kanishka became its patron in the first century A.D. Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it continues to hold ground in the countries of South Asia, East Asia. 

Decline of Buddhism: By the 12th century A.D., Buddhism became practically extinct in India. It became a victim to the evils of Brahmanism against which had fought in the beginning. Gradually, the Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of peoples life; they gave up Pali, the language of the people, and took to Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals. The Hinduism was internally reformed and stressing upon love and devotion. From the first century A.D. Buddhist practised Idol worship on a large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees. Entry of woman in Buddhist sanghas, and the attacks of Huna King in the sixth century A.D. and the Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D. brought rapid extinction of Buddhism.

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period. 

One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, which explains how a good government should be organised. The other source is Indica written in Greek by Magasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of Chandragupta. Magasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya Empire as a whole and about the society. The history of Ashokareign can be constructed mainly on the basis of his edicts. 

Arthashastra

1. Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya

2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas

3. Is related to money and politics

4. Is divided into 15 parts

5. 6000 sholakas

6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy

7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

Different Views On Origin Of The Mauryas

1. Buddhist sources : They connect them with the tribe of sakyas whose region was full of

peacocks i.e. Moriyas and they mention Chandragupta as a Kshatriya.

2. Jain sources : They link Chandragupta to Moriya tribe of Peacock tamers.

3. Brahmanical sources: They describe Mauryas as Shudra.

4. Greek sources : They mention that Sandrokottas(Chandragupta) was born of humble origin .

Chandragupta Maurya

Chanakya Facts

Bindusara Facts

Ashoka Facts

Mauryan Administration: The Mauryan rule was vast and highly centralised bureaucratic rule with the king as the Fountainhead of all the powers. The king claimed not divine rule; rather it was paternal depotism, Kautilya called the king dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order.

Mauryan Administration posts (Mantriparsihad)

Mantrin Chief Minister

Pirohita High Priest

Senapati Commander-in-charge

Yuvraj Crowned Prince

Samaharta Collector of revenue

Prashasti Head of prisons

Sannidata Head of treasury

Nayaka Had of city security

Paur City police

Vyabharika Chief Judge

Karmantika Head of industries and factories

Dandapala Had of police

Durgapala Head of Royal Fort

Annapala Head of food grains Department

Rajjukas Officers responsible for land measurement and fixing its boundary

Pradesika Head of district Administration

Causes of the Decline of the Mauryans: Following factors are held responsible for the decline of Maurya Empire

Week successors of Asoka

The partition of the Empire into two. The partition had not taken place, the Greek invasions

could have been held back giving a chance to Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their

previous power

Hari Prasad Sastri contends that the revolt of Pushyamitra was the result of Brahamical

reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Asoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.

Militant Brahmanical reactions to Asoka's religious policy which was closer to Buddhism.

Asoka's pacifist policy aiming at Dharamvijay instead of Digvijay.

Financial crisis owing to an enormous expenditure on the Army and large bureaucracy

Highly centralised character of Mauryan government

Mauryan Art Well-known art historian A.K.Coomaraswamy divides Mauryan art into two categories

1. Indigenous

2. Official/Court Art

Indigenous Office Art/Court Art

1. Yaksha image from parkam Pillars (well builts and polished)

2.Yakshi sculpture from

Besnagar

Finest expample Sarnath - Lions which originally supported Dharma

Chakra

3.Female Cauribearer from

PatnaAnimals figure or Maurya period of elephant at Dhauli

4. - Stupas

The age of Mauryas contributed significantly to the development of arts, including architecture, sculpture, engineering, polishing etc. Chandragupta Maurya fuelled his capital and place at Patliputra. The wonderful palace was made of wood. Asoka further improved the wooden walls and building of capital. The 80 pillared hall found at Kumrahar in Patna re-presence the masterpiece of Mauryan sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone. 

Asoka fuelled a large number of Stupas . According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka fuelled as good as 84,000 stupas. These structures were solid and domic, made of rock or bricks. The art of the sculpture or rock cutting also reached its zenith during Asoka's time. Seven rock cut santuaries lying about 25 miles north of Gaya, Bihar - four on the Barabar Hills and three on the Nagarjuna Hills-belong to the time of Asoka and his successors. The caves are also fine examples of Mauryas art. They were used for religious ceremonies and also as assembly halls. 

