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15 Colonialism and Development
Anthropology:The Exploration of Human Diversity
12th Edition
Conrad Phillip Kottak©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Colonialism and Development
• Colonialism
• Development
• The Second World
• Development Anthropology
• Strategies for Innovation
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Colonialism
• Colonialism – political, social, economic, and cultural domination of a territory and its people by a foreign power for an extended period of time
• Imperialism – policy of extending the rule of a nation or empire over other nations
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Colonialism
• European colonialism had two broad phases
– 1492 to 1852– 1850 to just after end of World War II
• Second period more imperialistic
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Imperialism
• Imperialism almost as old as the state
– Colonialism traced back to ancient Phoenicians 3,000 years ago• Rebellions and wars aimed at
independence for American nations ended 1st phase of European colonialism
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• British empire covered a fifth of world’s land surface and ruled a fourth of its population
British Colonialism
– Driven by need for economic expansion– Peaked about 1914
• First phase of British colonialism concentrated in the New World, West Africa, and India – Closed with the American Revolution
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• During the second period of colonialism, Britain eventually controlled most of India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and large portions of eastern and southern Africa
British Colonialism
– British colonial efforts justified by what Kipling called “white man’s burden”
• Asserted native peoples not capable of governing themselves
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Map of the British Empire in 1914
Source: Academic American Encyclopedia, Vol. 3 (Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1998). p. 496
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• French colonialism driven by state, church, and military, rather than by business interests
French Colonialism
– First phase, starting in early 1600’s, focused in Canada, the Louisiana Territory, the Caribbean, and West Africa
– Second phase (1870 to World War II) included most of North Africa and Indochina
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Ideological legitimization for French colonialism was mission civilisatrice (similar to “white man’s burden”)
French Colonialism
– Spread French culture, language, and religion throughout the colonies
– French used two forms of colonial rule• Indirect rule – practice of governing through
native political structures and leaders• Direct rule – practice of imposing new
governments upon native populations
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Map of the French Empire at Its Height around 1914
Source: Academic American Encyclopedia, Vol. 8 (Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1998). p. 309
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
– Many modern political boundaries in West Africa based on linguistic, political, and economic contrasts that are the result of European colonial policies
Colonialism and Identity
• Whole countries, along with social groups and divisions within them, were colonial inventions
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Small West African Nations Created by Colonialism
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Postcolonial Studies
– Settler countries – large numbers of European colonists and sparser native populations
– Nonsettler postcolonies – large native populations and only a small number of Europeans
– Mixed postcolonies – sizable native and European populations
• Postcolonial – study of interactions between European nations and the societies they colonized
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Development
– British Empire – white man’s burden– French Empire – mission civilisatrice– Economic development plans –
industrialization, modernization, westernization, and individualism are desirable evolutionary advances that will bring long-term benefits to natives
• Intervention philosophy – ideological justification for outsiders to guide local peoples in specific directions
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Neoliberalism
– Free trade best way for nation’s economy to develop
– No restrictions on manufacturing– No barriers to commerce– No tariffs
• New form of old economic liberalism laid out in Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Neoliberalism
• Since fall of Communism (1989-1991), revival of economic liberalism– Now called neoliberalism– In exchange for loans, governments of
Postsocialist and developing nations must accept neoliberal premise that deregulation leads to economic growth
• Prevailed in U.S. until President Roosevelt’s New Deal during the 1930s
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Second World
– Includes former Soviet Union and the socialist and once socialist countries of Eastern Europe and Asia
• Second World refers to Warsaw Pact nations
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Communism
– Small-c communism – social system in which property is owned by the community and in which people work for the common good.
– Large C-Communism – political movement and doctrine seeking to overthrow capitalism and establish form of communism such as that which prevailed in the Soviet Union from 1917 to 1991
• Two meanings of communism
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Communism
– China– Cuba– Laos– North Korea– Vietnam
• By the year 2000, only 5 Communist states left, compared with 23 in 1985
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Communism
– Communist party monopolized power– Relations with party highly centralized and
strictly disciplined– Nations had state owners of the means of
production– Regimes cultivated a sense of belonging to
an international movement
• Many communist states totalitarian and demanded total submission of the individual to the state
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Communism
– Rise of nationalism in form of ethnic-religious minorities
– Corruption– Unemployment and poverty– Difficulties establishing new values, social
relations, and groups
• States that once had planned economies now following neoliberal agenda but face problems
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Neoliberal economists assumed dismantling Soviet Union’s planned economy would raise GDP and living standards
Postsocialist Transitions
– Postsocialist Russia has faced many problems
• Since fall of Soviet empire in Tajikistan, Islam replacing socialist ideology
• Yugoslavia breakup more violent and created a series of secessions
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Corruption – abuse of public office for private gain – common problem in postsocialist countries
Postsocialist Transitions
– Alexei Yurcahak describes official-public and personal-public spheres within contemporary Russian state
– What is legal (official-public) and what is considered morally correct don’t necessarily correspond
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Postsocialist and developing nations include promotion of civil society – voluntary collective action around shared interests, goals, and values
Postsocialist Transitions
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Former Soviet Socialist Republics of Central Asia, including Tajikistan
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Development Anthropology
– Development anthropologists do not just carry out development policies plan by others
– They plan and guide policy
• Branch of applied anthropology that focuses on social issues in, and the cultural dimension of, economic development
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Development Anthropology
• Local-level research often reveals inadequacies in the measures that economists use to assess development and a nation’s economic health
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Greening of Java
– Emphasis on front capital and advanced technological and chemical farming allowed bureaucratic and economic elites to strengthen their position at expense of poorer farmers
– Ann Stoler’s analysis suggested that it differentially affected such things as gender stratification, depending on class
• Green revolution has increased food supplies and reduced food prices
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Greening of Java
– Commonly stated goal of development projects is increased equity, which means reduction in poverty and more even distribution of wealth
– Goal frequently thwarted by local elites acting to preserve or enhance their positions
• Equity
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Location of Java (yellow) in Indonesia (orange)
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Strategies for Innovation
• Kottak found culturally compatible economic development projects twice as successful financially as incompatible development projects
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies for Innovation
– Be culturally compatible– Respond to locally perceived needs’– Involve men and women in planning and
carrying out changes that affect them– Harness traditional organizations– Be flexible
• To maximize social and economic benefits, projects must:
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies for Innovation
– Projects that failed were usually economically and culturally incompatible
– Project problems have arisen from inadequate attention to, and consequent lack of, fit with local culture
• Overinnovation – development projects that require too much change
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Strategies for Innovation
– Many development projects incorrectly assume that nuclear family is basic unit of production and land ownership
– Many development projects also incorrectly assume cooperatives based on models from former Eastern bloc will be readily incorporated by rural communities
• Underdifferentiation – tendency to view “less-developed countries” as more alike than they are
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Third World Models
– Realistic development promotes change, not overinnovation, by preserving local systems while making them work better
• Best models for economic development found in target communities