Chandragupta Maurya (321-293 BC)

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of the growing

weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya, who

is known as Kautilya, he overthrew the nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty. 

Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Bengal, but

also western and North-Western India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north-

eastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west, they held sway

over certain areas which were not included even in British Empire.

Chanakya Facts

Chandragupta's advisers, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) was author ofArthasashtra and is

regarded as the architect of Chandragupta's early rise to power. Chandragupta, according to Jain

literature, in his last days converted into Jainism by Bhadrabahu and abdicating his throne in favour of

his son bindusara became a monk.

Various Names Of Chandragupta Maurya

Name Source

Palibrothus Strabo

Androcotus Arien, Plutarch

Piyadamas Mudraraksha

Vrishal Mudraraksha

Chandrasiri Mudraraksha

Kulihin Mudraraksha

Bindusara (293-273 BC) Facts

Bindusara (293-273 BC): 

He was son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghta (slayer of foes) by the Greek writers. He

continued his friendly links with Syrin King Antiochus I and is stated to have requested for a present of

figs and wine together with sophist. He received a great ambassador, Daimachos, from Antiochus I.

Pliny tell that ptolemy II Philadephus of Egypt sent an envoy, Dionysios, to Bindusara's court.

Various Names Of Bindusara

Amitraghat Sanskrit Literature

Amitchetas Strabo which was Greek verion of Sanskrit 'Amitraghata'

Seemseri Rajvalli Katha

Bindupala Fa-Feenchulin or slayer of foes

The Ashoka Facts (273-232 BC)

Asoka (273-232 BC):

Asoka was the third and greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He occupies a high position not only in the

history of India but in the world history also. He was coronated four years after the death of his father,

Bindusara (273 BC). The gap is interpreted differently by different historians. 

We have unreliable sources to know the early life of Asoka. From the Buddhist traditions we learn that

he was originally called 'Chandasoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds. From Rock

Edict No. XIII, we learn that after Kalinga War (261 BC) Asoka was thoroughly changed man. He

discarded Digvijay and followed Dharmavijay. Due to this policy is named shines with unique

brilliance. 

Like his predecessors, Asoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi(pleasing to look at)

and Devanampriya(beloved of God). In the Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third title,

i.e. Dharmasoka. 

Asoka's Hellenistic Contemporaries

Antiochus II Theos Syria

Ptolemy II Philadelpus Egypt

Magas Cyrne

Antigonus Gonatas Macedonia

Alexander Epirus

Various Names Epithets Of Asoka

Devanamkpriya Monarchial Epithet

Ashokavardnan Purana

Piyadassiraja Barabar cave inscription

Ashoka Maurya Junagarh Inscription

Piyadasi Kandhar inscription

According to Asoka, the true spirit of religion and does not lie in or is not fulfilled by keeping fasts for syncing hymns for reciting prayers. He was, on the contrary, quite sure that true religion consisted in leading a pure life. Asoka's dhamma compromised all the good qualities of the religion of the world, which he was convinced, were not exclusively and monopoly of Buddhism alone. 

Asoka's Epic and Inscriptions and they are subject

First First major rock edict Prohibition on animal slaughter

Second Second major rock editMention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Satayaputras and

Keralputras

Third Third major rock editDirections to Predeshikas. Yuktas and Rajukas for propagation

of .Dhamma

Forth Forth major rock edit Impact of Dhamma on society.

Fifth Fifth major rock edit Appointments of Dhammamahamatras.

Sixth Sixth major rock edit Welfare majors.

SeventhSeventh major rock

editPropagation of peace, balance of mind and faith

Eighth Eighth major rock edit Details of visit to Bodhi tree.

Ninth Ninth major rock edit Stress on ceremony of Dhamma

Tenth Tenth major rock edit Asoka's desire to gain popularity for Dhamma

EleventhEleventh major rock

editAppraisal of Dhamma

Twlevth Twlevth major rock edit Promotion to religion of different faiths

ThirteenthThirteenth major rock

edit

Largest of all, victory over Kalinga's destruction of war, mention of

Greek rulers

Fourteenth Fourteenth major rock

edit

Nature of all other rock edicts

Inclusion of Asoka into Sangha 

It is bilingual. It tells that fishermen and hunters gave up hunting 

Faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma.

India after Mauryas FactsIndia after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100): The period which became an in about 200 BC did not witness a large empire like that of Mauryas, but it is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In eastern India, Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers, such as Sungas, the Kanvas and the Satavahanas. 

In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia. 

In north India the tribal states which had earlier succumbed to Mauryan imperialism, now reasserted themselves. In Punjab he existence of several people republics is attested by numismatic evidence. 

Trigarthas ruled the plane country between the rivers Ravi and Sutlej. Yaudheyas, who were famous warriors, ruled the territory between Sutlej and Yamuna and parts of eastern Rajasthan.Arjunayanas, Malavas and Sibis were distributed in different parts of Rajasthan. 

Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas. 

The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC): The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander in chief of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for 36 years and his reign ended in 149 four 148 BC. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. From Kalidasa's drama Malvikagnimitram, we learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha during his father's regin. He ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next important king of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira. 

The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi. According to Puranas, he was an incapable and is loving ruler. He was put to death by his minister or amatya called Vasudeva Kanva. Thus, the kingdom of Magadha passed from Sungas to the Kanvas. The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from invasion of Hunas. They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from being destroyed. The contributed a lot to the development of culture also. The Sunga kinks greatly encouraged the Brahman religion and literature. 

Hunas

Hunas were only of the fierce tribes from Central Asia. They have been periodically invading India since

Sunga period. They were resisted by the rulers uptil the second half of the fifth century A.D. But the

weakness of the Empire provided them with a chance and by 485 A.D. they were able to occupy eastern

Malwa and a good portion of central India.

Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC): The rule of the Kanvas lasted for about 45 years. For kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva ruled for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years. Narayana held the reigns of administration for 12 years --Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King wholly devoid of administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10 years. During the Kanva dynasty, the Brahmanical reaction persisted. 

Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga: It is evident that Kalinga succeded from the Mauryas Empire in the years following the death of Asoka, though it's history is not known with any degree of certainty till the first century BC. It records the exploits of Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded by Maha Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or Kalinga Chakravartin as a mark of his paramountcy. A follower of Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks for whose

residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Orrisa. 

Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC): This Is the most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. The early Satavahanas kinks appeared not in Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of Gautamiputra rulled till A.D. 200. 

Significance of Satavahanas

The rise of Satavahanas signified that the economic revolutions of the Gangetic region was

repeated all over India. Added to this because of peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan

Peninsula, a number of small kingdoms came into existence but not big Empires

since Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part of the northern India they acted

as the career of Aryanism to Southern India.

The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D.) The Parthians were followed by Kushanas, who are also called Yuehis or Tocharians. The Kushans were one of the five clans ino which the Yuechi tribe was divided. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chief who were called Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first Kadphises I, who issued coins South of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone kadphises II or Vima Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in and beyond the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with popularizing Buddhism in Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world. 

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.): 'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets and bards, who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at Thenmadurai (South Madurai). 

The Sangam literature speaks highly of threr South Indian kingdoms- Chola, Pandya and Chera. 

The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as Tamilakha, or the Tamil realm.

The Three Sangam Kingdoms

Kingdoms Capital Emblems Famous sport

Cholas Uraiyur, later Puhar Tiger Puhar(Kaveripattam)

Cheras Vanji or Karur Bow Muzris, Tondi, Bandar

Pandyas Madurai Carp (Fish) Korkai, Saliyur

The Cholas: the homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the far south with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their capital. Its ugly capital was Uraiyur 

Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain to decline mainly because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand and the continuous war waged by the Pandyas and the Cheras on the other. 

The Pandyas: The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the modern districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megarthanese. According to the Magashense, the kingdom was once ruled by a woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the South than border of the Maurya Empire. The greatest Pandya king wasNedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas. 

The Cheras   : The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan inscriptions. It compromised the mordern districts of Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga. 

Religion: The people worshipped Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra in the temple known as nagar, koil, kottam, purai or devalayam. The worship of Vedic deities were also not uncommon. The worship of kannagi was common. The Vedic practice of Yagna, sraddha and pinda were practised by the Sangam people. Varanasystem took roots even in the south. The influence of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikas was paramount. 

The Age of GuptasThe age of the Guptas(A.D. 320-550) 

The classical age: The classical age referred to the period when most of the north India was reunited under the Gupta Empire. It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third century A.D. that the Gupta dynasty emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghototkacha Gupta. The first two kings of the dynasty were described as Maharajas. It is generally believed that first two rulers of the dynasty ruled before 320 A.D. They were followed by some of the rulers of ancirnt Indian history. 

Position of woman: In the Gupta period, woman were also allowed to listen the epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But woman of high year orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta Times. The main reason for the subordination of women belonging to the upper varnas was the complete dependence on the men for their livelihood. 

Religion: Since the society was highly materialistic, Hindu revived. Bhagavatism centred around the worship of Vishnu or Bhagwat, and originated in post-Mauryan times. Vishnu was a minor God in vedic times. He represented the sun and also the fertility cult. By the second century BC he was merged with the God called Narayana. He was also called Bhagwat, and his worshippers were called Bhagavatas. 

Chandragupta I

Samudragupta Facts

Chandragupta II

Kumargupta I

Skandagupta Vikramaditya

Gupta Art

Development of literature during Gupta

period

Important Gupta Officials At The Central Level

Mahabaladhikrita Commander in chief

Mahadandanayak Chief Justice

Mahasandhivigrahak or Sandhivigrahak And facial for post-war conciliation.

Dandapashika Haed of the police department

Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the Royal Treasury

Mahapaksha-Patalik Had of the account Department

Vinaysthitisansathapak Head of the education Department

Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for all the central departments

Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry.

Vinaypura Official to present different guests at Kings Court

Yuktapurusha Office to keep account of wat booty.

Khadyatpakika Inspector of Royal kitchen

Ranabhandagarika Officer in charge of Army stores

Mahanarpati Had of foot soldiers(infantry)

Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I(320 A.D.-335 A.D.): Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha

Gupta, was the first to great ruler of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the empire to a

great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi Princess.

His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to Magadha. 

He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. He started the Gupta era in A.D. 320, which marked the date

of his accession. 

Lichchhavi Princess Kumari Devi was the first Indian Queen featured on a coin.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.) Samudragupta increased the throne in 335 A.D. The basic

information about his reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by Harisena, the

poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pilair Inscription. The places and the

countries conquered by Samudragupta can be divided into five groups. 

Group 1 include Princes of the Ganga - Yamuna doab who were defeated. 

Group 2 include the rulers of eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as princes of

Nepal, Assam and Bengal. It also covers some republics of Punjab. 

Group 3 includes the forest kingdom is situated in the Vindhya region and known as atavika rajyas . 

group 4 includes the 12 rulers of the eastern Deccan and South India, who were conquered liberated.  

Group 5 includes the name of the Sakas and Kushans. 

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact,Digvijay became the ultimate call of his

life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly complemented by the historian V.A Smith as

the Indian Napoleon. he has described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta II

Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412 A.D.) The reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) was the largest

watermark of the Gupta Empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and

conquests. 

Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka Prince who belonged to the

Brahmana cast and ruled in central India. The prince died and was succeeded by his young son. So,

Prabhavati became the virtual ruler. Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vikataka

kingdom. 

This afforded a great advantage to him. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II

conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under the role of Saka Kshtrapas for about four

centuries.

The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for trade and commerce. This also

contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the

second capital by Chandragupta II. 

Chandragupta II's Nine Gems

Person (Field) Famous works

Amarsimha Lexicography Amarkosha

Dhanvantri Medicine Ayurveda

Harisena Poetry Allahabad Inscription

Kalidesa Abhijananashakuntalam

Kahapanaka Drama and Poetry Jyothisyashastra

Sanku Astrology Shilpashastra

Varahamihira Architecture Brihadsamhita

Vararuchi Grammer Vyakarana

Vetalabhatta Magic Mantrashastra

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. The Court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by an numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and Amarashimha. 

It was in Chandragupta's regin that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and abroad and elaborate account of the life of its people.

Kumargupta I

Kumargupta I, Mahendraditya(415-455 A.D.) Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son,

Kumargupta I. Nothing is known about his political career, but some evidence indicates that the

strength, unity and prestige of the empire remained unshaken in his reign. 

Towards the close of his reign, the Gupta power was seriously menaced by the new invaders called the

Hunas. Kumargupta died during the war with the Hunas.

Skandagupta Vikramaditya

Skandagupta Vikramaditya(455-467 A.D.) Skandagupta, the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty,

probably came to the throne when the war Pushyamitra was still going on. 

His literary saved the Gupta Empire. He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the

integrity of his ancestral empire. 

Success in repelling the Hunas scenes to have been celebrated by the assumption of the

title Vikramaditya. 

The decline of the empire begin soon after his death. The Hunas later became the rulers of Punjab and

Kashm

Gupta Art

Gupta Art: In art, architecture, sculpture, and painting the period witnessed unprecedented activities

and development all over India. That is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age of

ancient India.

Famous Temples Of The Got the Age

Vishnu Temple Tigawa(Jabalpur)

Shiva Temple Bhumara(Nagaud)

Parvati Temple Nachria Kuthara

Dasavtar Temple Deogarh(Jhansi)

Shiva Temple Koh(Nagaland)

Bhitragaon Temple Bhitragaon

Lakshman Temple Kanpur(Brick made)

Lakshman Temple Sirpur (Raipur)

Mukund Darra Temple Kota

Dhammekh Temple Sarnath

Jarasangh's Sitting Rajgrih (Bihar)

Sculpture : It may be mentioned that the Gupta plastic conception had its birth at Mathura and spread to Sarnath, Shravasti, Prayag and other places. At Sarnath, the plastic conception of Mathura School with all its elegance reached perfection in figure of seated Buddha in Dharma-Chakra-Pravarthana attitudes. 

Gupta Architecture

Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of temple architecture in India namely

the Nagara styleand Dravida style.

The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh. It is also

an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.

It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.

The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.

Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthira, Shiva temple at

Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.

Ajanta Paintings

The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They

depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas, of jataka

stories.

Bagh Caves had the folk culture has the basic theme/

The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century BC

Cave number 10 belong to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D.

Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period approximately to 650

A.D.

Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period

The finest example of painting of this period are found in the rock cut cave number 1, 16 and 19

at Ajanta.

The wall painting of the Bodhisattava in cave 1 is the finest example of Gupta art.

The outstanding examples of the frescoes or wall paintings.

Development of literature during Gupta period

Development of literature during Gupta period: During the Gupta period, Sanskrit literature

greatly encouraged. Prose and poetry both were written during the Gupta period. The Allahabad pillar

inscription indicates that Harisena was a great poet. The manner in which, he has described the

samundragupta by Chandragupta indicates that he was a pirate of great calibre. 

A list of important literary works during the Gupta period is given in the table below.

Important Literary Works During the Gupta Period

Works Creators

Epics

Ramayan Valmiki

Mahabharata Ved Vyasa

Raghuvansa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta Kalidas

Ravanabadha Batsabhatti

Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita Dandin

Kiratarjuniyam Bharavi

Nitishataka Bhartrihari

Dramas

Vikramovarshiya, Malvikagnimitra and Abhijnansakuntalam Mrichchakatika Kalidasa

Pratignayaugandharayana Bhasa

Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam Vishakhadatta

Eulogy

Pragya-PPrasasti Harisena

Philosophy

Sankhyakarika Ishwar Krishna

Nyaya Bhasya Vatsyayana

Vyasa Bhasya Acharya Vyasa

Grammmer

Amarakosha Amarsimha

Chandravyakarana Chandragomin

Kavyadarsha Dandin

Narrative Story

Panchatantra and Hitopadesha Vishnu Sharma

Mathematics and Astronomy

Aryabhattiya Aryabhatta

Brihatsamhita and Panchasidhantika Varamihira

Suryasidhanta Brahmagupta

Miscellaneous Works

Nitisastra Kamandaka

Kamsutra Vatsyayana

Kavyalankara Bhamah

Transformation From Ancient Phase to Medieval PhaseTransformation from the ancient to mediaeval phases.: Central factors that ultimately transformed the ancient Indian society into mediaeval society who was the practice of land grants. This practice came into being because of a serious crisis that affected the ancient social order. The crucial step to made the situation was too grand land to priests and officials in lieu of salaries and remuneration. Line grands became frequent from the fifth century A.D. According to this, the bramhmanas wire granted villages free from taxes. 

Trade and commerce: From the sixth century A.D. onwards, there started a sharp decline in trade. The decline of trade led to the decay of towns. In northern India, from eighth century A.D. onwards, there are one a period of stagnation and even of decline. The main reason for this was the setback to trade and commerce. 

The decline in trade and commerce was due to collapse in the vast of the Roman Empire with which India has flourishing and profitable trade. The rise of Islam leading to the collapse of all empires, such as Sassanid (Iranian) Empire, also affected India's foreign trade, particularly the overland trade. As a result, there was a remarkable paucity of new gold coins in North India between the eighth and the 10th century. 

However foreign trade and commerce in North India became to revive gradually from the 10th century onwards. Malwa and Gujarat benefited most from the revival of his trade. There was also the decline of internal trade which led to the languishing trade guild called shrenis and sanghas in north

India. Cultural development: In about the 6-7th centuries started the formation of cultural units, which later came to known in and as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,, Tamil Nadu etc. 

The identity of various cultural groups is recognised by both foreign and Indian sources. The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang mentions several nationalities. The Jaina books of the late eighth century notice the existence of 18 major peoples of nationalities. 

Original scripts became more prominent in the seventh century A.D. and later. From Maurya to Gupta Times, although the script underwent changes, more or less the same script continue to obtain throughout the country. Thus, a person who has mastered the script of the Gupta age can read in � ��scripts from different parts of the country in that period. But from the seventh century every reason came to have its own script, and hence one cannot read post-Gupta inscriptions found in different parts of the country unless he has the knowledge of regional scripts. 

Education, Science and Learning: The system of education which developed in the earlier period continued without much change. There was no idea of mass education at that time. People learnt learnt what they felt was needed for their livelihood. Sometimes, temples made arrangements of education at the higher level as well. The main subjects studied were the various branches of the Vedas and grammar. Education of a more formal kind, with greater emphasis on secular subjects, continued to be provided at some of the Buddhist viharas. Nalanda in Bihar was the most famous of these. Kashmir was another important centre of education. 

India made an important contribution to fines. In ancient times, religion and science were inextricably linked together. Astronomy made great progress in the country because the planets came to be regarded at Gods, and their movements became to be seen closely observed. Their study became essential on account of their connection with changes in seasons and weather conditions to which were important for agriculture activities. The science of grammar and linguistics arose because the ancient Brahma stressed that the every Vedic prayer and every mantra should be recited with the meticulous correctness. In fact, the first result of the scientific outlook of Indians was the production of Sanskrit grammar. In the fourth century BC Panini systemised the rules governing Sanskrit and produced a grammar called Astadhyayi. 

By the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy and medicine begin to develop separately. In the field of mathematics the ancient Indians made three distinct contributions: the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal system is in the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The Indian notational system was adopted by the Arabs who spread it in the Western world. The Indians numerals were called Arabic in English, but the Arabs themselves called their numerals hindsa. 

Dynasties, There Rulers And Capitals

Dynasties By Rulers Capitals

Shunga Pushyamitra Sunga Patliputra

Kanva Vasudeva Patliputra

Satvahanas Simuk Pratishthaan

Ilkshavaakus Shrishanta Mulak Nagarjun Konda

Kushanas Kujulkhadphises Purusushpur/Peshawar

Gupta Sri Gupta Patliputra

Hunas Tormaan Shakal or Syalkot

Pushybhuti Narvardhan Thaneshwar/Kannauj

Pallavas Simhavarman IV Kanchi

Chalukya Jaisingh Siddharaja Vatapi/Badami

Rashtrakuta Danti Durga Manya Khait

Gurjara-Pratihara Harish Chandra Gujarat

Gadhwaal Chandradev Kannauj

Chauhaan Vasudev Ajmer/Shakambhari

Chaindel Nannuk or Dhanga Khajurah or Kalinga